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'{{redirect|Ceylon}} {{for|the American alternative rock band|Sri Lanka (band)}} {{short description|Island country in South Asia}} {{coord|7|N|81|E|region:LK_type:country_source:dewiki|display=title}} {{Use British English|date=April 2020}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = {{lang|en|Democratic Socialist Republic of {{nowrap|Sri Lanka}}}} | common_name = Sri Lanka | native_name = {{ubl|{{native name|si|ශ්‍රී ලංකා ප්‍රජාතාන්ත්‍රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජය|italics=off}} |{{native name|ta|இலங்கை சனநாயக சோசலிசக் குடியரசு|italics=off}} | {{Infobox |subbox=yes |bodystyle=font-size:75%;font-weight:normal; | rowclass1 = mergedrow | label1 = [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]: | data1 = {{transl|si|IAST|Srī Lankā Prajātāntrika Samājavādī Janarajaya}} | rowclass2 = mergedrow | label2 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: | data2 = {{transl|ta|Ilaṅkai Caṉanāyaka Cōcalicak Kuṭiyaracu}} }} }} | image_flag = Flag of Sri Lanka.svg | image_coat = Emblem of Sri Lanka.svg | symbol_width = 50px | symbol_type = Emblem | national_motto = | national_anthem = "[[Sri Lanka Matha]]"<br />({{Lang-en|"Mother Sri Lanka"}})<br />[[File:Sri Lankan national anthem, performed by the United States Navy Band.oga|center]] | image_map = Sri Lanka (orthographic projection).svg | image_map2 = | capital = [[Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte]] <small>(legislative)<ref>{{cite web |title=Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Sri-Jayewardenepura-Kotte |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |accessdate=12 May 2020}}</ref></small><br>[[Colombo]] <small>(executive and judicial)<ref>{{cite web |title=Colombo |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Colombo |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |accessdate=12 May 2020}}</ref> </small> | coordinates = {{Coord|6|56|N|79|52|E|type:city}} | largest_city = [[Colombo]] | official_languages = [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]<br/>[[Tamil language|Tamil]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.languagesdept.gov.lk/web/|title=Department of Official Languages|publisher=}}</ref> | languages_sub = yes | languages2_type = Recognised languages | languages2 = [[Sri Lankan English|English]] | ethnic_groups = 74.9% [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]]<br/>11.2% [[Sri Lankan Tamils]]<br/>9.2% [[Sri Lankan Moors]]<br/>4.2% [[Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka|Indian Tamils]]<br/>0.5% Others <small>(incl. [[Burgher people|Burghers]], [[Sri Lankan Malays|Malays]], [[Veddas]], [[Chinese people in Sri Lanka|Chinese]], [[Indians in Sri Lanka|Indians]])</small> | ethnic_groups_year = 2012<ref name="CIATONGA">{{cite web|url= https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ce.html|title= South Asia: Sri Lanka|publisher= CIA The World Factbook}}</ref> | religion = 70.2% [[Buddhism in Sri Lanka|Buddhism]]<br/>12.6% [[Hinduism in Sri Lanka|Hinduism]]<br/>9.7% [[Islam in Sri Lanka|Islam]]<br/>7.4% [[Christianity in Sri Lanka|Christianity]]<br/>0.1% Other/None | demonym = Sri Lankan | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[constitutional republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Sri Lanka|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Gotabaya Rajapaksa]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Sri Lanka|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Mahinda Rajapaksa]] | leader_title3 = [[Speaker of the Parliament of Sri Lanka|Speaker of the Parliament]] | leader_name3 = [[Mahinda Yapa Abeywardena]]<ref name="new-speaker">{{cite web | url = https://parliament.lk/en/news-en/view/1878?category=6 | title = Hon. Mahinda Yapa Abeywardena elected as the New Speaker |publisher= [[Parliament of Sri Lanka]] | date = 20 August 2020 | accessdate = 23 August 2020 }}</ref> | leader_title4 = [[Chief Justice of Sri Lanka|Chief Justice]] | leader_name4 = [[Jayantha Jayasuriya]] | legislature = [[Parliament of Sri Lanka|Parliament]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Sri Lanka#Independence|Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from the [[United Kingdom]] | established_event1 = [[Dominion of Ceylon|Dominion]] | established_date1 = 4 February 1948 | established_event2 = [[Republic]] | established_date2 = 22 May 1972 | established_event3 = {{nowrap|[[Constitution of Sri Lanka|Current constitution]]}} | established_date3 = 7 September 1978 | area_km2 = 65,610 | area_rank = 120th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_sq_mi = 25,332 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 4.4 | population_estimate = 21,803,000<ref name="estimate">{{cite web | url = http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/VitalStatistics/MidYearPopulation/Mid-year%20population%20by%20age%20group.pdf | title = Mid-year population projection | accessdate = 30 October 2018 }}</ref> | population_census = 20,277,597<ref name="popsl">{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/sm/CPH%202011_R1.pdf | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206021926/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/sm/CPH%202011_R1.pdf|title=Census of Population and Housing 2011 Enumeration Stage February–March 2012 |work=Department of Census and Statistics – Sri Lanka |accessdate=15 July 2014|archivedate=6 December 2013 }}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2019 | population_estimate_rank = 58th | population_census_year = 2012 | population_census_rank = | population_density_km2 = 327 | population_density_sq_mi = | population_density_rank = 43rd | GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$321.856 billion<ref name="IMFWEOBD">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2017&ey=2024&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=67&pr1.y=10&c=273%2C524&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2020 | GDP_PPP_rank = 58th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}}$14,509<ref name="IMFWEOBD">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2017&ey=2024&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=67&pr1.y=10&c=273%2C524&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 91st | GDP_nominal = {{increase}}$92.111 billion<ref name="IMFWEOBD">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2017&ey=2024&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=67&pr1.y=10&c=273%2C524&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref> | GDP_nominal_year = 2020 | GDP_nominal_rank = 65th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$4,152<ref name="IMFWEOBD">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2017&ey=2024&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=67&pr1.y=10&c=273%2C524&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 109th | Gini = 39.8 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2016 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=LK |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.780 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2018<!--Please use the year to which the HDI year data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/2019-human-development-index-ranking|title=Human Development Report 2019|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=10 December 2019|accessdate=10 December 2019|format=PDF}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 71st | currency = [[Sri Lankan rupee]] (Rs) | currency_code = LKR | time_zone = [[Sri Lanka Standard Time|SLST]] | utc_offset = +5:30 | utc_offset_DST = | DST_note = | time_zone_DST = | date_format = {{unbulleted list |dd-mm-yyyy |yyyy-mm-dd}} | drives_on = [[Right- and left-hand traffic|left]] | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Sri Lanka|+94]] | iso3166code = LK | cctld = {{hlist|[[.lk]]|[[.ලංකා]]|[[.இலங்கை]]}} | official_website = {{url|http://www.gov.lk}} }} {{Contains special characters|Indic|compact=yes}} '''Sri Lanka''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|s|r|i|_|ˈ|l|æ|ŋ|k|ə|,_|ʃ|r|iː|_|-}}, {{IPAc-en|US|audio=En-us-Sri Lanka.ogg|-|_|ˈ|l|ɑː|ŋ|k|ə}};<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Sri+Lanka |title="Sri Lanka" in several reference works |work=Dictionary.com |accessdate=15 July 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/cmudict?stress=-s&in=SRI-LANKA |title=Carnegie Mellon University Pronouncing Dictionary |work=[[Carnegie Mellon University]] |accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref> {{lang-si|ශ්‍රී ලංකා}} ''{{IAST|Śrī Laṃkā}}''; {{lang-ta|இலங்கை}} ''Ilaṅkai''), officially the '''Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka''', is an [[island country]] in [[South Asia]], located in the [[Indian Ocean]] southwest of the [[Bay of Bengal]] and southeast of the [[Arabian Sea]]. It is geographically separated from the [[Indian subcontinent]] by the [[Gulf of Mannar]] and the [[Palk Strait]]. [[Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte]] is its legislative capital, and [[Colombo]] is its largest city and centre of commerce. Sri Lanka's documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidence of prehistoric human settlements dating back at least 125,000 years.<ref name="histr">{{Cite book | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/?id=PD8DseEWyuoC&printsec=frontcover | title = Urbanization and sustainability in Asia: case studies of good practice | author = Roberts, Brian | chapter = Sri Lanka: Introduction | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-971-561-607-2 }}</ref> It has a rich cultural heritage, and the first known [[Buddhism in Sri Lanka|Buddhist]] writings of Sri Lanka, the [[Pāli Canon]], date back to the [[Fourth Buddhist council]] in 29 BC.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=62KQpPX1oVkC&pg=PA69|title=Essential Buddhism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs and Practices|author=Jack Maguire|date=2001|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-671-04188-5|page=69|quote=...&nbsp;the Pali Canon of Theravada is the first known collection of Buddhist writings&nbsp;...}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/dharmadata/fdd16.htm|title=Religions – Buddhism: Theravada Buddhism|date=2 October 2002|work=BBC}}</ref> Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of great strategic importance from the time of the ancient [[Silk Road]] through to the modern [[Maritime Silk Road]].<ref name="silkr">{{Cite book | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xmNuAAAAMAAJ+| title = Sri Lanka and the silk road of the sea | chapter = Sri Lankan Role in the Maritime Silk Route|page= 21 | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-955-9043-02-7 | author = Bandaranayake, Senake }}</ref><ref>British Prime Minister Winston Churchill described the moment a Japanese fleet prepared to invade Sri Lanka as "the most dangerous and distressing moment of the entire conflict".&nbsp;– ''Commonwealth Air Training Program Museum'', [http://www.airmuseum.ca/mag/0410.html The Saviour of Ceylon]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.localhistories.org/srilanka.html|title=A Brief History of Sri Lanka|website=www.localhistories.org|access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref> Its location as a major trading hub made it known to both the far East as well as the European continent from as far back as the [[Anuradhapura period]]. The country's trade in luxury goods and spices attracted traders of many nations, creating Sri Lanka's diverse population. During a period of [[Crisis of the Sixteenth Century|great political crisis]] the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]], whose arrival in Sri Lanka was largely accidental, sought to control the island's maritime regions and its lucrative external trade. The [[Portuguese Ceylon|Portuguese possessions]] were later taken over by the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]]. The [[Dutch Ceylon|Dutch possessions]] were then taken by the [[British Empire|British]], who later extended their control over the whole island, [[British Ceylon|colonising]] it from 1815 to 1948. Resistance to the British was immediate. A national movement for political independence arose in the early 20th century, and in 1948, Ceylon became a [[republic]] and adopted its current name in 1972. Sri Lanka's recent history has been marred by a 26-year [[Sri Lankan Civil War|civil war]], which ended decisively when the [[Sri Lanka Armed Forces]] defeated the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] in 2009.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/2009/05/18/us-srilanka-war-sb-idUSTRE54D1GR20090518 Reuters Sri Lanka wins civil war, says kills rebel leader][[reuters]] (18 May 2009). Retrieved on 18 November 2012.</ref> Sri Lanka's current constitution stipulates it as a republic and [[unitary state]] governed by a [[semi-presidential system]]. It has had a long history of international engagement, as a founding member of the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC), and a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[Group of 77|G77]], and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. Sri Lanka is rated "high" on the [[Human Development Index]] (HDI), with its HDI rating and [[per capita income]] the highest among South Asian nations.<ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/2018-update |title=2018 Human Development Report |year=2018 |accessdate=14 September 2018 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914203906/http://hdr.undp.org/en/2018-update |archive-date=14 September 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Sri Lankan constitution accords Buddhism the "foremost place", and although it does not identify it as a [[state religion]], Buddhism is given special privileges in the Sri Lankan constitution.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sri Lanka's Constitution of 1978 with Amendments through 2015|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Sri_Lanka_2015.pdf?lang=en|website=constituteproject.org|accessdate=29 October 2017}}</ref> Sri Lanka is home to many cultures, languages and ethnicities. The majority of the population are from the [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese ethnicity]], while a large minority of [[Tamils]] have also played an influential role in the island's history. [[Sri Lankan Moors|Moors]], [[Burgher people|Burghers]], [[Sri Lankan Malays|Malays]], [[Chinese people in Sri Lanka|Chinese]], and the indigenous [[Vedda]] are also established groups.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/Vedda|title=Vedda|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref> ==Toponymy== {{main|Names of Sri Lanka}} In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names. According to the ''[[Mahāvaṃsa|Mahavamsa]]'', the legendary [[Prince Vijaya]] named the land [[Kingdom of Tambapanni|Tambapanni]] ('[[Copper (color)|copper-red]] hands' or 'copper-red earth'), because his followers' hands were reddened by the [[red soil]] of the area.<ref>{{cite book |author=Nanda Pethiyagoda Wanasundera |title=Sri Lanka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Ts1khhfXm8C&pg=PA26|year=2002 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-1477-3 |page=26 }}</ref><ref name="JMS_1997">{{cite book |author=John M. Senaveratna |title=The story of the Sinhalese from the most ancient times up to the end of "the Mahavansa" or Great dynasty |publisher=Asian Educational Services |date=1997 |page=11 |isbn=978-81-206-1271-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X9TeEcMi0e0C&pg=PA11+}}</ref> In [[Hindu mythology]], such as the [[Ramayana]], the island was referred to as [[Lanka|''Lankā'']] ('Island'). The Tamil term [[Eelam]] ({{Lang-ta|ஈழம்|translit=īḻam}}) was used to designate the whole island in [[Sangam literature]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=zS4OAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of the world's minorities|last=Skutsch|first=Carl|date=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1579584702|pages=|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=d_anEcoRJIQC&pg=PT105|title=Autonomy and Ethnic Conflict in South and South-East Asia|last=Ganguly|first=Rajat|date=20 May 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1136311888|language=en}}</ref> The island was known [[Chola conquest of Anuradhapura|under Chola rule]] as ''Mummudi Cholamandalam'' ('realm of the [[Three Crowned Kings|three crowned]] Cholas').<ref>{{Cite book|title=Art of the Imperial Cholas|last=Dehejia|first=Vidya|date=1990-10-18|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0231515245|location=|pages=51|language=en}}</ref> Ancient Greek geographers called it ''[[Taprobana|Taprobanā]]'' ({{lang-grc|Ταπροβανᾶ}}) or ''Taprobanē'' ({{lang|grc|Ταπροβανῆ}})<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/slm-taprobane.htm | title = In Search of Taprobane: the Western discovery and mapping of Ceylon | author = Abeydeera, Ananda}}</ref> from the word ''Tambapanni''. The Persians and Arabs referred to it as ''Sarandīb'' (the origin of the word "[[serendipity]]") from [[Sanskrit]] ''Siṃhaladvīpaḥ''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/contextualize.pl?p.0.hobson.994549 |title=Hobson-Jobson |publisher=Dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu |date=1 September 2001 |accessdate=15 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/serendipity |title=Serendipity – definition of serendipity by The Free Dictionary |publisher=Thefreedictionary.com |date=10 November 2017 |accessdate=15 August 2018}}</ref> ''Ceilão'', the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese Empire when it arrived in 1505,<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Sri Lanka: The untold story | journal = [[Asia Times]] | author = Rajasingham, K. T. | url = http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/CH11Df02.html }}</ref> was transliterated into English as ''Ceylon''.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.glue.umd.edu/~pkd/sl/facts/name_origin.html | title = Etymologies of Lanka, Serendib, Taprobane and Ceylon | author = Zubair, Lareef | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070422115208/http://www.glue.umd.edu/~pkd/sl/facts/name_origin.html | archivedate = 22 April 2007}}</ref> As a British [[crown colony]], the island was known as Ceylon; it achieved independence as the [[Dominion of Ceylon]] in 1948. The country is now known in Sinhala as ''{{IAST|Śrī Laṃkā}}'' ({{lang-si|ශ්‍රී ලංකා}}) and in Tamil as ''{{IAST|Ilaṅkai}}'' ({{lang-ta|இலங்கை}}, {{IPA-ta|iˈlaŋɡaɪ|IPA}}). In 1972, its formal name was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka". Later, in 1978, it was changed to the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka".<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Chapter I&nbsp;– The People, The State And Sovereignty | journal = The Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka | url = http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140531083515/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html | archivedate = 31 May 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> As the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority.<ref>{{cite news | author = Haviland, Charles | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12099596 | title = Sri Lanka erases colonial name, Ceylon | work = BBC | date = 1 January 2011 }}</ref> ==History== {{main|History of Sri Lanka}} llololololololololol ===Prehistory=== {{main|Prehistory of Sri Lanka}} The Pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back as 500,000 years.<ref name="pps">{{cite web | author = Deraniyagala, Siran U. | title = Pre and Protohistoric settlement in Sri Lanka | series = XIII U. I. S. P. P. Congress Proceedings – Forli, 8–14 September 1996 | work = International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences | url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera1.html | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> Among the [[Paleolithic]] human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, [[Fa Hien Cave|Pahiyangala]] (named after the [[Chinese people|Chinese]] traveller monk [[Faxian]]), which dates back to 37,000 BP,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.angelfire.com/in4/visitsl/prehistoric/pahiyagala/pahiyangala.htm | title = Pahiyangala (Fa-Hiengala) Caves | work = angelfire.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> [[Batadombalena]] (28,500 BP)<ref name="btd">{{Cite book | author = Kennedy, Kenneth A.R., Disotell, T.W., Roertgen, J., Chiment, J., Sherry, J. | title = Ancient Ceylon 6: Biological anthropology of upper Pleistocene hominids from Sri Lanka: Batadomba Lena and Beli Lena caves | pages = 165–265}}</ref> and [[Belilena]] (12,000 BP) are the most important. In these caves, archaeologists have found the remains of anatomically modern humans which they have named [[Balangoda Man]], and other evidence<ref>{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|pp=6–7}}</ref> suggesting that they may have engaged in agriculture and kept domestic dogs for driving game.<ref>{{cite book | author = Deraniyagal, Siran | title = The Prehistory of Sri Lanka | publisher = Department of Archaeological Survey | year = 1992 | place = [[Colombo]] | page = 454 | isbn = 978-955-9159-00-1| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZihuAAAAMAAJ }}</ref> One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian [[Epic poetry|epic]] [[Ramayana]], which provides details of a kingdom named ''[[Lanka]]'' that was created by the divine sculptor [[Vishvakarman|Vishwakarma]] for [[Kubera]], the lord of wealth.<ref>{{Cite book | author = Keshavadas, Sant | title = Ramayana at a Glance | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass | year = 1988 | isbn = 978-81-208-0545-3| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3XIatVGyjmQC }}</ref> It is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother [[Ravana]], the powerful emperor who built a mythical [[Early flying machines|flying machine]].<ref name="parkrsl">{{Cite book | author = Parker, H. | title = Ancient Ceylon | publisher = Asian Educational Services | year = 1992 | page = 7 | isbn = 978-81-206-0208-3| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Nk8xpkY0bqEC }}</ref> The modern city of [[Wariyapola]] is described as Ravana's airport.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2009/11/15/spe06.asp | title = Ravana – historical or mythical figure? | author = Padma Edirisinghe | work = The Sunday Observer | year = 2009 | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20141103232027/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2009/11/15/spe06.asp | archivedate = 3 November 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the [[Vedda|Vedda people]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera2.html | title = Early Man and the Rise of Civilisation in Sri Lanka: the Archaeological Evidence | author = Deraniyagala, S.U. | work = lankalibrary.