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Pasteurella canis is a Gram-negative, nonmotile, penicillin-sensitive coccobacillus belonging to the Pasteurellaceae family.[1] Bacteria from this family cause zoonotic infections in humans. These infections manifest themselves as skin or soft tissue infections after an animal bite. It has been known to cause serious disease in immunocompromised patients.[2][3]

Pasteurella was first described around 1880 and thought to be associated with chicken cholera and hemorrhagic septicemia in animals. The genus was first cultured in 1885. In 1920, strains of Pasteurella were isolated and observed in human infections.[1]

Nomenclature

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“Micrococcus gallicidus” was the first scientific name used for these bacteria.[4][5] For a short period of time, the bacteria were placed in different genera, such as Octopsis, Coccobacillus, and Eucystia, but none of them were official. In 1887, genus “Pasteurella” was proposed to honor Louis Pasteur for his critical discoveries in the field of microbiology.[1]

Before molecular technology was available, species were often labeled based on staining and the hosts where species were isolated from.[1] The name "multocida" was ultimately selected to represent all the Pasteurella species.[4][6] Until 1932, the genus Pasteurella only consisted of the species type Pasteurella multocida.[6] Pasteurella canis sp. nov. was previously classified as P. multocida biotype 6 or “dog type” strains. In 1985, Pasteurella underwent taxonomic reclassification based on DNA hybridization, resulting in several subspecies of P. multocida and new Pasteurella species, including P. canis.[1]

P. canis includes two biotypes: biovar 1 is originated from canine, whereas biovar 2 is originated from bovine. The two biotypes are distinguishable from an indole test: biovar 1 is indole positive whereas biovar 2 is indole negative.[1]

Microbiology

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Pasteurella canis is a Gram-negative coccobacillus that shows bipolar staining.[3] P. canis forms small grey colored colonies that are round and smooth.[2][7] It is also non-haemolytic and non-motile.[8]

P. canis is reported as aerobic and facultative anaerobic in different literature.[2][9] It metabolizes both glucose and sucrose.[8] In additional to morphological typing, biochemical tests are commonly used to identify the species. P. canis is positive for catalase, oxidase, and ornithine decarboxylase, but negative for lysine decarboxylase, V-factor (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), D-mannitol, dulcitol, D-sorbitol, urease, maltose, and L-Arabinose.[1][10] [8] It can also be indole positive or negative depending on the biotype.[10]

Molecular Typing

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Molecular analysis of the genome has become the popular method to identify bacteria. The genome of P. canis has yet to be fully sequenced, but several genes and their sequences were already identified.[11] Among them, 16S rRNA, 23S rRNA, RNA polymerase subunit B (rpoB), and manganese-dependent superoxide dismutase (sodA) are used to study Pasteurella phylogeny.[12][13][14] However, molecular and biochemical analyses often show conflicting results. For example, research have suggested that some P. canis strains were in fact members of P. multocida based on DNA analysis.[10][12] Phylogenetic analysis of P. canis and P. dagmatis also showed conflicting results, based on their 16s rRNA sequences and biochemical tests done on the strains.[15]

Disease

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P. canis is an opportunistic pathogen that can infect both animals and humans.

Animal Infections

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P. canis can be found in healthy domesticated, farm raised, and wild animals, such as dogs, cats, rabbits, horses, sheep, cattle, ferrets, deer, and even California sea lion. The bacteria are normally isolated from the oral cavities and respiratory tracts of these animals.[2][16][17][[18][19][20] P. canis biotype 1 was shown to secrete toxin that is analogous to P. multocida toxin, but its identity is unknown.[21] P. canis is responsible for a number of canine infections, including systemic infection, external otitis, bacterial rhinitis, vertebral osteomyelitis, meningomyelitis, bronchopneumonia, tracheitis, paranasal sinus inflammation, and toxicosis.[22][8][23][15][24] Horses infected with the bacteria may develop arthritis.[17] The bacteria also cause pneumonia in cows and various infections in sheep, cats, rabbits, and deer.[16][10][15]

