Vegetarianism

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For plant-eating animals, see Herbivore.

Vegetarianism is a dietary practice characterized by the exclusion of fish, flesh, and fowl. Some vegetarians may also exclude products derived from animal carcasses, such as lard, tallow, gelatin, rennet and cochineal.

Most vegetarians eat animal-derived products such as honey, milk, and cheese. The practice of excluding all animal by-products is called veganism. Some vegetarians also choose not to wear products that involve the death of animals, including leather, silk, feather, and fur.

A selection of produce typical of a vegetarian diet.

History

Vegetarianism has been common in Hindu countries, such as India, since possibly the 2nd millennium BC for spiritual reasons, such as ahimsa (nonviolence) and reducing bad karmic influences. Jainism, which claims between eight to ten million adherants, enjoins its followers to be vegetarian. Many Buddhist monks have also historically practiced vegetarianism. In looking for parallels in Jewish and Christian antiquity for these practices, some Christian vegetarians feel a kinship with Nazirite and Ebionite practices.

Many Hindu scriptures advocate the diet. For instance, the epic Mahabharata states: "He who desires to augment his own flesh by eating the flesh of other creatures lives in misery in whatever species he may take his birth." [citation needed] The secular literature of Tirukural in Tamil Nadu, India, proclaimed over 2000 years ago: "Perceptive souls who have abandoned passion will not feed on flesh abandoned by life. How can he practise true compassion, he who eats the flesh of an animal to fatten his own flesh?" [citation needed]

Vegetarians in Europe used to be called "Pythagoreans", [citation needed] after the philosopher and his followers abstained from meat in the 6th century BC. These people followed a vegetarian diet for nutritional and ethical reasons. According to the Roman poet Ovid, Pythagoras said: "As long as Man continues to be the ruthless destroyer of lower living beings he will never know health or peace. For as long as men massacre animals, they will kill each other. Indeed, he who sows the seed of murder and pain cannot reap joy and love." [2]

In 1847, attendees at the meeting of the first Vegetarian Society in Ramsgate, England, agreed that a "vegetarian" — from the Latin uegetus "lively", and suggestive of the English word "vegetable" — was a person who refuses to consume flesh of any kind.

Indian vegetarians are estimated to make up more than 70% of the world's vegetarians. They make up 20 to 30% of the population in India, while occasional meat-eaters make up another 30%. Even among non-vegetarians, beef and pork are eaten only by a small minority.

In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism steadily grew over the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and more recently, environmental concerns. In the U.S., as of 2000, 2.5 to 3% said they never eat meat [3], which may mean they are vegetarian, while 5 to 6% said they do not eat meat [4]. This represents an increase over the last decade [5] and a great increase since 1950 when vegetarianism was very rare, although per-capita meat consumption has increased considerably since then, as the price of meat has fallen due to factory farming, and the average income has risen.

Recently concerns about the environmental accumulation of pesticides and poisons up a food chain have led some to avoid meat, while incidents of mad cow disease have also seen significant increases in the numbers of vegetarians in the United Kingdom and United States.

In the Western world, vegetarians are twice as likely to be female as male, are more likely to be young to middle-aged than older, and are more likely to be liberal than conservative. In countries with predominantly Hindu and Jain communities, the ratios may favour females, older, and more conservative individuals.

Terminology and varieties of vegetarianism

Different practices of vegetarianism include:

  • Lacto vegetarianism — Lacto vegetarians do not eat meat, but may consume milk and its derivatives, like cheese, butter, or yogurt.
  • Ovo-lacto vegetarianism — Ovo-lacto vegetarians do not eat meat, but may consume animal products such as eggs and milk.
  • Ovo vegetarianism — Ovo vegetarians do not eat meat and dairy products but may eat eggs.
  • Veganism — Those who avoid eating any animal products, including eggs, milk, cheese, and honey, are called dietary vegans. Those who avoid eating or using animal products, such as leather and some cosmetics, are called vegans.

