Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a multipurpose spacecraft designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit. The $720 million USD spacecraft was built by Lockheed Martin under the supervision of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. It was launched August 12, 2005 and attained Martian orbit on March 10, 2006. It is currently in the process of aerobraking to acheive a lower orbit.
MRO contains a host of scientific instruments such as HiRISE, CRISM, and SHARAD, which will be used to analyze the landforms, stratigraphy, minerals, and ice of Mars. Additionally, MRO will pave the way for future spacecraft by monitoring daily weather and surface conditions, searching for future landing sites, and testing a new telecommunications system. MRO's telecommunications system will transfer data back to Earth faster than all previous interplanetary missions combined, and MRO will serve as a highly-capable relay satellite for future missions.
MRO joins five other spacecraft currently studying Mars: Mars Express, Mars Odyssey, Mars Global Surveyor, and two Mars Exploration Rovers. This is largest number of active spacecraft to study another planet in the history of space exploration.
Launch and orbital insertion
On August 12, 2005, MRO was launched aboard an Atlas V-401 rocket from Space Launch Complex 41 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. The Centaur upper stage of the rocket completed its burns in fifty-six minutes and placed MRO in interplanetary transfer orbit towards Mars.[2]
MRO cruised through interplanetary space for 7.5 months before reaching Mars, and most of the scientific instruments and experiments were tested and calibrated en route. In order to ensure proper orbital insertion upon reaching Mars, four trajectory correction maneuvers were planned and a fifth emergency maneuver was discussed.[3] However, only three trajectory correction maneuvers were necessary, saving fuel for MRO's extended mission.[4]
MRO began orbital insertion by approaching Mars on March 10, 2006 and passing above its southern hemisphere at an altitude of 370–400 km (190 mi). All six of MRO's main engines burned for 27 minutes to slow the probe from ~2,900 m/s to ~1,900 m/s (6,500 mph to 4,250 mph). The helium pressurization tank was colder than expected, which reduced the pressure in the fuel tank by about 21 kPa (3 psi). The reduced pressure caused the engine thrust to be diminished by 2%, but MRO automatically compensated by extending the burn time by 33 seconds. [5]
Orbital insertion placed the orbiter in a highly elliptical polar orbit with a period of approximately 35.5 hours.[6] Shortly after insertion, the periapsis — the point in the orbit closest to Mars — was 3,806 km from the planet's center (426 km from its surface). The apoapsis — the point in the orbit farthest from Mars — was 47,972 km from the planet's center (44,500 km from its surface).
On March 30, 2006, MRO began the process of aerobraking, a three-step procedure that cuts in half the fuel needed to achieve a lower, more circular orbit with a shorter period. First, during its first five orbits of the planet (one Earth week), MRO used its thrusters to drop the periapsis of its orbit into aerobraking altitude. This altitude depends on the thickness of the atmosphere because Martian atmospheric density changes with its seasons. Second, while using its thrusters to make minor corrections to its periapsis altitude, MRO will maintain aerobraking altitude for about 550 planetary orbits (5.5 Earth months) to reduce the apoapsis of the orbit to 450 km (280 mi). Finally, when the proper apoapsis is obtained, MRO will use its thrusters to move its periapsis out of the edge of the Martian atmosphere.[7]
MRO will spend one or two additional weeks using thrusters to fine-tune its final, nearly circular orbit approximately 255 to 320 km (160 to 200 mi) above the Martian surface.[7] SHARAD will be deployed once this final step is complete. All of the scientific instruments will be tested and then turned off prior to a solar conjunction occuring between October 7 and November 8, 2006. The Primary Science Phase (PSP) will begin after the conjunction ends.
Science operations and extended mission
Beginning in November 2006, MRO will conduct science operations for two Earth years. One of the mission's main goals is to map the Martian landscape with high-resolution cameras in order to choose landing sites for future missions. These include the Phoenix Lander, which will explore the Martian Arctic, and the Mars Science Laboratory, a highly manueverable rover. MRO will help planners evaluate both the scientific value and the landing risks for possible landing sites for these missions. It will also provide a transmission relay and critical navigation data during their landing.