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. The 19th-century Irish historian [[James Emerson Tennent]] theorised that [[Galle]], a city in southern Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of [[Tarshish]] from which King [[Solomon]] is said to have drawn ivory, peacocks, and other valuables. ===Ancient History=== {{main|Pre Anuradhapura period|Anuradhapura period}} [[File:Ptolemy's Taprobana.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Ptolemy's world map]] of Ceylon, first century AD, in a 1535 publication]] According to the ''[[Mahāvaṃsa|Mahāvamsa]]'', a Sinhalese chronicle written in [[Pali|Pāḷi]], the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are said to be the [[Yaksha]]s and [[Naga people (Lanka)|Naga]]s. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600 BC and other signs of advanced civilisation have also been discovered in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web|title = Ancient graves during pre-Wijeya era found|url = http://www.dailymirror.lk/91681/ancient-graves-wijeya-era-found|website = www.dailymirror.lk|accessdate = 20 October 2015}}</ref> Sinhalese history traditionally starts in 543 BC with the arrival of [[Prince Vijaya]], a semi-legendary prince who sailed with 700 followers to Sri Lanka, after being expelled from [[Vanga Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/original-version/06-coming-vijaya/ |title=The Coming of Vijaya |work=The Mahavamsa}}</ref> He established the [[Kingdom of Tambapanni]]. Vijaya (Singha) is the first of the approximately [[List of Sri Lankan monarchs|189 monarchs of Sri Lanka]] described in chronicles such as the ''[[Dīpavaṃsa|Dipavamsa]]'', ''Mahāvaṃsa'', ''[[Cūḷavaṃsa]]'', and ''Rājāvaliya''.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/gen3000.html | title = Vijaya (Singha) and the Lankan Monarchs – Family #3000 | work = [[Ancestry.com]] | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> [[File:Buda de Avukana - 01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The [[Avukana Buddha statue]], a {{convert|12|m|ft|adj=mid|-tall}} standing Buddha statue from the reign of [[Dhatusena of Anuradhapura]], 5th century]] The [[Anuradhapura period]] began with the establishment of the [[Anuradhapura Kingdom]] in 380 BC during the reign of [[Pandukabhaya of Anuradhapura|Pandukabhaya]]. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital city of the country for nearly 1,400 years.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/anuradhapura.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040107085324/http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/anuradhapura.html | url-status=dead | archive-date = 7 January 2004 | title = World Heritage site: Anuradhapura | work = worldheritagesite.org | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building certain types of [[Ancient constructions of Sri Lanka|structures]] such as [[Sri Lankan irrigation network|tanks]], [[Stupa|dagobas]] and palaces.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://mysrilankaholidays.com/ancient-sinhalese-irrigation.html | title = Waterworld: Ancient Sinhalese Irrigation | work = mysrilankaholidays.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> Society underwent a major transformation during the reign of [[Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura|Devanampiya Tissa]], with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BC,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/perera/wheel100.html#preface | title = Buddhism in Sri Lanka: A Short History | author = Perera H. R. | work = accesstoinsight.org | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]], a [[bhikkhu]] and the son of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] Emperor [[Ashoka]] arrived in [[Mihintale]] carrying the message of Buddhism.<ref name="Macmillan1">{{cite book | author = Holt, John Clifford | contribution = Sri Lanka | year = 2004 | title = Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism | editor = Buswell, Robert E. Jr. | pages = 795–799 | place = | publisher = Macmillan Reference | isbn = 978-0-8160-5459-6| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5dxCHAAACAAJ }}</ref> His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese population]].<ref name="mahav1">{{cite web | url = http://mahavamsa.org/2008/05/king-devanampiya-tissa-306-bc/ | title = King Devanampiya Tissa (306 BC – 266 BC) | work = [[Mahavamsa]] | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain many [[schools of Buddhism|Buddhist schools]] and monasteries and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in [[Southeast Asia]]. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India's famous ancient Buddhist University of [[Nalanda]], which was destroyed by [[Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji|Bakhtiyar Khilji]]. It is probable that many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in Sri Lanka's many monasteries and that the written form of the [[Tripiṭaka|Tipitaka]], including Sinhalese Buddhist literature, were part of the University of Nalanda.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/lanka-txt.htm | title = Buddhism in Sri Lanka | work = buddhanet.net | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> In 245 BC, bhikkhuni [[Sanghamitta|Sangamitta]] arrived with the [[Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi]] tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical [[Bodhi Tree|Bodhi tree]] under which [[Gautama Buddha]] became enlightened.<ref>{{Harvnb|Maung Paw|p=6}}</ref> It is considered the oldest human-planted tree (with a continuous historical record) in the world.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://print.dailymirror.lk/features/139-feature/38344.html | title = Historical trees: Overlooked aspect of heritage that needs a revival of interest | author = Gunawardana, Jagath | work = Daily Mirror | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://archive.today/20120715154617/http://print.dailymirror.lk/features/139-feature/38344.html | archivedate = 15 July 2012 | df = dmy-all }}{{better source|date=August 2019}}</ref> Sri Lanka experienced the first of many foreign invasions during the reign of [[Suratissa of Anuradhapura|Suratissa]], who was defeated by two horse traders named [[Sena and Guttika]] from [[South India]].<ref name="mahav1" /> The next invasion came in 205 BC by a [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] named [[Ellalan|Elara]], who overthrew [[Asela of Anuradhapura|Asela]] and ruled the country for 44 years. [[Dutugamunu|Dutugemunu]], the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, [[Kavan Tissa, Prince of Ruhuna|Kavan Tissa]], defeated Elara in the [[Battle of Vijithapura]]. During its two and a half millennia of existence, the [[Sinhala Kingdom]] was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Indian dynasties. These invaders were all subsequently driven back.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/usurpation.html | title = Distortion of history for political purposes | author = De Silva, Harris | work = [[Ancestry.com]] | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> There also were incursions by the kingdoms of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] (modern [[Odisha]]) and from the [[Malay Peninsula]] as well. [[File:Sigiriya.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The [[Sigiriya]] rock fortress]] The [[Fourth Buddhist council]] of [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]] was held at the [[Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya]] in Sri Lanka under the patronage of [[Valagamba of Anuradhapura]] in 25 BC. The council was held in response to a year in which the harvests in Sri Lanka were particularly poor and many Buddhist monks subsequently died of starvation. Because the [[Pāli Canon]] was at that time [[oral literature]] maintained in several recensions by ''dhammabhāṇaka''s ([[dharma]] reciters), the surviving monks recognised the danger of not writing it down so that even if some of the monks whose duty it was to study and remember parts of the canon for later generations died, the teachings would not be lost.{{sfn|Lopez|2013|p=200}} After the council, [[palm-leaf manuscript]]s containing the completed canon were taken to other countries such as Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos. Sri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler: [[Anula of Anuradhapura]] (r. 47–42 BC).<ref name="sigiriya12">{{cite web | title = The History of Ceylon | work = sltda.gov.lk | url = http://www.sltda.gov.lk/history | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140808014733/http://www.sltda.gov.lk/history | archivedate = 8 August 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable construction projects such as [[Sigiriya]], the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", built during the reign of [[Kashyapa I of Anuradhapura]], who ruled between 477 and 495. The Sigiriya rock fortress is surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats. Inside this protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces and other structures.<ref name="Ponnamperuma 2013">{{cite book|last=Ponnamperuma|first=Senani|title=Story of Sigiriya|year=2013|publisher=Panique Pty Ltd|location=Melboune|isbn=978-0-9873451-1-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=25zxmgEACAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Bandaranayake 1999">{{cite book|last=Bandaranayake|first=Senake|title=Sigiriya: City, Palace, and Royal Gardens|year=1999|publisher=Central Cultural Fund, Ministry of Cultural Affairs|location=Colombo|isbn=978-955-613-111-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vw9uAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> In AD 993, the invasion of Chola emperor [[Rajaraja I]] forced Sinhalese ruler [[Mahinda V of Anuradhapura|Mahinda V]] to flee to the southern part of Sri Lanka. Taking advantage of this situation, [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]], son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas [[Chola conquest of Anuradhapura|sacked the city of Anuradhapura]] causing the fall of [[Anuradhapura Kingdom]]. Subsequently, they moved the capital to [[Polonnaruwa]].<ref name="Siriweera 2004, p. 44">{{cite book|last=Siriweera|first=W. I.|title=A Study of the Economic History of Pre Modern Sri Lanka|publisher=Vikas Publishing House|year=1994|isbn=978-0-7069-7621-2|pages=44–45|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OubsAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> ===Polonnaruwa period=== {{Main|Polonnaruwa period|Transitional period of Sri Lanka}} Following a seventeen-year-long campaign, [[Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa|Vijayabahu I]] successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.<ref>Codrington, [http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap04.html Ch. 4]</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.localhistories.org/srilanka.html | title = A Brief History of Sri Lanka | author = Lambert, Tim | work = localhistories.org | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from Burma to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign.<ref>{{cite book | title = Relations between Ceylon and Burma in the 11th Century AD | volume = 23 | pages = 93–95 | author = Bokay, Mon | year = 1966 | work = Artibus Asiae Publishers | jstor = 1522637 | publisher = Artibus Asiae Publishers }}</ref> During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories, namely [[Principality of Ruhuna|Ruhunu]], Pihiti and [[Maya Rata|Maya]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://lakdiva.org/coins/medievallanka/1153_1186_parakramabahu~i_Em.html | title = Ancient Irrigation Works | work = lakdiva.org | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> [[File:SriLanka BuddhistStatue (pixinn.net).jpg|upright|thumb|A Buddhist statue in the ancient capital city of [[Polonnaruwa]], 12th century]] Sri Lanka's [[Sri Lankan irrigation network|irrigation system]] was extensively expanded during the reign of [[Parakramabahu I|Parākramabāhu the Great]] in the 12th century.<ref name="ethniccr">{{cite book | title = Sri Lankan Ethnic Crisis: Towards a Resolution | author = Herath, R. B. | year = 2002 | publisher = Trafford Publishing | isbn = 978-1-55369-793-0 | quote = Parakramabahu 1 further extended the system to the highest resplendent peak of hydraulic civilization of the country's history. | page = 19| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jzMCzJxJBpsC }}</ref> This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.<ref>{{cite book | title = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: Volume 7 | year = 1875 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] for the Royal Asiatic Society | place = [[Cambridge]] | quote = ...&nbsp;and when at the height of its prosperity, during the long and glorious reign of Parakramabahu the Great&nbsp;... | page = 152 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rPo78i8KrlEC&q}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Beveridge |first=H. |date=1894 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VRngAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA324|title=The Site of Karna Suvarna |journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |volume=62 |quote=His [Parakramabahu's] reign is described by Tumour as having been the most martial, enterprising, and glorious in Singhalese history. |page=324 |via=Google Books}}</ref> He built 1,470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3,910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2,376 mini-reservoirs.<ref name="ethniccr1"/> His most famous construction is the [[Parakrama Samudra]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/asi/asi-45.html |title=Parakrama Samudra |work=International Lake Environment Committee |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605083015/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/asi/asi-45.html |archivedate=5 June 2011 }}</ref> the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Burma) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://srilankanheritage.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=28&Itemid=32&lang=en |title=ParakramaBahu I: 1153–1186 |work=lakdiva.org |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204034638/http://srilankanheritage.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=28&Itemid=32&lang=en |archivedate=4 February 2014 }}</ref> After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In 1215, [[Kalinga Magha]], an invader with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the [[Jaffna Kingdom|Jaffna kingdom]], invaded and captured the [[Kingdom of Polonnaruwa]]. He sailed from Kalinga<ref name="ethniccr1">{{cite book | title = Sri Lankan Ethnic Crisis: Towards a Resolution | author = Herath, R.B. | year = 2002 | publisher = Trafford Publishing | isbn = 978-1-55369-793-0 | pages = 18–21| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jzMCzJxJBpsC }}</ref> 690 nautical miles on 100 large ships with a 24,000 strong army. Unlike previous invaders, he looted, ransacked, and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery.<ref>{{cite book | title = Security dilemma of a small state, Part 1 | author = Jayasekera, P.V.J. | year = 1992 | publisher = Institute for International Studies [[University of Peradeniya]], Sri Lanka | place = [[Peradeniya]] | isbn = 978-81-7003-148-2 | quote = ..His invasion in 1215 was more or less a looting expedition.. | page = 25 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=VRngAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of [[Rajarata]] as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.<ref name="Nadarajan, V p. 72">Nadarajan, V ''History of Ceylon Tamils'', p. 72</ref><ref name="Indrapala, K p. 16">Indrapala, K ''Early Tamil Settlements in Ceylon'', p. 16</ref> Sri Lanka never really recovered from the impact of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to [[Kingdom of Dambadeniya|Dambadeniya]]. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the Jaffna kingdom.<ref name="Nadarajan, V p. 72"/><ref name="Indrapala, K p. 16"/> The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by King [[Parakramabahu VI of Kotte|Parâkramabâhu VI]]'s adopted son, [[Bhuvanaikabahu VI of Kotte|Prince Sapumal]].<ref>{{cite book | author = Gnanaprakasar, Swamy | title = A Critical History of Jaffna | publisher = Asian Educational Services | year = 2003 | place = [[New Delhi]] | page = 122 | isbn = 978-81-206-1686-8| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=o9H53Sldfv8C }}</ref> He ruled the north from 1450 to 1467.<ref>{{cite book | author = Holt, John Clifford | title = Buddha in the Crown: Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | year = 1991 | page = 304 | isbn = 978-0-19-506418-6| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=eDbnCwAAQBAJ }}</ref> The next three centuries starting from 1215 were marked by shifting collections of kingdoms in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya, [[Yapahuwa]], [[Gampola]], [[Kingdom of Gampola|Raigama]], [[Kingdom of Kotte|Kotte]],<ref name=HC>Codrington, [http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap06.html Ch. 6]</ref> [[Kingdom of Sitawaka|Sitawaka]], and finally, [[Kingdom of Kandy|Kandy]]. Chinese admiral [[Zheng He]] and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in 1409 and [[Ming–Kotte War|fought with]] the local King [[Vira Alakesvara of Gampola]]. Zheng He captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him.<ref>{{cite web| publisher = Geoff Wade, 2005 |url = http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/1778?hl=%22Zheng+He%22|title = South East Aisa in Ming Shi-lu|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine| magazine = National Geographic |url = http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0507/feature2/map.html |title =Voyages of Zheng He 1405–1433 |accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| publisher = Columbia University |url = http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1000ce_mingvoyages.htm |title = Ming Voyages|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher = aramco world | url = https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200504/the.admiral.zheng.he.htm | title = Admiral Zheng He | accessdate = 13 April 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141031051234/https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200504/the.admiral.zheng.he.htm | archive-date = 31 October 2014 | url-status=dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Zheng He erected the [[Galle Trilingual Inscription]], a stone tablet written in three languages ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], and [[Persian language|Persian]]), to commemorate his visit.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = lankalibrary forum | url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=1022 | title = The trilingual inscription of Admiral Zheng He | accessdate = 13 April 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150620165307/http://www.lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=1022 | archive-date = 20 June 2015 | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher = world heritage site |url = http://www.worldheritagesite.org/tags/tag622.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100412063521/http://www.worldheritagesite.org/tags/tag622.html |url-status=dead |archive-date = 12 April 2010 |title = Zheng He |accessdate = 13 April 2015 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> The [[stele]] was discovered in 1911 and is now preserved in the [[National Museum of Colombo|Colombo National Museum]]. ===Kandyan period=== {{main|Kandyan period}} {{See also|Portuguese Ceylon|Dutch Ceylon|British Ceylon period}} [[File:SpilbergenVimala.jpg|thumb|left|A 17th-century engraving of Dutch explorer [[Joris van Spilbergen]] meeting with King Vimaladharmasuriya in 1602]] The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer [[Lourenço de Almeida]] in 1505.<ref name="francal">{{cite web | url = http://www.thondaman.org/srilankanhistory.html | title = Sri Lanka History | work = Thondaman Foundation}}</ref> In 1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city of Colombo and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare with the Portuguese, [[Vimaladharmasuriya I of Kandy|Vimaladharmasuriya I]] moved his kingdom to the inland city of [[Kingdom of Kandy|Kandy]], a location he thought more secure from attack.<ref name="isl23">{{cite web | url = http://www.island.lk/2005/08/27/satmag1.html | title = King Wimaladharmasuriya | work = S.B. Karalliyadde – The Island | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> In 1619, succumbing to attacks by the Portuguese, the independent existence of the Jaffna kingdom came to an end.<ref>{{Cite book | author = Knox, Robert | authorlink = Robert Knox (sailor) | year = 1681 | title = An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon | pages = 19–47 |publisher = Reprint. Asian Educational Services | place = London| title-link = An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon }}</ref> During the reign of the [[Rajasinha II of Kandy|Rajasinghe II]], Dutch explorers arrived on the island. In 1638, the king [[Kandyan Treaty of 1638|signed a treaty]] with the [[Dutch East India Company]] to get rid of the Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Dutch in Ceylon: an account of their early visits to the island, their conquests, and their rule over the maritime regions during a century and a half | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=h2mkUharg6AC | author = Anthonisz, Richard Gerald | publisher = Asian Educational Services | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-81-206-1845-9 | pages = 37–43 }}</ref> The following [[Dutch–Portuguese War]] resulted in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had signed in 1638. The [[Burgher people]], a distinct ethnic group, emerged as a result of intermingling between the Dutch and native Sri Lankans in this period.<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C | title = Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 1500–1920 | author = Bosma, U. | publisher = [[University of Michigan]] | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-89680-261-2 | chapter=1 }}</ref> The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka.<ref name="kandyk">{{cite web | url = http://sundaytimes.lk/070304/KandyTimes/514_kt1.html | title = A kingdom is born, a kingdom is lost | work = The Sunday Times | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred [[Relic of the tooth of the Buddha|Tooth Relic]] – the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the Sinhalese – to Kandy, and built the [[Temple of the Tooth]].