The following are less common practices of vegetarianism:

  • Raw food diet — Involves food, usually vegan, which is not heated above 116°F (46.7°C); it may be warmed slightly or raw, but never cooked. Raw foodists argue that cooking destroys enzymes and/or portions of each nutrient. However, some raw foodists believe certain foods become more bio-available when warmed slightly as the process softens them, which more than negates the destruction of nutrients and enzymes. Other raw foodists, called "living foodists", activate the enzymes through soaking the food in water a while before consumption. Some spiritual raw foodists are also fruitarians and many eat only organic foods.
  • Fruitarianism — Fruitarians, or fructarians, eat only fruit, nuts, seeds, and other plant matter that can be gathered without harming the plant (some fruitarians eat only plant matter that has already fallen off the plant). This typically arises out of a holistic philosophy. Thus, a fruitarian will eat beans, tomatoes, cucumbers, pumpkins, and the like, but will refuse to eat potatoes or spinach. It is disputed whether it is possible to avoid malnutrition with a fruitarian diet, which is rarer than other types of vegetarian or vegan diet.

Religious dietary restrictions come in many forms and are sometimes compatible with the secular terminology.

The following are not considered vegetarianism:

  • Pesco/pollo vegetarianism — Some people choose to avoid certain types of meat for many of the same reasons that others choose vegetarianism: health, ethical beliefs, etc. For example, some people will not eat "red meat" (mammal meat – beef, lamb, pork, etc.) while still consuming poultry and seafood. This is not vegetarianism, but has recently been referred to in the media as semi-vegetarianism or pesco/pollo vegetarianism.
  • Flexitarianism; Flexitarians adhere to a diet that is mostly vegetarian but occasionally consume meat.
  • Some regard the suffering of animals in factory farm conditions as their sole reason for avoiding meat or meat-based foods, and will eat meat or meat products from animals raised under more humane conditions or hunted in the wild.
  • Freeganism; Freegans practice a lifestyle based on concerns about the exploitation of animals, the earth, and human beings in the production of consumer goods. Many tend towards veganism but this is not an inherent practice. Those that eat meat generally support the arguments for vegetarianism, but as freegans are very concerned about waste many prefer to make use of discarded commodities than to allow them to go to waste and consume landfill space. [6]

Motivation

Nutritional

Main article: Vegetarian nutrition
A small selection of vegetarian foods

Some nutritionists claim that a diet rich in fresh fruit and vegetables but low in, or excluding, animal fat and protein offers numerous health benefits, including a significantly lower risk of heart disease, cancer, renal failure, obesity, diabetes and stroke. The American Dietetic Association, the largest organization of nutrition professionals, states on its website "Vegetarian diets offer a number of nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein as well as higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals. Vegetarians have been reported to have lower body mass indices than nonvegetarians, as well as lower rates of death from ischemic heart disease; vegetarians also show lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer." [7] [8] The American Heart Association's website states "Many studies have shown that vegetarians seem to have a lower risk of obesity, coronary heart disease (which causes heart attack), high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus and some forms of cancer." [9] Studies show that a vegetarian mother's breast milk has significantly lower levels of pesticide than a non-vegetarian's.

A myth used to exist that vegetarians had to mix proteins to get all the essential amino acids. This argument has been debunked, as vegetarians get all the protein and amino acids they need from eating a normal variety of whole grains (whole wheat bread, oatmeal, brown rice), beans, nuts, and soy (tofu, veggie burgers/hotdogs, etc). The intake of such foods has to be larger since the protein percentage in these foods are comparitively lower than in a similar serving of meat. Attaining sufficient protein intake is rarely a problem in developed countries and the lower protein intake of vegetarians has even been suggested as a possible cause of some of the health benefits above. A purely vegetarian diet does not include fish - a major source of Omega 3, though some plant-based sources of it exist such as soy, flaxseed, hempseed, pumpkin seeds, canola oil and especially, walnuts.

Some suggest that vegetarians have higher rates of deficiencies in those nutrients which are found in high concentrations in meat. Surprisingly, studies endorsed by the ADA found that this was not the case for iron or calcium but was true for vitamin B-12 and zinc [10]. Nonetheless, these nutrients can be found in sufficient quantities in non-meat foods and are now commonly supplemented in milks and cereals so this is not necessarily a problem in a vegetarian diet. Vegetarians who doubt that their supply of these nutrients is sufficient are advised to supplement.

Ethical

File:TIME Vegie.jpg
Cover Story on TIME. [1]
Main article: Ethics of vegetarianism

Many vegetarians consider the production, subsequent slaughtering and consumption of meat or animal products as unethical. Reasons for believing this are varied, and may include a belief in animal rights, or an aversion to inflicting pain or harm on other living creatures. In developed countries, ethical vegetarianism has become popular particularly after the spread of factory farming, which has reduced the sense of husbandry that used to exist in farming and led to animals being treated as commodities. Many believe that the treatment which animals undergo in the production of meat and animal products obliges them to never eat meat or use animal products, even if this is a considerable inconvenience. In addition to the ethical issues involved, some vegetarians find meat, animal products, and their production unappetizing or emotionally disturbing.

