French orthography

French orthography encompasses the spelling and punctuation of the French language. It is based on a combination of phonemic and historical principles. The spellings of many words are derived from Latin etymologies, which has resulted in a multitude of silent letters. Nevertheless, there are rules governing French orthography which allow for a reasonable degree of accuracy when producing French words from their written forms.

History of French orthography

The oldest known French text, the Oaths of Strasbourg, dates back to 842.

Alphabet

French is written using the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet and five diacritics or accents. See French alphabet for details.

Diacritics

French makes use of five diacritics that can modify certain letters. Unlike in some languages, letters with diacritics are not considered to be separate letters; for example, the diacritics are ignored when alphabetizing a list of words. Further, the diacritics are often omitted from capital letters (with É being written as E, and so on), though strictly speaking, this is not considered correct, as it is merely a remnant of non-computerized printing that could not accommodate accented capital letters.

There are no letters that always require a diacritic to produce a given sound; rather, where a given letter has multiple possible sounds, a diacritic indicates that the sound that might be expected from the context is not the one that is used.

The acute accent (l'accent aigu) "´" is used only on the letter e. It normally indicates that the vowel is pronounced [e], as in épaule (shoulder) and détail (detail), when it might otherwise be read [ɛ] or [ə]. In certain closed syllables, however, é is written while the pronunciation in most dialects is [ɛ], as in céderai (I will give up) and réglementaire (regulatory); the 1990 spelling reform (see below) declared that in these cases, è should be used instead, but this spelling reform was not widely adopted.

The grave accent (l'accent grave) "`" is used on the letter e to indicate that it is pronounced [ɛ], as in manière (way) and après (after), when it is followed by a single consonant. It is also used on the letters a and u to distinguish certain homophones, such as ou (or) and où (where), and la (the) and là (there).

The cedilla (la cédille) "¸" is used only on the letter c, and only when the c is followed by a, o, or u (possibly with a diacritic); it indicates that the c is pronounced [s] (its "soft" pronunciation, that it ordinarily has only before e and i) rather than [k] (its "hard" pronunciation, that it ordinarily has elsewhere).

The circumflex (l'accent circonflexe) "^" can be used on any of the letters a, e, i, o, and u. It does not affect the pronunciation of i or u (except to lengthen them in dialects that retain the distinction between long and short vowels), and does not affect the pronunciation of a in most dialects (though in some, it changes [a] to [ɑ]). On o, it changes [ɔ] to [o], and on e, it produces [ɛ] (duplicating the function of the grave accent). The circumflex is chiefly a historical accent; it was added in the 19th century to certain words with an unpronounced s (e.g. forest → forêt) or another unpronounced letter (e.g. aage → âge).

The diaeresis (le tréma) shows that two vowels are pronounced separately (i.e., that the vowel pair is not a digraph) For example, Noël, naïf, and compare the forms of the verb haïr [aiʁ] (je hais [ɛ], nous haïssons [aisɔ̃]). It is normally written on the second vowel. It is also added above the feminine adjectival ending -e when the masculine form ends in -gu: aigu, ambigu → aiguë, ambiguë. The same practice is not followed, however, for verbs whose stem ends in -gu. For example, the verb arguer has exactly the same forms as targuer (without the inital t-), even though the two verbs are pronounced very differently ([aʁgɥe] vs. [taʁge], j'argue [ʒaʁgy] vs. je targue [ʒətaʁg]).

Grapheme-to-phoneme correspondences

This section lists French letters and letter combinations, and how to pronounce them transliterated into the International Phonetic Alphabet, based on the accent of the Paris region. Other regions may have significantly different pronunciations.. The vowels of French are a, e, i, o, u, and y together with all their accented forms. The remaining letters are consonants.

Consonants

In general, a written consonant (or sequence of consonants) can be pronounced differently in three different cases:

• where it is non-final (i.e. there is at least one vowel later in the word).
• where it is final (i.e. it is either the last letter in the word or part of a sequence of consonants that ends the word).
• where it is the last letter in the word, and the next word in the sentence or clause starts with a vowel or mute "h". In this situation the final consonant that would otherwise be silent may be pronounced (sometimes in a manner different from its regular pronunciation). This phenomenon is known as liaison (linkage).

