Sikhism
Sikhism (IPA: or ; Punjabi: ਸਿੱਖੀ, sikkhī, IPA: ) is a religion that found its genesis in sixteenth century Northern India with the teachings of Nānak and nine successive Gurus. This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally the teachings of the Gurus) or the Sikh Dharma. Sikhism comes from the word Sikh, which in turn comes from the Punjabi word sikkh. Sikkh comes from its Sanskrit root śiṣya meaning "disciple" or "learner", or śikṣa meaning "instruction", via the equivalent Pāli word sikkhā.[1][2]
The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in one God — Vahigurū — represented using the sacred symbol of ik ōaṅkār. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the Ten Sikh Gurus and the select works of fifteen earlier bhagats as scripted in the Gurū Granth Sahib. The text was decreed by Gōbind Siṅgh as the final guru of the Ḵẖālsā Panth. A dharmic religion, Sikhism advocates the pursual of salvation through disciplined, personal meditation on the name and message of God.
Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (Students or Disciples) and number over 23 million across the world. However, most Sikhs live in the state of Punjab in India, and Sikhs living elsewhere trace their ancestries to the Punjab. Sikh scriptures are written in the Punjabi language, and the most sacred institutions are located in the Punjab region now divided between India and Pakistan. The Ḵẖālsā is the brotherhood of all Sikhs, which developed in history as a community with a cohesive political and military leadership, and modern Sikh communities remains a vibrant and important participant in the politics, culture, economy and national life of India and other nations they inhabit.
Philosophy and teachings
One of the incorrect common views of Sikhism is that of a syncretic mixture of Hinduism and Islam, but it is not: Sikhism is a separate, distinct religion. However, Sikh religious philosophy have strong roots in the religious traditions of Northern India.[3]
The synthesis which is fundamental to the teachings of Nānak is rooted in the Nirguna Sampradaya - the diverse Sant traditions of northern India. One of its most significant exponents, and especially important to the connection with Sikhism were the teachings of the saint Kabīr. Nānak's teachings reject idol worship, the doctrine of divine incarnations, and Hinduism in total. Instead, Nanak emphasizes, among many, many other things, inward devotion, professed to be a harder personal pursuit than Bhakti.[4] The evolution of Nānak's thoughts on the basis of his own experiences and study have also given it a distinctly unique feature.
God
The Sikh term for God is Vahigurū and Nānak describes him as niraṅkār (from the Sanskrit nirākārā, meaning formless), akāl (meaning eternal) and alakh (from the Sanskrit alakśya, meaning invisible or unobserved). At the very beginning of the first composition of Sikh scripture is the figure "1" — signifying the unity of God. Nānak's interpretation of God is that of a single, personal and transcendental creator with whom the devotee must develop a most intimate faith and relationship to achieve salvation.[4] Sikhism advocates the belief in one God who is omnipresent and has infinite qualities. This aspect has been repeated on numerous occasions in the Gurū Granth Sāhib and the term ik ōaṅkār signifies this. In the Sikh teachings, there is no gender for God. When translating, the proper meaning cannot be correctly conveyed without using a gender definition, but this distorts the meaning by giving the impression that God is masculine, which is not the message in the original script.