<ref name="kandyk"/> In spite of on-going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom survived. Later, a crisis of succession emerged in Kandy upon King [[Vira Narendra Sinha of Kandy|Vira Narendrasinha]]'s death in 1739. He was married to a [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-speaking [[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Nayakkar]] princess from south India and was childless by her.<ref name="kandyk"/> Eventually, with the support of bhikku Weliwita Sarankara, the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princesses, overlooking the right of ''"Unambuwe Bandara"'', Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese [[Concubinage|concubine]].<ref>{{cite book | title = Language, Religion, and Ethnic Assertiveness: The Growth of Sinhalese Nationalism in Sri Lanka0 | author = Dharmadasa, K.N.O. | publisher = [[University of Michigan Press]] | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-0-472-10288-4 | pages = 8–12| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=x8NQrTmjpRcC }}</ref> The new king was crowned [[Sri Vijaya Rajasinha of Kandy|Sri Vijaya Rajasinha]] later that year. Kings of the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.<ref>Codrington, [http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap09.html Ch. 9]</ref>[[File:Sri Vikrama Rajasinha.jpg|thumb|[[Sri Vikrama Rajasinha of Kandy]], the last ruling Sri Lankan monarch]] During the [[Napoleonic Wars]], fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, Great Britain occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796.<ref name="colvoyg">{{cite web | url = http://www.colonialvoyage.com/trincomalee-first-british-occupation-definitive-dutch-surrender/ | title = The first British occupation and the definitive Dutch surrender | work = colonialvoyage.com| date = 18 February 2014 }}</ref> Two years later, in 1798, [[Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha of Kandy|Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha]], third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was crowned.<ref name="scnsl">{{cite web|url=http://www.scenicsrilanka.com/history-of-sri-lanka-1948.html |title=History of Sri Lanka and significant World events from 1796 AD to 1948 |work=scenicsrilanka.com |accessdate=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102055412/http://www.scenicsrilanka.com/history-of-sri-lanka-1948.html |archivedate=2 November 2013 }}</ref> The young king, called [[Sri Vikrama Rajasinha of Kandy|Sri Vikrama Rajasinha]], faced a British invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated. The [[Kandyan Wars|First Kandyan War]] ended in a stalemate.<ref name="scnsl"/> By then the entire coastal area was under the [[East India Company]] as a result of the [[Treaty of Amiens]]. On 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by the British in the second Kandyan War, ending Sri Lanka's independence.<ref name="scnsl"/> Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka, was exiled to India.<ref>Codrington, [http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap11.html Ch. 11]</ref> The [[Kandyan Convention]] formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the [[Great Rebellion of 1817–18|Uva Rebellion]] were thwarted by [[Governors of British Ceylon|Governor]] [[Robert Brownrigg]].<ref name="keppetipola">{{cite web | url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/keppetipola2.htm | title = Keppetipola and the Uva Rebellion | work = lankalibrary.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the [[Colebrooke–Cameron Commission|Colebrooke-Cameron reforms]] of 1833.<ref name="corankel"/> They introduced a [[Utilitarianism|utilitarian]] and [[Liberalism|liberal]] political culture to the country based on the [[rule of law]] and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government.<ref name="corankel"/> An [[Executive Council of Ceylon|executive council]] and a [[Legislative Council of Ceylon|legislative council]] were established, later becoming the foundation of a representative legislature. By this time, experiments with coffee plantations were largely successful.<ref name="Nubin 2002 115">{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=115}}</ref> Soon, coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee prices as a result of the [[Panic of 1847|depression of 1847]] stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form of ''rajakariya'', requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent.<ref name="Nubin 2002 115"/> These harsh measures antagonised the locals, and [[Matale rebellion|another rebellion]] broke out in 1848.<ref name="matale1">{{cite web | url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/gongalegoda.htm | title = Gongale Goda Banda (1809–1849) : The leader of the 1848 rebellion | work = Wimalaratne, K.D.G. | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> A devastating leaf disease, ''[[Hemileia vastatrix]]'', struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lennox A. Mills |title=Ceylon Under British Rule, 1795–1932 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyHG9ZKl3bwC&pg=PA246|year=1964|publisher=Psychology Press|page=246|isbn=978-0714620190}}</ref> The British quickly found a replacement: abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea instead. [[Tea production in Sri Lanka]] thrived in the following decades. [[File:Kandyan Chiefs in 1905.JPG|upright=1.45|thumb|left|British appointed Kandyan chiefs, 1905]] By the end of the 19th century, a new educated [[social class]] transcending race and [[caste]] arose through British attempts to staff the [[Ceylon Civil Service]] and the legal, educational, and medical professions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|pp=116–117}}</ref> New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative Council on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalism reacted against Christian missionary activities.<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Q11ID2xfqD8C | author = Bond, George D. | title = The Buddhist revival in Sri Lanka: Religious tradition, reinterpretation and response | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publications | year = 1992 | pages = 11–22 | isbn = 978-81-208-1047-1 }}</ref><ref name="tamlwk">{{cite web | url = http://www.tamilweek.com/Cutting_edge_hindu_revivalism_0625.html | title = Cutting edge of Hindu revivalism in Jaffna | date = 25 June 2006 | work = Balachandran, P.K.}}</ref> The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese and [[Tamils|Tamil]] political leadership, which has since been lost.<ref>{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|p=387}}</ref> In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of [[Ponnambalam Arunachalam]],<ref>{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|p=386}}</ref> pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support, and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s.<ref>{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|pp=389–395}}</ref> The [[Donoughmore Constitution|Donoughmore reforms]] of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced [[universal suffrage]] (which stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created [[State Council of Ceylon]], which succeeded the legislative council.<ref name="tamllib">{{cite web | url = http://tamilelibrary.org/teli/slhist.html | title = Chronology of events related to Tamils in Sri Lanka (1500–1948) | publisher = [[National University of Malaysia]] | work = Hellmann-Rajanayagam, Dagmar | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|p=423}}</ref> In 1937, Tamil leader [[G. G. Ponnambalam]] demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the [[Soulbury Commission|Soulbury reforms]] of 1944–45. ===1948-present: Independence and civil war=== {{Main|History of Sri Lanka (1948–present)}} {{See also|Sri Lankan independence movement|Sri Lankan Civil War}} [[File:SL Independence.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The formal ceremony marking the start of self-rule, with the opening of the first parliament at [[Independence Square, Colombo|Independence Square]]]] The Soulbury constitution ushered in [[Dominion of Ceylon|dominion status]], with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948.<ref name="countrst68">{{cite web | url = http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/21.htm | title = Sinhalese Parties | work = [[Library of Congress Country Studies]] | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> [[D. S. Senanayake]] became the first [[Prime Minister of Sri Lanka|Prime Minister of Ceylon]].<ref name="DS">{{cite web | url = http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/68.htm | title = Sinhalese Parties | work = [[Library of Congress Country Studies]] | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> Prominent Tamil leaders including Ponnambalam and [[Arunachalam Mahadeva]] joined his cabinet.<ref name="tamllib"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|pp=121–122}}</ref> The [[Royal Navy|British Royal Navy]] remained stationed at [[Trincomalee]] until 1956. A countrywide popular demonstration against withdrawal of the rice ration, known as [[1953 Ceylonese Hartal|Hartal 1953]], resulted in the resignation of prime minister [[Dudley Senanayake]].<ref name="islnksd">{{cite web | url = http://www.island.lk/2008/08/16/satmag1.html | title = Bandaranaike and Hartal of 1953 | author = Weerakoon, Batty | work = The Island | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> [[S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike]] was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule had a profound impact through his self-proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture".<ref>{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=123}}</ref> He introduced the controversial [[Sinhala Only Act]], recognising [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]] as the only official language of the government. Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture.<ref name=FW>{{Cite book | author = Ganguly, Šumit|editor = Brown, Michael E.| title =Fighting Words: language policy and ethnic relations in Asia| publisher = The MIT Press | year = 2003| pages = 136–138 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=fcoDezu1ABoC | isbn = 978-0-262-52333-2 | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref><ref name=AV>{{Cite book |editor1=Schmid, Bettina |editor2=Schroeder, Ingo |title =Anthropology of Violence and Conflict| publisher = Routledge | year = 2001| page = 185| url = https://books.google.com/?id=Rx-1MdUlzaUC| isbn = 978-0-415-22905-0| accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref><ref name="a1">{{cite news|title=Sri Lanka Profile|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12004081|work=BBC News | date=5 November 2013}}</ref> The [[Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi|Federal Party]] (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance ([[satyagraha]]) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to [[Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact|reach an agreement]] with [[S. J. V. Chelvanayakam]], leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict.<ref>{{cite book | author = Peebles, Patrick | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SxO0eISluqEC | title = The History of Sri Lanka | publisher = Greenwood Press | date = 2006 | pages = 109–111 | isbn = 978-0-313-33205-0}}</ref> The pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government [[Sri Lankan state-sponsored colonisation schemes|colonisation schemes]], contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders.<ref>{{cite web | title = Staff profile: Jonathan Spencer | author = University of Edinburgh | url = http://www.sps.ed.ac.uk/staff/social_anthropology/spencer_jonathan | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | author-link = University of Edinburgh }}</ref> Bandaranaike was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/Cl01Df05.html | title = Sri Lanka: The untold story – Assassination of Bandaranaike | work = Rajasingham, K. T. | publisher = Asia Times | year = 2002 | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> [[Sirimavo Bandaranaike]], the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960 and withstood an [[1962 Ceylonese coup d'état attempt|attempted coup d'état]] in 1962. During her second term as prime minister, the government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthening ties with the Soviet Union and [[China]] while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced a [[1971 JVP insurrection|Marxist insurrection]], which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the country became a republic named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|pp=128–129}}</ref> The [[policy of standardisation]] by the Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence an [[affirmative action]] to assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary education,<ref name="affrmact">{{cite web|url=http://www.ices.lk/publications/esr/articles_jul97/Esr-kmdesilva.PDF |pages=248–254 |title=Affirmative Action Policies: The Sri Lankan Experience |author1=De Silva |author2=K. M. |date=July 1997 |publisher=International Centre for Ethnic Studies |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930154652/http://www.ices.lk/publications/esr/articles_jul97/Esr-kmdesilva.PDF |archivedate=30 September 2011 }}</ref> resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy.<ref>{{cite book | author = Jayasuriya, J.E. | title = Education in the Third World | publisher = Indian Institute of Education | year =1981 | place =[[Pune]] | oclc = 7925123}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://tamilnation.co/forum/sivaram/940508eelam_history.htm | title = The Exclusive Right to Write Eelam History | author = Taraki Sivaram |date=May 1994 | publisher = Tamil Nation| author-link = Taraki Sivaram }}</ref> The assassination of [[Jaffna]] Mayor [[Alfred Duraiappah|Alfred Duraiyappah]] in 1975 by the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] (LTTE) marked a crisis point.<ref name="Hoffman139">{{Cite book | author = Hoffman, Bruce | title = Inside Terrorism | publisher = [[Columbia University Press]] | place = New York | year = 2006 | page = 139 | isbn = 978-0-231-12699-1| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_ayrAgAAQBAJ }}</ref><ref name="rohang">{{cite web | url = http://www.padippakam.com/document/srilankan_gov/gov002.pdf | title = International and Regional Implications of the Sri Lankan Tamil Insurgency | author = Rohan Gunaratna |date=December 1998 | author-link = Rohan Gunaratna }}</ref> The government of [[J. R. Jayewardene|J. R. Jayawardene]] swept to power in 1977, defeating the largely unpopular [[United Front (Sri Lanka)|United Front]] government.<ref name="attms">{{cite web | url = http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/DA26Df04.html | title = Tamil militancy – a manifestation | author = Rajasingham, K.T. | year = 2002 | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> Jayawardene introduced a [[Constitution of Sri Lanka|new constitution]], together with a free-market economy and a powerful executive presidency modelled after France. It made Sri Lanka the first South Asian country to liberalise its economy.<ref name="filbrn"/> Beginning in 1983, ethnic tensions were manifested in an on-and-off insurgency against the government by the LTTE. An LTTE attack on 13 soldiers resulted in the anti-Tamil [[Black July|race riots in July 1983]], allegedly backed by [[Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism|Sinhalese hard-line]] ministers, which resulted in more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fleeing the island, seeking asylum in other countries.<ref name="Remembering">{{cite news|title = Remembering Sri Lanka's Black July – BBC News|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23402727|website = BBC News|accessdate = 20 October 2015|date = 23 July 2013}}</ref><ref name="lkwbblk">{{cite web | url= http://www.lankaweb.com/news/items/2010/04/27/the-black-july-1983-that-created-a-collective-trauma/ | title = The Black July 1983 that Created a Collective Trauma | publisher = LankaWeb | work = Jayatunge, Ruwan M. | year = 2010 | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the LTTE by providing arms and training.<ref name="sndaytst">{{cite news | url=http://sundaytimes.lk/970119/plus4.html| title=LTTE: the Indian connection| newspaper=Sunday Times| year=1997| accessdate=15 July 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.expressindia.com/ie/daily/19971212/34650923.html |title=Uppermost in our minds was to save the Gandhis' name |newspaper=Express India |year=1997 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811204127/http://www.expressindia.com/ie/daily/19971212/34650923.html |archivedate=11 August 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.srilankaguardian.org/2009/07/for-firmer-and-finer-international.html | title = For firmer and finer International Relations | publisher = Sri Lanka Guardian | work = Wijesinghe, Sarath | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> In 1987, the [[Indo-Sri Lanka Accord]] was signed, and the [[Indian Peace Keeping Force]] was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the region by neutralising the LTTE.<ref name="Stokke2000a">{{Cite journal | author = Stokke, K. |author2=Ryntveit, A.K. | year = 2000 | title = The Struggle for Tamil Eelam in Sri Lanka | journal = A Journal of Urban and Regional Policy | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | pages = 285–304 | doi = 10.1111/0017-4815.00129}}</ref> The same year, the [[Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna]] launched its [[1987–1989 JVP insurrection|second insurrection]] in southern Sri Lanka,<ref name="secninsr">{{Cite book | author = Gunaratna, Rohan | title = Sri Lanka's Ethnic Crisis and National Security | publisher = South Asian Network on Conflict Research | place = [[Colombo]] | year = 1998 | page = 353 | isbn = 978-955-8093-00-9| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YpnhAAAACAAJ | author-link = Rohan Gunaratna }}</ref> necessitating redeployment of the Indian Peace Keeping Force in 1990.<ref name="atimes">{{cite web | url = http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/DC09Df04.html | title = Chapter 30: Whirlpool of violence, Sri Lanka: The Untold Story | publisher = Asia Times | year = 2002 | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> In October 1990, the LTTE [[Expulsion of Muslims from the Northern province by LTTE|expelled Sri Lankan Muslims]] from northern Sri Lanka.<ref name="slnp">{{cite web | url = http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2008/11/35271_space.html | title = 1990, The War Year if Ethnic Cleansing Of The Muslims From North and the East of Sri Lanka | publisher = lankanewspapers.com | year = 2008 | accessdate = 21 May 2015 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160305012159/http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2008/11/35271_space.html | archivedate = 5 March 2016 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> From 1985 to 2006, the Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held four rounds of peace talks. In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a ceasefire agreement.<ref name="a1" /> Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008.<ref name="a1" /> In 2009, under the presidency of [[Mahinda Rajapaksa]], the [[Sri Lanka Armed Forces]] defeated the LTTE and re-established control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/may/18/tamil-tigers-killed-sri-lanka | title = Sri Lanka declares end to war with Tamil Tigers | work = The Guardian | date = 19 May 2009| place = London | first1=Matthew | last1=Weaver | first2=Gethin | last2=Chamberlain}}</ref> Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during the 26 years of conflict.<ref name="ABC200509">{{cite news | title = Up to 100,000 killed in Sri Lanka's civil war: UN | url = http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-05-20/up-to-100000-killed-in-sri-lankas-civil-war-un/1689524 | newspaper = [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC Australia]] | date = 20 May 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Sri Lanka|url=http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/srilanka/index.html?scp=1-spot&sq=sri%20lanka&st=cse|publisher=New York Time|first=Erik|last=Olsen|accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref> Following the LTTE's defeat, the [[Tamil National Alliance]], the largest Tamil political party in Sri Lanka, dropped its demand for a [[Tamil Eelam|separate state]] in favour of a federal solution.<ref name="bbc1">{{cite news | title = Sri Lanka Tamil party drops statehood demand | date = 13 March 2010 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8566114.stm | work = [[BBC]] | first=Charles | last=Haviland}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = Sri Lankan Tamils drop demand for separate independent homeland | date = 14 March 2010 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/mar/14/tamils-drop-calls-for-separate-state | work = [[The Guardian]] | first=Jason | last=Burke | location=London}}</ref>The final stages of the war left some 294,000 people displaced.<ref name="obs320">{{cite news | title = Sri Lanka ready for the challenge | date = 20 March 2011 | url = http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2011/03/20/fea01.asp | work = The Sunday Observer | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093043/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2011/03/20/fea01.asp | archivedate = 4 March 2016 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/news/sri-lanka-displaced-uncertain-future-government-unlock-camps-20090911 |title = Sri Lanka's displaced face uncertain future as government begins to unlock the camps |publisher=Amnesty International |date=11 September 2009}}</ref> Up to 40,000 Tamil civilians [[List of attacks on civilians attributed to Sri Lankan government forces|may have been killed]] in the final phases of the Sri Lankan civil war, according to an expert panel convened by [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|UN Secretary General]] [[Ban Ki-moon]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/world/40-000-tamil-civilians-killed-in-final-phase-of-lanka-war-says-un-report/story-Kszx1AdtjUxEvDPj4gkcVL.html |title=40,000 Tamil civilians killed in final phase of Lanka war, says UN report |newspaper=Hindustan Times |date=25 April 2011 }}</ref> The UN Human Rights Council documented over 12,000 named individuals who disappeared following detention by security forces in Sri Lanka, the second highest figure in the world since the Working Group came into being in 1980. In March 2009, 378 people had been killed in one day and at least another 1,212 injured. The UN described the situation as a "bloodbath", and one that its Colombo office had been warning against for some time. Their spokesperson Gordon Weiss said that over 100 children had been killed over the weekend in the "large-scale killing of civilians".