MRO will also use its on-board scientific equipment to study the Martian climate, weather, atmosphere, and geology, and to search for signs of water in the polar caps and underground. In addition, MRO will look for the remains of the previously lost Mars Polar Lander and Beagle 2 spacecraft,[8] and will serve as the first step in setting up an internet protocol for the different planets in our solar system. After its main science operations are completed, the probe's extended mission will continue using the communication and navigation system for future lander and rover probes.[9]
Six science instruments are included on the mission along with two "science-facility instruments", which use data from engineering subsystems to collect science data. Three technology experiments will test and demonstrate new equipment for future missions.[10]
HiRISE
The High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment camera is a 0.5 m reflecting telescope, the largest ever carried on a deep space mission, and has a resolution of 1 microradian (μrad), or 0.3 m from an altitude of 300 km. (For comparison, satellite images of Earth are generally available with a resolution of 0.1 m, and satellite images on Google Maps are available to 1 m.[11]) HiRISE collects images in three color bands, 400 to 600 nm (blue-green or B-G), 550 to 850 nm (red) and 800 to 1,000 nm (near infrared or NIR).[12]
Red color images are 20,264 pixels across (6 km wide), and B-G and NIR are 4,048 pixels across (1.2 km wide). HiRISE's on-board computer reads these lines in time with the orbiter's ground speed, and images are potentially unlimited in length. Practically however, their length is limited by the computer's 28 Gigabit (Gb) memory capacity, and the nominal maximum size is 20,000 × 40,000 pixels (800 megapixels) and 4,000 × 40,000 pixels (160 megapixels) for B-G and NIR images. Each 16.4 Gb image will be compressed to 5 Gb before transmission and released to the general public on the HiRISE website via a new format called JPEG 2000.[13],[14] To facilitate the mapping of potential landing sites, HiRISE can produce stereo pairs of images from which topography can be calculated to an accuracy of 0.25 m.[15]
Other Cameras
The Context Imager (CTX) will provide grayscale images (500 to 800 nm) up to 40 km wide with a pixel resolution of 6 m. The CTX is designed to provide context maps for the targeted observations of HiRISE and CRISM. The optics of CTX consist of a 350 mm focal length Maksutov Cassegrain telescope with a 5,064 pixel wide line array CCD similar to the HiRISE instrument. The instrument will take pictures 30 km (19 mi) wide and has enough internal memory to store an image 160 km long before loading it into the main computer.[16]
The Mars Color Imager (MARCI) is a wide-angle, low-resolution camera that views the surface of Mars in five visible and two ultraviolet bands. Each day, MARCI will collect about 84 images and produce a global map with pixel resolutions of 1 to 10 km. This map will provide a daily weather report for Mars, help to characterize its seasonal and annual variations, and map the presence of water vapor and ozone in its atmosphere.[17]
CRISM
The Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) instrument is an infrared/visible light spectrometer that will produce detailed maps of the surface mineralogy of Mars. It operates from 370 to 3920 nm, measures the spectrum in 544 channels (each 6.55 nm wide), and has a resolution of 18 m at an altitude of 300 km. CRISM will be used to identify minerals and chemicals indicative of the past or present existence of water on the surface of Mars. These materials include iron, oxides, phyllosilicates, and carbonates, which have characteristic patterns in their visible-infrared energy.[18]
Infrared and radar equipment
The Mars Climate Sounder (MCS) is a spectrometer with one visible/near infrared channel (0.3 to 3.0 μm) and eight far infrared (12 to 50 μm) channels. These channels were selected to measure temperature, pressure, water vapor and dust levels. MCS will observe the atmosphere on the horizon of Mars (as viewed from MRO) by breaking it up into vertical slices and taking measurements within each slice in 5 km (3 mi) increments. These measurements will be assembled into daily global weather maps to show the basic variables of Martian weather: temperature, pressure, humidity and dust density.[19]
MRO's Shallow Subsurface Radar (SHARAD) experiment is designed to probe the internal structure of the Martian polar ice caps. It will also gather planet-wide information about underground layers of ice, rock and possibly liquid water that might be accessible from the surface. SHARAD uses HF radio waves between 15 and 25 MHz, a range that allows it to resolve layers as thin as 7 m to a maxiumum depth of 1 km. It will have a horizontal resolution as high as 0.3 by 3 km. SHARAD is designed to operate in conjunction with Mars Express MARSIS, which has lower resolution but penetrates to a much greater depth. Both SHARAD and MARSIS were made by the Italian Space Agency.[20][21]
Engineering Instruments
In addition to its imaging equipment, MRO will carry a variety of engineering instruments. The Gravity Field Investigation Package will measure variations in the Martian gravitational field through variations in the spacecraft's velocity. Velocity changes are detected by measuring doppler shifts in MRO's radio signals received on Earth. The package also includes sensitive on-board accelerometers used to deduce the in situ atmospheric density of Mars during aerobraking.[22]
The Electra is a UHF antenna designed to communicate with other spacecraft as they approach, land, and operate on Mars. Electra will also provide Doppler information for landed vehicles that will enable scientists to accurately determine the their location. Additionally, the system will be a radio contact for surface vehicles and route data to NASA if the vehicle's own antenna does not have sufficient power to contact controllers.[23]
