Japan

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For other uses, see Japan (disambiguation).

Template:Japan infobox Japan (日本) is a country on the western edge of the Pacific Ocean. The "Land of the Rising Sun" lies to the east of Korea and the rest of the Asian continent. It comprises over 3,000 islands having a coastline 100 meters or longer. The largest and main islands are, from north to south, Hokkaidō, Honshū (the largest island), Shikoku, and Kyūshū.

The English name "Japan" is believed to have come from the Italian name "Zipangu" given to the country by Marco Polo during the 13th century AD.

This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.

History

Main article: History of Japan

Pre-history

A Middle Jomon vessel (3000-2000 BC).

Archaeological research indicates that the earliest inhabitants of Japan migrated over land bridges from Korea and Siberia at least 30,000 years ago. Some may have also later come by sea from the Philippines and Polynesia.

The first signs of civilization appeared around 10,000 BC with the Jomon culture, characterized by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer lifestyle of pit-dwelling and a rudimentary form of agriculture. Weaving was still unknown, and archaeological findings indicate that clothes were often made of bark. By 3,000 BC, however, the Jomon people were making clay figures and vessels decorated with patterns made by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks (jomon means "patterns of plaited cord"). This led to the manufacture of the earliest known form of pottery in the world.

The start of the Yayoi period around 300 BC marked the influx of new technologies such as rice farming, shamanism, and iron and bronze-making, brought by migrants from Korea. These formed the basic elements of traditional Japanese culture still seen today. As the population increased and society became more complex, they wove cloth, lived in permanent farming villages, constructed buildings of wood and stone, accumulated wealth through landownership and the storage of grain, and developed distinct social classes.

The Yayoi period was succeeded around AD 250 by the Kofun period, characterized by the establishment of strong military states centered around powerful clans. The Yamato court, concentrated in the Asuka region, suppressed the clans and acquired agricultural lands increasing their power. Based on the Chinese model, they developed a central administration and an imperial court system and society was organized into occupation groups. Most people were farmers; others were fishers, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.

Classical era

The Great Buddha at Todaiji, Nara, originally cast in AD 752.

The Japanese do not start writing their own histories until the 5th and 6th centuries AD, when the Chinese writing system, Buddhism, advanced pottery, ceremonial burial, and other Chinese culture was introduced by Korean aristocrats, artisans, scholars, and monks from Baekje, a kingdom in Korea.

The beginning of Japanese historical writing culminates in the early 8th century AD with the massive chronicles, Kojiki (The Record of Ancient Matters, 712 AD) and Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan, 720 AD). Though Japan does not appear in written history until 57 AD, when it is first mentioned in Chinese records as the nation of "Wa" (in Chinese, "Wo"), or "dwarf slaves", these chronicles tell a much different and much more legendary history of Japan, deriving the people of Japan from the gods themselves.

According to traditional Japanese mythology, Japan was founded in the 7th century BC by the ancestral Emperor Jinmu, a direct descendant of the Shinto deity Amaterasu. It is claimed that he started a line of emperors that remains unbroken to this day. However, historians believe the first emperor who actually existed was the Emperor Ojin, though the date of his reign is uncertain. Nonetheless, for most of Japan's history, real power has been in the hands of the court nobility, the shoguns, the military, or, more recently, prime ministers.

Through the Taika Reform Edicts of 645 AD, Japanese intensified the adoption of Chinese cultural practices, and reorganized government in accordance with the Chinese administrative structure. This paved the way for the dominance of Confucian philosophy in Japan until the 19th century.

The Nara period of the 8th century marked the first strong Japanese state centered around an imperial court in the city of Heijo-kyo (now Nara). The imperial court later moved to Nagaoka and later Heian-kyo (now Kyoto), starting a "golden age" of classical Japanese culture called the Heian period.

Medieval era

Japan's medieval era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors called samurai. In the year 1185, general Minamoto Yoritomo was the first to break the tradition of ruling alongside the Emperor in Kyoto, holding power in distant Kamakura, just south of present-day Yokohama. After Yoritomo's death, another warrior clan, the Hojo, came to rule as regents for the shoguns. The shogunate managed to repel a Mongol invasion from Mongol-occupied Korea in 1274 and 1281. While this Kamakura shogunate was somewhat stable, Japan soon fell into warring factions and suffered through what became known as the Warring States or Sengoku period.

A group of Portuguese Nanban foreigners, 17th century.

