Conscription
Some countries require by law that their citizens serve a term in their armed forces. This process is generally known as conscription, mandatory military service, or colloquially in the U.S. as "the draft". Except in wartime, the United States (and many other nations) has a strictly volunteer, or professional, military force, rather than relying on conscription.
In the United Kingdom and elsewhere the term conscription is generally used only during wartime. National Service was the term used in peace-time. A shortage of miners during war-time saw also men conscripted as mine workers - the "Bevin Boys".
History
Conscription allowed the French Republic to form the Grande Armee, what Napoleon Bonaparte called "the nation in arms", which successfully battled European professional armies.
Conscription, particularly when the conscripts are being sent to foreign wars that do not directly affect the security of the nation, has historically been highly politically contentious in democracies. For instance, during World War I, bitter political disputes broke out in Canada (see Conscription Crisis of 1917), Newfoundland, Australia and New Zealand over conscription. Canada also had a political dispute over conscription during World War II (see Conscription Crisis of 1944). Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the Vietnam War occurred in several countries in the late 1960s. (See also: Conscription Crisis)
In developed nations, the increasing emphasis on technological firepower and better-trained fighting forces, the sheer unlikelihood of a conventional military assault on most developed nations, as well as memories of the contentiousness of the Vietnam War experience, make mass conscription unlikely in the foreseeable future.
Russia and China, as well as many smaller nations, retain mainly conscript armies.
Women draftees
Most countries only draft men, although some (e.g., Israel) also draft women. Some have considered the practice of excluding women from the draft unfair, because they see it is against equality. During World War II women were drafted into the armed forces of the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union. The United States came close to drafting women into the Nurse Corps in preparation for a planned invasion of Japan; the atomic bomb and the Japanese surrender made this unnecessary.
Conscientious Objectors
A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with military service, or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status which augments their conscription duties. The reasons for refusing to serve are varied. Many conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons -- notably, the Quakers are pacifist by doctrine and Jehovah's Witnesses, who, while not strictly speaking pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe Christians should be neutral in worldly conflicts.
Draft evaders
Not everyone who was conscripted was willing to give up their lives figuratively (and often literally) in the service of their country. Many young people used their family's political connections to ensure that they were placed well away from any potential harm. Others used educational exemptions, or became conscientious objectors. For others, the commonest method of avoiding the draft was to cross the border into another country. People who have been "called up" for military service and who attempted to avoid it in some way, were known as "draft-dodgers". American draft-dodgers made their way to Canada or Mexico. Australian draft-dodgers had greater difficulty leaving their country due to the ocean, but "going bush" worked just as well in the short term for many of them.
Many people looked upon draft-dodgers with scorn as being "cowards", but some supported them in their efforts. Other people like Muhammad Ali have openly refused to comply to conscription and fought in court to enforce his rights.
Countries with mandatory military service
A number of countries have mandatory military service:
Austria
In Austria, compulsory military service applies to all male citizens from 18 to 36 years of age (with some exceptions), in which the basic military service must be done. The duration of the basic military service is eight months. This can either be done in one go, or as a service of six months with regular weapon exercises of several days as member of the Miliz until the duration of eight months is reached.
Although women have in principle no military service, they can undertake military service voluntarily.
Military alternative service or civil service is possible in place of the compulsory military service. Its duration is 12 months and can be performed at different organizations.
China (PRC)
The People's Republic of China has conscription for both men and women. Women who are conscripted go to the army for two months and learn to fire guns. Information updated: as of 2003 with some information not updated since 1990s, unofficial source.
Finland
As of 2004, Finland has mandatory military service of at least six months, depending on the assigned position: those trained as officers serve for twelve months, specialty troops serve for nine months, and other rank and file serve for six months. Women can serve, if they choose. Civilian service of 13 months is available in lieu of military service. Men who opt for neither are sent to open prison where they may work and study for a period of six months.
Germany
Germany has a mandatory military service of nine months for men. Women may volunteer and are allowed to perform the same jobs as men. A conscientious objector may write a petition requesting permission to do a civilian "substitute service" ("Ersatzdienst"), which is usually accepted, whereupon he is expected to serve 10 months. Overall, however, during the past few years, the number of men being drafted has declined significantly.
Save for a few exceptions, military service is compulsory for all men between the ages of 18 and 23 years. Those who are engaged in educational or vocational training programs prior to their military assessment are allowed to postpone service until they have completed the programs and can be called upon to perform this national duty at any time thereafter.
