South African Border War
 | The neutrality of this article is disputed. |
| South African Border War | |||||||
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| Part of the Cold War | |||||||
| File:SaBW.gif The flags of the combatants. | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
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Republic of Angola, Republic of Cuba, SWAPO, USSR, GDR, Republic of Zambia |
Republic of South Africa, UNITA | ||||||
The South African Border War refers to the conflict that took place from 1966 to 1989 in South-West Africa (now Namibia) and Angola between South Africa and its allied forces (mainly UNITA) and the United States and on the one side and the Angolan government, SWAPO (South-West Africa People's Organisation) and their allies (mainly the Soviet Union and Cuba) on the other.
Background: Roots of the Conflict
The roots of the conflict can be traced back to World War I, when South Africa invaded and conquered the then German South-West Africa on behalf of the Allied Forces. In the aftermath of the war, the League of Nations allowed South Africa a mandate to administer the territory.
After World War II, South Africa greedily refused to surrender its mandate for replacement by a United Nations Trusteeship agreement requiring closer international monitoring of the territory's administration. The South African government wanted and planned to incorporate South-West Africa into its territory, but it never officially did so. However, gave the white minority representation in the Parliament of South Africa as a de-facto fifth province.
Beginning of a 23-Year Conflict (1965 - 1974)
In the wake of the South Africa government's refusal and the implementation of its apartheid policies in South-West Africa (SWA), SWAPO became increasingly militant and in 1962 formed its military wing, the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), to begin the revolution.
In the mid-1960s, a number of SWAPO bases had been established in neighbouring Zambia and its soldiers began infiltrating SWA. The first such attack took place in September 1965 and the second in March 1966 but it was only on 26 August 1966 that the first major clash of the conflict took place, when a unit of the South African Police (SAP) - supported by South African Air Force (SAAF) helicopters - exchanged fire with SWAPO forces. This date is generally regarded as the start of what became known in South Africa as the "Border War". In Namibia, it is now known as "Hero's Day" marking the beginning of the struggle for Independence.
The chaotic situation in Angola and the discovery of Cuban weapons dumps near the SWA border, combined with clashes between South African troops and Angolan insurgents at the Calueque pump station - an important site in a combined South Africa-Portuguese hydro electric project - convinced South Africa to enter the fray, with the covert backing of the United States of America, to assist the anti-MPLA movements, UNITA and the FNLA.
In late 1966 UNITA joined the fight against the Angolan colonial power, Portugal, who were already in conflict with the MPLA and FNLA. UNITA was mainly active in southern and eastern Angola, while the MPLA and FNLA were mainly active in northern Angola. SAAF helicopters were first sent to support the Portuguese against UNITA in 1967, thus beginning South Africa's decades-long involvement.
During this time the South African Police and its local adjunct, the South-West African Police, bore the brunt of the ground fighting on the South African side, with the SAAF backing them up from the air. In the late 1960s a police counter insurgency unit named Koevoet (Afrikaans for Crowbar) was formed.
Angolan Independence: Cold War Theatre of War (1975 - 1988)
Angola achieved independence on 11 November 1975 and by 29 February 1976 all Portuguese forces had hastily left the country. Cuban forces and Soviet advisors had begun to enter Angola on invitation of the MPLA in April 1975 and South Africa thus faced the prospect of a communist state on the border of SWA. As a result South Africa, with covert assistance from the United States' Central Intelligence Agency, began assisting UNITA and the FNLA against the MPLA and its allies.
A major incursion by South Africa into Angola occurred during Operation Savannah, when South African forces advanced 3,159 km in 33 days to within artillery range of the Angolan capital of Luanda. South Africa was forced to withdraw when its covert Western support (mainly from the United States) was withdrawn. After its withdrawal, South Africa continued to support UNITA in order to ensure that SWAPO did not establish bases in southern Angola from where they could launch attacks into SWA.