During the 16th century, traders and missionaries from Europe reached Japan for the first time, initiating the "Nanban" ("Southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West. Around the same time, Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu, established increasingly strong control over the warring states of Japan. Nobunaga's barbaric and authoritarian handling of the country made him an unpopular warlord, though his military genius was not to be ignored. Hideyoshi's disastrous invasion of Korea in 1592 also gave him a bad name in Japanese history, especially after the Japanese were repulsed by Korean naval forces led by Yi Sun-sin and the Ming Dynasty Chinese.

Tokugawa finally reunified the country by defeating his enemies at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, moving the capital to Edo (now Tokyo) and starting the Tokugawa shogunate.

The Tokugawa shogunate, suspicious of the influence of Catholic missionaries, barred all relations with Europeans except for severely restricted contacts with Dutch merchants at the artificial island of Dejima. They also became more conscious of trade with China, especially after the Manchu conquered China and established the Manchu Qing Dynasty. The Manchus subjugated Korea in 1637, and many Japanese feared an invasion. Thus, the country became more isolated than ever before. This period of isolation lasted for two and a half centuries, a time of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period, considered to be the height of Japan's medieval culture.

Modern era

The Empire of Japan occupied most of East and Southeast Asia at its height in 1942.

In 1854, U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry forced the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa. The perceived weakness of the shogunate led many samurai to revolt, leading to the Boshin War of 1867-8. Subsequently, the shogunate resigned and the Meiji Restoration returned the Emperor to power. Japan adopted numerous Western institutions in the Meiji period, including a modern government, legal system, and military. These reforms transformed the Empire of Japan into a world power which defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War and Russia in the Russo-Japanese War. By 1910, Japan controlled Taiwan, Korea, and half of Sakhalin.

The early 20th century saw a brief period of "Taisho democracy" overshadowed by the rise of Japanese expansionism. World War I permitted Japan, which fought on the side of the victorious Allies, to expand its influence in Asia and its territorial holdings in the Pacific. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact and joined with Germany and Italy to form the Axis alliance. In 1937, Japan invaded Manchuria which led to the the second Sino-Japanese War (1937). In 1941, Japan attacked the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor, bringing America into World War II. After a long campaign in the Pacific Ocean, Japan lost its initial territorial gains, and the United States moved into range to begin strategic bombing of Tokyo, Osaka and other major cities as well as atomic bombing at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan eventually agreed to an unconditional surrender to the Allies on August 15, 1945 (V-J Day).

Official American occupation lasted until 1952, although U.S. forces still retain important bases in Japan, especially in Okinawa. Japan adopted a new constitution, establishing the country as a pacifist democratic nation, in 1947 under the occupation authority. After occupation, under a program of aggressive industrial development, protectionism, and deferral of strategic defense to the United States, Japan's gross national product rose to build the second largest economy in the world (after the United States). Despite a major stock market crash in 1990, from which the country has not fully recovered, Japan remains a global economic power and has recently begun to re-emerge as a strategic power, lending non-combat support to the Gulf War, the UN efforts to rebuild Cambodia, and the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Japan is now making a bid for a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Japan

The Diet

The Diet sits in joint session.

Japan is generally considered to be a constitutional monarchy, based largely on the British system. The "highest organ of state power" is its bicameral parliament, the Kokkai or "Diet". The Diet consists of a House of Representatives (Lower House or Shūgi-in) containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and a House of Councillors (Upper House or Sangi-in) of 247 seats, whose popularly elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal adult (over 20 years old) suffrage with a secret ballot for all elective offices.

The Cabinet is composed of a Prime Minister and ministers of state, and is responsible to the Diet. The Prime Minister must be a member of the Diet and is designated by his colleagues. The Prime Minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived coalition government formed from its opposition parties in 1993; the largest opposition party is the liberal-socialist Democratic Party of Japan.

The Imperial Household

The Imperial Palace in Tokyo is the primary residence of the Emperor

Japan's head of state is the Emperor, but under the current constitution he performs only ceremonial duties and holds no real power, not even emergency reserve powers. Sovereignty, previously embodied in the Emperor, is vested in the Japanese people by the Constitution, and the Emperor is defined as the symbol of the State and of national unity. The Imperial Household Agency (Kunaicho) is responsible for the daily running of the palace.

Akihito (明仁) is the current and 125th Emperor of Japan. He assumed the throne after the death of his father, Hirohito, on January 7 1989, formally becoming the 125th Japanese monarch on November 12 1990. His son, Crown Prince Naruhito, married a commoner, Masako Owada, and the couple gave birth to a girl, Princess Aiko. The Imperial Household Law of 1947 limits succession to males: since neither of the former Emperor Hirohito's sons have a direct male descendant, some public and parliament members perceive Chrysanthemum Throne continuity to be in jeopardy despite a line of succession seven levels deep. This perception and a new regard for women's rights led some to call for revision of imperial law to allow succession through females. Speculation in the press has linked deterioration of Crown Princess Masako's health to pressure from Imperial Household bureaucrats to bear a male child.