German law provides several options for conscientious objectors to perform alternative public service instead of a weapons-based military service:
1. The main alternative is the aforementioned "substitute service" ("Ersatzdienst") lasting for 10 months, in which the objector is required to serve in non-combatant, state-run institutions such as the Technical Aid Corps ("Technische HilfsWerk"), Fire Department or other emergency assistance and crisis management agencies. While performing this service, the objector continues to fall within the purview of the German Federal Defense Force ("Deutsche Bundeswehr"). As such, he is termed a "combat" objector, or someone who refuses to handle a weapon, but may be otherwise deployed in times of war, if necessary.
2. The foregoing makes "Ersatzdienst" unacceptable for some conscientious objectors, who are completely opposed to being associated in any way with the military, and wish to be viewed as unavailable to the "Bundeswehr" under any circumstances—even in times of war. For such cases, the law provides "civilian service" ("Zivildienst") as an alternative. Under this arrangement, the objector may find employment with a civilian institution that renders a public service, such as a hospital, rehabilitation center or assisted living facility for the aged. This service must be performed for 12 months. Of course, this arrangement has resulted in several controversial cases, in which the objector was unable to find employment that qualified as "Zivildienst" under the statute, and preferred to accept imprisonment rather that be enrolled in the military's "Ersatzdienst" option. Such a sentence may last for at least three years, though this maximum term is very uncommon.
3. The third alternative permitted by German law is for the objector to become a foreign "development helper" ("Entwicklungshelfer"), which means that the person will be expected to work in a technical capacity in a recognized "developing country" for a period of not less than 18 months. To qualify for this option, the objector would have had to complete formal vocational training or an educational program that grants a recognized qualification in a marketable skill making the objector a useful asset in a developing host country. The objector is responsible for personally making all of the arrangements in order to engage in this alternative service. Many objectors who chose this option, become so engrossed in the developmental needs of such countries, that they stay abroad many years longer than the legal requirement. The disproportionately high percentage of German nationals found in many international aid, conservation, medical and technical assistance organizations active in developing countries may be directly attributable to this trend.
Another provision allows the third son of a family to be completely exonerated from military service, if his older brothers participated. Of course, voluntary enrolment is always possible.
The ongoing political debate over whether the German Federal Defense Force should be converted into a purely volunteer-based, professional army raises questions about the military draft policy. Since the current process selects ever-decreasing numbers of men from each succeeding generation, conflicting views abound regarding the effect of the selection, both in terms of the overall quality of the force and the general fairness of the system.
The final decision will most likely be informed by the enhanced or even reduced roles that such a new "army" would be expected to play in German society in the years to come.
Greece
As of 2002, Greece (Hellenic Republic) has a mandatory military service of 18 months. However, it is developing a professional army system, and it is widely expected that the mandatory military service will be abolished soon, with some ranks serving for 14 or 16 months in recent times. Greek soldiers fire a gun during the first two months of their service. Although women are accepted in the Greek army, they are not obliged to join as men are. Soldiers have free health insurance and medical support during their army service, including hospitalization costs.
Israel
Israel has mandatory military service for both men and women who hold Israeli citizenship. There are growing numbers of refuseniks who resist military service, particularly in the Occupied Territories and are serving prison terms as a result. See also: Refusal to serve in the Israeli military
Lebanon
Lebanon has a mandatory military service of one year for men. Information updated: as of 2004. See Official Information from Lebanese Army.
Malaysia
As of 2004, Malaysia has a mandatory national service of three months for a selected group of both men and women. 20% of 18-year-olds are selected through a lottery system to join this program. Trainees will not be trained using firearms. The first training date is Feb 16, 2004. See Official Information from Malaysia National Service Training Department.
Norway
Norway has mandatory military service for men (women can volunteer) of 6, 9 or 12 months. Pacifists can apply for alternative service.
Russia
As of 2002, Russia (Russian Federation) has a mandatory two-year draft but most Russians avoid it. See Only 11 percent of Russian men enter mandatory military service.
Singapore
Singapore has one of the longest mandatory military service for males, at two and a half years. It also has special policies for ethnic Malays, because of possible conflicts in allegiances with neighbor and rival, Malaysia.
South Korea
As of 2002, South Korea has a mandatory military service of 26 months. See: [1].
Sweden
As of 2002, Sweden's government asked the army to consider mandatory army service for women. Less than a third of the Scandinavian country's eligible 19-year-olds are actually drafted each year. See Sweden considers mandatory military service for women.
Switzerland
Although Switzerland has the largest standing civilian army in the world, the military service is voluntary. Conscription service applies to male citizens in accordance with the Federal Constitution, usually to those between the ages of 20 to 42. Length of service varies by type. Refresher courses are required until a rank-referred number of days is reached. For the crew ranks this amounts to a maximum of 300 days.