Non-final

• b, bb: [b]. bout, [bu], "beginning". abbesse, [abɛs], "abbess"
• b before "s" or "t": [p]. absolu, [apsɔly], "absolute".
• c before "e" "i" or "y": [s]. ce, [sə], "this".
• c elsewhere: [k]. car, [kaʁ], "for"/"because". Exception: second, [səgɔ̃], "second" and its derivatives.
• ç before "a", "o" or "u": [s]. français, [fʁɑ̃sɛ], "French".
• cc before "e", "i" or "y": [ks]. accepter, [aksɛpte], "to accept".
• cc elsewhere: [k]. accueil, [akoej], "welcome" (noun).
• ch where derived from Greek: [k]. chrétien, [kʁetjɛ̃], "Christian".
• ch elsewhere: [ʃ]. chaque, [ʃak], "each".
• cqu: [k]. acquis, [aki], "acquired".
• cz initially: [ts] or [ks]. czar, [tsa:ʁ], "tsar". czardas, [ksaʁdɑ:s], "czardas". Found only in loanwords.
• d, dd: [d]. dans, [dɑ̃], "in". addition, [adiʃjɔ̃], "addition".
• dj: [dʒ]. adjectif, [adʒεktif], "adjective".
• f, ff: [f]. français, [fʁɑ̃sɛ], "French". affaire, [afɛʁ], "affair".
• g before "e", "i" and "y": [ʒ]. arranger, [aʁɑ̃ʒe], "to arrange".
• g elsewhere: [g]. goût, [gu], "taste".
• gg before "e", "i" and "y": [gʒ]. suggestion, [sygʒɛstjɔ̃], "suggestion".
• gg elsewhere: [g]. aggravation, [agʁavasjɔ̃], "aggravation".
• gn: [ɲ]. agneau, [aɲo], "lamb".
• h: always silent. hors, [ɔʁ], "outside".
• j: [ʒ]. joue, [ʒu], "cheek".
• k: [k]. kilo, [kilɔ], "kilogram".
• l: [l]. le, [lə], "the" (masc. sing.).
• ll following "i": can be either [j] or [l]. briller, [bʁije], "to shine". ville, [vil], "city".
• ll elsewhere: [l]. vallée, [vale], "valley".
• m before a vowel: [m]. mou, [mu], "soft".
• m elsewhere: see section French_orthography#Vowels_followed_by_non-prevocalic_.22m.22_or_.22n.22 below
• n before a vowel: nous, [nu], "we", "us".
• n elsewhere: see section French_orthography#Vowels_followed_by_non-prevocalic_.22m.22_or_.22n.22 below.
• nn: [n]. annuaire, [anɥɛʁ], "directory".
• p, pp: [p]. premier, [pʁəmje], "first". supporter, [sypɔʁte], "to support".
• ph: [f]. philosophie, [filɔzɔfi], "philosophy".
• ps: [ps]. psychiatrie, [psikjatʁi], "psychiatry".
• q: found non-finally only in the digraph qu.
• qu: [k]. quart, [kaʁ], "quarter".
• r, rr: [ʁ]. roue, [ʁu], "wheel". arriver, [aʁive], "to arrive". Some speakers may use [ʀ] or [r].
• s between two vowels: [z]. présenter, [pʁezɑ̃te], "to present".
• s elsewhere: [s]. sous, [su], "under".
• sc before "e", "i" or "y": [s]. scientifique, [sjɑ̃tifik], "scientist". Exceptions: fascisme, [faʃism] as well as [fasism], "fascism" (and its derivatives).
• sc elsewhere: [sk]. scolaire, [skɔlɛʁ], "educational".
• sch where derived from Greek: [sk]. eschatologie, [εskatɔlɔʒi], "eschatolgy".
• sch elsewhere: [ʃ]. schwa, [ʃva], "schwa".
• ss: [s]. embrasser, [ɑ̃bʁase], "to kiss".
• t, th, tt: [t]. tout, [tu], "all". thé, [te], "tea". battre, [batʁ], "to beat".
• tch [tʃ]. Only found in foreign loan words. tchèque, [tʃɛk], "Czech".
• tion following "s": [tjɔ̃]. bastion, [bastjɔ̃], "bastion".
• tion elsewhere: [sjɔ̃]. action, [aksjɔ̃], "action".
• tience: [sjɑ̃s]. impatience, [ɛ̃pasjɑ̃s], "impatience".
• v: [v]. vous, [vu], "you".
• w: only found in foreign loanwords. Most commonly [v] but can be [w]. wagon, [vagɔ̃], "railroad car". weekend, [wikɛnd], "weekend".
• x before vowels: either [gz] or [ks]. examen, [ɛgzamɛ̃], "examination". sexe, [sɛks], "sex".
• x before consonants: [ks]. export, [ɛkspɔʁ], "export".
• x in derived forms from the numbers deux ("two"), six ("six") and dix ("ten"): [z]. deuxième, [døzjɛm], "second".
• z: [z]. zoo, [zo], "zoo".