Nānak further emphasizes that a full understanding of God is beyond human beings.[4] However, Nānak also describes God, who in his fullness is unknowable, is not wholly unknowable. God is sarav vi'āpak (omnipresent) in all creation and visible everywhere to the spiritually awakened. Nānak stresses that God must be seen from "the inward eye," or the "heart" of a human being - that meditation must take place inwardly to achieve enlightenment progressively. Nānak emphasizes this revelation in creation as crucial, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.[4]
Pursuing salvation
Nānak's teachings are founded not on a final destination of heaven or hell, but a spiritual union with God which results in salvation. His teachings strongly carry a message for social and personal transformation along with the message of God. The chief obstacles to the attainment of salvation are social conflicts, divisions and an attachment to worldly pursuits, which commits men and women to an endless cycle of birth and death owing to their karma. Māyā (also mā'i'ā) — defined as illusion or "unreality" — is one of the core deviations from the pursuit of God and salvation. However, Nānak emphasized māyā as not a reference to the unreality of the world, but of its values. The influences of ahaṅkār (ego), krōdh (anger), lōbh (greed), mōh (attachment) and kām (lust) — known as the 'Five Evils — are to be particularly striven against. Accepting the pursuit of worldly values, especially believing them to compose of sati'ā (truth) binds mankind to suffering and re-births. The fate of such persons is a separation from God, and the situation may be remedied only after intensive and relentless devotion to God.[5]
Nānak describes God's revelation — the path to salvation — with terms such as nām, the divine Name and śabad, the divine Word to emphasize the totality of the revelation in that anything that can be affirmed of God is an aspect of the divine Name and Word. Nānak designates the word guru (meaning teacher) as the very voice of God, which is the source and guide for knowledge and salvation. The term hukam (meaning divine order) expresses the nature of the revelation in both physical and psychical terms, to which the striving believer must bring himself or herself into harmony.[6]
The path to knowledge and salvation is only attainable through rigourous and disciplined devotion to God. Nānak distinctly teaches the irrelevance of outwardly observations such as temple rites, mosque worship, pilgrimages or asceticism. Nānak emphasizes that the devotion and communication with God must take place through the heart, with the spirit and soul, with the voice of God speaks the message of God. Nānak stressed kirat karō, that a Sikh should balance work, worship, and charity, and should defend for the rights of all creatures, and in particular, fellow human beings. They are encouraged to have a "caṛdī kalā," roughly translated as "buoyant hope," an optimistic view of life. Sikh teachings also stress vaṇḍ chakkō: share with others in need, free food (laṅgar), donate income and time in doing work to better humanity.
The key practice to be pursued with discipline is nām simraṇ — remembrance of the divine Name. The verbal repetition of the name of God or a sacred syllable is an established practice in religious traditions in India, but Nānak 's interpretation emphasizes the absolutely interiority (entirely personal, inward observance) of the devotion and construes the extension from a single word to a developed doctrine of meditation. Nānak 's ideal is total exposure of one's being to the divine Name, and a total conforming to the divine Order which is expressed in the divine Name. Nānak describes the result of the disciplined application of nām simraṇ as a "growing towards and into God" through a gradual process of five stages. The last of these is sac khaṇḍ (The Realm of Truth) — the final consummation or union of the spirit with God.[6]
The Ten Gurus
The term guru comes from the Sanskrit gurū, meaning teacher, guide or mentor. The traditions and philosophy of Sikhism was established by ten such gurus from 1469 CE to 1708 CE. Each guru added to and reinforced the message taught by the previous, resulting in the creation of the Sikh religion. Gurū Nānak Dēv was the first guru and appointed a disciple of his as a successor. Gurū Gōbind Siṅgh was the final guru in human form. Before his death, Gōbind Siṅgh decreed that the Gurū Granth Sāhib would be the final and perpetual guru of the Sikhs. [7] Template:List of Sikh Gurus
After Guru Nānak's death, the most important phase in the development of Sikhism came with the third successor, Gur Amar Dās. Nānak's teachings emphasized the pursuit of salvation, and had significant but loose followings. Guru Amar Dās began building a cohesive community of followers with initiatives such as sanctioning distinctive (that is, separate from Hinduism) ceremonies for birth, marriage and death as well as the manji (diocese) system of clerical supervision.
Guru Amar Dās's successor, Rām Dās, founded the city of Amritsar, which is home of the Harimandir Sāhib and regarded widely as the holiest city for all Sikhs. Arjun Dēv was responsible for compiling the Sikh scriptures, and was captured by Mughal authorities who were suspicious and hostile to the religious order he was developing.[8] His persecution and death inspired his successors to promote a military and political organisation of Sikh communities to defend themselves against the attacks of Mughal forces.
History
Gurū Nānak Dēv (1469–1538), the founder of Sikhism, was born in the village of Rā'i Bhō'i dī Talvaṇḍī, now called Nankana Sahib, near Lahore (in what is present-day Pakistan).[9] His father, Mehta Kalian Das Bedi was a Patwari—an accountant of land revenue in the government. He worked for the Muslim landlord of the village, Rai Bullar. Nānak's mother was Tripta Devi and he had one older sister, Nānakī. His parents, Mehta Kalian Das and Tripta Devi were Hindus of the Khatri caste. As a boy, Nānak was fascinated by religion, and his desire to explore the mysteries of life eventually led him to leave home.