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org.uk/blogs/press-release-me-let-me-go/bloodbath-sri-lanka/|title=Bloodbath in Sri Lanka|website=www.amnesty.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=UN mourns Sri Lanka 'bloodbath'|work=BBC News|date=11 May 2009|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/8043169.stm}}</ref> In May 2010, President Rajapaksa appointed the [[Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission]] (LLRC) to assess the conflict between the time of the ceasefire agreement in 2002 and the defeat of the LTTE in 2009.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sri Lanka: President appoints Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/sri-lanka/sri-lanka-president-appoints-lessons-learnt-and-reconciliation-commission |publisher=ReliefWeb|date=17 May 2010}}</ref><ref name="CBS161211">{{cite news|title=Sri Lankan commission: Civilians weren't targeted|url=http://www.channel4.com/news/sri-lankan-civilians-werent-targeted-says-report |author=Mallawarachi, Bharatha |newspaper=[[Associated Press]]/[[CBS News]]|date=16 December 2011}}</ref> By 2014, Sri Lanka emerged from its 26-year war to become one of the [[List of countries by real GDP growth rate|fastest-growing economies]] of the world, which has since slowed.<ref name="businessinsider1">{{cite web | url=http://www.businessinsider.com/countries-with-the-fastest-growing-gdp-in-the-world-2011-10?op=1 | title=The 15 Fastest-Growing Economies in the World | work=[[Business Insider]] | accessdate=15 July 2014 }}</ref><ref name="meryl">{{cite news | title = Lanka among fastest growing millionaire populations – report | date =24 June 2011 | url = http://adaderana.lk/news.php?nid=13829 }}</ref> ==Geography== {{main|Geography of Sri Lanka}} [[File:Topography Sri Lanka.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A roughly oval island with a mountainous centre|Topographic map of Sri Lanka]] Sri Lanka lies on the [[Indian Plate]], a major [[plate tectonics|tectonic plate]] that was formerly part of the [[Indo-Australian Plate]].<ref>{{cite web |author1=Seth Stein |title=The January 26, 2001 Bhuj Earthquake and the Diffuse Western Boundary of the Indian Plate |url=https://www.earth.northwestern.edu/public/emile/PDF/EAO147.pdf |website=www.earth.northwestern.edu}}</ref> It is in the Indian Ocean southwest of the [[Bay of Bengal]], between latitudes [[5th parallel north|5°]] and [[10th parallel north|10°&nbsp;N]], and longitudes [[79th meridian east|79°]] and [[82nd meridian east|82°&nbsp;E]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://jyotisha.00it.com/Lankaco.htm | title = Geographic Coordinates for Sri Lanka Towns and Villages | publisher = jyotisha.00it.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> Sri Lanka is separated from the mainland portion of the [[Indian subcontinent]] by the [[Gulf of Mannar]] and [[Palk Strait]]. According to [[Hindu mythology]], [[Adam's Bridge|a land bridge]] existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above [[sea level]].<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6996621.stm | title = Gods row minister offers to quit | publisher = BBC | date = 15 September 2007 }}</ref> Legends claim that it was passable on foot up to 1480 AD, until [[cyclone]]s deepened the channel.<ref name="Garg1992">{{cite book | author = Garg, Ganga Ram | title = Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World | volume = A–Aj | year = 1992 | publisher = South Asia Books | place = New Delhi| isbn = 978-81-261-3489-2 | page = 142 | chapter = Adam's Bridge}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jul/04spec.htm | title = Ramar Sethu, a world heritage centre? | publisher = Rediff.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> Portions are still as shallow as {{convert|1|m|ft|sigfig=1}}, hindering navigation.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Adam's Bridge |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=http://www.britannica.com/place/Adams-Bridge |accessdate=21 December 2015}}</ref> The island consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest point is [[Pidurutalagala]], reaching {{convert|2524|m|ft|0}} above sea level. [[File:Sri Paada1.JPG|thumb|right|A view of [[Adam's Peak|Sripada]] from [[Maskeliya]]]] Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the [[Mahaweli River]], extending {{convert|335|km|mi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite book| author = Aves, Edward | year = 2003 | title = Sri Lanka | publisher = Footprint Travel Guides | page = 372 | place = London | isbn = 978-1-903471-78-4| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=E_kbgCvVm4UC }}</ref> These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of {{convert|10|m}} or more. The highest is [[Bambarakanda Falls]], with a height of {{convert|263|m|ft|0}}.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.lonelyplanet.com/sri-lanka | title = Introducing Sri Lanka | publisher = [[Lonely Planet]] | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> Sri Lanka's coastline is {{cvt|1,585|km}} long.<ref name="unep">{{cite web| url = http://www.rrcap.unep.org/pub/soe/srilanka_coastal.pdf| page = 86| title = Depletion of coastal resources| publisher = [[United Nations Environment Programme]]| url-status=dead| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120331091614/http://www.rrcap.unep.org/pub/soe/srilanka_coastal.pdf| archivedate = 31 March 2012| df = dmy-all}}</ref> Sri Lanka claims an [[exclusive economic zone]] extending 200 [[nautical mile]]s, which is approximately 6.7 times Sri Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as [[Fringing reef|fringing]] [[coral reef]]s and shallow beds of coastal and [[Estuary|estuarine]] [[seagrass]]es.<ref name="faosl">{{cite web | url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5627E/x5627e09.htm | title = 5 Coral Reefs of Sri Lanka: Current Status And Resource Management | publisher = [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> Sri Lanka has 45 [[Estuary|estuaries]] and 40 [[lagoon]]s.<ref name="unep"/> Sri Lanka's [[mangrove]] ecosystem spans over 7,000 [[hectare]]s and played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves in the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|2004 Indian Ocean tsunami]].<ref name="iucnas">{{cite web | url = http://www.elanguages.org/files/144094 | title = Information Brief on Mangroves in Sri Lanka | publisher = [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> The island is rich in minerals such as [[ilmenite]], [[feldspar]], [[graphite]], [[silica]], [[kaolin]], [[mica]] and [[thorium]].<ref name="minr">{{cite web | url = http://www.indexmundi.com/minerals/?country=lk&product=graphite&graph=production | title = Sri Lanka Graphite Production by Year | publisher = indexmundi.com | year = 2009 | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref><ref name="thor">{{cite web | url = http://www.asiantribune.com/node/13747 | title = Availability of sizeable deposits of thorium in Sri Lanka | work = [[Tissa Vitharana]] | publisher = [[Asian Tribune]] | year = 2008 | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> Existence of [[petroleum]] and gas in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed, and the extraction of recoverable quantities is underway.<ref name="prdssl">{{cite web | url = http://www.prds-srilanka.com/pdfs/Sri_Lanka_Seismic_EIA_Final_Report.pdf| pages = iv–vii | title = Three Dimensional Seismic Survey for Oil Exploration in Block SL-2007-01-001 in Gulf of Mannar–Sri Lanka | publisher = Cairn Lanka | year = 2009 | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> ===Climate=== [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map LKA present.svg|thumb|left|Sri Lanka map of Köppen climate classification]] The climate is [[Tropical climate|tropical]] and warm, because of moderating effects of ocean winds. Mean temperatures range from {{convert|17|°C|°F|1}} in the [[Central Highlands of Sri Lanka|central highlands]], where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of {{convert|33|C|F|1|abbr=on}} in other low-altitude areas. Average yearly temperatures range from {{convert|28|°C|°F|1|abbr=on}} to nearly {{convert|31|°C|°F|1|abbr=on}}. Day and night temperatures may vary by {{convert|14|C-change|F-change|1|abbr=on}} to {{convert|18|C-change|F-change|1|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.mysrilanka.com/travel/theland/climate.htm | title = Climate & Seasons: Sri Lanka | publisher = mysrilanka.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> Rainfall pattern is influenced by [[monsoon]] winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up to {{convert|2500|mm|in|1}} of rain each year, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of Sri Lanka comprise the "dry zone", which receives between {{convert|1200|and|1900|mm|in|abbr=on}} of rain annually.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.mysrilanka.com/travel/theland/rainfall.htm | title = Sri Lanka Rainfall | work = mysrilanka.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain at {{convert|800|to|1200|mm|in|abbr=on}} per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes [[tropical cyclone]]s bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.climatetemp.info/sri-lanka/ |title=Sri Lanka Climate Guide |publisher=climatetemp.info |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625222627/http://www.climatetemp.info/sri-lanka/ |archivedate=25 June 2012 }}</ref> An increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier rainfall events has resulted in recurrent flooding and related damages to infrastructure, utility supply and the urban economy.<ref>[http://cdkn.org/resource/integrating-urban-agriculture-and-forestry-into-climate-change-action-plans-lessons-from-sri-lanka/ Integrating urban agriculture and forestry into climate change action plans: Lessons from Sri Lanka], Marielle Dubbeling, the RUAF Foundation, 2014</ref> ===Flora and fauna=== {{main|Environment of Sri Lanka|Wildlife of Sri Lanka}} {{seealso|List of mammals of Sri Lanka|List of birds of Sri Lanka}} [[File:Sri Lanka Elephants.JPG|thumb|The [[Sri Lankan elephant]] is one of three recognised [[subspecies]] of the [[Asian elephant]]. The 2011 elephant census estimated a population of 5,879.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.voanews.com/english/news/asia/Sri-Lanka-Survey-Finds-More-Elephants-Than-Expected-129086673.html | title = Sri Lanka Survey Finds More Elephants Than Expected | date = 2 September 2011 | work = [[Voice of America]] | access-date = 15 September 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120129112134/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/asia/Sri-Lanka-Survey-Finds-More-Elephants-Than-Expected-129086673.html | archive-date = 29 January 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref>]] Lying within the [[Indomalayan realm]], Sri Lanka is one of 25 [[biodiversity hotspot]]s in the world.<ref>{{Cite book | author = [[Russell Mittermeier]], [[Norman Myers]] and [[Cristina Mittermeier]] | year = 2000 | title = Hotspots: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions | publisher = [[Conservation International]] | place = [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington]], [[Virginia]] | isbn = 978-968-6397-58-1| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=EqePQgAACAAJ }}</ref> Although the country is relatively small in size, it has the highest biodiversity density in Asia.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.environmentlanka.com/ | title = Environment Sri Lanka | work = www.environmentlanka.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140725233620/http://www.environmentlanka.com/ | archivedate = 25 July 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> A remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals, are [[Endemism|endemic]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1106-interview_ranil.html | archive-url = https://archive.today/20121208210845/http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1106-interview_ranil.html | url-status=dead | archive-date = 8 December 2012 | title = An interview with Dr. Ranil Senanayake, chairman of Rainforest Rescue International | work = news.mongabay.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> Sri Lanka has declared 24 wildlife reserves, which are home to a wide range of native species such as [[Sri Lankan elephant|elephants]], [[Sri Lankan leopard|leopards]], [[Sri Lankan sloth bear|sloth bears]], the unique small loris, a variety of deer, and the [[purple-faced langur]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.environmentlanka.com/ecotour.php | title = Ecotourism Sri Lanka | work = www.environmentlanka.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> Flowering [[acacia]]s flourish on the arid [[Jaffna Peninsula]]. Among the trees of the dry-land forests are valuable species such as [[Chloroxylon|satinwood]], [[ebony]], [[Mesua ferrea|ironwood]], [[mahogany]] and [[teak]]. The wet zone is a tropical evergreen forest with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/for_cou_144.PDF |title=Forests, Grasslands, and Drylands – Sri Lanka |page=4 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027053304/http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/for_cou_144.pdf |archivedate=27 October 2007 }}</ref> [[File:Rainbirder - Leopard (1).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Sri Lankan leopard]] (''[[Panthera pardus kotiya]]'') is an [[endangered species|endangered]] subspecies of [[leopard]] native to Sri Lanka.]] [[Yala National Park]] in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks. The [[Wilpattu National Park]] in the northwest, the largest national park, preserves the habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has four [[Nature reserve|biosphere reserves]]: [[Bundala National Park|Bundala]], [[Hurulu Forest Reserve]], the [[Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya]], and [[Sinharaja Forest Reserve|Sinharaja]].<ref name="unesco biosphere reserves">{{cite web | url = http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/contact.asp?code=SRL | title = Sri Lanka | date = 1 September 2006 | publisher = [[UNESCO]] }}</ref> Sinharaja is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive [[red-faced malkoha]], the [[green-billed coucal]] and the [[Sri Lanka blue magpie]]. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs and seedlings, has been estimated at 240,000 individuals per hectare. The Minneriya National Park borders the [[Minneriya Tank]], which is an important source of water for elephants inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed "The Gathering", the congregation of elephants can be seen on the tank-bed in the late dry season (August to October) as the surrounding water sources steadily disappear. The park also encompasses a range of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone tropical monsoonal evergreen forest, thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures (patanas), and grasslands (talawas).<ref name="Minneriya">{{cite web | url = http://trabanatours.com/locations/minneriya/ | title = Minneriya National Park | publisher = www.trabanatours.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> [[File:Rhododendron arboreum zeylanicum flower.jpg|right|thumb|Maha rath mala (''Rhododendron arboreum'' ssp. ''zeylanicum'') is a rare sub-species of ''[[Rhododendron arboreum]]'' found in [[Central Highlands of Sri Lanka]].]] Sri Lanka is home to over 250 types of resident birds, with several bird sanctuaries including Kumana.<ref name="kumnas">{{cite web | url = http://www.srilankaecotourism.com/kumana_national_park.htm | title = Kumana National Wildlife Park | publisher = www.srilankaecotourism.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | website = | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140729150753/http://www.srilankaecotourism.com/kumana_national_park.htm | archive-date = 29 July 2014 | url-status = dead }}</ref> During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling {{convert|1900|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} as national parks. Sri Lanka's forest cover, which was around 49% in 1920, had fallen to approximately 24% by 2009.<ref name="coverf">{{cite web | url = http://www.srilankanwaterfalls.net/about/forests.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090411022428/http://www.srilankanwaterfalls.net/about/forests.htm | url-status=dead | archive-date = 11 April 2009 | title = Forests of Sri Lanka | publisher = srilankanwaterfalls.net | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="Encarta">{{cite encyclopedia | url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568352_2/sri_lanka.html | title = Sri Lanka | publisher = [[MSN Encarta]] Encyclopedia | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20091021003646/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568352_2/Sri_Lanka.html | archivedate = 21 October 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> ==Government and politics== [[File:Old Parliament Building, Colombo.JPG|thumb|The [[Old Parliament Building, Colombo|old Sri Lankan parliament building]], near the [[Galle Face Green]]. It now serves as the [[Presidential Secretariat]]'s headquarters.]]{{main|Constitution of Sri Lanka}} Sri Lanka is a [[Democracy|democratic]] [[republic]] and a [[unitary state]] which is governed by a [[semi-presidential system]], with a mixture of a [[presidential system]] and a [[parliamentary system]].<ref name="constnt">{{cite web|title=Chapter 1 – The People, The State and Sovereignty|url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531083515/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html|archivedate=31 May 2014|accessdate=15 July 2014|work=The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in Asia.<ref>{{cite book | author = Norton, James H.K. | title = India and South Asia | publisher = [[McGraw-Hill]] | place = United States | isbn = 978-0-07-243298-5 | year = 2001}}</ref> Most provisions of the constitution can be amended by a [[Supermajority|two-thirds majority]] in [[Parliament of Sri Lanka|parliament]]. The amendment of [[Entrenched clause|certain basic features]] such as the clauses on language, religion, and reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state require both a two-thirds majority and approval in a nationwide [[referendum]]. In common with many democracies, the Sri Lankan government has three branches: *'''Executive''': The [[President of Sri Lanka]] is the [[head of state]]; the [[Commander-in-chief|commander in chief]] of the armed forces; [[head of government]], and is popularly elected for a five-year term.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Executive Presidency|url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/execpres/Indexep.html|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140921054039/http://www.priu.gov.lk/execpres/Indexep.html|archivedate=21 September 2014|accessdate=15 July 2014|work=The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The president heads the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] and appoints [[minister (government)|ministers]] from elected [[Member of parliament|members of parliament]].<ref>{{cite web|date=20 November 2003|title=The Constitution of Sri Lanka – Contents|url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/CONTENTS.html|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118180853/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/CONTENTS.html|archivedate=18 November 2014|work=The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The president is immune from legal proceedings while in office with respect to any acts done or omitted to be done by him or her in either an official or private capacity.<ref>{{cite web|title=Presidential Immunity|url=http://www.constitution.lk/static_pages/view/26|publisher=constitution.lk}}{{dead link|date=July 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> Following passage of the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka|19th amendment to the constitution]] in 2015, the president has two terms, which previously stood at no term limit. *'''Legislative''': The [[Parliament of Sri Lanka]] is a [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] 225-member legislature with 196 members elected in multi-seat constituencies and 29 elected by [[proportional representation]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Evolution of the Parliamentary System|url=http://www.parliament.lk/about_us/evolution.jsp|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616221401/http://www.parliament.lk/about_us/evolution.jsp|archivedate=16 June 2010|publisher=[[Parliament of Sri Lanka]]}}</ref> Members are elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after four and a half years. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws.<ref name="parliam">{{cite web|title=The Legislative Power of Parliament|url=http://www.parliament.lk/functions/legislative_power.jsp|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616221100/http://www.parliament.lk/functions/legislative_power.jsp|archivedate=16 June 2010|publisher=[[Parliament of Sri Lanka]]}}</ref> The president's deputy, the [[Prime Minister of Sri Lanka|prime minister]], leads the [[ruling party]] in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs. *'''Judicial''': Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a [[Supreme Court of Sri Lanka|Supreme Court]] – the highest and final superior court of record,<ref name="parliam" /> a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate courts. The highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences.<ref name="unpanh">{{cite web|title=Sri Lanka public administration|url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023242.pdf|accessdate=15 July 2014|publisher=[[United Nations Public Administration Network]]|page=2}}</ref> Criminal law is based almost entirely on [[English law|British law]]. Basic civil law derives from [[Roman law]] and [[Law of the Netherlands|Dutch law]]. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are [[Common law|communal]].<ref name="lawsd">{{cite web|title=Background Note: Sri Lanka|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5249.htm|accessdate=15 July 2014|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]}}</ref> Because of ancient customary practices and/or religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), the [[Thesavalamai]], and [[Sharia|Sharia law]] are followed in special cases.