The Optical Navigation Camera images the Martian moons, Phobos and Deimos, against background stars to precisely determine MRO's orbit. Although moon imaging is not mission critical, it was included as a technology test for future orbiting and landing of spacecraft.[24] The Optical Navigation Camera was tested successfully in February and March of 2006.[25]
Engineering data
Structure
Workers at Lockheed Martin Space Systems in Denver assembled the spacecraft structure and attached the instruments. Instruments were constructed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory in Tucson, Arizona, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland, the Italian Space Agency in Rome, Italy, and Malin Space Science Systems in San Diego, California.[26] The total cost of the spacecraft was $720 millon USD.[27]
The structure is made of mostly carbon composites and aluminium-honeycombed plates. The titanium fuel tank takes up most of the volume and mass of the spacecraft and provides most of its structural integrity. The spacecraft's total mass is less than 2,180 kg (4,806 lb) with an unfueled dry mass less than 1,031 kg (2,273 lb).[28]
Power systems
MRO gets all of its electrical power from two solar panels, each of which can move independently around two axes (up-down, or left-right rotation). Each solar panel measures 5.35 × 2.53 m and has 9.5 m² (102 ft²) covered with 3,744 individual photovoltaic cells. Its high-efficiency triple junction solar cells are able to convert more than 26% of the sun's energy directly into electricity and are connected together to produce a total output of 32 volts. At Mars, the two panels produce 2,000 watts of power; in contrast, the panels would generate 6,000 watts in a comparable Earth orbit by being closer to the Sun.[29]
MRO has two nickel metal hydride rechargeable batteries used to power the spacecraft when it is not facing the sun. Each battery has an energy storage capacity of 50 ampere-hours (180 kC). The full range of the batteries cannot be used due to voltage constraints on the spacecraft, but it will allow the operators to extend the battery life—a valuable capability, given that battery drain is one of the most common causes of long-term satellite failure. Planners anticipate that only 40% of the batteries' capacities will be required during the lifetime of the spacecraft.[29]
Electronic systems
MRO‘s main computer is a 133 MHz, 10.4 million transistor, 32-bit, RAD750 processor. This processor is a radiation-hardened version of a PowerPC 750 or G3 processor with a specially-built motherboard. The RAD750 is a successor to the RAD6000. This processor may seem underpowered in comparison to a modern PC or Mac processor, but it is extremely reliable, resilient, and can function in solar flare-ravaged deep space.[30] The operating system software is VxWorks and has extensive fault protection protocols and monitoring.[31]
Data is stored in a 160 Gb (20 GB) flash memory module consisting of over 700 memory chips, each with a 256 Mbit capacity. This memory capacity is not actually that large considering the amount of data to be acquired; for example, a single image from the HiRISE camera can be as large as 28 Gb.[31]
Attitude Determination
In order to determine the spacecraft's orbit and facilitate maneuvers, sixteen sun sensors — eight primaries and eight backups — are placed around the spacecraft to calibrate solar direction relative to the orbiter's frame. Two star trackers, digital cameras used to map the position of catalogued stars, provide NASA with full, three-axis knowledge of the spacecraft orientation and attitude. A primary and backup inertial monitor will measure changes to the spacecraft attitude as well as any non-gravitionally induced changes to its linear velocity. Each inertial monitor is a combination of three accelerometers and three ring-laser gyroscopes. These systems are all critically important to MRO, as it must be able to point it's camera to a very high precision in order to take the high-quality pictures that the mission requires. It has also been specifically designed to minimize any vibrations on the spacecraft, so as to allow it's instrument's images to take images without any distortions caused by vibrations.[32]
Telecommunications system
The Telecom Subsystem on MRO is the best telecom system sent into deep space so far. It consists of a very large (3 meter) antenna, which will be used to transmit data through the Deep Space Network via X-band frequences at 8 GHz, and it will demonstrate the use of the Ka-band at 32 GHz for higher data rates. Maximum transmission speed from Mars is projected to be as high as 6 Mbit/s, a rate ten times higher than previous Mars orbiters. The spacecraft carries two 100-watt X-band amplifiers (one of which is a backup), one 35-watt Ka-band amplifier, and two transponders.[33]
Two smaller low-gain antennas are also present for lower-rate communication during emergencies and special events, such as launch and Mars Orbit Insertion. These antennas do not have focusing dishes and can transmit and receive from any direction. They are an important backup system to ensure that MRO can always be reached, even if it's main antenna is pointed away from the Earth.[33]
Propulsion and Attitude Control
The spacecraft uses a 1175 L (310 US gal) fuel tank filled with 1187 kg (2617 lb) of hydrazine monopropellant. Fuel pressure is regulated by adding pressurized helium gas from an external tank. Seventy percent of the fuel will be used for orbital insertion.[34]
MRO has twenty rocket engine thrusters on board. Six large thrusters each produce 170 N (38 lbf) of thrust for a total of 1,020 N (230 lbf) meant mainly for orbital insertion. These thrusters were originally designed for the Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander. Six medium thrusters each produce 22 N (5 lbf) of thrust for trajectory correction maneuvers and attitude control during orbit insertion. Finally, eight small thrusters each produce 0.9 N (0.2 lbf) of thrust for attitude control during normal operations.[34]