Guru Nānak declared: "There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim" (in Punjabi, "nā kō hindū nā kō musalmān"). It was from this moment that Nānak would begin to spread the teachings of what was then the beginning of Sikhism.[10]
Guru Nanak made four major journeys, spanning many thousands of kilometres. The first tour being east towards Bengal and Assam, the second south towards Ceylon via Tamil Nadu, the third north towards Kashmir, Ladakh and Tibet, and the final tour west towards Baghdad and Mecca.[11]
In 1538, Nānak chose Lahṇā, his disciple, as a successor to the guruship. Lahṇā was named Gurū Aṅgad Dēv and became the second guru of the Sikhs.[12] The event happened at a town called Kartarpur on the banks of the river Ravi, where Nānak had finally settled down after his travels. Angad continued the work started by Nānak and is widely credited for standardising the Gurmukhī script as used in the Guru Granth Sahib. Gurū Amar Dās became the third Sikh guru in 1552 at the age of 73. Gō'indvāl became an important centre for Sikhism during the guruship of Amar Dās. He continued to preach the principle of equality for women by prohibiting purdah and sati. Amar Dās also encouraged the practise of laṅgar and made all those who visited him attend laṅgar before they could see him.[13] In 1567, Emperor Akbar sat with the ordinary and poor people of Punjab to have laṅgar. Amar Dās also trained 146 apostles of which 52 were women, to manage the rapid expansion of the religion.[14] Before he died in 1574 aged 95, he appointed Jēṭhā as the fourth Sikh guru.
Jēṭhā became Gurū Rām Dās and vigorously undertook his duties as the new guru. He is responsible for the establishment of the city of Ramdaspur later to be named Amritsar. In 1581, Gurū Arjun Dēv — youngest son of the fourth guru — became the fifth guru of the Sikhs. In addition to being responsible for building the Harimandir Sāhib, he prepared the Ādi Granth (literally the first book) and included the writings of the first five gurus. In 1606, for refusing to make changes to the Granth and for supporting an unsuccessful candidate to the throne, he was tortured and killed by the Mughal ruler, Jahangir.[15] Gurū Hari Gōbind, became the sixth guru of the Sikhs. He carried two swords — one for spiritual and the other for temporal reasons (known as mīrī and pīrī in Sikhism).[16] Sikhs, though from the beginning were saint soldiers, at this point openly armed themselves for defending themselves and the poor and weak. In 1644, Gurū Hari Rā'i became guru followed by Gurū Hari Kriśan, the boy guru, in 1661. No hymns composed by these three gurus are included in the Guru Granth Sahib.[17]
Gurū Tēġ Bahādur became guru in 1665 and led the Sikhs until 1675. Tēġ Bahādur was executed by Aurangzeb for helping to protect Hindus, after Kashmiri Pandits came to him for help when the Emperor condemned them to death for failing to convert to Islam.[18] (see article Martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadar). He was succeeded by his son, Gobind Rā'i who was just nine years old at the time of his father's death. Guru Gobind further empowered his followers, and was "baptised" (not in the Christian sense of the word) by the Pañj Pi'ārē into the Khalsa, in 1699.
This was a considerable transformation of the Sikh community from the time of Nānak. Even though the core Sikh religious philosophy was never affected, the followers now began to develop a political identity. Conflict with Mughal authorities and hindu kings escalated during the lifetime of Tēġ Bahādur and Gōbind Siṅgh. The latter founded the Ḵẖālsā in 1699. The Ḵẖālsā is a disciplined community that combines its religious purpose and goals with political and military duties.[3] From here on in he was known as Gurū Gōbind Siṅgh.[19] After Aurangzeb killed all four of Guru Gobind's sons, Gōbind Siṅgh sent Aurangzeb the Zafarnāmā (Notification/Epistle of Victory).
Shortly before passing away Gōbind Siṅgh ordered that the Gurū Granth Sāhib (the Sikh Holy Scripture), would be the ultimate spiritual authority for the Sikhs and temporal authority would be vested in the Ḵẖālsā Panth – The Sikh Nation/Community.[7] The first scripture was compiled and edited by the fifth guru, Arjun Dēv in AD 1604.