<ref name="custmryl">{{cite web|title=Sri Lanka Society & Culture: Customs, Rituals & Traditions|url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/rit.html|accessdate=15 July 2014|publisher=lankalibrary.com}}</ref> The president appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the [[Chief Justice of Sri Lanka|chief justice]] and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges. [[File:Supreme Court Colombo.jpg|thumb|The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, Colombo]] === Politics === {{main|Politics of Sri Lanka|Elections in Sri Lanka}} The current political culture in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the [[Centre-left politics|centre-leftist]] and [[Progressivism|progressivist]] [[United People's Freedom Alliance]] (UPFA), an offspring of [[Sri Lanka Freedom Party]] (SLFP), and the comparatively [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] and pro-[[Capitalism|capitalist]] [[United National Party]] (UNP).<ref>{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=95}}</ref> Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.slelections.gov.lk/pp.html | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120805182845/http://www.slelections.gov.lk/pp.html | url-status=dead | archive-date = 5 August 2012 | title = Political Parties in Sri Lanka | publisher = Department of Election, Sri Lanka | date = July 2011 }}</ref> Of these, the [[Lanka Sama Samaja Party]] (LSSP), established in 1935, is the oldest.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://archives.dailynews.lk/2010/12/18/fea01.asp | title = Sri Lanka's oldest political party | work = Daily News | date = 18 December 2010 }}</ref> The UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest single political party.<ref name="unpl">{{cite web|url=http://www.unplanka.com/ |title=UNP: The Story of the Major Tradition |publisher=unplanka.com |accessdate=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518080126/http://unplanka.com/ |archivedate=18 May 2014 }}</ref> It is the only political group which had representation in all parliaments since independence.<ref name="unpl" /> SLFP was founded by [[S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike]] in July 1951.<ref name="slfps">{{cite web | url = http://archives.dailynews.lk/2009/11/16/fea03.asp | title = Charting a new course for Sri Lanka's success | work = Daily News | date = 16 November 2009 }}</ref> SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in [[1956 Ceylonese parliamentary election|1956 Parliamentary election]].<ref name="slfps" /> Following the parliamentary election in [[July 1960 Ceylonese parliamentary election|July 1960]], [[Sirimavo Bandaranaike]] became the prime minister and the world's first elected [[List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government|female head of government]].<ref name="bbcsirimavo">{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/20/newsid_2784000/2784527.stm | title = Ceylon chooses world's first woman PM | publisher = BBC | date = 20 July 1960 }}</ref> [[G. G. Ponnambalam]], the [[Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism|Tamil nationalist]] counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,<ref name="socs">{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=m4Y9AAAAYAAJ&q | author = Society of Jesus in India | title = New review, Volume 23 | publisher = Macmillan and co. ltd. | place = [[India]] | page = 78 | year = 1946}}</ref> founded the [[All Ceylon Tamil Congress]] (ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by [[S. J. V. Chelvanayakam|S.J.V. Chelvanayakam]] broke away in 1949 and formed the [[Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi]] (ITAK), also known as the Federal Party, becoming the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next two decades.<ref name="poltitak">{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MLqmdDp3l0oC | author = Lakshman, W. D. and [[Clem Tisdell|Tisdell, Clem]] | title = Sri Lanka's development since independence: socio-economic perspectives and analyses | publisher = [[Nova Publishers]] | place = [[New York City|New York]] | page = 80 | isbn = 978-1-56072-784-2 | year = 2000}}</ref> The Federal Party advocated a more aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese.<ref name="postcolhist">{{cite web | url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/postcolonial_history.htm | title = Sri Lanka: Post Colonial History | publisher = Lanka Library | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> With the constitutional reforms of 1972, the ACTC and ITAK created the Tamil United Front (later [[Tamil United Liberation Front]]). Following a period of turbulence as Tamil militants rose to power in the late 1970s, these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by the [[Tamil National Alliance]].<ref name="postcolhist" /><ref name="tnas">{{cite news | url = http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/02/24/sri-lanka-tamil-national-alliance-denies-having-talks-buddhist-prelates | title = Sri Lanka Tamil National Alliance denies having talks with Buddhist prelates | newspaper = [[Asian Tribune]] | date = 24 February 2011 }}</ref> [[Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna]], a [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] political party founded by [[Rohana Wijeweera]] in 1965, serves as a third force in the current political context.<ref name="jvpnew">{{cite web|url=http://socialsciences-ejournal.org/SP%2012.%20Shathasiri.pdf |page=139 |title=Revolutionary Idealism and Parliamentary Politics |publisher=Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences |date=December 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920090225/http://socialsciences-ejournal.org/SP%2012.%20Shathasiri.pdf |archivedate=20 September 2011 }}</ref> It endorses leftist policies which are more radical than the traditionalist leftist politics of the LSSP and the [[Communist Party of Sri Lanka|Communist Party]].<ref name="postcolhist" /> Founded in 1981, the [[Sri Lanka Muslim Congress]] is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.<ref name="muslcon">{{cite web | url = http://www.sangam.org/2011/02/SL_Muslims.php?uid=4258 | title = Sri Lankan Muslims: Between ethno-nationalism and the global ummah | publisher = [[Association for the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism]] | date = January 2011 | work = Dennis B. McGilvray }}</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== {{Sri Lankan symbols}} {{Sri Lankan Provinces and districts|float=right}} {{main|Administrative divisions of Sri Lanka}} For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into nine [[Provinces of Sri Lanka|provinces]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_8_Amd.html | title = The Constitution of Sri Lanka – Eighth Schedule | publisher = Priu.gov.lk | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20141016025856/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_8_Amd.html | archivedate = 16 October 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> and twenty-five [[Districts of Sri Lanka|districts]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_1_Amd.html | title = The Constitution of Sri Lanka – First Schedule | publisher = Priu.gov.lk | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20141016025819/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_1_Amd.html | archivedate = 16 October 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> '''Provinces''' There have been provinces in Sri Lanka since the 19th century, but they had no legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 constitution established provincial councils after several decades of increasing demand for a [[Devolution|decentralisation]] of the government.<ref name="official">{{cite web | url = http://www.priu.gov.lk/ProvCouncils/ProvicialCouncils.html | title = Provincial Councils | work = The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka | date = 3 September 2010 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090707214924/http://www.priu.gov.lk/ProvCouncils/ProvicialCouncils.html | archivedate = 7 July 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Each provincial council is an autonomous body not under the authority of any ministry. Some of its functions had been undertaken by central government ministries, departments, corporations, and statutory authorities,<ref name="official"/> but authority over land and police is not as a rule given to provincial councils.<ref name="landpolc">{{cite news | url = http://www.indianexpress.com/news/lanka-heads-for-collision-course-with-india/802524/ | title = Lanka heads for collision course with India: Report | newspaper = Indian Express | date = 12 June 2011 }}</ref><ref name="landpolc2">{{cite web | url = http://www.peace-srilanka.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=296:accepting-reality-and-building-trust&catid=1:latest&Itemid=121 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101006012934/http://www.peace-srilanka.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=296%3Aaccepting-reality-and-building-trust&catid=1%3Alatest&Itemid=121 | url-status=dead | archive-date = 6 October 2010 | title = Accepting reality and building trust | work = Jehan Perera | publisher = peace-srilanka.org | date = 14 September 2010 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Between 1989 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the [[North Eastern Province, Sri Lanka|North-East Province]].<ref name="lnpx">{{cite web | url = http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2006/10/8947.html | title = North-East merger illegal: SC | publisher = LankaNewspapers.com | date = 17 October 2006 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090524142033/http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2006/10/8947.html | archivedate = 24 May 2009 | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="norteastn">{{cite web | url = http://southasiaanalysis.org/%5Cnotes4%5Cnote344.html | title = North East De-merger-At What Cost? Update No. 107 | work = Hariharan, R. | publisher = southasiaanalysis.org | date = 19 October 2010 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100613022544/http://southasiaanalysis.org/notes4/note344.html | archivedate = 13 June 2010}}</ref> Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks for the provinces were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council: {| class="toc" border="0" style="font-size:90%" |- ! colspan="8" style="background:#629BAB; color:white; font-weight:bold" | Administrative Divisions of Sri Lanka |- style="font-weight:bold; background:lavender;" ! style="width: 10%; text-align: left;" | [[Provinces of Sri Lanka|Province]] ! style="width: 10%; text-align: left;" | [[Capital (political)|Capital]] ! style="width: 10%; text-align: right;" | [[Area]] (km²) ! style="width: 10%; text-align: right;" | [[Area]] (mi²) ! style="width: 10%; text-align: right;" | [[Population]] |- | [[Central Province, Sri Lanka|Central]] | [[Kandy]] | style="text-align:right;"| 5,674 | style="text-align:right;"| {{convert|5674|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}} | style="text-align:right;"| 2,556,774 |-style="background:#f0f0f0;" | [[Eastern Province, Sri Lanka|Eastern]] | [[Trincomalee]] | style="text-align:right;" | 9,996 | style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|9996|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}} | style="text-align:right;" | 1,547,377 |- | [[North Central Province, Sri Lanka|North Central]] | [[Anuradhapura]] | style="text-align:right;"| 10,714 | style="text-align:right;"| {{convert|10714|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}} | style="text-align:right;"| 1,259,421 |-style="background:#f0f0f0" | [[Northern Province, Sri Lanka|Northern]] | [[Jaffna]] | style="text-align:right" | 8,884 | style="text-align:right" | {{convert|8884|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}} | style="text-align:right" | 1,060,023 |- | [[North Western Province, Sri Lanka|North Western]] | [[Kurunegala]] | style="text-align:right;"| 7,812 | style="text-align:right;"| {{convert|7812|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}} | style="text-align:right;"| 2,372,185 |-style="background:#f0f0f0" | [[Sabaragamuwa Province|Sabaragamuwa]] | [[Ratnapura]] | style="text-align:right" | 4,902 | style="text-align:right" | {{convert|4902|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}} | style="text-align:right" | 1,919,478 |- | [[Southern Province, Sri Lanka|Southern]] | [[Galle]] | style="text-align:right;"| 5,559 | style="text-align:right;"| {{convert|5559|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}} | style="text-align:right;"| 2,465,626 |-style="background:#f0f0f0" | [[Uva Province|Uva]] | [[Badulla]] | style="text-align:right" | 8,488 | style="text-align:right" | {{convert|8488|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}} | style="text-align:right" | 1,259,419 |- | [[Western Province, Sri Lanka|Western]] | [[Colombo]] | style="text-align:right;"| 3,709 | style="text-align:right;"| {{convert|3709|km2|sqmi|disp=output number only}} | style="text-align:right;"| 5,837,294 |} '''Districts and local authorities''' Each district is administered under a [[Government Agent (Sri Lanka)|district secretariat]]. The districts are further subdivided into 256 [[Divisional Secretariats of Sri Lanka|divisional secretariats]], and these to approximately 14,008 [[Grama Niladhari]] divisions.<ref name="tstasgov">{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/GNcode/introduction.pdf |page=3 |title=List of Codes for the Administrative Divisions of Sri Lanka 2001 |publisher=Department of Census and Statistics |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519151751/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/GNcode/introduction.pdf |archivedate=19 May 2011 }}</ref> The districts are known in Sinhala as ''disa'' and in Tamil as ''māwaddam''. Originally, a ''disa'' (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a [[duchy]], notably Matale and Uva. [[File:Sri lanka southern province aerial view.jpg|thumb|An aerial view of Southern Province. ]] There are three other types of local authorities: municipal councils (18), urban councils (13) and pradeshiya sabha, also called pradesha sabhai (256).<ref>{{Cite book | author = Commonwealth Secretariat | year = 2004 | title = Commonwealth Local Government Handbook | place = London | isbn = 978-0-9542917-9-2 | page = 146| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WNM1oHe3eTIC | author-link = Commonwealth Secretariat }}</ref> Local authorities were originally based on feudal counties named ''korale'' and ''rata'', and were formerly known as "D.R.O. divisions" after the divisional revenue officer.<ref>{{Cite book | author = Dilesh Jayanntha | year = 2006 | title = Electoral Allegiance in Sri Lanka | place = London | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn = 978-0-521-02975-9 | pages = 82–85| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nkr3ra6gR2YC }}</ref> Later the D.R.O.s became "assistant government agents," and the divisions were known as "A.G.A. divisions". These divisional secretariats are currently administered by a divisional secretary. ===Foreign relations=== {{main|Foreign relations of Sri Lanka}} [[File:Jayewardene presents elephant to Reagan.jpg|thumb|President [[J. R. Jayewardene]] gifting a baby elephant to US President [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1984]] Sri Lanka is a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM). While ensuring that it maintains its independence, Sri Lanka has cultivated [[India–Sri Lanka relations|relations with India]].<ref name="relatns">{{Cite news | title = Foreign Relations | url = http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/74.htm | work = [[Library of Congress Country Studies]] | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> Sri Lanka became a member of the [[United Nations]] in 1955. Today, it is also a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|SAARC]], the [[World Bank]], the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[Asian Development Bank]], and the [[Colombo Plan]]. The United National Party has traditionally favoured links with the West, while the Sri Lanka Freedom Party has favoured links with the East.<ref name="relatns"/> Sri Lankan Finance Minister J. R. Jayewardene, together with then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy Spencer, proposed the Colombo Plan at the Commonwealth Foreign Minister's Conference held in Colombo in 1950.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Colombo Plan at 57 |url=http://www.colombo-plan.org/viewPressContent.php?id=93&page=4 |work=[[Colombo Plan]] |author=Jayasekera, Upali S. |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113150629/http://www.colombo-plan.org/viewPressContent.php?id=93&page=4 |archivedate=13 January 2012 }}</ref> At the [[Treaty of San Francisco|San Francisco Peace Conference]] in 1951, while many countries were reluctant, Sri Lanka argued for a free Japan and refused to accept payment of reparations for [[World War II]] damage because it believed it would harm Japan's economy.<ref>{{Cite news | title = Sri Lanka excels at the San Francisco Peace Conference | url= http://pdfs.island.lk/2009/09/07/p12.pdf| work = The Island | date = 7 September 2009}}</ref> Sri Lanka-China relations started as soon as the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949. The two countries signed an important Rice-Rubber Pact in 1952.<ref>{{Cite news | title = Lanka-China bilateral ties at its zenith | url = http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2010/10/03/fea02.asp | work = The Sunday Observer | date = 3 October 2010 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082628/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2010/10/03/fea02.asp | archivedate = 4 March 2016 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Sri Lanka played a vital role at the [[Asian–African Conference]] in 1955, which was an important step in the crystallisation of the NAM.<ref>{{Cite news | title = Bandung Conference of 1955 and the resurgence of Asia and Africa | url = http://archives.dailynews.lk/2005/04/21/fea01.htm | work = The Daily News | date = 21 April 2005}}</ref> The Bandaranaike government of 1956 significantly changed the pro-western policies set by the previous UNP government. It recognised Cuba under [[Fidel Castro]] in 1959. Shortly afterward, Cuba's revolutionary [[Che Guevara]] paid a visit to Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite news | title = Lanka-Cuba relations should be strengthened | url = http://archives.dailynews.lk/2004/01/14/new24.html | work = The Daily News | date = 14 January 2004}}</ref> The [[Sirima–Shastri Pact|Sirima-Shastri Pact]] of 1964<ref>{{Cite news | title = 29 October 1964 | url = http://pact.lk/29-october-1964/ | work = Pact.lk | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150128112857/http://pact.lk/29-october-1964/ | archivedate = 28 January 2015 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> and [[Sirima–Gandhi Pact|Sirima-Gandhi Pact]] of 1974<ref>{{Cite news | title = Statelessness abolished? | url = http://www.cope.nu/show.asp?NewsID=170&DocType=News | work = cope.nu | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140813065808/http://www.cope.nu/show.asp?NewsID=170&DocType=News | archive-date = 13 August 2014 | url-status=dead }}</ref> were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve the [[Ceylon Citizenship Act|long-standing dispute]] over the status of [[Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka|plantation workers of Indian origin]]. In 1974, [[Katchatheevu|Kachchatheevu]], a small island in [[Palk Strait]], was formally ceded to Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite news |title=India-Sri Lanka: 1921 Conference On Fisheries And Ceding Of Kachchatheevu – Analysis |url=http://www.albanytribune.com/22082011-india-sri-lanka-1921-conference-on-fisheries-and-ceding-of-kachchatheevu-%E2%80%93-analysis/ |work=Albany Tribune |date=22 August 2011 |author=Suryanarayan, V. |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402073824/http://www.albanytribune.com/22082011-india-sri-lanka-1921-conference-on-fisheries-and-ceding-of-kachchatheevu-%E2%80%93-analysis/ |archivedate=2 April 2012 }}</ref> By this time, Sri Lanka was strongly involved in the NAM, and the fifth NAM summit was held in Colombo in 1976.<ref>{{Cite news | title = NAM Golden Jubilee this year | url = http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2011/07/10/fea02.asp | work = The Sunday Observer | date = 10 July 2011 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095243/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2011/07/10/fea02.asp | archivedate = 4 March 2016 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> The relationship between Sri Lanka and India became tense under the government of [[Junius Richard Jayewardene|J. R. Jayawardene]].<ref name="atimes" /><ref name="indnrel">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/09700160008455216| title = Indo‐Sri Lankan security perceptions: Divergences and convergences| journal = Strategic Analysis| volume = 24| issue = 2| page = 343| year = 2000| last1 = Murthy | first1 = P. }}</ref> As a result, [[Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan Civil War|India intervened in the Sri Lankan Civil War]] and subsequently deployed an [[Indian Peace Keeping Force]] in 1987.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9B0DE0D8173FF936A35755C0A961948260&n=Top%2fNews%2fWorld%2fCountries%20and%20Territories%2fIndia | title = India airlifts aid to Tamil rebels | newspaper = New York Times | date = 5 June 1987 | author = Weisman, Steven R. }}</ref> In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive relations with China,<ref>{{cite news | url = https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL31707.pdf| page = 6 | title = Sri Lanka: Background and U.S. Relations | publisher = [[Federation of American Scientists]] | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> Russia,<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/02/09/russia-and-sri-lanka-strengthen-bilateral-relations | title = Russia and Sri Lanka to strengthen bilateral relations | newspaper = [[Asian Tribune]] | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> and Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/02/04/world-leaders-send-warm-greeting-sri-lanka-independence-day | title = World leaders send warm greeting to Sri Lanka on Independence Day | newspaper = [[Asian Tribune]] | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> ===Military=== The [[Sri Lanka Armed Forces]], comprising the [[Sri Lanka Army]], the [[Sri Lanka Navy]], and the [[Sri Lanka Air Force]], come under the purview of the [[Ministry of Defence (Sri Lanka)|Ministry of Defence]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ce.html | title = CIA World Factbook: Sr Lanka | publisher = [[Central Intelligence Agency]] | date = 16 August 2011 }}</ref> The total strength of the three services is around 346,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Military Balance 2010|pages=370–371 | author1 = International Institute for Strategic Studies | authorlink1 = International Institute for Strategic Studies | editor= Hackett, James | date = 3 February 2010 | publisher = [[Routledge]] | place = London | isbn = 978-1-85743-557-3 | ref = IISS2010}}</ref> Sri Lanka has not enforced [[Conscription|military conscription]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_con-military-conscription | title = Conscription (most recent) by country | publisher = NationMaster }}</ref> Paramilitary units include the Special Task Force, the [[Sri Lanka Civil Security Force|Civil Security Force]], and the [[Sri Lanka Coast Guard]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.lankabusinessonline.com/sri-lanka-coast-guard-sets-up-bases/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194800/http://www.lankabusinessonline.com/sri-lanka-coast-guard-sets-up-bases/ | url-status=dead | archive-date = 4 March 2016 | title = Sri Lanka coast guard sets up bases | publisher = Lanka Business Online | date = 10 August 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://defence.lk/new.asp?fname=20090710_04 | title = Coast Guard bill passed in Parliament | publisher = [[Ministry of Defence (Sri Lanka)|Sri Lanka Ministry of Defence]] | date = 7 October 2009 | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213156/http://www.defence.lk/new.asp?fname=20090710_04 | archivedate = 3 March 2016 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Since independence in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been internal security, crushing three major insurgencies, two by [[Marxism|Marxist]] militants of the JVP and a 26-year-long conflict with the LTTE. The armed forces have been in a continuous mobilised state for the last 30 years.