Final

This applies to any consonant that appears as the last letter or a word, or as part of a sequence of consonants that ends a word. French phonology has a high preference for open syllables, thus many consonants are silent when there is no later vowel in the word.

• b not preceded by "m": [b]. club, [klœb], "club".
• c not preceded by "n": [k]. mec, [mɛk], "guy". Exceptions: silent in a few words such as tabac, [taba].
• ct: [kt]. direct, [diʁɛkt], "direct". Exceptions: resepect, [ʁɛspɛ], "respect" and aspect, [aspɛ], "aspect".
• d: silent. pied, [pje], "foot". Exceptions: loanwords such as baroud, [baʁud], "combat".
• f: [f]. neuf, [nœf], "nine".
• g not preceded by "n": [g]. log, [lɔg], "logarithm" (abbreviation). Exception: the word bourg, [bu:ʁ], "town", also found in many place-names.
• gt: silent. doigt, [dwa], "finger".
• h: silent, but may lengthen preceding vowel. bah, [bɑ] (interjection).
• j: not found finally
• k: [k]. bolchevik, [bɔlʃəvik], "Bolshevik".
• l after a vowel followed by "i": [j]. accueil, [akoej], "welcome".
• l elsewhere: [l]. réel, [ʁeɛl], "real". Exception: fils, [fis], "son".
• m, mb, mp: silent, but nasalizes preceding vowel. nom, [nɔ̃], "surname". plomb, [plɔ̃], "lead". temps, [tɑ̃], "time".
• n, nc, nd, ng, nt: silent, but nasalizes preceding vowel. ancien, [ɑ̃sjɛ̃], "old". blanc, [blɑ̃], "white". grand, [gʁɑ̃], "big". sang, [sɑ̃], "blood". teint, [tɛ̃], "color". Exception: zinc, [zɛ̃g], "zinc". donc, [dɔ̃k], "therefore".
• p: silent. trop, [tʁo].
• q: [k]. cinq, [sɛ̃k], "five". Many proper names do, e.g. Vidocq.
• r after "e": May be silent, or may be pronounced [ʁ]. Always silent when an infinitive. présenter, [pʁezɑ̃te], "to present". fer, [fɛʁ], "iron".
• r elsewhere: [ʁ]. or, [ɔʁ], "gold".
• s: silent. temps, [tɑ̃], "time". Exceptions: [s] in fils, [fis], "son" and ours, [uʁs], "bear"; also in some proper names such as Francis, [fʁɑ̃sis].
• st: [st]. Ouest, [wɛst], "West". Exception: est, [ɛ], "is".
• t: silent. petit, [pəti], "small". Exception: huit, "eight" is pronounced [ɥit] when it is the last word in a phrase, but [ɥi] when the next word in the phrase begins with a consonant other than mute "h".
• v: not found finally.
• w: silent. bungalow, [bœ̃galo], "bungalow".
• x: silent. jeux, [ʒø], "games". Exceptions: six, "six" is pronounced [sis] when it is the last word in a phrase, or when used as a noun, but [si] when the next word in the phrase begins with a consonant. dix, "ten" is similar. Pronounced [ks] in fax, [faks], "fax".
• z: silent. chez, [ʃe], "at the house of". Exceptions: [z] in some proper names such as Berlioz, [bɛʁljɔz].

Liaison

Liaison applies to a word that ends in a written consonant that would otherwise be silent, when the next word begins with a written vowel or mute "h" (see below), and the two words are part of the same thought. Although h is considered a consonant, an occurrence of "h" at the beginning of a word can be either "mute" or "aspirated":

• "Aspirated" h acts like a consonant for purposes of liaison
• "Mute" h acts like a vowel for the purposes of liaison.