Taiwan (ROC)
As 0f 2004, The Republic of China has implemented mandatory military service for all males since 1949. Females in the outlying islands of Fujian must also serve. Beginning January 2004, the mandatory service has been shortened by two months. See Information from www.taipei.org.
Historical information
Canada
See main articles Conscription Crisis of 1917 and Conscription Crisis of 1944
In Canada conscription has never taken place in peace-time. Conscription became an extremely controversial issue during both WWI and WWII, especially in the province of Quebec.
France
France was one of the first nations to employ conscription. During the wars following the French Revolution the army needed men to stop invasions Austrian and British invasions. France abolished peacetime military conscription in 2001.
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire introduced a law in 1873 regarding mandatory military service. The first draft took place in 1874. See: Military service in Russia Empire.
Slovenia
Slovenia's Prime Minister Anton Rop abolished mandatory military service on September 9 2003. Read the Official Press Release.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom had conscription during the First World War and the Second World War. After the Second World War, it introduced National Service, which was abolished in 1960.
United States of America
The United States has instituted mandatory military service at various times, usually during wars such as the American Civil War, World War II and Vietnam War. Registration for selective service (for possible future drafts) is required of all males at their 18th birthday. Registrants remain in the pool until January 1 of the year they turn 25.
When the United States began mobilizing in 1940, in response to the threat from Nazi Germany, the first peacetime draft in its history was introduced. Use of the draft persisted through the early years of the Cold War.
However, in the aftermath of Vietnam, it was recognized that retention of conscription would be completely impracticable.
The military currently does not believe that a draft is needed. They feel that the current personnel levels of the military services is sufficent. Some members of the military feel that an all volunteer military provides military services with people that are in the military because it is truly what they want to do, and makes the military better. In recent times many more positions in the military require highly skilled and trained individuals, which some in the military have felt could only be obtained through volunteer means.
In 2004, the Bush administration approved of 24 million USD to go toward reactivation of the Selective Service Initiative, to be restarted sometime in 2005.
The Problems of the Draft in the United States
Perception of the Draft as Unfair
Some people feel that the draft is unfair because only males are required to register with the Selective Service, and it's only males that could potentially be drafted. This is in spite of the fact that many women have volunteerd for military service, and in spite of the fact that women have made the ultimate sacrifice by dying while performing military service.
In recent years, the draft has been perceived by some as unfairly targeting the poor and lower middle classes. Because of college deferments, children of wealthy and upper middle class families that could afford to send them to college could avoid the draft. The fact that President Clinton had avoided military service through the use of a deferment caused controversy during his campaigns and during his time in office.
Some children of wealthy families wished to avoid a perception of avoiding military service. Those individuals would often sign up for the National Guard. The fact that some were able to use their family's connections to gain a position when spots in the guard were limited also led to a perception that the wealthy were using the National Guard to ensure that their children were assigned low risk duty in the states. This is an issue that has affected President George W. Bush - some of his critics contend that his family influence gained him a spot in what was called the Champagne unit of the Texas National Guard rather than being drafted.
Also, the draft system itself in the United States was not entirely a fair and impartial system. There have been cases where local draft boards misused their authority in the past.
While the government had instituted reforms to deal with what were preceived to be the worst abuses, some people feel that more can still be done.
Selective Service Reforms
The Selective Service System has maintained that they have implemented a number of reforms that would make the draft more fair and equitable.
Some of the measures they have implemented include:
- Before Vietnam a young man could get a deferment by showing that he was a full time student making satisfactory progress towards a degree. Now if called a man could normally only defer induction to the end of the semester. If the man is a senior he can defer until the end of the academic year.
- The government has said that draft boards are now more representative of the local communities in areas such as race and national orgin.
- A lottery system would be used to determine the order of people being called up. Previously the oldest men who were found eligible for the draft would be taken first. In the new system, the men called first would be those who are or will turn 20 in the calendar year or those whose deferments will end in the calendar year. Each year after the man will be placed on a lower priority status until his liability ends.
However, as their has been no draft since the end of the Vietnam war, it remains to be seen how any future drafts would be conducted.
The Draft As Slavery
Some groups such as the Libertarians say that the draft constitutes slavery, since it is mandatory work. Under the 13th Amendment of the Constitution, slavery or indentured servitude is not allowed unless it's part of punishment for a crime. They therefore see the draft as unconstitutional (at least in the U.S.). As this opinion has not been decided one way or the other by the courts the draft remains an option for the US government for the future.