After the Gurus
The Sikh community's embrace of military and political organisation made it a considerable regional force in medieval South Asia. The Sikh community during this period was under the control of a loose confederation of saint soldiers bands known as misls. With the decline of the Mughal empire, a Sikh empire arose in the Punjab under Mahārājā Raṇjīt Siṅgh, with its capital in Lahore and limits reaching the Khyber Pass and the borders of China. The order, traditions and discipline developed over centuries culminated at the time of Mahārājā Raṇjīt Siṅgh to give rise to the common religious and social identity that the term "Sikhism" describes.[20]
This Sikh political dominion collapsed with the Anglo-Sikh Wars, which brought the Punjab under British rule. After the peace treaty, large contingents of Sikhs joined the British Indian Army and remained a progressive and prosperous force in Indian society. However, Sikh alienation from British rule began with the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919 and the formation of the Gadar party. Sikhs intially supported and participated in the Indian National Congress, but also formed the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee and the Shiromani Akali Dal to preserve Sikhs religious and political organization, especially because of continued harrassment and breaking of promises by the Indian government.
Independent India
The partition of India in 1947 would prove disastrous for the Sikh community, as millions of Sikhs were forced to leave their ancestral homes in West Punjab, where the religion was born but now was a part of Pakistan. Partition was grossly unfair to the Sikh community.[21] Hundreds of thousands of Sikhs were killed in communal violence instigated by the Brahmin Hindu controlled Indian government, and the number of Sikhs living in Pakistan today is virtually negligible. The mass displacement of Sikh communities is attributed to have given rise to a political demand for a Sikh-majority state to preserve Sikh political and cultural influence, and to be freed from the government oppression in India. Indian Punjab was thus divided in 1966, with Hindu-majority areas forming Haryana.
Even though Sikhs enjoyed considerable prosperity in the 1970s with the Green Revolution making Punjab the most prosperous state in the nation, Sikhism itself, was under attack by the Indian government. Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale began demanding greater rights for Sikhs and eventually an independent state named Ḵẖālistān. The wave of Sikhs fighting for their rights and independence resulted in the government ordering the Indian Army to storm the Harimandir Sāhib in Amritsar. The deaths of thousands of civilians and damage to the gurudhwara and surrounding buildings was a complete betrayal of the Sikh community in India, and of Sikhs across the world. To right this wrong, India's prime minister Indira Gandhi, was assassinated in October 1984. The Indian government responded by openly advocating the burning of Sikh businesses and the killings of Sikhs in the streets communal violence. Relative calm and order returned to Punjab in the early 1990s, which had suffered from an environment of martial law, as it continues to do today. Relations between Sikhs and Hindus suffered during this period, and have not healed. Sikh politics are generally divided between the Indian National Congress and the political factions of the Shiromani Akali Dal.
Scripture
There is one source of scripture for the Sikhs: the Gurū Granth Sāhib. The Gurū Granth Sāhib may be referred to as the Ādi Granth — literally, The First Volume — and the two terms are often used synonymously in literature. However, in this context, the Ādi Granth is used to refer to the version of the scripture created by Arjun Dēv in 1604. The Gurū Granth Sāhib is used to refer to the final version of the scripture created by Gōbind Siṅgh.
Ādi Granth
It is believed that the Ādi Granth was compiled primarily by Bhā'ī Gurdās under the supervision of Arjun Dēv between the years 1603 and 1604.[22] It is written in the Gurmukhī script, which is a descendant of the Laṇḍā script used in the Punjab at that time.[23] The Gurmukhī script was standardised by Arjun Dēv for use in the Sikh scriptures and is thought to have been influenced by the Śāradā and Dēvanāgarī scripts. The impetus behind the creation of an authorative scripture was to protect the integrity of hymns and teachings of the Sikh gurus and selected bhagats. At the time, Arjun Dēv worked to prevent undue influence from the followers of Prithī Cand, the guru's older brother and rival.[24]
The original version of the Ādi Granth is known as the kartārpur bīṛ and is currently held by the Sodhi family of Kartarpur.
