Kristallnacht
Kristallnacht, also known as Reichskristallnacht, Pogromnacht and in English as The Night of Broken Glass, was a massive nation-wide pogrom in Germany on the night of November 9, 1938 (including early hours of the following day). It was directed at Jewish citizens throughout the country, and was for many observers the first hint that what is now called the Holocaust (of which it was an early event) might be unique in scale in the life of Central and Western Europe.
Terminology
Names for this event are the subject of some controversy. It was called Kristallnacht (German for "crystal night") evoking the many shop windows, mostly owned by Jewish shopkeepers, that were broken during the night.
Dr. Walter H. Pehle, a historian specializing in modern Germany, has argued that the direct translation should be unacceptable because its original intent was cynically propagandizing the violence into something metaphorically holding "sparkle and gleam" for Germany.
In the term Reichskristallnacht, the prefix "Reichs-" is grammatically a possessive of "Reich", which means "Empire". Both forms of that word were heavily used in German-government propaganda during the Nazi period, and in this case it would seem intended to assert that (no matter how spontaneous it was presented as being) it was an event of importance to the whole nation, not just a collection of local events whose significance was limited to the respective local communities.
The term English "The Night of Broken Glass" is often explained as avoiding the ironic intent of Kristallnacht.
Today in Germany it is mostly called Pogromnacht ("pogrom night"), reflecting a consensus that "Kristallnacht" was too euphemistic.
The events
Prelude
In the 1930s, many Jews of Polish origin lived in Germany. On Friday,October 28, 1938, 17,000 of them had been gathered without warning in the middle of the night and deported from Germany to Poland. (Many of them had been in Germany for most of their lives; some were decorated German veterans of the First World War.)
The Polish government refused to admit them, resulting in their trudging between the German and Polish border posts in the cold day and night, until German authorities finally persuaded the Polish government to grant entry.
Herschel Grynszpan, a Jewish German who had fled to France, had received a letter from his family describing the horrible conditions they experienced in this deportation. Seeking to alleviate their situation, he appealed repeatedly over the next few days to Ernst vom Rath, secretary of the German Embassy in Paris, who apparently had no intention of being helpful.
On Monday, November 7, Grynszpan shot and killed vom Rath.
Kristallnacht
Vom Rath's assassination served as an excuse for launching a pogrom against Jewish inhabitants throughout the country. The attack was intended to look like a spontaneous act, but was in fact orchestrated by the German government. This meant it was pursuant to the leadership of the Nazi Party, and as it often did, the government drew on the party's organization in addition to formal government lines of authority.
This pogrom damaged, and in many cases destroyed, about 1574 synagogues (constituting nearly all Germany had), many Jewish cemeteries, more than 7,000 Jewish shops, and 29 department stores. More than 30,000 Jews were arrested and taken to concentration camps; a few were even beaten to death with others forced to watch. The number of Jewish Germans killed is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 36 to about 200 over two days of rioting. The number killed is most often cited as 91. The indiscriminate nature of the violence is suggested by some non-Jewish Germans who were killed simply because someone thought they "looked Jewish".
Kristallnacht, example of physical damage
Contemporary foreign response
The Kristallnacht pogrom sparked outrage all over the world. It discredited pro-Nazi movements in Europe and North America, leading to their eventual decline. Many newspapers condemned the Kristallnacht, with some comparing it to the murderous pogroms incited by Imperial Russia in the 1880's. The U.S. and other governments severed diplomatic relations with Germany in protest.
Follow-through
The persecution and economic damage done to German Jews did not stop with the pogrom. They were also forced to pay a collective fine of 1 billion marks to the Nazi government. In announcing the forced payment, top Nazi official Hermann Goering inadvertently described the hard reality exposed by the Kristallnacht:
"German Jewry shall, as punishment for their abominable crimes, et cetera, have to make a contribution for one billion marks. The swine won't commit another murder. Incidentally, I must acknowledge that I would not like to be a Jew in Germany."
The night ushered in a new phase in the antisemitic activities of the Nazi party and state apparatuses, leading to the deportation and, finally, the extermination of most of the Jewish people living in Germany.
Modern response
Many decades later, association with the Kristallnacht anniversary was cited as a reason against choosing November 9, the day the Berlin Wall came down in 1989, as the new German national holiday; another day was chosen.