Geography of Japan

Main article: Geography of Japan

Map of Japan
Map of Japan

Japan, a country of islands, extends along the eastern or Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands (sometimes referred to as the Home Islands), running from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu (or the mainland), Shikoku, and Kyushu. Naha on Okinawa in the Ryukyu archipelago is over 600 km to the southwest of Kyushu. In addition, about 3,000 smaller islands may be counted in the full extent of the archipelago that comprises greater Japan.

  • Area: 377,835 sq km (including 3,091 km² of territorial water)
  • Major Islands: Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, Shikoku
  • Coastline: 29,751 km
  • Highest Peak: Mount Fuji: (3776 m/12,385 ft)
  • Lowest Elevation: Hachinohe Mine (about − 130 m/−426 ft)

Japan is the 18th most densely populated country in the world (see List of countries by population density). However about 73% of the country is mountainous and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial or residential use due to the generally steep elevations, climate and risk of landslides due to earthquakes and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones, mainly in the coastal areas.

Japan is situated in a volcanic zone on the Pacific Ring of Fire. Frequent low intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times a century. The most recent major quakes include the 2004 Chuetsu Earthquake and the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. Hot springs are numerous and have been developed as resorts.

Climate

Japan is a temperate region with, more or less, four seasons (some believe the rainy season should be a fifth season), but because of its great length from north to south, its climate varies from region to region: the far north is very cold in the winter, while the far south is subtropical. The climate is also affected by the seasonal winds blown from the continent to the ocean in winters and vice versa in summers. The waters of the Kuroshio Current also warm the Pacific side of Japan, sustaining the coral reefs of Japan, the northernmost coral reefs in the world. Unfortunately, due to pollution, these reefs are now dying.

Late June and early July are a rainy season (except in Hokkaido), as a seasonal rain front stays above Japan. In the late summer and early autumn, typhoons develop from tropical depressions generated near the equator, and track from the southwest to the northeast, often bringing heavy rain.

Japan's varied geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones.

  • Hokkaido: Hokkaido has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.
  • Sea of Japan: The northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In summers, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, but it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures due to the Foehn wind phenomenon.
  • Central Highlands (Chuo-kochi): A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summers and winters and between days and nights. Precipitation is light.
  • Seto Inland Sea (Seto-naikai): The Mountains of the Chugoku and Shikoku regions block the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.
  • Pacific Ocean: Experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind.
  • Nansei-shoto (Ryukyu) or Southwest Islands: Has a subtropical climate with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Typhoons are common; in 2004 a record number of 10 typhoons reached the main islands.

Ecoregions

Main Article: Ecoregions of Japan

Japan is home to nine forest Ecoregions, which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryukyu and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold winter portions of northern islands.

Regions

Main article: Regions of Japan

Japan is commonly divided into regions. Honshu, by far the largest and most populated island, is typically divided into five (or more) regions. The other islands constitute one region each. From north to south, these are

Map of Japan
Map of Japan

Prefectures

Main article: Prefectures of Japan

The Local Government Law of Japan divides the country into 47 prefectures, which carry out administrative duties independently of the central government. From north to south (numbering in ISO 3166-2 order), these are:

Territorial disputes

Japan has outstanding territorial disputes over the southern four islands of the Kuril Islands, administered by Russia, as well as the Liancourt Rocks (Kr. Dokdo, Jp. Takeshima), administered by South Korea. The Senkaku Islands (Chinese Diaoyutai) are claimed by the People's Republic of China. Some analysts report that Japan's dispute over the Senkaku/Diaoyutai Islands is motivated by the abundance of petroleum in the exclusive economic zone surrounding the small islands. In 1969, a report by the UN Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE) indicated the possibility of large reserves of oil in the vicinity of the Diaoyutai Archipelago.

Economy

File:Wfm kansai closeup.jpg
Japan's construction industry has been aided by huge civil works projects. One of the most well-known is Kansai International Airport, built on an artificial island at a total cost of $30 billion. A second runway is also under construction which will more than double the airport's land area.

Main article: Economy of Japan

Government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, emphasis on education, and a comparatively small defense allocation (1% of GDP) have helped Japan advance with extraordinary speed to become one of the largest economic powers in the world. For three decades, overall real economic growth had been spectacular: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s. Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s largely because of the after-effects of overinvestment during the late 1980s and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth have met with little success and were further hampered in 2000-2001 by the slowing of the US and Asian economies.

Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the working together of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in closely-knit groups called keiretsu; the powerful enterprise unions and shuntō; cozy relations with government bureaucrats, and the guarantee of lifetime employment (shushin koyo) in big corporations and highly unionized blue-collar factories. Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability.

The current government of Junichiro Koizumi has enacted or attempted to pass (sometimes with failure) major privatization and foreign-investment laws intended to help stimulate Japan's dormant economy. While some of these laws have been enacted, the economy has yet to respond, and Japan's aging population is expected to place further strain on the economy in the near future.

Agricultural sector

Japan uses a system of terrace farming to build in a small area due to lack of available land. Measured in terms of production per acre, Japanese agriculture has one of the highest levels of productivity in the world. Japan's small agricultural sector, however, is also highly subsidized and protected, with government regulations that favor small-scale cultivation instead of large-scale agriculture as practiced in North America. Imported rice, the most protected crop, is subject to tariffs of 490% and restricted to a quota of only 3% of the total rice market. Although Japan is usually self-sufficient in rice (except for its use in making rice crackers and processed foods), the country must import about 50% of its requirements of other grain and fodder crops, and relies on imports for most of its supply of meat. Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch, prompting some claims that Japan's fishing is leading to over depletion in fish stocks such as tuna. Japan has also sparked controversy by supporting quasi-commercial whaling.

Industrial sector

Industry, one-fourth of Japan's GDP, is heavily dependent on imported raw materials and fuels. Internationally, Japan is best known for its automotive and electronics industries, as the home of big manufacturers such as Toyota, Honda, Nissan, Mazda, Sony, Matsushita, Toshiba, and Hitachi. Japan also holds a large market share in high-technology industries such as semiconductors, industrial chemicals, machine tools, and (in recent years) aerospace. Construction has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion-dollar government contracts in the civil sector. Robotics constitutes a key long-term economic strength, with Japan possessing 410,000 of the world's 720,000 "working robots."

Service sector

Japan's service sector accounts for about three-fourths of its total economic output. Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries. The Koizumi government is attempting to privatize Japan Post, which is also one of the country's largest company for savings and insurance services, by 2007.

See also: List of Japanese companies

Society

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Japan

Japanese society is ethnically and linguistically homogeneous, with small populations of primarily North and South Koreans (1 million), Okinawan (1.5 million), Chinese and Taiwanese (0.5 million), Filipinos (0.5 million), and Brazilians — mostly of Japanese descent — (250,000), as well as the indigenous Ainu minority in Hokkaido. About 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.

Japanese citizenship is conferred on an infant when a family member registers the infant's birth in the family registry held by a neighborhood ward office. Simply being born in Japan does not assure citizenship. Monolingual Japanese-speaking minorities often reside in Japan for generations under permanent residency status without acquiring citizenship in their country of birth. People of Japanese heritage returning to Japan from overseas have citizenship if their birth in a foreign country was registered on their behalf by a family member. Sometimes these returnees are not considered truly Japanese and sometimes suspected of being a descent of old feudal Burakumin "unclean" caste, a group of people known to have immigrated to South American countries, and subject to discrimination.

The Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a post-war baby boom followed by a decrease in births as the country modernized in the latter part of the 20th century (notable aspects including the shift from agricultural to urban lifestyles and the increasing tendency for women to remain in the workplace). Japan now also has the highest life expectancy in the world (85.2 years for women and 78.3 years for men in 2002 [1]). By 2007, when Japan's population growth could stop completely, over 20% of the population will be over the age of 65. The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly potential decline in workforces and increase in the cost of social securities like the public pension plan. Japanese government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem. [2]. Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a possible solution to provide younger workers to support the graying society. Immigration is not publicly popular as recent increased crime rates are often attributed to foreigners living in Japan.

Religion

The Toshodaiji Buddhist temple, part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Nara.

Main articles: Religions of Japan and Japanese mythology

The Japanese people's concerns with religion are usually personal and related to mythology, traditions, spirituality, nature, and neighborhood activities rather than just the source of morality or the guidance for one's life. For one, Confucianism, or even Taoism tends to serve as the basis for the moral code and shakai-tunen (social common idea). When asked to identify their religion, most would profess to believe in either Shintoism (54%) or Buddhism (40%), for simple reasons like their family has belonged to some sect of Buddhism or to avoid contention with religious foreigners. Nonetheless, most of the people are by no means atheists, and the tendency is often identified with syncretism. This results a variety of practices such as parents and children celebrating Shinto rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a Christian church and funerals being held at Buddhist temples. A minority profess to Christianity (0.7%) and other religions (4.7%) like shamanism. Also since the middle of the 19th century many religious sects called Shinkosyukyo and later shinshukyo emerged.