Environmental

Main article: Environmental vegetarianism

The production of meat and animal products at current and likely future levels is often considered as environmentally and ecologically unsustainable. It is also argued that even if sustainable, modern industrial agriculture is changing ecosystems faster than they can adapt. While vegetarian agriculture produces some of the same problems as animal production, the environmental impact of animal production is significantly greater.

Heavy consumptions of resources such as fossil fuels and water, methane emissions, trawling, and over-grazed lands are some of the problems that are alleviated with vegetarian diets [11]. Environmental vegetarians can be compared with economic vegetarians, who consider the meat industry economically unsound.

"The cost of mass-producing cattle, poultry, pigs, sheep and fish to feed our growing population... include highly inefficient use of freshwater and land, heavy pollution from livestock feces... and spreading destruction of the forests on which much of our planet's life depends." - Time Magazine 11/8/99

Social

Some people are vegetarian because they were raised by vegetarians. Others may have become vegetarians because of a vegetarian partner, family member, or friend. Some people live in regions that have a sizeable population who are vegetarian (such as India). When removed from the social influences that cause vegetarianism, some people stop being vegetarian while others still remain vegetarian.

Spiritual

Many Eastern religions claim that spiritual awareness is greatly enhanced on a vegetarian diet. They believe that vegetarianism helps an individual explore deeper levels of consciousness through such practices as meditation, yoga or whirling. In the Western world there are also individuals like James Redfield who, independent from any specific religious beliefs, share the same sentiment. In the West this motivation is regarded by many as a New Age reason for being vegetarian.

Religious motivation

Main article: Vegetarianism and religion

The majority of the world's vegetarians, according to the Society of Ethical and Religious Vegetarians, follow the practice for religious reasons. Many religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, and especially Jainism, teach that ideally life should always be valued and not willfully destroyed for unnecessary human gratification.

Hinduism

Hindus believe that food shapes the personality, mood and mind. They believe that meat promotes aggressiveness and a mental state of turmoil known as "rajas". On the other hand, a vegetarian diet is considered to promote sattwic qualities, calm the mind, and essential for spiritual progress. They also believe that animals have souls and killing animals have karmic repurcussions that are bound to be reaped later by oneself. Most of the secular motivations for vegetarianism such as ethical considerations and nutrition apply to Hindu motivations as well.

Hindus of certain castes, especially Brahmins, are forbidden from consuming anything gained at the expense of an animal's suffering, and follow a Lacto vegetarian diet. Leather from animals who have died of natural causes is acceptable for some Hindus. The diet of the orthodox Hindu excludes animal products (apart from milk products), alcohol, the rajasic foods - onions and garlic, as well as mushrooms, which are a form of fungus.

The Indian cuisine and diet is primarily vegetarian and most Hindus are semi-vegetarians, refraining from beef and eating meat/seafood only occasionally. Most non-vegetarian practising Hindus maintain a vegetarian diet on religious days.

Buddhism

The first lay precept in Buddhism prohibits killing. But, the Buddha also made a distinction between killing an animal and consumption of meat, stressing that it is immoral conduct that makes one impure, not the food one eats. At one point, the Buddha specifically refused to institute vegetarianism, and the Pali Canon records the Buddha himself eating meat on several occasions. There were, however, rules prohibiting certain types of meat, such as human, leopard or elephant. Monks are also prohibited from consuming meat if they witnessed the animal's death or know it was killed specifically for them.

On the other hand, the Buddha in certain Mahayana sutras strongly denounces the eating of meat. In the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Buddha states that "the eating of meat extinguishes the seed of great compassion", adding that every kind of meat and fish consumption is prohibited by him.

In the modern Buddhist world, attitudes toward vegetarianism vary by location. In China and Vietnam, monks typically eat no meat (and with other restrictions as well – see Buddhist cuisine). In Japan or Korea some schools do not eat meat, while most do. Tibetan monks and Theravadins in Sri Lanka and South-east Asia, do not practice vegetarianism.