Gurū Granth Sāhib
The final version of the Gurū Granth Sāhib was compiled by Gurū Gōbind Siṅgh. It consists of the original Ādi Granth with the addition of Gurū Tēġ Bahādur's hymns. It was decreed by Gōbind Siṅgh that the Granth was to be considered the eternal, living guru of all Sikhs:
- Punjabi: ਸੱਬ ਸਿੱਖਣ ਕੋ ਹੁਕਮ ਹੈ ਗੁਰੂ ਮਾਨਯੋ ਗ੍ਰੰਥ ।
- Transliteration: Sabb sikkhaṇ kō hukam hai gurū mānyō granth.
- English: All Sikhs are commanded to take the Granth as Guru.
It contains compositions by the first five gurus, Gurū Tēġ Bahādur and just one śalōk (couplet) from Gurū Gōbind Siṅgh.[25] It also contains the traditions and teachings of sants (saints) such as Kabīr, Nāmdēv, Ravidās and Śēkh Farīd along with several others.[20]
The bulk of the scripture is classified according to rāg, with each rāg subdivided according to length and author. There are 31 main rāgs within the Gurū Granth Sāhib. In addition to the rāgs, there are clear references to the folk music of Punjab as well. The main language used in the scripture is known as Sant Bhāṣā, a language related to both Punjabi and Hindi and used extensively across medieval northern India by proponents of popular devotional religion.[3] The text further comprises over 5000 śabads, or hymns, which are poetically constructed and set to classical form of music rendition, can be set to predetermined musical tāls, or rhythmic beats.
The Granth begins with the Mūl Mantra, an iconic verse created by Nānak:
- Punjabi: ੴ ਸਤਿ ਨਾਮੁ ਕਰਤਾ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਨਿਰਭਉ ਨਿਰਵੈਰੁ ਅਕਾਲ ਮੂਰਤਿ ਅਜੂਨੀ ਸੈਭੰ ਗੁਰ ਪ੍ਰਸਾਦਿ ॥
- ISO 15919 transliteration: Ika ōaṅkāra sati nāmu karatā purakhu nirabha'u niravairu akāla mūrati ajūnī saibhaṅ gura prasādi.
- Simplified transliteration: Ik ōaṅkār sat nām kartā purkh nirbha'u nirvair akāl mūrat ajūnī saibhaṅ gur prasād.
- English: There is One God, He is the supreme truth, He, the Creator, is without fear and without hate. He, the omnipresent, prevades the universe. He is not born, nor does he die again to be reborn. By His grace shalt thou worship Him.
All text within the Granth is known as Gurbānī. Gurbānī, according to Nānak, was revealed by God directly, and the authors wrote it down for the followers. The status accorded to the scripture is defined by the evolving interpretation of the concept of guru. In the Sant tradition of Nānak, the guru was the voice, literally the word of God. The Sikh community soon transferred the role to a line of men who gave authoritative and practical expression to religious teachings and traditions, with socio-political leadership of its adherents. Gōbind Siṅgh declared an end of the line of human gurus, and now the Gurū Granth Sāhib serves as the eternal guru, with its interpretation vested with the community.[3]
Observances
Observant Sikhs adhere to long-standing practices and traditions to strengthen and express their faith. The daily recitation of appointed passages from the Gurū Granth Sāhib, especially the Japu (or Japjī, literally chant) hymns from memory is recommended in the ambrosial hours of the day. A family custom of observance is the reading of passages from the scripture, as well as attendance at the gurdwara (also gurdu'ārā, meaning the doorway to God). There are many gurdwaras prominently constructed and maintained across India, as well as in almost every nation where Sikhs reside. The most sacred place is the Harimandir Sāhib, famously known as the Golden Temple in Amritsar.
The pattern of worship which is followed within a gurdwara consists chiefly of reading of passages from the Guru Granth Sahib. Sikhs will commonly enter the gurudhwara and touch the ground with the forehead before the Guru Granth Sahib, which means one believes and follows the teachings of the Sikh Guru, contained in the Guru Granth Sahib. The recitation of the eighteenth century ardās, an important prayer is also required, and recalls past and recent sufferings and glories of the community, invoking divine grace.[26] Groups of Sikhs regularly visit and congregate at the Harimandir Sāhib in Amritsar.