Human Infections

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P. canis is mainly transmitted from animals to humans through animal bites, scratches, or licking over wounds.[22][7] However, some patients developed infections without any scratches and puncture wounds.[25] In one case, a patient exposed to rabbit secretion was infected with P. canis.[20] Those with rheumatoid arthritis, cirrhosis, and diabetes mellitus are more susceptible to the bacteria. Patients who are immunocompromised also have higher risk of infections.[2]

P. canis often causes soft tissue infections and wound infections as well as systemic bacteremia in humans.[2][3][7][20]] These infections include peritonitis, conjunctivitis, osteomyelitis, and arthritis.[26][27] [25] Joint prosthetics can also be infected by the bacteria.[28]

Antibiotics Treatment and Resistance

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Many common antibiotics can successfully treat P. canis infections in both humans and animals. P. canis has shown sensitivity to ampicillin (penicillin), cefuroxime (second generation cephalosporin), most third generation cephalosporin (cefixime, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, and cefoperazone), ciprofloxacin (quinolones), trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (sulfonamides), chloramphenicol, most aminoglycosides, and tetracycline. However, the bacterium is also resistant to numerous drugs, such as dicloxacillin (penicillin), some aminoglycosides (spectinomycin and neomycin), vancomycin (glycopeptides), cephalexin and cefadoxil (first generation cephalosporin), erythromycin (macrolides), and imipenem (carbapenem).[2][27][7]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g Mutters, R (1985). "Reclassification of the Genus Pasteurella Trevisan 1887 on the Basis of Deoxyribonucleic Acid Homology, with Proposals for the New Species Pasteurella dagmatis, Pasteurella canis, Pasteurella stomatis, Pasteurella anatis, and Pasteurella langaa". International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology. 35 (3): 309–322. doi:10.1099/00207713-35-3-309. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Hara, H (2002). "Pasteurella canis osteomyelitis and cutaneous abscess after a domestic dog bite". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 46 (5 Supplement): S151–S152. doi:10.1067/mjd.2002.106350. PMID 12004298. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ a b c Albert, T.J. (2010). "The first case of Pasteurella canis bacteremia: a cirrhotic patient with an open leg wound". Infection. 38 (6): 483–485. doi:10.1007/s15010-010-0040-1. PMID 20623245. S2CID 23668828. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ a b Illinois Industrial University, Board of Trustees (1882). Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Illinois Industrial University.
  5. ^ Burrill, T.J. "New species of Micrococcus (bacteria)". Am. Nat. 17: 319–320.
  6. ^ a b Sneath, P.H.A. (1982). "Status of nomenclatural types in the Approved Lists of Bacterial Names". Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 32: 459–460. doi:10.1099/00207713-32-4-459.
  7. ^ a b c d Rashid, N (2012). "Pasteurella canis Isolation following Penetrating Eye Injury: A Case Report". Case Reports in Ophthalmological Medicine.: 362–369. PMID 22606491. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ a b c d de la Puente Redondo, V.A. (2000). "Systemic Infection by Pasteurella canis Biotype 1 in Newborn Puppies". J. Comp. Path. 123 (2–3): 195–197. doi:10.1053/jcpa.2000.0394. PMID 11032675. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ Goldstein, E.J.C. (1999). ". Linezolid Activity Compared to Those of Selected Macrolides and Other Agents against Aerobic and Anaerobic Pathogens Isolated from Soft Tissue Bite Infections in Humans". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 43 (6): 1469–1474. doi:10.1128/AAC.43.6.1469. PMC 89299. PMID 10348773. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  10. ^ a b c d Christensen, H (2004). "Revised description and classification of atypical isolates of Pasteurella multocida from bovine lungs based on genotypic characterization to include variants previously classified as biovar 2 of Pasteurella canis and Pasteurella avium". Microbiology. 150 (6): 1757–1767. doi:10.1099/mic.0.26720-0. PMID 15184562. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  11. ^ "Pasteurella canis". NCBI Taxonomy Browser. Retrieved April 19, 2013.