Education

Main article: Education in Japan

Compulsory education was introduced into Japan in 1872 as one result of the Meiji restoration. Since 1947 compulsory education consists of elementary school and middle school, which last for 9 years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and 96% of high school graduates attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other post-secondary institution.

Language

Main article: Japanese Language

Before the 5th century, the Japanese had no writing system of their own. They began to adapt the Chinese writing script along with many other aspects of Chinese culture introduced by Korean scholars and monks during the 5th and 6th centuries AD.

At first, the Japanese wrote in Classical Chinese or in a mixture of Chinese used both ideographically, phonetically, and otherwise to create Japanese meanings. An example of this mixed style is the Kojiki, which was written in 712 AD. They then started to use Chinese characters to write Japanese in a style known as manyōgana, a ten thousand syllabic script which used characters depicting their own values.

Over time, a writing system was constructed. Chinese characters (kanji) were used to write either words borrowed from Chinese, or Japanese words with the same or similar meanings. Chinese characters were also used to write grammatical elements and were simplified and eventually became two syllabic scripts: hiragana and katakana.

Japanese literature reached a high point during the 11th century with the Genji Monogatari ("Tale of Genji") by Lady Murasaki Shikibu. Many other Japanese literary works were also written by women.

Modern Japanese is written in a mixture of hiragana, katakana, and kanji. Modern Japanese texts may also include rōmaji (the way of writing Japanese with the Latin alphabet), eimoji (non-Japanese words written in their own script), and various special symbols.

Culture

A Japanese traditional dancer

Main article: Culture of Japan

Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original Jomon culture to its contemporary hybrid culture, which combines a number of influences from Asia, Europe, and America.

Historically, Korea and China have been the most influential starting with the development of the Yayoi culture from around 300 BC. This culminated with the introduction of rice farming, ceremonial burial, pottery, painting, writing, poetry, etiquette, and Mahayana Buddhism by the 7th century AD. In the pre-modern era, Japan developed a distinct culture, in its arts (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e), crafts (dolls, lacquerware, pottery), performances (bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), traditions (games, onsen, sento, tea ceremony, architecture, gardens, swords), and cuisine.

From the mid-19th century onward, European influence prevailed, with American influences becoming predominant following the end of World War II. This influence is apparent in Japan's contemporary popular culture, which combines Asian, European, and, 1950 onward, American influences in its fashion, films, literature, television, video games, and music. Today, Japan is a major exporter of such culture, which has gained popularity around the world, particularly in the other countries of East Asia. Especially notable contributions of modern Japan to the rest of the world include animation (anime) and graphic novels (manga). Traditional and modern Japanese culture have attracted many devotees in Europe and the Americas as well.

See also: Japanese clothing, Etiquette of Japan, Japanese festivals, Japanese New Year, Japanese sports, Tourism in Japan, Japanese media, Japanese traditional dance

Military

Further reading

  • Barry, Dave Barry Does Japan, Ballantine, 1993 (ISBN 0449908100)
  • The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Japan, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993 (ISBN 0521403529)
  • De Mente, The Japanese Have a Word For It, McGraw-Hill, 1997 (ISBN 0844283169)
  • Henshall, A History of Japan, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 (ISBN 0312233701)
  • Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, Belknap, 2000 (ISBN 0674003349)
  • Japan At A Glance, Kodansha, 1998 (ISBN 4770020805)
  • Johnson, Japan: Who Governs?, W.W. Norton, 1996 (ISBN 0393314502)
  • Lonely Planet Japan, Lonely Planet Publications, 2003 (ISBN 1740591623)
  • Reischauer, Japan: The Story of a Nation, McGraw-Hill, 1989 (ISBN 0075570742)
  • Sugimoto et al., An Introduction to Japanese Society, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003 (ISBN 0521529255)
  • Totman, A History of Modern Japan, 2d ed., Blackwell, 2005 (ISBN 1405123591)
  • Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, Vintage, 1990 (ISBN 0679728023)

Miscellaneous topics


International rankings

References

  • S. N. Eisenstadt, Japanese Civilization: A Comparative View, University of Chicago 1995. (ISBN 0226195589)
  • Japan a Profile of Nation, Kodansha International, 1999. (ISBN 4770023847)

Official

Other

Etiquette

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