It is necessary to learn whether an initial appearance of h in any particular word is aspirated or mute. Note that, whether mute or aspirated, the pronunciation of h itself is always silent. Only liaisons used in regular spoken French are listed here: others may be made in formal contexts such as poetic recitation or song.

• d: [t]. quand il, [kɑ̃til], "when he".
• f: Generally no liaison but sometimes [v] as in the common phrases neuf ans, [nœvɑ̃], "nine years" and neuf heures, [nœvœ:ʁ], "nine o'clock".
• g: Generally no liaison but sometimes [k] as in the phrase sang impur, [sɑ̃kɛ̃py:ʁ], "impure blood", found in La Marseillaise.
• n: [n]. un homme, [œ̃nɔm], "a man".
• p: Sometimes [p]. trop ancien, [tʁopɑ̃sjɛ̃], "too old".
• r: Occasionally [ʁ]. dernier acte, [dɛʁnjɛʁakt], "final act".
• s: [z]. les enfants, [lεzɑ̃fɑ̃], "the children".
• t: [t]. c'est impossible, [sɛtɛ̃pɔsibl], "it's impossible". Exceptions: The final "t" of the word et [e], "and", is never pronounced. In liaison, huit, "eight" is pronounced [ɥit].
• x: [z]. jeux Olympiques, [ʒøzɔlε̃pik], "Olympic games". Note that six ("six") and dix ("ten") have three possible pronunciations: [sis] when the final word in a phrase or used as a noun, [si] when the next word in a phrase begins with a consonant, and [siz] when the next word begins with a vowel or mute "h". Thus il y en a dix, [ilijɑ̃nadis], "there are ten of them"; dix garçons, [digaʁsɔ̃], "ten boys"; dix enfants, [dizɑ̃fɑ̃], "ten children".
• z: [z]. chez eux, [ʃεzø], "at their house".

Vowels

In this section, "nasalizing consonant" means

• a m or n
• that is not followed by a vowel or 'h
• and is not doubled.

• à: [a]. là, [la], "there".
• â: [ɑ:]. âme, [ɑ:m], "soul".
• a before a nasalizing consonant: [ɑ̃]. an, [ɑ̃], "year".
• a before a pronounced [z]: [ɑ:]. extase, [εkstɑ:z], "ecstasy".
• a elsewhere: [a]. ami, [ami], "friend".
• ai before a nasalizing consonant: [ε̃]. ainsi, [ε̃si], "thus".
• ai when the last two letters in a word: [e]. gai, [ge], "happy".
• ai elsewhere: [ε]. aider, [εde], "to help". Exception: [ə] in polysyllabic forms of the verb faire ("to do"): e.g. faisons, [fəzɔ̃], "let's do".
• au before "r": [ɔ]. saurer, [sɔʁe], "to smoke (fish, etc.)".
• au elsewhere: [o]. faux, [fo], "false".
• ay: [ej]. payer, [peje], "to pay".
• é: [e]. beauté, [bote], "beauty".
• è: [ε:]. père, [pε:ʁ], "father".
• ê: [ε]. même, [mεm], "same".
• e when the last letter in a word, and there is at least one other written vowel in the word: silent. même, [mεm], "same".
• e when the last letter in a word that has no other vowel: [ə]. me, [mə], "me".
• e in the word que ("that"): [ə]. [kə].
• e followed by word-final s, in a word containing other written vowels: silent. arbres, [aʁbʁ], "trees".
• e followed by word-final s when the only vowel in the word: may be either [ε] or [e]. ces, [sε], "these". ses, [se], "his/her (pl.)".
• e followed by word-final t: [ε]. muet, [mɥε], "silent". Exception: [e] in et, [e], "and".
• e followed by any other non-nasal single silent word-final consonant: [e]. payer, [peje], "to pay".
• e followed by a non-nasal single pronounced word-final consonant (including a consonant pronounced in liaison): [ε]. fer, [fɛʁ], "iron".
• e in the verb ending ent indicating the third-person plural: silent. viennent, [vjεn], "[they] come".
• e when followed by a word-final nasalizing consonant in a polysyllabic word: [ɛ̃]. examen, [ɛgzamɛ̃], "examination".
• e when followed by a nasalizing consonant, when the last pronounced sound in a word and following i: [ɛ̃]. viens, [vjɛ̃], "[I] come".
• e when followed by a nasalizing consonant elsewhere: [ɑ̃]. enfant, [ɑ̃fɑ̃], "child". Exception: the ending ent described above, and a number of words, often recent borrowings from Latin, pronounced [ɛ̃], as in agenda, [aʒε̃da], "personal organizer" and memento, [memε̃to], "memento". In some words the "n" is pronounced and the vowel is not nasalized, including, abdomen, [abdomεn], "abdomen", and aven, [avεn], (the name of a geological feature)
• e when followed by mm or nn at the beginning of a word: [ɑ̃]. ennui, [ɑ̃nɥi], "boredom". Exception: ennemi, [εnmi], "enemy".
• e when followed by a x: [ε]. examen, [ɛgzamɛ̃], "examination".
• e when followed by a consonant-vowel sequence (where the consonant is not x): [ə]. tenir, [təni:ʁ], "to hold".
• e when followed by any other sequence of two or more consonants: [ε]. belle, [bεl], "beautiful" (fem.).
• ei followed by a nasalizing consonant: [ɛ̃]. sein, [sɛ̃], "breast".
• ei before a pronounced [z]: [ɛ:]. seize, [sɛ:z], "sixteen.
• ei elsewhere: [ɛ]. veille, [vɛj], "eve".
• eu when the last pronounced sound in a word: [ø]. bleu, [blø], "blue".
• eu when followed by a pronounced [z]: [ø]. creuser, [kʁøze], "to dig".
• eu elsewhere: [œ]. neuf, [nœf], "nine".