Four reaction wheels are also used for precise attitude control during activities requiring a highly stable platform, such as high-resolution imaging, in which even small motions can cause blurring of the image. Each wheel is used for one axis of motion. The fourth (skewed) wheel is a backup in case one of the other three wheels fails. Each wheel weighs 10 kg (22 lb) and can be spun as fast as 100 Hz or 6,000 rpm.[34]
See also
Footnotes
- ^ "ILS To Launch Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter For NASA On Atlas V". International Launch Services. Retrieved June 30.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "NASA's Multipurpose Mars Mission Successfully Launched". NASA Press Release from August 12, 2005. Retrieved May 30.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter: Multimedia". Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "U.S. Spacecraft Enters Orbit Around Mars". New York Times March 11, 2006. Retrieved May 30.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ ""Spaceflight Now" MRO Mission Status Center". Retrieved March 12.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ ""New Mars Orbiter Ready for Action"". Space.com. Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ a b "Mission Timeline: Aerobraking". Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter: The Mission. Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Overview". Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Website. Retrieved February 11.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Mission Timeline: Communications Relay". Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Website. Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Spacecraft Parts: Instruments". Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Website.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Google Earth FAQ" Google Earth Website.
- ^ "MRO HiRISE Camera Specifications". HiRISE website. Retrieved 2 January.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "HiRISE: Instrument Development" (PDF). NASA Ames Research Center website. Retrieved 7 February.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) (PDF) - ^ "Fact Sheet: HiRISE" (PDF). National Air and Space Museum. Retrieved 18 February.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) (PDF) - ^ "HiRISE". HiRISE website. Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "MRO Context Imager (CTX) Instrument Description". Malin Space Science Systems website. Retrieved 06 June.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ ""Spacecraft Parts: Instruments: MARCI"". MARCI website. Retrieved June 2.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "CRISM Instrument Overview". CRISM Instrument Website. Retrieved April 2.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Spacecraft Parts: Instruments: MCS". CRISM Instrument Website. Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Spacecraft Parts: SHARAD" (PDF). Peer Review Papar website (PDF Format).
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ KOMO-TV News Staff (August 12, 2005). NASA Launches Mars Orbiter. KOMO-TV.
- ^ "Spacecraft Parts: Gravity Field Investigation Package". Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Website. Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Spacecraft Parts: Electra". Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Website.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Spacecraft Parts: Optical Navigation Camera". Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Website.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Optical Navigation Demonstration Near Mars Multimedia Feature". NASA Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Website.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ ""Rad 750"". BAE Aerospace Parts. Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ NASA Authorization Act of 2004, S.2541. thomas.loc.gov. URL accessed on May 27, 2006)
- ^ ""Spacecraft Summary"". NASA's MRO website. Retrieved May 29.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ a b ""Spacecraft Parts: Electrical Power"". NASA's MRO website. Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ ""Rad 750"" (PDF). BAE aerospace parts. Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ a b "Spacecraft Parts: Command and Data-Handling Systems". NASA's MRO website. Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Spacecraft Parts: Guidance, Navigation, and Control Systems". NASA's MRO website. Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ a b ""Spacecraft Parts: Telecommunications"". NASA's MRO website. Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c "Spacecraft Parts: Propulsion". NASA's MRO website. Retrieved May 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help)
Further reading
- Mishkin, Andrew (2004). Sojourner : An Insider's View of the Mars Pathfinder Mission. ISBN 0425191990.
- Squyres, Steve (2005). Roving Mars : Spirit, Opportunity, and the Exploration of the Red Planet. ISBN 1401301495.
- Read, Peter L. & Lewis, Steven L. (2004). The Martian Climate Revisited : Atmosphere and Environment of a Desert Planet. ISBN 354040743X.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Zubrin, Robert (1997). The Case for Mars. ISBN 0684835509.
External links
- Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter website at NASA
- Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter website at JPL
- Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter images at JPL
- Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Reception
- Video stream of mission (requires Java)
- CTX website
- MARCI website
- SHARAD website
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