Baptism and the Ḵẖālsā
Ḵẖālsā (meaning pure) is the name given by Gōbind Siṅgh to anyone when he or she has been initiated by taking ammrit in a ceremony called ammrit sañcār. The first time that this ceremony took place was on Vaisākhī, which fell on 30 March 1699 at Anandpur Sahib in India. It was on that occasion that Gōbind Siṅgh intiated the Pañj Pi'ārē into the Khalsa, who in turn intiated Gōbind Siṅgh himself, after he nelt before them.
Sikhs are bound to wear the Five Ks (in Punjabi known as pañj kakār), or articles of faith, at all times. The formative principles of a self-sustaining Ḵẖālsā order was responsible for the articulation of personal faith through these medium. The tenth guru, Gōbind Siṅgh, ordered these Five Ks to be worn so that a Sikh could actively use them to make a difference to their own spirituality and to others' spirituality, to protect themselves, the poor, and oppressed, and so no one claiming to be a Sikh could hide and cower. The 5 items are: kēs (uncut hair), kaṅghā (small comb), kaṛā (circular heavy metal bracelet), kirpān (sword), and kacchā (special undergarment). The Five Ks have both practical and symbolic purposes.[27]
Sikhs today
Worldwide, Sikhs number more than 23 million, but more than 90 percent of Sikhs live in the Indian state of Punjab, where they form close to 65% of the population. Large communities of Sikhs live in the neighbouring states of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, and the cities of Delhi and Mumbai. However Sikhs compose approximately only 1.9% of the Indian population. Migration beginning from the nineteenth century have found significant communities in Canada, the United Kingdom, the Middle East, East Africa, Southeast Asia and more recently, the United States, Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand.
The surname Singh (meaning Lion) is given to males when they become a Sikh. Similarily, Kaur (meaning princess) is given to women. Of course, not all people named Singh or Kaur are necessarily Sikhs. The name Singh is closely linked to the martial antiquities of North India dating back to at least the Eighth Century CE. Sikh forenames are unisexual; the "Singh" and "Kaur" monikers are hence useful in clarifying the person's sex. Additionaly, giving the last name Kaur to a woman is meant to empower her: no longer does she take her husband's last name when married. Changing of the last name to Singh (for males) or Kaur (for females) was also decreed by the Gurus so as to eliminate discrimination based on one's family name. By casting off one's family name, every Sikh acknowledges that all humans are equal; that no one shall be treated differently just because of his or her family name.
Despite their comparatively small population, Sikhs are highly represented in various sectors of Indian life. They compose a significant segment of India's military services and are significant participants in sports such as field hockey and politics. Sikh political leaders of the past and present include Master Tara Singh, Sardul Singh Caveeshar, Baldev Singh, former president of India Zail Singh and present prime minister of India Manmohan Singh. Sikh intellectuals, sportsmen and artists such as Khushwant Singh, Jaspal Bhatti, Milkha Singh (nicknamed The Flying Sikh), Bishen Singh Bedi, Navjot Singh Sidhu and Harbhajan Singh are an integral part of popular culture. Sikh communities also enjoy comparatively greater economic prosperity - the state of Punjab is known as India's breadbasket, owing to its significant production of food crops, and one of the most industrialized economies in the nation. In India and across the world, Sikhs are an important mercantile class, as well as employed in skilled professions. This is primarily owed to a close-knit community structure, progressive farming techniques and a cultural emphasis on education.
Despite its emphasis on equality and brotherhood, socio-economic divisions between urban and Jatt Sikhs have developed, as well as "castes" such as Khatris and Aroras who are generally classified as inferior urban castes. Sikh castes and depressed groups enjoy representation in India's civil services.[26] Relations with Hindu communities have generally been close and friendly, and inter-communal marriages, social relationships and co-existence are common. In recent years, the number of younger Sikhs who are not well-versed with religious scriptures and long-held traditions, and do not observe many religious injunctions has increased, especially in communities in Western Europe and North America.[28]
See also
An index of the most important pages on Sikhism, can be found at the Sikh pages.