Abrahamic religions

Jews, Christians, and Muslims are all left with the biblical ideal of the Garden of Eden diet, which from all appearances is fruitarian (see Genesis 1:29, 9:2-4; Isaiah 11:6-9). Accordingly, some Charismatics, Christian anarchists and Jewish vegetarians believe that, with a return to a Eden-like paradise (Messianic) era, they will have to go back to a holistic approach to health and diet. However, only minorities within these populations actually practice and advocate such strict diets, since the same book of the Bible, Genesis, later gives permission to Noah to consume animal flesh. Commentators agree that this permisson to eat meat largely appears to be a divine concession to human weakness and sin, with penalties — likely including decreased life expectancy (see Genesis 6:3). Some commentators also argue that people may eat animals because God gave Adam and Eve dominion over them.

Judaism

Rabbinical Judaism discourages ascetic practices in general. On the other hand, the Talmud discourages indulgence and states that it is preferable that one's diet consist mostly of non-meat products. Accordingly, to some Jewish vegetarians, vegetarianism is not a form of self-deprivation, because they don't desire to eat meat.

Though Judaism has not promoted vegetarianism in general, some prominent rabbis have been vegetarian, among them the first Chief Rabbi of pre-state Israel, Abraham Isaac Kook and fomer Chief Rabbi of Israel Shlomo Goren.

An argument used by Jewish vegetarians is that the laws of shechita are meant to prevent the suffering of animals but today, with factory farming and high-speed, mechanized slaughterhouses, even kosher slaughterhouses are considered by some authorities as not rendering the meat kosher. They also say that the Sages only mandated eating an olive's bulk of meat during festivals, but even then, this was because in Talmudic times, meat was considered essential for one's diet. (See Jews for Animal Rights).

Christianity

Main article: Christian vegetarianism

Some believe that Jesus, the twelve apostles and the early Messianic Jewish followers of Jesus (the Ebionites) were vegetarians. They think that a movement away from simple living and vegetarianism began with Paul, and that they need to return to pre-Pauline early Christianity. There are also Christian vegetarians, such as Leo Tolstoy and Ammon Hennacy, who believe that the Christian principles of compassion and nonviolence require a vegetarian diet whether the Jews and the early Christians were historically vegetarians or not.

Islam

Islam explicitly permits the eating of some kinds of meat, but does not make it compulsory. There are several hadith that support a vegetarian lifestyle and recommend kindness to animals rather than eating them. "Masih (the messiah, Jesus) said, ‘Flesh eating flesh? How offensive an act!’" (Al-Raghib al-Isfahani), Mahadarat al-Udaba', 1:610.) Some Islamic mystics, such as the Sufis, advocate vegetarianism.

Jainism

All dietary rules listed for Hindus apply to Jains. In addition, Jains must take into account any suffering caused to plants and suksma jiva (Sanskrit: subtle life forms; refers to what would later be termed "microorganisms") by their dietary choices. They are forbidden from eating most root vegetables (such as potatoes) and deem many other vegetables acceptable only when harvested during certain times of the year.

Taoism

In Chinese societies, "simple eating" (素食 Mandarin: sù shí) refers to a particular restricted diet associated with Taoist monks, and is sometimes practiced by members of the general population during Taoist festivals. It is referred to by the English word "vegetarian". However, though it rejects meat, eggs and milk, this diet does include oysters and oyster products.

Bahá'í Faith

The Bahá'í Faith prefers a vegetarian diet, although it is not required. Furthermore, Bahá'ís believe "Fruits and grains" will be the foods of the future and the time will come when meat will no longer be eaten [12].

Sikhism

In Sikhism, it is believed that one should not eat any type of meat for it involves killing a living conscience being. If one knowingly eats meat, it is a sin and they will have to atone for it in their next life.

Rastafari

Rastafarians generally follow a diet called "I-tal", which eschews the eating of food that has been artificially preserved, flavoured, or chemically altered in any way. Many Rastafarians consider it to also forbid the eating of meat.