The first air-to-air combat in which SAAF jet fighter aircraft were involved in since the Korean War took place on 4 May 1978 at Cassinga in Angola. During the same operation the SAAF's aircraft also took part in numerous sorties to support the troops on the ground, which were mainly drawn from its airborne and special forces.
During the late 1970's there were numerous ground and/or air operations by the South African forces into Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Mozambique. South Africa also became involved in the conflict between UNITA and the Cuban-assisted MPLA forces.
Cold War & Border War Ends: 1989
Following operations Modular and Hooper in 1987 and 1988, which were thwarted by SWAPO and Cuban troops, United Nations-mediated negotiations finally faced the fact that with Cuban help, SWAPO was becoming a dominant force. The negotiations, at which SWAPO, Angola, Cuba, South Africa and the United States participated concluded with an agreement to recognize South-West Africa/Namibia as an independent nation.
At the same time, apartheid was losing ground in its home base, evident in the change of government in South Africa, when hardline apartheid president P.W. Botha was forced to resign and the more "liberal" F.W. de Klerk came to power. Within months, De Klerk was forced to recognize that apartheid had been defeated and announced the unbanning of anti-apartheid groups, including the African National Congress, the release of Nelson Mandela and the beginning of negotiations towards a democratic South Africa.
A final blow to Apartheid rule in South-West Africa/Namibia was the face off between SWAPO-Angola against South African ground troops from at Cuito Cuanavale, where South African troops were soundly defeated on 30 August 1988. In 1989 the remaining South African forces withdrew from Namibia.
Namibian Independence: 1990
Namibia's Independence Day took place on 21 March 1990 and was attended by numerous international representatives, including the United Nations Secretary-General and the President of South Africa, who jointly conferred independence on Namibia. The president of SWAPO, Sam Nujoma, was sworn in as the first President of Namibia.
Opposition to the War
While many (mostly white male) South Africans served in the South African Defence Force during the war, hundreds of thousands of open minded white youths refused to participate in what they saw as an illegitimate and illegal war. Groups such as the End Conscription Campaign and Committee on South African War Resistance actively campaigned against the conflict, were later banned while the then-banned ANC called for combatants on the South African side to desert.
Analysis of the war
The Border War lasted 23 years and involved South Africans, Namibians, Angolans, Cubans, Russians and Americans amongst others. During that period the SADF called up more than 25,000 white male conscripts each year (for a two year tour), totalling just over half a million men. That is almost as many conscripts as the United States of America sent to Vietnam.
The war differed from the American experience in South East Asia, in that the technical and military superiority of the South African forces was capitalised upon throughout the campaign by the South African General Staff. In consequence, the war can also be seen as one-sided for the South African Army and Air Force - during engagements they had superiority of machinery and weaponry, utlised mine proof fighting vehicles such as the Casspir and the Ratel and even employed one of the world's finest pieces of mobile artillery, the G6 155mm Howitzer.
Engagements were almost always won, or else were low-loss retreats (often as small as a rugby pitch); injured servicemen were treated in M.A.S.H.-type units supported by SAAF Aerospatiale Puma helicopters, which were faster and carried more than the UH-1 in Vietnam. Soldiers would do a tour and generally were not required to return to unless voluntarily, although in some cases the Army offered incentives and in some cases for exceptional talents, enforced recruitment to Koevoet and the Recces for more tours. For some men this lead to adverse effects causing much critical public reaction.
South African Air Force air-to-air engagements were also protracted, as tactics tended to resemble those of Israel - destruction of aircraft on the airfield, in the manner of the prosecution of the Six Day War in 1967, although the SAAF campaign only became full time in 1971-1972. Ground and air attack was prosecuted by the Mirage F1 and Atlas Impala which had air superiority throughout. Tactical reconnaissance was performed by the Mirage III R2Z variant in 3 Squadron. Also during this campaign, the English Electric Canberra and Blackburn Buccaneer were first employed as jet strategic bombers.
See also
References
- Commandant Dick Lord, public lecture, University of Stellenbosch, 14th December 2001.