Vowels followed by non-prevocalic "m" or "n"

Spelling	Value (IPA)	Example (IPA)	Exceptions
am before h	/am/	amharique /amaʁik/ "Amharic"
am before m	/a/	télégramme /telegʁam/ "telegram"
am before n	/am/	amnésie /amnezi/ "amnesia"	condamner /kɔ̃dɑne/ "to condemn" and related words
am at the end of word	/am/	tamtam /tamtam/ "tam-tam"	dam /dɑ̃/ "prejudice" adam /adɑ̃/ "Adam"
am elsewhere	/ɑ̃/	champs /ʃɑ̃/ "field"	hamster /amstε:ʁ/ "hamster" tamtam /tamtam/ "tam-tam" tramway /tʁamwε/ "tram"
an before h	/an/	piranha /piʁana/ "piranha"
an before m	/ɑ̃/	néanmoins /neɑ̃mwε̃/ "nevertheless"
an before n	/a/	canne /kan/ "cane"
an at the end of word	/ɑ̃/	an /ɑ̃/ "year"	barman /baʁman/ "barman" and other words using the English-derived suffix "man".
an elsewhere	/ɑ̃/	manger /mɑ̃ʒe/ "to eat"	pancake /pankεk/ "pancake"
aim	/ε̃/	faim /fε̃/ "hunger"
ain	/ε̃/	ainsi /ε̃si/ "thus".
aon at the end of a word	/ɑ̃/	paon /pɑ̃/ "peacock"	lycaon /likaɔ̃/ "African Wild Dog" machaon /makaɔ̃/ "Old World Swallowtail" pharaon /faʁaɔ̃/ "Pharaoh"
aon followed by n	/a/	paonner /pane/ "to show off (like a peacock)"	pharaonne /faʁaɔn/ "female Pharaoh"
em before m at the beginning of a word	/ɑ̃/	emmêler /ɑ̃mεle/ "to tangle"
em before m after word-initial r	/ɑ̃/	remmener /rɑ̃mne/ "to take back (a person)"
em before ment	/a/	fréquemment /fʁekamɑ̃/ "frequently"
em before m elsewhere	/ε/	dilemme /dilεm/ "dilemma"	femme /fam/ "woman" and derived words
em before n	/εm/	indemne /ε̃dεmn/ "intact"
em at the end of a word	/εm/	harem /aʁεm/ "harem"
em elsewhere	/ɑ̃/	temps /tɑ̃/ "time"	kremlin /kʁεmlε̃/ "Kremlin" nemrod /nεmʁɔd/ "Nimrod" pemphigus /pε̃figys/ "pemphigus (a skin disease)" tempo /tεmpo/ "tempo"
en before h	/εn/	menhir /mεni:ʁ/ "menhir"
en before n at the beginning of a word	/ɑ̃/	ennui /ɑ̃nɥi/ "boredom"	ennemi /εnmi/ "enemy" ennième /enjεm/ "Nth" ennéagone /εnneagɔn/ "nonagon"
en before n elsewhere	/ε/	penne /pεn/ "flight feather"	décennie /deseni/ "decade" and related words henné /ene/ "henna" tennis /tenis/ "tennis"
en at the end of a word, following a consonant	/εn/	abdomen /abdomεn/ "abdomen"	examen /εgzamε̃/ "examination" groschen /gʁɔʃœn/ "former Austrian currency" lichen /liken/ "lichen"
en at the end of a word, following a vowel	/ε̃/	lien /ljε̃/ "link"	yen /jεn/ "Japanese currency"
en followed by word-final t, where this indicates the third-person plural form of a verb	silent	viennent /vjεn/ "(they) come"