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8063409.stm | title = How Sri Lanka's military won | publisher = BBC | date = 22 May 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Doucet |first=Lyse |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-20308610 |title=BBC News – UN 'failed Sri Lanka civilians', says internal probe |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=13 November 2012 |accessdate=10 September 2013}}</ref> The Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged in [[United Nations]] [[peacekeeping]] operations since the early 1960s, contributing forces to permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions in [[United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad|Chad]], [[United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon|Lebanon]], and [[United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti|Haiti]].<ref name="unmissions09">{{cite web | url = http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/2012/March12_3.pdf | title = UN Mission's Summary detailed by Country – March 2012| page = 33 | publisher = [[United Nations]] | date = April 2012 }}</ref> ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Sri Lanka}} {{see also|Agriculture in Sri Lanka|Tea production in Sri Lanka|Tourism in Sri Lanka|Transport in Sri Lanka}} [[File:SriLankaExports.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Sri Lanka exports by product (2017) from [http://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/explore/tree_map/export/lka/all/show/2014/ Harvard Atlas of Economic Complexity]|alt=|left]] According to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka's [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in terms of [[purchasing power parity]] is the second most highest in the South Asian region in terms of [[per capita income]]. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a [[plantation economy]] famous for its production and export of [[cinnamon]], [[rubber]], and [[Tea production in Sri Lanka|Ceylon tea]], which remains a trademark national export.<ref name="plnyn">{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofceylontea.com/articles/tea_feat_echoes_plantation_economy.html |title=Echoes of a Plantation Economy |publisher=historyofceylontea.com |author=Fernando, Maxwell |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117155721/http://www.historyofceylontea.com/articles/tea_feat_echoes_plantation_economy.html |archivedate=17 January 2012 }}</ref> The [[Ministry of Ports and Aviation (Sri Lanka)|development of modern ports]] under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade.<ref name="startim">{{cite web | url = http://www.asiapacificdefencereporter.com/articles/53/The-Strategic-Importance-of-Sri-Lanka-to-Australia | title = The Strategic Importance of Sri Lanka to Australia | publisher = asiapacificdefencereporter.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140807181932/http://www.asiapacificdefencereporter.com/articles/53/The-Strategic-Importance-of-Sri-Lanka-to-Australia | archive-date = 7 August 2014 | url-status=dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref> From 1948 to 1977, socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised, and a [[welfare state]] established. In 1977, the [[Free market|free market economy]] was introduced to the country incorporating privatisation, deregulation, and the promotion of private enterprise.<ref name="filbrn">{{cite web | url = http://www.fulbrightsrilanka.com/?page_id=561 | title = Sri Lanka – an Overview | publisher = [[Fulbright Program|Fulbright commission]] }}</ref> [[File:OldParliament-November2015-01.JPG|thumb|The [[World Trade Center (Colombo)|Colombo World Trade Center]] in Colombo. [[Presidential Secretariat]], Bank of Ceylon and Galadhari Hotel are also visible in the image.]] While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar, and other commodities remain important, industrialisation has increased the importance of food processing, textiles, telecommunications, and finance. The country's main economic sectors are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production, and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributes substantially in foreign exchange.<ref name="treasry">{{cite web | url = http://www.treasury.gov.lk/reports/annualreport/AnnualReport2010-eng.pdf| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111201012336/http://www.treasury.gov.lk/reports/annualreport/AnnualReport2010-eng.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date = 1 December 2011| title = Annual Report 2010 | publisher = Ministry of Finance – Sri Lanka | year = 2011 | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> {{As of|2010}}, the service sector makes up 60% of GDP, the industrial sector 28%, and the agriculture sector 12%.<ref name="treasry"/> The private sector accounts for 85% of the economy.<ref name="adbrep">{{cite web|url=http://www.adb.org/Documents/CPSs/SRI/2008/CPS-SRI-2009-2011.pdf |page=1 |title=Country Partnership Strategy |publisher=[[Asian Development Bank]] |year=2008 |accessdate=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115144722/http://www2.adb.org/Documents/CPSs/SRI/2008/CPS-SRI-2009-2011.pdf |archivedate=15 November 2013 }}</ref> China, India and the United States are Sri Lanka's largest trading partners.<ref name="Sri Lanka's Trading Partners">{{cite web | url = https://www.lki.lk/blog/who-are-sri-lankas-top-trading-partners/ | title = Sri Lanka's Top Trading Partners | publisher = Lakshman Kadiragamar Institute | year = 2018 | accessdate = 14 October 2018 }}</ref> Economic disparities exist between the provinces with the Western Province contributing 45.1% of the GDP and the Southern Province and the Central Province contributing 10.7% and 10%, respectively.<ref name="ecdisp">{{cite news | url = http://sundaytimes.lk/110717/BusinessTimes/bt24.html | title = Western Province share of national GDP falling: CB | newspaper = Sunday Times | date = 17 July 2011}}</ref> With the end of the war, the Northern Province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010.<ref name="northpr">{{cite news | url = http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/07/18/sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-northern-province-has-recorded-highest-gdp-growth-rate-229-cent-last-yea | title = Sri Lanka's Northern province has recorded the highest GDP growth rate of 22.9 per cent last year | newspaper = [[Asian Tribune]] | date = 18 July 2011}}</ref> [[File:Sri Lanka 030.jpg|thumb|Sri Lanka's most widely known export, [[Ceylon tea]], which [[ISO]] considers the cleanest tea in the world in terms of pesticide residues. Sri Lanka is also the world's 2nd largest exporter of tea.<ref name="clnst">{{cite web | url = http://www.worldteanews.com/page.cfm/Action=Exhib/ExhibID=98 | title = Sri Lanka Tea Board | publisher = worldteanews.com}}{{Dead link|date=September 2013}}</ref>]] The per capita income of Sri Lanka doubled from 2005 to 2011.<ref name="toplsl">{{cite web | url = http://www.tops.lk/article35231-parliament-per-capita-income-has-doubled.html | title = Per capita income has doubled | publisher = tops.lk |year=2011}}</ref> During the same period, poverty dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment rate dropped from 7.2% to 4.9%, [[market capitalisation]] of the [[Colombo Stock Exchange]] quadrupled, and the [[Government budget deficit|budget deficit]] doubled.<ref name="treasry"/> Over 90% of the households in Sri Lanka are electrified; 87% of the population have access to safe drinking water; and 39% have access to pipe-borne water.<ref name="treasry"/> Income inequality has also dropped in recent years, indicated by a [[Gini coefficient]] of 0.36 in 2010.<ref name="statgovineq">{{cite web | url = http://www.statistics.gov.lk/poverty/PovertyIndicators2009_10.pdf| page = 3 | title = Inequality drops with poverty | publisher = Department of Census and Statistics | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> The 2011 [[Global Competitiveness Report]], published by the [[World Economic Forum]], described Sri Lanka's economy as transitioning from the factor-driven stage to the efficiency-driven stage and that it ranked 52nd in global competitiveness.<ref>{{Cite report | url = http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GCR_Report_2011-12.pdf| pages = 326–327 | author = Schwab, Klaus | year = 2011 | title = The Global Competitiveness Report 2011–2012 | publisher = World Economic Forum | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> Also, out of the 142 countries surveyed, Sri Lanka ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophistication, 42nd in innovation, and 41st in goods market efficiency. In 2016, Sri Lanka ranked 5th in the [[World Giving Index]], registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society.<ref>{{cite web |title=CAF world giving index 2016 |url=https://www.cafonline.org/docs/default-source/about-us-publications/1950a_wgi_2016_report_web_v2_241016.pdf?sfvrsn=4 |website=cafonline.org |publisher=Charities aid foundation |accessdate=18 August 2019}}</ref> In 2010, ''[[The New York Times]]'' placed Sri Lanka at the top of its list of 31 places to visit.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/10/travel/10places.html | title = The 31 Places to Go in 2010 | work = The New York Times | date = 24 January 2010 }}</ref> [[S&P Dow Jones Indices]] classifies Sri Lanka as a [[Frontier markets|frontier market]] as of 2018.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Closer Look at Indices Country Classifications|url=http://www.indexologyblog.com/2018/04/26/a-closer-look-at-indices-country-classifications/}}</ref> [[List of countries by Human Development Index|Sri Lanka ranks]] well above other South Asian countries in the [[Human Development Index]] (HDI) with an index of 0.750. By 2016, the country's debt soared as it was developing its infrastructure to the point of near bankruptcy which required a bailout from the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/05/02/why-sri-lankas-economic-outlook-is-looking-less-rosy.html |title=Why Sri Lanka's economic outlook is looking less rosy |last=Shaffer |first=Leslie|date=2 May 2016 |website=CNBC |publisher=CNBC LLC |access-date=14 January 2017 |quote=While the government is aiming to raise its low revenue collection, partly through an increase in the value-added tax rate ... the country has a spotty record on tax collection.}}</ref> The IMF had agreed to provide a US$1.5 billion bailout loan in April 2016 after Sri Lanka provided a set of criteria intended to improve its economy. By the fourth quarter of 2016, the debt was estimated to be $64.9 billion. Additional debt had been incurred in the past by state-owned organisations and this was said to be at least $9.5 billion. Since early 2015, domestic debt increased by 12% and external debt by 25%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/09/30/sri-lankas-debt-crisis-is-so-bad-the-government-doesnt-even-know-how-much-money-it-owes/#75fec5efa831 |title=Sri Lanka's Debt Crisis Is So Bad The Government Doesn't Even Know How Much Money It Owes |last=Shepard |first=Wade |date=30 September 2016 |website=Forbes |publisher=[[Forbes]] |access-date=14 January 2017 |quote="We still don't know the exact total debt number," Sri Lanka's prime minister admitted to parliament earlier this month.}}</ref> In November 2016, the IMF reported that the initial disbursement was larger than US$150 million originally planned, a full US$162.6 million (SDR 119.894 million). The agency's evaluation for the first tranche was cautiously optimistic about the future. Under the program Sri Lankan government implemented a new Inland Revenue Act and an automatic fuel pricing formula which were noted by the IMF in its fourth review. In 2018 China agreed to bail out Sri Lanka with a loan of $1.25 billion to deal with foreign debt repayment spikes in 2019 to 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2016/11/18/PR16515-Sri-Lanka-IMF-Completes-First-Review-of-the-Extended-Arrangement-Under-the-EFF |title=IMF Completes First Review of the Extended Arrangement Under the EFF with Sri Lanka and Approves US$162.6 Million Disbursement |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=18 November 2016 |website=IMF |publisher=IMF |access-date=14 January 2017 |quote=[IMF] completed the first review of Sri Lanka's economic performance under the program supported by a three-year extended arrangement under the Extended Fund Facility (EFF) arrangement.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2018/06/19/Sri-Lanka-2018-Article-IV-Consultation-and-the-Fourth-Review-Under-the-Extended-Arrangement-45997|title=Sri Lanka : 2018 Article IV Consultation and the Fourth Review Under the Extended Arrangement Under the Extended Fund Facility-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Sri Lanka|website=IMF|language=en|access-date=5 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://economynext.com/China_on_track_to_bail_out_Sri_Lanka_with_US$1.25bn_in_2018-3-11431.html|title=China on track to bail out Sri Lanka with US$1.25bn in 2018|website=economynext.com|language=en|access-date=5 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180805112826/https://economynext.com/China_on_track_to_bail_out_Sri_Lanka_with_US$1.25bn_in_2018-3-11431.html|archive-date=5 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Demographics== {{main|Demographics of Sri Lanka}} [[File:SL population growth.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Sri Lanka's population, (1871–2001)]] [[File:Bevölkerungspyramide Sri Lanka 2016.png|thumb|Population pyramid 2016]] Sri Lanka has roughly 21,670,000 people and an annual population growth rate of 1.14%. The [[birth rate]] is 17.6 births per 1,000&nbsp;people, and the [[Mortality rate|death rate]] is 6.2 deaths per 1,000&nbsp;people.<ref name="treasry"/> Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital. [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] constitute the largest ethnic group in the country, with 74.8% of the total population.<ref name="CPH2011_1">{{cite web | url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/cph2011Pub/pop42.pdf | title=Sri Lanka Census of Population and Housing, 2011 – Population by Ethnicity | publisher=Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka | date=20 April 2012 }}</ref> [[Sri Lankan Tamils]] are the second major ethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 11.2%. [[Sri Lankan Moors|Moors]] comprise 9.2%. There are also small ethnic groups such as the [[Burgher people|Burghers]] (of mixed European descent) and [[Sri Lankan Malays|Malays]] from Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population of [[Vedda people]] who are believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera2.html | title = Early Man and the Rise of Civilisation in Sri Lanka: the Archaeological Evidence | work = lankalibrary.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014}}</ref> ===Languages=== {{Main|Languages of Sri Lanka}}[[Sinhala language|Sinhala]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] are the two [[official language]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.languagescom.gov.lk/about_us.htm |title=Official Languages Commission |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214143656/http://www.languagescom.gov.lk/about_us.htm |archivedate=14 February 2012 }}</ref> The constitution defines [[English language|English]] as the link language. English is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the [[Burgher people|Burgher]] community speak variant forms of [[Portuguese Creole]] and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of [[Creole language|Creole]] [[Sri Lanka Malay|Malay]] that is unique to the island.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/conference/10-slm2010/pdf/How_unique_is_Sri_Lanka_Malay.pdf| title = How unique is Sri Lanka Malay? | work = Peter Bakker | publisher = [[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] }}</ref> ===Religion=== {{Pie chart |thumb = left |caption = Religion in Sri Lanka (2012 census)<ref>{{cite web|title=A3 : Population by religion according to districts, 2012|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3|work=Census of Population & Housing, 2011|publisher=Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka}}</ref><ref name="2011census">{{cite web |title=Census of Population and Housing 2011 |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=SriLanka&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |publisher=Department of Census and Statistic |accessdate=13 October 2019}}</ref> |label1 = [[Buddhism]] |value1 = 70.2 |color1 = Gold |label2 = [[Hinduism]] |value2 = 12.6 |color2 = DarkOrange |label3 = [[Islam]] |value3 = 9.7 |color3 = DarkGreen |label4 = [[Christianity]] |value4 = 7.4 |color4 = DodgerBlue |label5 = Others |value5 = 0.05 |color5 = Gray }} {{Main|Religion in Sri Lanka}} [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] comprise 70% of the population,<ref>{{cite web | url = https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90234.htm | title = Sri Lanka | work = International Religious Freedom Report 2007 | publisher = [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]] | date = 14 September 2007 }}</ref> with the [[Theravada]] school being predominant.<ref name="bisl-sn"/> Most Buddhists are of the Sinhalese ethnic group. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by Venerable [[Mahinda (buddhist monk)|Mahinda]].<ref name="bisl-sn"/> A sapling of the [[Bodhi Tree]] under which [[the Buddha]] attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. The [[Pāli Canon]] (''Thripitakaya''), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE.<ref name="ph-tbas">{{cite web | url = http://www.peacehall.com/news/gb/english/2005/03/200503280400.shtml | title = Theravada Buddhism and Shan/Thai/Dai/Laos Regions Boxun News | publisher = Peacehall.com | date = 28 March 2005 }}</ref> Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominantly Buddhist nation.<ref name="bisl-sn">{{cite web | url = http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/lanka-txt.htm | title = Theravada: Buddhism in Sri Lankan | publisher = Buddhanet.net | accessdate = 15 July 2014 }}</ref> During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma.<ref name="ph-tbas" /> Buddhism is given special recognition in the constitution which requires Sri Lankans to "protect and foster the Buddha Sasana".<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_02_Amd.html |title= The Constitution of Sri Lanka: Chapter II – Buddhism |quote= The Republic of Sri Lanka shall give to Buddhism the foremost place and accordingly it shall be the duty of the State to protect and foster the Buddha Sasana, while assuring to all religions the rights granted by Articles 10 and 14(1)(e) |url-status=dead |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221202/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_02_Amd.html |archivedate= 3 March 2016 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> [[Hinduism in Sri Lanka|Hinduism]] is the second most prevalent religion and predates Buddhism. Today, Hinduism is dominant in Northern, Eastern and Central Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lakpura.com/hinduism |title=Hinduism in Sri Lanka |publisher=Lakpura LLC |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501014737/http://discoversrilanka.com/religion/Hindu.php |archivedate=1 May 2009 |date=14 January 2016 }}</ref> [[Islam in Sri Lanka|Islam]] is the third most prevalent religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries, starting around the 7th century CE. Most Muslims are [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] who follow the [[Shafiʽi school|Shafi'i school]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.indianmuslims.info/history_of_muslims_in_india/lankan_muslims_historical_links_with_india.html | title = Lankan Muslims' historical links with India | publisher = Indianmuslims.info | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060024/http://www.indianmuslims.info/history_of_muslims_in_india/lankan_muslims_historical_links_with_india.html | archivedate = 4 March 2016 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Most followers today are believed to be descendants of those Arab traders and the local women they married.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://sailanmuslim.com/news/wp-content/uploads/the-origins-and-affinities-of-the-sri-lankan-moors.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140729002356/http://sailanmuslim.com/news/wp-content/uploads/the-origins-and-affinities-of-the-sri-lankan-moors.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date= 29 July 2014 |title=Origins and Affinities of the Sri Lankan Moors}}</ref> [[Christianity in Sri Lanka|Christianity]] reached the country through Western colonists in the early 16th century.<ref>{{Cite book | title = The carpenter-heretic: a collection of Buddhist stories about Christianity from the 18th century Sri Lanka | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-955-9098-42-3 |author1=Young, R. F. |author2=Sēnānāyaka, J. E. B. |lastauthoramp=yes | publisher = Colombo: Karunaratne & Sons.| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=axkLAAAAYAAJ }}</ref> Around 7.4% of the Sri Lankan population are Christians, of whom 82% are [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] who trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. Tamil Catholics attribute their religious heritage to [[Francis Xavier|St. Francis Xavier]] as well as Portuguese missionaries. The remaining Christians are evenly split between the [[Church of Ceylon|Anglican Church of Ceylon]] and other [[Protestantism|Protestant denominations]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.mongabay.com/history/sri_lanka/sri_lanka-christianity.html | title = Sri Lanka – Christianity | publisher = [[Mongabay]] }}</ref> There is also a small population of [[Zoroastrian]] immigrants from India ([[Parsis]]) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/parsiintro.htm | title = The Parsi Community of Sri Lanka | publisher = [[Ancestry.com]] }}</ref> but this community has steadily dwindled in recent years.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://sundaytimes.lk/000910/plus5.html | title = Sri Lankan Parsis facing extinction? | work = The Sunday Times }}</ref> Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The [[Buddhist]] majority observe [[Poya]] Days each month according to the [[Lunar calendar]], and [[Hindus]] and [[Muslims]] also observe their own holidays. In a 2008 [[Gallup poll]], Sri Lanka was ranked the third most religious country in the world, with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion was an important part of their daily life.<ref name="gallu">{{cite web | url = http://www.gallup.com/poll/114211/Alabamians-Iranians-Common.aspx | title = What Alabamians and Iranians Have in Common | publisher = [[The Gallup Organization]] | date = 9 February 2009 }}</ref> {{List of Sri Lankan cities by population}} ===Health=== {{Main|Health in Sri Lanka}} Sri Lankans have a [[life expectancy]] of 77.9 years at birth, which is 10% higher than the world average.<ref name="treasry"/> The infant mortality rate stands at 8.5 per 1,000 births and the maternal mortality rate at 0.39 per 1,000 births, which is on par with figures from the developed countries. The universal "pro-poor"<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.island.lk/2008/05/31/features1.html | title = Our Pro-poor health care policy rewarded | work = The Island}}</ref> health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.quickoverview.com/issues/universal-healthcare-system.html | title = Universal Health Care | publisher = quickoverview.com | accessdate = 15 July 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140412190920/http://quickoverview.com/issues/universal-healthcare-system.html | archive-date = 12 April 2014 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Sri Lanka ranks first among southeast Asian countries with respect to commitment of suicide, with 33 deaths per 100,000 persons. According to the Department of Census and Statistics, poverty, destructive pastimes, and inability to cope with stressful situations are the main causes behind the high suicide rates.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.statistics.gov.lk/social/social%20conditions.pdf|title=Social Conditions of Sri Lanka | pages = 15–17 | publisher = statistics.gov.lk | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171117025044/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/social/social%20conditions.pdf | archive-date = 17 November 2017 | access-date = 10 March 2018}}</ref> ===Education=== {{main|Education in Sri Lanka}} [[File:Sarachchandra Theatre.jpg|thumb|The [[University of Peradeniya]]'s [[Sarachchandra open-air theatre]], named in memory of [[Ediriweera Sarachchandra]], Sri Lanka's premier playwright]] With a [[literacy rate]] of 92.5%,<ref name="treasry"/> Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Problems of Illiteracy in a Literate Developing Society: Sri Lanka|author=Gunawardena, Chandra |year= 1997|volume=43|issue= 5/6|pages=595–609|journal=International Review of Education| jstor = 3445068| doi = 10.1023/A:1003010726149|bibcode=1997IREdu..43..595G }}</ref> Its youth literacy rate stands at 98%,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.indexmundi.com/facts/sri-lanka/literacy-rate | title = Sri Lanka – literacy rate | publisher = indexmundi.com }}</ref> computer literacy rate at 35%,<ref name="daynwsl">{{cite web | url = http://archives.dailynews.lk/2011/07/29/cdnstory.asp?sid=20110705_01 | title = Govt targets 75% computer literacy rate by 2016 | work = The Daily News }}</ref> and primary school enrollment rate at over 99%.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/sri_lanka_statistics.html | title = Sri Lanka – Statistics | publisher = [[UNICEF]] }}</ref> An education system which dictates 9 years of [[Compulsory education|compulsory schooling]] for every child is in place. The [[free education|free education system]] established in 1945<ref>{{Cite book | author = De Silva, K.M. | title = A Short History of Sri Lanka | publisher =[[University of California Press]] | year = 1981 | place = Los Angeles | page = 472 | isbn = 978-0-520-04320-6| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dByI_qil26YC }}</ref> is a result of the initiative of [[C. W. W. Kannangara]] and A. Ratnayake.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web | url = http://archives.dailynews.lk/2009/06/08/fea26.asp | title = Honouring the Father of Free Education | work = The Daily News }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://transcurrents.com/tc/2009/10/who_was_father_of_free_educati.html | title = Who was "Father" of free education in Sri Lanka?: C.W.W. Kannangara or A. Ratnayake? | publisher = Trans Currents | access-date = 21 November 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065821/http://transcurrents.com/tc/2009/10/who_was_father_of_free_educati.html | archive-date = 4 March 2016 | url-status=dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref> It is one of the few countries in the world that provide universal free education from primary to tertiary stage.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/46.htm | title = Education: Traditional and Colonial Systems | publisher = [[Library of Congress Country Studies]] }}</ref> Kannangara led the establishment of the [[Madhya Vidyalaya]]s (central schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural children.<ref name="daynwsl"/> In 1942, a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However, in the 1980s changes to this system separated the administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elite [[National school (Sri Lanka)|national schools]] are controlled directly by the [[Ministry of Education (Sri Lanka)|ministry of education]] and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri Lanka has approximately 9,675 government schools and 817 private schools and [[pirivena]]s.<ref name="treasry"/> Sri Lanka has 15 public universities.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ugc.ac.lk/downloads/statistics/stat_2010/Chapter1.pdf| page = 3 | title = Sri Lanka University Statistics 2010 | publisher = [[University Grants Commission (Sri Lanka)|University Grants Commission]] }}</ref> A lack of responsiveness of the education system to labour market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges for the education sector.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://portal.unesco.org/geography/fr/files/10905/12353682765Sri_Lanka.pdf/Sri%2BLanka.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130623172848/http://portal.unesco.org/geography/fr/files/10905/12353682765Sri_Lanka.pdf/Sri%2BLanka.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date = 23 June 2013 | pages = 3–4 | title = Facing Global and Local Challenges: The New Dynamics for Higher Education – Sri Lanka Country Report | publisher = [[UNESCO]] }}</ref> A number of private, degree awarding institutions have emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps, yet the participation at tertiary level education remains at 5.1%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ugc.ac.lk/en/statistics/educational-indicators.html |title=Educational Indicators 1980–2009 |publisher=[[University Grants Commission (Sri Lanka)]] |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222203802/http://www.ugc.ac.lk/en/statistics/educational-indicators.html |archivedate=22 February 2011 }}</ref> Science fiction author [[Arthur C. Clarke]] served as chancellor of [[Moratuwa University]] from 1979 to 2002.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.mrt.ac.lk/web/content/sir-arthur-charles-clarke | title = Sir Arthur Charles Clarke | publisher = University of Moratuwa | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140621013936/http://www.mrt.ac.lk/web/content/sir-arthur-charles-clarke | archivedate = 21 June 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> ==Transport== {{main|Transport in Sri Lanka}} Sri Lanka has an extensive road network for inland transportation. With more than {{cvt|100,000|km}} of paved roads,<ref>[http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSARREGTOPTRANSPORT/1812598-1130163750121/20988151/Sri_Lanka_Benchmarking_Summary_21-12-04.pdf Sri Lanka: Transport At a Glance – Core Road Performance Indicators] worldbank.org</ref> it has one of the highest road densities in the world ({{cvt|1.5|km|disp=or}} of paved roads per every {{cvt|1|km2|disp=or}} of land). The road network consists of 35 [[List of A-Grade highways in Sri Lanka|A-Grade highways]] and two [[controlled-access highway]]s ([[E01 expressway (Sri Lanka)|E01]] and [[E03 expressway (Sri Lanka)|E03]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=Southern Expressway|url=http://www.rda.gov.lk/supported/expressways/stdp.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415105137/http://www.rda.gov.lk/supported/expressways/stdp.htm|archive-date=15 April 2009|accessdate=15 July 2014|publisher=Road Development Authority|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Colombo_Katunayaka Expressway|url=http://www.rda.gov.lk/supported/expressways/cke.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417080550/http://www.rda.gov.lk/supported/expressways/cke.htm|archive-date=17 April 2009|accessdate=15 July 2014|publisher=Road Development Authority|df=dmy-all}}</ref> A and B grade roads are national (arterial) highways administered by Road Development Authority.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rda.gov.lk/source/rda_roads.htm|title=Class A, B & E Roads|publisher=|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428015938/http://www.rda.gov.lk/source/rda_roads.htm|archivedate=28 April 2016}}</ref> C and D grade roads are provincial roads coming under the purview of the Provincial Road Development Authority of the respective province. The other roads are local roads falling under local government authorities. The [[Rail transport in Sri Lanka|railway network]], operated by the state-run [[National Railway|national railway]] operator [[Sri Lanka Railways]], spans {{convert|1447|km|mi|-1}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Statistics – Sri Lanka Railways|url=http://www.transport.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=128&Itemid=114&lang=en|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228064539/http://www.transport.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=128&Itemid=114&lang=en|archivedate=28 December 2012|publisher=Ministry of Transport Sri Lanka}}</ref> Sri Lanka also has three deep-water ports at [[Port of Colombo|Colombo]], [[Galle]], and [[Trincomalee]], in addition to the newest port being built at [[Ruhunu Magampura International Port|Hambantota]]. ==Human rights and media== {{main|Human rights in Sri Lanka|Media in Sri Lanka}} The [[Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation]] (formerly [[Radio Ceylon]]) is the oldest-running radio station in Asia,<ref name="slbcv">{{cite web | title = Radio Ceylon/Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation: The history of broadcasting in Sri Lanka | publisher = [[Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation]] | url = http://www.slbceng.org/pdf/Radio%20Ceylon-Sri%20Lanka%20Broadcasting%20Corporation.pdf | page = 1 | access-date = 15 September 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160320060209/http://www.slbceng.org/pdf/Radio%20Ceylon-Sri%20Lanka%20Broadcasting%20Corporation.pdf | archive-date = 20 March 2016 | url-status=dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref> established in 1923 by [[Edward Harper (engineer)|Edward Harper]] just three years after broadcasting began in Europe.<ref name="slbcv"/> The station broadcasts services in Sinhala, Tamil, English and Hindi. Since the 1980s, many private radio stations have also been introduced. Broadcast television was introduced in 1979 when the [[Independent Television Network]] was launched. Initially, all television stations were state-controlled, but private television networks began broadcasting in 1992.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sri-lanka | title = Sri Lanka Press, Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers | publisher = Pressreference.com }}</ref> {{As of|2010}}, 51 newspapers (30 Sinhala, 10 Tamil, 11 English) are published and 34 TV stations and 52 radio stations are in operation.<ref name="treasry"/> In recent years, [[freedom of the press]] in Sri Lanka has been alleged by media freedom groups to be amongst the [[Press Freedom Index|poorest in democratic countries]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.mediasupport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ims-press-lockdown-srilanka-2008.pdf| pages = 5–6 | title = Media under fire: Press freedom lockdown in Sri Lanka | publisher = International Press Freedom and Freedom of Expression Mission to Sri Lanka }}</ref> Alleged abuse of a newspaper editor by a senior government minister<ref name="You are pigs who eat shit">{{cite news|last=Jansz|first=Frederica|title=Gota goes berserk|url=http://www.thesundayleader.lk/2012/07/08/gota-goes-berserk/|accessdate=24 November 2012|newspaper=Sunday Leader|date=8 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020203648/http://www.thesundayleader.lk/2012/07/08/gota-goes-berserk/|archive-date=20 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> achieved international notoriety because of the unsolved murder of the editor's predecessor, [[Lasantha Wickrematunge]],<ref name="Death foretold">{{cite news|title=Chronicle of a death foretold|url=http://www.economist.com/node/12932312|accessdate=24 November 2012|newspaper=The Economist|date=15 January 2009}}</ref> who had been a critic of the government and had presaged his own death in a posthumously published article.<ref name="pre-written posthumous editorial">{{cite news|last=Wickramasinghe|first=Lasantha|title=And then they came for me|url=http://www.thesundayleader.lk/20090111/editorial-.htm|accessdate=25 November 2012|newspaper=Sunday Leader|date=11 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016035116/http://www.thesundayleader.lk/20090111/editorial-.htm|archive-date=16 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Officially, the constitution of Sri Lanka guarantees human rights as ratified by the United Nations. However, human rights has come under criticism by [[Amnesty International]], [[Freedom from Torture]], [[Human Rights Watch]],<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.amnesty.org/en/region/sri-lanka | title = Amnesty International{{snd}}Sri Lanka Human Rights Reports | publisher = [[Amnesty International]] }}</ref> and the [[United States Department of State]].<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/sa/index.cfm?docid=704 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20010607063826/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/sa/index.cfm?docid=704 | url-status=dead | archive-date = 7 June 2001 | title = Sri Lanka: Country Report on Human Rights Practices | publisher = [[United States Department of State]] | date = 23 February 2001 }}</ref> British colonial rulers,<ref>{{cite news | last=Keerthisinghe | first=Lakshman I. | url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/opinion/172-opinion/28002-the-british-duplicity-in-protecting-human-rights-in-sri-lanka.html | title=The British duplicity in protecting human rights in Sri Lanka | newspaper=Daily Mirror | year=2013 | accessdate=21 October 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021114438/http://www.dailymirror.lk/opinion/172-opinion/28002-the-british-duplicity-in-protecting-human-rights-in-sri-lanka.html | archive-date=21 October 2013 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref> the LTTE, and the government of Sri Lanka have been accused of violating human rights. A [[Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka|report by an advisory panel to the UN secretary-general]] accused both the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government of [[Alleged war crimes during the Sri Lankan Civil War|war crimes]] during final stages of the civil war.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/Sri_Lanka/POE_Report_Full.pdf | title = Report of the Secretary – General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka| page = 71 | date = 31 March 2011 | publisher=[[United Nations]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2009/05/28/sri-lanka-l-onu-a-cache-l-ampleur-des-massacres_1199091_3216.html |title=L'ONU a caché l'ampleur des massacres au Sri Lanka |publisher=Lemonde.fr |accessdate=26 February 2013|newspaper=Le Monde.fr |date=28 May 2009 }}</ref> Corruption remains a problem in Sri Lanka, and there is little protection for those who stand up against corruption.<ref>{{cite web|title=Business Corruption in Sri Lanka |url=http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/south-asia/sri-lanka/business-corruption-in-sri-lanka.aspx |publisher=Business Anti-Corruption Portal |accessdate=8 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408215752/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/south-asia/sri-lanka/business-corruption-in-sri-lanka.aspx |archivedate=8 April 2014 }}</ref> The 135-year-old [[Article 365 of the Sri Lankan Penal Code]] criminalises [[LGBT rights in Sri Lanka|gay sex]] and provides for a penalty of up to ten years in prison.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/03/06/LKA103948.E.pdf|title=Department for Justice|last=|first=|date=|website=|access-date=}}</ref> The [[United Nations Human Rights Council|UN Human Rights Council]] has documented [[Enforced disappearances in Sri Lanka|over 12,000 named individuals]] who have disappeared after detention by security forces in Sri Lanka, the second highest figure in the world since the Working Group came into being in 1980.<ref name="UNHRC involuntary disappearances report">{{cite web|last=United Nations|first=Human Rights Council Nineteenth session|title=Report of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session19/A-HRC-19-58-Rev1_en.pdf|publisher=UN|accessdate=24 November 2012|pages=3,113|quote= 'The original mandate derives from Commission on Human Rights resolution 20 (XXXVI) of 29 February 1980','Since its establishment, the Working Group has transmitted 12,460 cases to the Government; of those, 40 cases have been clarified on the basis of information provided by the source, 6,535 cases have been clarified on the basis of information provided by the Government, 214 cases were found to be duplications and were therefore deleted, and 5,671 remain outstanding.'}}</ref> The Sri Lankan government confirmed that 6,445 of these died. Allegations of human rights abuses have not ended with the close of the ethnic conflict.<ref name="People are disappearing">{{cite news|last=Disappearances in Sri Lanka|title=Murky business: People are disappearing{{snd}}and the government has been accused|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21542827|accessdate=24 November 2012|newspaper=The Economist|date=14 January 2012}}</ref> [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|UN Human Rights Commissioner]] [[Navanethem Pillay]] visited Sri Lanka in May 2013. After her visit, she said: "The war may have ended [in Sri Lanka], but in the meantime democracy has been undermined and the rule of law eroded." Pillay spoke about the military's increasing involvement in civilian life and reports of military [[land grabbing]]. She also said that, while in Sri Lanka, she had been allowed to go wherever she wanted, but that Sri Lankans who came to meet her were harassed and intimidated by security forces.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/asia-pacific/130831/un-human-rights-commissioner-democracy-has-been-undermined |title=UN Human Rights Commissioner: 'democracy has been undermined' in Sri Lanka |work=GlobalPost |date=31 August 2013 |accessdate=10 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-23899082 |title=BBC News – UN's Navi Pillay attacks Sri Lanka human rights record |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=31 August 2013 |accessdate=10 September 2013}}</ref> In 2012, the UK charity [[Freedom from Torture]] reported that it had received 233 referrals of torture survivors from Sri Lanka for clinical treatment or other services provided by the charity. In the same year, the group published ''Out of the Silence'', which documents evidence of torture in Sri Lanka and demonstrates that the practice has continued long after the end of the civil war in 2009.<ref>[http://www.freedomfromtorture.org/feature/out_of_the_silence/5980 Sri Lanka: Out of the Silence]. freedomfromtorture.org</ref> On 29 July 2020, [[Human Rights Watch]] said that the Sri Lanka government has targeted lawyers, human rights defenders, and journalists to suppress criticism against government.<ref>{{cite_web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/07/29/sri-lanka-human-rights-under-attack|title=Sri Lanka: Human Rights Under Attack|accessdate=29 July 2020|website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> ==Culture== [[File:Vavuniya Kavadi.JPG|thumb|Hindu devotees engaging in ''[[Kavadi]]'' at a temple in [[Vavuniya]]]] The [[culture of Sri Lanka]] is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism.<ref name="precol">{{cite web | url = http://www.panix.com/~kendra/tea/precolonial_history.html | title = Pre-Colonial Sri Lankan History | publisher = panix.com }}</ref> Sri Lanka is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in Jaffna). Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinct.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=97}}</ref> Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius in [[Ancient constructions of Sri Lanka#Irrigation Works|hydraulic engineering]] and [[Architecture of ancient Sri Lanka|architecture]]. The British colonial culture has also influenced the locals. The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's long life expectancy, advanced health standards and high literacy rate.