  12. ^ a b Kainz, A (2000). "Genomic Fingerprints, ARDRA Profiles and Quinone Systems for Classification of Pasteurella sensu stricto". Systematic and Applied Microbiology. 23 (4): 494–503. doi:10.1016/S0723-2020(00)80023-5. PMID 11249019. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  13. ^ Król, J (2006). "Microbiologic analysis of bite wounds in humans caused by dogs and cats". Medycyna Weterynaryjna. 62 (5): 498. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Król, J (2011). "Genetic Diversity of Pasteurella dagmatis as Assessed by Analysis of the 16S rRNA and rpoB Gene Sequences". Curr Microbiol. 63 (1): 87–93. doi:10.1007/s00284-011-9949-6. PMC 3104006. PMID 21573831. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ a b c Sellyei, B (2011). "Evaluation of the Biolog system for the identification of certain closely related Pasteurella species". Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. 71 (1): 6–11. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2011.04.016. PMID 21795002. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ a b Biberstein, E.L. (1991). "Distribution of indole-producing urease-negative Pasteurellas in animals". Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation. 3 (4): 319–323. doi:10.1177/104063879100300408. PMID 1760464. S2CID 25716142. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ a b Bourgault, A (1994). "Isolation of Pasteurella canis from a foal with polyarthritis". Can Vet J. 35 (4): 244–245. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Hansen, M.J. (2012). "Occurrence of Pasteurellaceae bacteria in the oral cavity of selected marine mammal species". Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. 43 (4): 828–835. doi:10.1638/2011-0264R1.1. PMID 23272350. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ Sarkozi, R (2011). "Characterization of Pasteurella species isolated from oral cavity of cats". Magyar Allatorvosok Lapja. 133 (9): 540–545. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ a b c Yefet, E (2011). "Unusual infection--Pasteurella canis bacteremia in a child after exposure to rabbit secretions". Harefuah. 150 (1): 13–5, 70. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ Holst, E (1992). "Characterization and Distribution of Pasteurella Species Recovered from Infected Humans". . Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 30 (11): 2984–2987. doi:10.1128/jcm.30.11.2984-2987.1992. PMC 270564. PMID 1452670. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  22. ^ a b Csebi, P (2010). "Vertebral Osteomyelitis and Meningomyelitis Caused by Pasteurella canis in a Dog – Clinicopathological Case Report". . Acta Veterinaria Hungarica. 58 (4): 413–421. doi:10.1556/avet.58.2010.4.2. PMID 21087911. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ Knotek, Z (2001). "Diseases of Nasal Cavity in the Dog. Aetiology, Symptomatology, Diagnostics". Acta Vet. Brno. 70 (1): 73–82. doi:10.2754/avb200170010073. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ Zamankhan, M.H. (2010). "Identification and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of bacteria causing otitis externa in dogs". Vet Res Commun. 34 (5): 435–444. doi:10.1007/s11259-010-9417-y. PMID 20526674. S2CID 8911559. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ a b Hazelton, M.J. (2013). "Pasteurella canis Osteoarticular Infections in Childhood: Review of Bone and Joint Infections Due to Pasteurella Species Over 10 Years at a Tertiary Pediatric Hospital and in the Literature". Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics. 33 (3): E34–E38. doi:10.1097/BPO.0b013e318287ffe6. PMID 23482278. S2CID 20655243. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ Balikoglu-Yilmaz, M (2012). "Pasteurella canis and Granulicatella adiacens Conjunctivitis Outbreak Resistant to Empirical Treatment in a Child Welfare Agency". Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. 49 (5): 314–319. doi:10.3928/01913913-20120710-02. PMID 22800794. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ a b Castellano, I (2011). "Pasteurella canis Peritonitis in a Peritoneal Dialysis Patient". Peritoneal Dialysis International. 31 (4): 503–504. doi:10.3747/pdi.2011.00007. PMID 21799062. S2CID 19793398. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ Mondo, D (2010). "First report of a total knee arthroplasty infected by Pasteurella canis". Médecine et maladies infectieuses. 40 (10): 600. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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