en in the sequences ience or ient	/ɑ̃/	science /sjɑ̃s/ "science" patient /pasjɑ̃/ "patient"	tient /tjε̃/ "(he) holds" vient /vjε̃/ "(he) comes"
en following i elsewhere	/ε̃/	hominiens /ɔminjε̃/ "homonid"	chienlit /ʃjɑ̃li/ "chaos" hacienda /asjεnda/ "hacienda" récipiendaire /ʁesipjɑ̃dε:ʁ/ "recipient"
en elsewhere	/ɑ̃/	en /ɑ̃/ "in"	addenda /adε̃da/ "addenda" agenda /aʒε̃da/ "personal organizer" bengale /bε̃gal/ "Bengal" benjoin /bε̃ʒwε̃/ "Benzoin resin" benzine /bε̃zin/ "benzene" effendi /efε̃di/ "Effendi (Turkish title)" fazenda /fazεnda/ "fazenda" glockenspiel /glɔkεnʃpil/ "glockenspiel" hendiadys /ε̃djadis/ "hendiadys" lepidodendron /lepidɔdε̃dʁɔ̃/ "lepidodendron" marengo /maʁε̃go/ "Marengo" martensite /maʁtε̃sit/ "Martensite" memento /memε̃to/ mendélévium /mε̃delevjɔm/ "Mendelevium" pudenda /pydε̃da/ "genitals" openfield /ɔpεnfild/ "countryside" philodendron /filɔdε̃dʀɔ̃/ "philodendron" rhododendron /ʁɔdɔdε̃dʁɔ̃/ "rhododendron" röntgen /ʁœntgεn/ "Röntgen" week-end /wikεnd/ "weekend"
eam not following g	/im/	ice-cream /ajskʁim/ "ice-cream" Found only in English loanwords
ean after j and before n	/an/	Jeanne /ʒan/ "Jeanne (personal name)"
ean after j elsewhere	/ɑ̃/	Jean /ʒɑ̃/ "Jean (personal name)"	blue-jean /bludʒin/
ean elsewhere not following g	/in/	peanut /pinoet/ "peanut" Found only in English loanwords
een	/in/	wintergreen /wintεʁgʁin/ "wintergreen" Found only in English loanwords
eim	/ε̃/	Reims /ʁε̃s/ "Rheims (placename)"
ein	/ε̃/	peinture /pε̃ty:ʁ/ "painting"
eum			oleum /ɔleɔm/ "oleum" (unique case)
eun			jeun /ʒœ̃/ "fasting" (unique case)

Words from Greek

The spelling of French words of Greek origin is complicated by a number of digraphs which originated in the Latin transcriptions. The digraphs <ph>, <th>, and <ch> are normally pronounced /f/, /t/, and /k/ in Greek loanwords, respectively; and the digraphs <ae> and <oe> are generally pronounced in Greek loanwords as though they were <e>. Further, many words in the international scientific vocabulary were constructed in French from Greek roots and have kept their digraphs (e.g., stratosphère, photographie).

French spelling reforms

Main article: Reforms of French orthography.

Bibliography

• Tranel, Bernard (1987). The Sounds of French: An Introduction. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521315107.

See also

• Punctuation in French
• Elision (French)
• French phonology
• Spelling
• Use of the circumflex in French