Further reading
- Philosophy and Faith of Sikhism (ISBN 0893891096) by Kartar S. Duggal
Notes
- ^ Singh, Khushwant (2006). The Illustrated History of the Sikhs. India: Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-195-67747-1.
- ^ Template:Pa icon Nabha, Kahan Singh (1930). Gur Shabad Ratnakar Mahan Kosh/ਗੁਰ ਸ਼ਬਦ ਰਤਨਾਕਰ ਮਹਾਨ ਕੋਸ਼[[Category:Articles containing Punjabi-language text]] (in Punjabi). p. 720. Retrieved 2006-05-29.
{{cite book}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help) - ^ a b c d Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. p. 259. ISBN 0-87196-129-6.
- ^ a b c d Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. p. 252. ISBN 0-87196-129-6.
- ^ Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. p. 253. ISBN 0-87196-129-6.
- ^ a b Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. p. 254. ISBN 0-87196-129-6.
- ^ a b Mann, Gurinder Singh (2001). The Making of Sikh Scripture. United States: Oxford University Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-195-13024-3.
- ^ Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. p. 255. ISBN 0-87196-129-6.
- ^ Singh, Khushwant (2006). The Illustrated History of the Sikhs. India: Oxford University Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN 0-195-67747-1. Also, as according to the Purātan Janamsākhī (the birth stories of Nānak).
- ^ Shackle, Christopher (2005). Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures. United Kingdom: Routledge. pp. xiii–xiv. ISBN 0-415-26604-1.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Singh, Khushwant (2006). The Illustrated History of the Sikhs. India: Oxford University Press. p. 14. ISBN 0-195-67747-1.
- ^ Shackle, Christopher (2005). Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures. United Kingdom: Routledge. pp. xv. ISBN 0-415-26604-1.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Duggal, Kartar Singh (1988). Philosophy and Faith of Sikhism. Himalayan Institute Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-893-89109-6.
- ^ Brar, Sandeep Singh (1998). "The Sikhism Homepage: Guru Amar Das". Retrieved 2006-05-26.
- ^ Shackle, Christopher (2005). Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures. United Kingdom: Routledge. pp. xv–xvi. ISBN 0-415-26604-1.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Mahmood, Cynthia (2002). A Sea of Orange. United States: Xlibris. p. 16. ISBN 1-401-02856-X.
- ^ Shackle, Christopher (2005). Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures. United Kingdom: Routledge. pp. xvi. ISBN 0-415-26604-1.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Rama, Swami (1986). Celestial Song/Gobind Geet: The Dramatic Dialogue Between Guru Gobind Singh and Banda Singh Bahadur. Himalayan Institute Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN 0-893-89103-7.
- ^ Singh, Khushwant (2006). The Illustrated History of the Sikhs. India: Oxford University Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 0-195-67747-1.
- ^ a b Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. p. 256. ISBN 0-87196-129-6.
- ^ Pandey, Gyanendra (2001). Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism and History in India. Cambridge University Press. p. 33. ISBN 0-521-00250-8.
- ^ Trumpp, Ernest (2004) [1877]. The Ādi Granth or the Holy Scriptures of the Sikhs. India: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. pp. 1xxxi. ISBN 81-215-0244-6.
- ^ Grierson, George Abraham (1967) [1927]. The Linguistic Survey of India. India: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 624. ISBN 81-853-9527-6.
- ^ Mann, Gurinder Singh (2001). The Making of Sikh Scripture. United States: Oxford University Press. p. 19. ISBN 0-195-13024-3.
- ^ Brar, Sandeep Singh (1998). "The Sikhism Homepage: Sri Guru Granth Sahib - Authors & Contributors". Retrieved 2006-05-30.
- ^ a b Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. p. 260. ISBN 0-87196-129-6.
- ^ Simmonds, David (1992). Believers All: A Book of Six World Religions. Nelson Thornes. pp. 120–121. ISBN 0-174-37057-1.
- ^ Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. p. 261. ISBN 0-87196-129-6.
References
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External links
- The Sikhism Home Page - General resource site introducing the main concepts of Sikhism.
- All About Sikhs - Sikhism resource site.
- Sri Granth - Guru Granth Sahib search engine with additional scriptural resources.
- SikhiWiki - Collaborative Sikh encyclopedia.
- SikhNet - Popular Sikh community website.