Country specific information

  • In India vegetarianism is usually synonymous with lacto vegetarianism, although ovo-lacto vegetarianism is practiced as well. 20 to 30% of Indians are estimated to be vegetarians.
  • In the United States, vegetarianism is usually synonymous with ovo-lacto vegetarianism. However, vegetarians are sometimes wrongly assumed to be pesco/pollo vegetarians who will tolerate some meat. Many restaurants and caterers provide vegetarian options to patrons, often explicitly indicated as such. It is also possible to order a vegetarian meal and be served meat. Polls find that 2.8% of Americans are vegetarian as of 2004 [13].
  • In the UK, voluntary labelling of vegetarian foods is widespread, but far from universal. Many manufacturers will label food as "suitable for vegetarians" though there is currently no agreed definition of this. In addition, the Vegetarian Society operates a scheme where foods that meet its strict criteria can be labelled as "Vegetarian Society-approved". Cheese is often labelled as well, making it possible to identify cheeses that have been made with non-animal rennet. Flavourings in ingredients lists do not need to specify if they come from animal origin, which can make identifying vegetarian foods difficult if they are not otherwise labelled as such. 5% of the UK are estimated to be vegetarians.
  • In Ireland, food labelling is in place.
  • In Spain, most vegetarian meals will be served with egg, or even tuna. Stock is normally used in vegetable soups and many sauces.
  • In France the situation is similar to that in Spain, but is slightly less unfavourable.
  • In Germany, the confusion of vegetarianism with pesco/pollo vegetarianism is also common. There is no food labelling in place, and buying only vegetarian foods can involve having to read the fine printed ingredients list ("Zutaten") on many food products. However widespread Wholefood emporia provide sources for vegetarian foods in even remote areas.
  • In Australia the same conditions apply as in Germany. Some manufacturers who target the vegetarian market will label their foods, however except for foods intended for export to the United Kingdom, this labelling can be inconsistent. Flavourings in ingredients lists do not need to specify if they come from animal origin. As such, natural flavour could be derived from either plant or animal sources.

Vegetarian societies

Vegetarian societies (apart from India) were first formed in majority meat eating European countries both as a means to promote the diet and to gather together vegetarians for mutual support. By 2000, most western and developing nations had functioning vegetarian societies. The countries that were first to establish societies are still the ones most likely to have the greatest proportion of vegetarians within their populations.

The first societies were:

The International Vegetarian Union [14], a union of all the national societies, was founded in 1908.

Quotes

  • Nothing will benefit human health and increase chances for survival of life on earth as much as the evolution to a vegetarian diet - Albert Einstein.
  • The time will come when men such as I will look upon the murder of animals as they now look on the murder of men - Leonardo da Vinci
  • I have no doubt that it is a part of the destiny of the human race, in its gradual improvement, to leave off eating animals - Henry David Thoreau
  • A man can live and be healthy without killing animals for food; therefore, if he eats meat, he participates in taking animal life merely for the sake of his appetite - Leo Tolstoy.
  • I do feel that spiritual progress does demand, at some stage, that we should cease to kill our fellow creatures for the satisfaction of our bodily wants - Mahatma Gandhi.
  • To become vegetarian is to step into the stream which leads to nirvana - Buddha.

Criticism

There are some people who criticise vegetarianism on the grounds that it is difficult, if not impossible, to get a sufficient amount of B12 from a strictly vegetarian diet, although the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada statement on vegetarianism which has been reaffirmed four times over 15 years strongly disputes this [15]. In any case involving B12 deficiency, this can be easily remedied by simply taking a B12 supplement. Some people have allegedly suffered from health problems because of various types of vegan diets [16].

There are also some people who question some of the basic reasons for vegetarianism. For example, it is erroneous to assume that food given to livestock could instead be used to feed humans. In developing countries particularly, such food is usually of poor quality and not fit for human consumption, though the land it utilizes could be turned over to human food production. Also, there exist some types of terrain (such as mountains) that are suitable for grazing animals, but not suitable as farmland.

Some people produce environmental criticism based on the water consumption of local farmers: In most of the poor countries in Asia, the main source of carbohydrates and intake of cereals comes from rice consumption. The cultivation of paddy requires two to four times as much water when compared to cultivation of other dry crops (FAO) thus making it far more environmentally friendly to diversify the production. However, rice is usually only grown in areas where water is present in large volumes.

References

^ L. Beckett & J. W. Oltjen. (1993). Estimation of the water requirement for beef production in the United States. Journal of Animal Science, 71, 818-8268.

^ Corliss, R. (2002, July). Should We All Be Vegetarians? Time.

^ FAO., United Nations. (1996). Livestock & the Environment.

^ Shierry Weber Nicholsen, The Love of Nature and the End of the World : The Unspoken Dimensions of Environmental Concern (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003). ISBN 0262640511.

^ Techno Economics of Paddy cultivation, State Bank of India Publications.

^ Excerpt from the book The extended circle, by Jon Wynne-Tyson, ISBN 0747406332.

See also

Wikiquote has quotations related to Vegetarianism.
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