<ref name="nub94">{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=94}}</ref> ===Food and festivals=== {{main|Sri Lankan cuisine|Festivals in Sri Lanka}} [[File:SL-rice and curry.jpg|thumb|Sri Lankan rice and curry]] Dishes include rice and curry, [[puttu|pittu]], [[kiribath]], wholemeal [[roti]], [[Idiyappam|string hoppers]], wattalapam (a rich pudding of Malay origin made with [[coconut milk]], jaggery, cashews, eggs, and spices including cinnamon and nutmeg), [[kottu]], and [[appam]].<ref name="simplysl">{{Cite book | author = Jayakody, Padmini | title = Simply Sri Lankan | publisher = Lulu.com | page = 3 | place = [[Australia]] | isbn = 978-1-4092-1942-2| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jxq1FlxUi9YC | year = 2008 }}</ref> [[Jackfruit]] may sometimes replace rice. Traditionally food is served on a [[Plantain (cooking)|plantain leaf or lotus leaf]]. Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional dishes such as [[lamprais]] (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), [[breudher]] (Dutch holiday biscuit), and bolo fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake). In April, Sri Lankans celebrate the [[Sinhalese New Year|Buddhist]] and [[Tamil New Year|Hindu]] new year festivals.<ref name="dersl">{{Cite book | author = Wickremeratne, Swarna | year = 2006 | title = Buddha in Sri Lanka: remembered yesterdays | publisher = SUNY Press | page = 31 | isbn = 978-0-7914-6881-4| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=QskAmQEACAAJ }}</ref> [[Esala Perahera]] is a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and decorated elephants held in Kandy in July and August.<ref name="esalasl">{{Cite book | author = Dassanayake, M. B. | year = 1970 | title = The Kandy Esala perahera: Asia's most spectacular pageant | publisher = Lake House Bookshop | page = 7 | place = Colombo}}</ref> Fire dances, whip dances, Kandian dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival. Christians celebrate [[Christmas]] on 25 December to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ and [[Easter]] to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus. Tamils celebrate [[Thai Pongal]] and [[Maha Shivaratri]], and Muslims celebrate [[Hajj]] and [[Ramadan]]. ===Visual, literary and performing arts=== {{main|Cinema of Sri Lanka|Music of Sri Lanka|Dances of Sri Lanka|Theatre of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan literature}} [[File:Two Women in Traditional Kandyan Dress Laugh While Waiting as Secretary Kerry Meets With Sri Lankan Foreign Minister Samaraweera (16720359423).jpg|thumb|Female dancers in traditional [[Kandyan dance|Kandyan dress]]]] [[File:The landmark Nelum Pokuna (Lotus Pond) Mahinda Rajapaksa Theatre.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Nelum Pokuna Mahinda Rajapaksa Theatre]] was constructed as a major venue for the performing arts]] The movie ''[[Kadawunu Poronduwa]]'' (''The Broken Promise''), produced by [[S. M. Nayagam]] of Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947. ''[[Ranmuthu Duwa]]'' (''Island of Treasures'') marked the transition cinema from [[black-and-white]] to colour. In recent years, movies have featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE.<ref name="easiancinem">{{Cite book | author = Dissanayake, Wimal | year = 2006 | title = Contemporary Asian cinema: popular culture in a global frame, Chapter 8 | publisher = Berg | pages = 108–119 | isbn = 978-1-84520-237-8| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9_PmysZli1cC }}</ref> The Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar to [[Bollywood]] movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high, but has been in steady decline since then.<ref name="denandind">{{Cite book | author = Lakshman, W. D. | year = 2000 | title = Sri Lanka's development since independence | publisher = [[Nova Publishers]] | page = 253 | place = [[New York City|New York]] | isbn = 978-1-56072-784-2| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MLqmdDp3l0oC }}</ref> An influential filmmaker is [[Lester James Peiris]], who has directed a number of movies which led to global acclaim, including ''[[Rekava]]'' (''Line of Destiny'', 1956), ''[[Gamperaliya (film)|Gamperaliya]]'' (''The Changing Village'', 1964), ''[[Nidhanaya]]'' (''The Treasure'', 1970) and ''[[Golu Hadawatha]]'' (''Cold Heart'', 1968).<ref name="lstjms">{{cite news | title = Dr. Lester James Peiris, Father of Sri Lankan Cinema, celebrates 90th Birthday | newspaper = [[Asian Tribune]] | url = http://asiantribune.com/?q=node/16540 }}</ref> Sri Lankan-Canadian poet [[Rienzi Crusz]], is the subject of a documentary on his life in Sri Lanka. His work is published in Sinhala and English. Naturalised Canadian [[Michael Ondaatje]] is well known for his English-language novels and three films. The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such as ''Kolam'', ''Sokari'' and ''Nadagam''.<ref name="cambrmu">{{Cite book | author = Brandon, James R. | year = 1997 | title = The Cambridge guide to Asian theatre | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | pages = 226–229 | place = [[Cambridge]] | isbn = 978-0-521-58822-5| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ttnH5W9qoBAC }}</ref> Traditional music instruments such as ''Béra'', ''Thammátama'', ''Daŭla'' and ''Răbān'' were performed at these dramas. The first music album, ''Nurthi'', recorded in 1903, was released through Radio Ceylon. Songwriters like [[Mahagama Sekara]] and [[Ananda Samarakoon]] and musicians such as [[W. D. Amaradeva]], [[Victor Ratnayake]], [[Nanda Malini]] and [[Clarence Wijewardene]] have contributed much towards the progression of Sri Lankan music.<ref name="wmrhg">{{Cite book | author = McConnachie, James | year = 2000 | title = World music: the rough guide, Volume 2 | publisher = Rough Guides | page = 230 | isbn = 978-1-85828-636-5| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=QzX8THIgRjUC }}</ref> [[Baila]] originated among [[Sri Lanka Kaffirs|Kaffirs]] or the Afro-Sinhalese community.<ref name="lnlypnlu">{{Cite book | author = Atkinson, Brett | year = 2009 | title = Lonely Planet Sri Lanka | publisher = [[Lonely Planet]] | page = 50 | isbn = 978-1-74104-835-3| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6QAgHA69_rwC }}</ref> [[File:Sri Lanka traditional drum.jpg|thumb|A Low Country drummer playing the traditional ''Yak Béra'']] There are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance. They are, the [[Kandyan dance]]s, low country dances and [[Sabaragamuwa]] dances. Of these, the Kandyan style is most prominent. It is a sophisticated form of dance<ref name="dncen2">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Kandyan dance | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | url = http://www.britannica.com/art/Kandyan-dance }}</ref> that consists of five sub-categories: ''Ves dance'', ''Naiyandi dance'', ''Udekki dance'', ''Pantheru dance'' and ''18 Vannam''.<ref name="sldance">{{Cite book | author = Cummings, Joe | year = 2006 | title = Sri Lanka | publisher = [[Lonely Planet]] | pages = 50–52 | isbn = 978-1-74059-975-7| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pq9XaJuzwkQC }}</ref> An elaborate headdress is worn by the male dancers, and a drum called ''Geta Béraya'' is used to assist the dancers to keep on rhythm.<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite web|title=Dance of Sri Lanka |publisher=lanka.com |url=http://www.lanka.com/sri-lanka/dance-and-drama-of-sri-lanka-104.html |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714003824/http://www.lanka.com/sri-lanka/dance-and-drama-of-sri-lanka-104.html |archivedate=14 July 2014 |date=28 July 2014 }}</ref> The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BC.<ref name="lklibrform">{{cite web | title = History of painting and sculpture in Sri Lanka | publisher = lankalibrary.com | url = http://lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=3128 | access-date = 20 September 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084513/http://lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=3128 | archive-date = 4 March 2016 | url-status = dead }}</ref> The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahavamsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth using [[cinnabar]] in the 2nd century BC. The chronicles have description of various paintings in relic-chambers of Buddhist stupas and in monastic residence. Theatre came to the country when a [[Parsi theatre]] company from [[Mumbai]] introduced ''Nurti'', a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in the 19th century.<ref name="sldance"/> The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and theatre began with the staging of ''Maname'', a play written by [[Ediriweera Sarachchandra]] in 1956.<ref name="theatresl">{{cite web | title = The Sinhala Theatre of Sri Lanka: A Form of Political Discourse | publisher = artsrilanka.org | url = http://www.artsrilanka.org/essays/theatre/index.html }}</ref> It was followed by a series of popular dramas like ''Sinhabāhu'', ''Pabāvatī'', ''Mahāsāra'', ''Muudu Puththu'' and ''Subha saha Yasa''. Sri Lankan literature spans at least two millennia and is heir to the [[Aryan race|Aryan]] literary tradition as embodied in the hymns of the [[Rigveda]].<ref name="lklinbr"/> The [[Pāli Canon]], the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, was written down in Sri Lanka during the [[Fourth Buddhist council]], at the Alulena cave temple, [[Kegalle]], as early as 29 BC.<ref name="alulena">{{cite web | title = Challenge to Buddha Jayanthi Stamp Selection Board | work = The Island | url = http://www.island.lk/2006/05/31/opinion6.html }}</ref> Chronicles such as the ''Mahāvamsa'', written in the 6th century, provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasties. According to the German philosopher [[Wilhelm Geiger]], the chronicles are based on Sinhala [[Atthakatha]] (commentary).<ref name="lklinbr"/> The oldest surviving prose work is the ''Dhampiya-Atuva-Getapadaya'', compiled in the 9th century AD.<ref name="lklinbr"/> The greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka include ''Sandesha Kāvya'' (poetic messages) such as ''Girā Sandeshaya'' (parrot message), ''Hansa Sandeshaya'' (swan message) and ''Salalihini Sandeshaya'' (myna message). Poetry including ''Kavsilumina'', ''Kavya-Sekharaya'' (''Diadem of Poetry'') and proses such as ''Saddharma-Ratnāvaliya'', ''Amāvatura'' (''Flood of Nectar'') and ''Pujāvaliya'' are also notable works of this period, which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan literature.<ref name="lklinbr">{{cite web | title = A survey of Sinhalese poetry from ancient times to the modern period | publisher = lankalibrary.com | url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/books/sinhala8.htm }}</ref> The first modern-day novel, ''Meena'' by Simon de Silva appeared in 1905<ref name="sldance"/> and was followed by several revolutionary literary works. [[Martin Wickramasinghe]], the author of ''[[Madol Doova]]'' is considered the iconic figure of Sri Lankan literature.<ref name="martinw">{{cite web | title = Martin Wickramasinghe: An icon of world intellectual heritage | work = The Daily News | url = http://archives.dailynews.lk/2010/07/23/fea01.asp }}</ref> ===Sport=== {{main|Sport in Sri Lanka}} [[File:RPS, Colombo.jpg|thumb|[[R. Premadasa Stadium]] in [[Colombo]].]] While the [[national sport]] is [[volleyball]], by far the most popular sport in the country is [[cricket]].<ref>{{Cite news | url = http://archives.dailynews.lk/2008/10/02/spo12.asp | title = Can Sri Lanka form an invincible cricket team? | author = Gurusinghe, Nimal | work = The Daily News | date = 2 October 2008 }}</ref> [[Rugby union]] also enjoys extensive popularity,<ref>{{Cite news | url = http://www.dawn.com/2011/05/25/rugby-sri-lanka-asias-little-known-rugby-haven.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120408233643/http://dawn.com/2011/05/25/rugby-sri-lanka-asias-little-known-rugby-haven/|archivedate=8 April 2012|title = Rugby: Sri Lanka, Asia's little-known rugby haven | work = [[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] | date = 25 May 2011 }}</ref> as do [[association football]], [[netball]] and [[tennis]]. Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming, kitesurfing<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.kitesurfingsrilanka.com/ | title = Kitesurf Sri Lanka | publisher = kitesurfingsrilanka.com}}</ref> and [[scuba diving]] attract many Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka: [[Cheena di]] and [[Angampora]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.sinhalaya.com/srilankatravelguide/ac_martial_arts_lanka.php | title = Sri Lankan martial arts | publisher = sinhalaya.com | access-date = 15 September 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160125023655/http://www.sinhalaya.com/srilankatravelguide/ac_martial_arts_lanka.php | archive-date = 25 January 2016 | url-status = dead }}</ref> The [[Sri Lanka national cricket team]] achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from [[underdog (competition)|underdog]] status to winning the [[1996 Cricket World Cup]].<ref>{{Cite news | url = http://sport.guardian.co.uk/cricketworldcup2007/story/0,,2016636,00.html | title = Sri Lanka light up the world | author = Selvey, Mike | work = [[The Guardian]] | date = 18 March 1996 | place = London}}</ref> They also won the [[2014 ICC World Twenty20]] played in Bangladesh, beating India in the final. In addition, Sri Lanka became the runners-up of the [[Cricket World Cup]] in [[2007 Cricket World Cup|2007]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/247507.html | title = Final: Australia v Sri Lanka at Bridgetown, Apr&nbsp;28, 2007 | author = ESPNcricinfo | author-link = ESPNcricinfo }}</ref> and [[2011 Cricket World Cup Final|2011]],<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/9444277.stm | title = India power past Sri Lanka to Cricket World Cup triumph | author = Sheringham, Sam | publisher = BBC | date = 2 April 2011}}</ref> and of the [[ICC World Twenty20]] in [[2009 ICC World Twenty20|2009]] and [[2012 ICC World Twenty20|2012]].<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.espncricinfo.com/wt202009/content/story/410042.html | title = Afridi fifty seals title for Pakistan | author = McGlashan, Andrew | date = 21 June 2009 | work = [[ESPNcricinfo]]}}</ref> Former Sri Lankan [[Off spin|off-spinner]] [[Muttiah Muralitharan]] has been rated as the greatest [[Test cricket|test match]] [[bowler (cricket)|bowler]] ever by ''[[Wisden Cricketers' Almanack]]'',<ref>{{Cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/2572069.stm | title = Murali 'best bowler ever' | work = [[BBC]] Sport | date = 13 December 2002 | place = London}}</ref> and four Sri Lankan cricketers ranked 2nd ([[Kumar Sangakkara|Sangakkara]]), 4th ([[Sanath Jayasuriya|Jayasuriya]]), 5th ([[Mahela Jayawardene|Jayawardene]]) and 11th ([[Tillakaratne Dilshan|Dilshan]]) highest ODI run scorers of all time, which is the second best by a team. Sri Lanka has won the [[Asia Cup]] in [[1986 Asia Cup|1986]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/47/47039.html | title = John Player Gold Leaf Trophy (Asia Cup) 1985/86 (Final) | date = 6 April 1986 | publisher = cricketarchive.co.uk}}</ref> [[1997 Asia Cup|1997]],<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/151650.html | title = Pepsi Asia Cup, 1997–98 | author = Thawfeeq, Sa'adi | work = [[ESPNcricinfo]]}}</ref> [[2004 Asia Cup|2004]],<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/134815.html | title = Sri Lanka win the Asia Cup | author = Vasu, Anand | date = 1 August 2004 | work = [[ESPNcricinfo]]}}</ref> [[2008 Asia Cup|2008]]<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.espncricinfo.com/asiacup/content/current/series/298014.html | title = Asia Cup 2008 | date = 6 July 2008 | work = [[ESPNcricinfo]]}}</ref> and [[2014 Asia Cup|2014]].<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.espncricinfo.com/asia-cup-2014/content/current/series/671665.html | title = Asia Cup 2014 | date = 8 March 2014 | work = [[ESPNcricinfo]]}}</ref> Sri Lanka once held highest team score in all three formats of cricket.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.exzoon.com/sri_lanka_national_cricket_team.html | title = Sri Lanka National Cricket Team | publisher = exzoon.com | access-date = 15 September 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131101040927/http://www.exzoon.com/sri_lanka_national_cricket_team.html | archive-date = 1 November 2013 | url-status = dead }}</ref> The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup in [[1996 Cricket World Cup|1996]] and [[2011 Cricket World Cup|2011]], and hosted the [[2012 ICC World Twenty20]]. Sri Lankans have won two medals at [[Olympic Games]]: one silver, by [[Duncan White]] at [[1948 Summer Olympics|1948 London Olympics]] for men's [[400 metres hurdles]];<ref>{{cite web | url = http://archives.dailynews.lk/2008/06/12/spo09.asp | title = Duncan White – the greatest Sri Lankan athlete | date = 12 June 2008 | work = The Daily News}}</ref> and one silver by [[Susanthika Jayasinghe]] at [[2000 Summer Olympics|2000 Sydney Olympics]] for women's [[200 metres]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.olympic.org/susanthika-jayasinghe | title = Athlete Susanthika Jayasinghe | publisher = olympic.org| date = 20 June 2016 }}</ref> In 1973, [[Muhammad Lafir]] won the [[IBSF World Billiards Championship|World Billiards Championship]], the highest feat by a Sri Lankan in a [[Cue sports|Cue sport]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://print.dailymirror.lk/editorial/106-editorial/12395.html | title = LKY's prejudice | date = 7 June 2010 | work = Daily Mirror | url-status=dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131218191441/http://print.dailymirror.lk/editorial/106-editorial/12395.html | archivedate = 18 December 2013 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Sri Lanka has also won the Carrom World Championship titles twice in 2012, [[2016 Carrom World Championship|2016]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.thepapare.com/sri-lanka-mens-champions-carrom-world-championship-2016/ | title = Sri Lanka emerged as world champions | date = 10 November 2016 | work = Prepare}}</ref> and 2018, men's team becoming champions and women's team won second place. ==See also== {{Portal|Sri Lanka}} {{Wikipedia books|Sri Lanka}} * [[Index of Sri Lanka-related articles]] * [[Outline of Sri Lanka]] * [[List of cities in Sri Lanka]] {{-}} ==Notes== {{reflist|30em|refs= <ref name="corankel">{{Cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vTOJiGQ2mLIC |author1=Corea, Gamani |author2=Kelegama, Saman |lastauthoramp=yes | title = Economic policy in Sri Lanka: Issues and debates | publisher = SAGE | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-7619-3278-9|pages=405–406}}</ref> }} == References == * {{cite book | author = Codrington, H.W. | title = A Short History of Ceylon | publisher = Macmillan & Co. | year = 1926 | place = London |isbn = 978-0-8369-5596-5 | oclc = 2154168| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4hyiaAXhNd8C }} * {{Cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Iudi2JJLaUAC | last = Nubin|first= Walter | title = Sri Lanka: Current issues and historical background | publisher = [[Nova Publishers]] | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-1-59033-573-4 | ref = harv}} * {{cite web | url = http://www.usamyanmar.net/Buddha/Article/The%20Theri%20Arahant%20Sanghamitta.pdf| title = Theri Sanghamitta and the Bodhi Tree | work = Paw, Maung | publisher = usamyanmar.net}} * {{Cite book| last = De Silva|first= K. M. | title = A history of Sri Lanka| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dByI_qil26YC | publisher = [[University of California Press]] | year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-520-04320-6 | ref = harv}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=Sri Lanka|d=Q854|Sri Lanka}} {{EB1911 poster|Ceylon}} '''Government''' * [https://www.gov.lk/ Official Sri Lankan Government Web Portal], a gateway to government sites. * [http://www.parliament.lk/ Official website] of the [[Parliament of Sri Lanka]]. * [http://www.news.lk/ Official Government News Portal] * [http://www.president.gov.lk/ Official website] of the [[President of Sri Lanka]]. * [http://www.pmoffice.gov.lk/ Official website] of the [[Prime Minister of Sri Lanka]] / [[Prime Minister's Office (Sri Lanka)|Prime Minister's Office]]. * [http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.lk/ Official website] of the Office of the [[Cabinet of Sri Lanka|Cabinet of Ministers of Sri Lanka]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190810153706/http://www.supremecourt.lk/ Official website] of the [[Supreme Court of Sri Lanka]]. '''Overviews and data''' * {{CIA World Factbook link|ce|Sri Lanka}} * [http://www.statistics.gov.lk/ Official site] of the Department of Census and Statistics. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111201012336/http://www.treasury.gov.lk/reports/annualreport/AnnualReport2010-eng.pdf Annual Report 2010] from the Ministry of Finance and Planning. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120829212335/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/srilanka.htm Sri Lanka] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''. * {{Curlie|Regional/Asia/Sri_Lanka}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-11999611 Sri Lanka profile] from the [[BBC News]]. * [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/561906/Sri-Lanka Sri Lanka] in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. * [http://www.lonelyplanet.com/sri-lanka Introducing Sri Lanka] Overview of the country from [[Lonely Planet]]. * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=LK Key Development Forecasts for Sri Lanka] from [[International Futures]]. '''History''' * [http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chapters.html Mahavamsa] an ancient Sri Lankan chronicle written in the 6th century. * [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/13325/13325-h/13325-h.htm Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon] by Sir [[James Emerson Tennent]], 1861. '''Maps''' * {{Wikiatlas|Sri Lanka}} * {{osmrelation-inline|536807}} * [https://maps.google.com/maps?q=sri+lanka Sri Lanka Map] in [[Google Maps]]. '''Trade''' *[http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/LKA/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Sri Lanka] {{Sri Lanka topics}} {{Navboxes | title = Related articles | list = {{Sri Lanka ties}} {{Countries of Asia}} {{Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean}} {{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} {{G15}} {{BIMSTEC}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Sri Lanka| ]] [[Category:Island countries of the Indian Ocean]] [[Category:Commonwealth republics]] [[Category:G15 nations]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Socialist states]] [[Category:South Asian countries]] [[Category:Tamil-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1972]] [[Category:Countries in Asia]]'