Battle of Navarino
| Battle of Navarino | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the Greek War of Independence | |||||||
| File:Naval Battle of Navarino by Carneray.jpg The Naval Battle of Navarino (1827). Oil painting by Carneray. | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
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United Kingdom France Russia |
Ottoman Empire Ottoman Vilayet of Egypt Ottoman Vilayet of Tunisia | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
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Edward Codrington Henri de Rigny Login Petrovich Geiden | Ibrahim Pasha | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 10 battleships, 10 frigates, 4 brigs, 2 schooners, 1 cutter | 3 battleships, 17 frigates, 30 corvettes, 28 brigs, 5 schooners, 5 or 6 fireships | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
|
181 dead, 480 wounded Total: 661 |
4109 dead or wounded | ||||||
The naval Battle of Navarino was fought on 20 October 1827, during the Greek War of Independence (1821–29) in Navarino Bay, on the west coast of the Peloponnese peninsula , in the Ionian Sea. A combined Ottoman and Egyptian armada was destroyed by a combined British, French and Russian naval force, at the port of Navarino. It is notable for being the final large-scale fleet action in history between sailing ships.
The Allied ships were better armed than their Egyptian and Ottoman opponents and their crews were better trained, contributing to a quick victory.
Background
The context of the Battle of Navarino was the Greek War of Independence (1821-29). This had begun as an uprising by Greek nationalists against the Ottoman Empire, which had ruled Greece for four centuries.
In the early phase of the war (1821-4) Greek naval forces achieved significant success against the vastly superior Ottoman fleet, primarily by the use of fireships. Nevertheless, they failed to prevent an Ottoman-Egyptian army under the command of Egyptian Ibrahim Pasha from regaining Crete and part of the Peloponnese by mid-1825.
In 1824 Ibrahim was sent to the Peloponnese with a naval squadron and a Western-trained army of 17,000 men by Ottoman sultan Mahmud II. The expedition sailed on 4 July 1824, but was for some months unable to do more than shuttle between Rhodes and Crete. Fear of Greek fireships prevented him from proceeding to the Peloponnese. But then the sailors of the Greek fleet mutinied for lack of pay, and Ibrahim was able to land at Modon (Messenia) on February 26 1825. He remained in the Peloponnese until he was forced to capitulate on October 1 1828 by the intervention of the Western powers.
Ibrahim's operations in the Peloponnese were energetic and ferocious. He easily defeated the Greeks in the field, and though the siege of Messolonghi proved costly to his own troops and to the Ottoman forces under his command, he brought it to a successful conclsion on 24 April 1826. Greek guerrilla bands harassed his army, and in retaliation he devastated the country. He carried out a scorched earth policy, and sent thousands of the inhabitants into slavery in Egypt.
In May 1827, the Greeks' Third National Assembly at Troezen declared an independent Greek State (the First Hellenic Republic), with its capital at Nafplion (Peloponnese). This development was unwelcome to several European powers, especially Austria and Britain, as an example of a popular revolution overthrowing the legitimate monarchy, in defiance of the Metternich doctrine. However, as the monarchy in question was the Muslim Ottoman Empire, elite opinion was not as unfavourable as it would have been if the revolution had been against a Christian monarchy. Furthermore, general public opinion in Europe was overwhelmingly pro-Greek. The ruling elite in Russia had traditionally seen itself as the protector (and potential liberator) of the Greek Orthodox Balkan subjects of the Ottoman Empire. Additionally, Russia's strategic interests lay in expanding in the Balkans and the Caucasus at the expense of the Ottoman empire. Finally, the war in Greece was severely disrupting trade routes between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.
These considerations led three major European powers, Britain, France and Russia to decide to intervene in the war. The three Powers signed the Treaty of London on 6 July 1827. This called for an armistice between the Greeks and Turks (in effect an end to Ottoman military operations in Greece) and for the Sublime Porte (the Ottoman government) to grant the Greeks self-government. The treaty envisaged Greece remaining under Ottoman suzerainty, and paying an annual tribute to the Sultan. Secret clauses in the agreement authorised the signatories to intervene directly and despatch naval forces to enforce the Allied demands, if the Ottomans failed to comply. The Sublime Porte rejected the Allied demands.
The main Ottoman-Egyptian fleet, which had been warned by the British and French to stay away from Greece, left Alexandria on 5 August 1827 and arrived at Navarino on 8 September. In response, British admiral Sir Edward Codrington arrived with a naval squadron on 12 September and proceeded to blockade the Ottoman fleet in Navarino bay. The Ottomans made several attempts to escape and sail north, but they were thwarted by Codrington's presence and by adverse weather. A French squadron under de Rigny arrived on 13 October. A Russian squadron under Geiden also joined the Allies on the 13th.
The battle
On 16 August Codrington, de Rigny and Geiden tried to arrange an armistice between Greeks and Turks in accordance with the Treaty of London. However, the Turks, feigning ignorance of their commander Ibrahim Pasha's whereabouts, declined. The Greeks, on the other hand, quickly agreed to the armistice when its terms were shown to them on 2 September.
In order to increase pressure on the Turks, the Allied commanders decided to enter Navarino bay and anchor their ships next to the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet. There was no intention at this stage to engage the Ottoman fleet in battle. The Allied fleet entered in two lines, one formed by the English and French ships, the other by the Russian ships.
The Ottoman-Egyptian fleet was anchored in a horseshoe formation, and the Allied fleet anchored in the empty area in the centre of this horseshoe — the British facing the Ottoman-Egyptian battleships and frigates on the east, the French north of these, and the Russians on the western side. French frigates took up position south of the British battleships facing the Egyptian frigates since it was thought that the French sailors in the Egyptian fleet might hesitate to fire on their countrymen, and the smaller British ships dealt with the fireships and corvettes near the entrance.
While the fleet was still anchoring, the captain of the British frigate Dartmouth sent a boat to an Ottoman ship anchored close by in order to demand that a fireship which was close to one of the British ships and appeared to be being set alight be removed. For reasons which remain unclear, the Ottomans fired on the boat, killing the officer in command and several crew members. The frigate Dartmouth opened fire, then an Ottoman corvette in the 2nd line fired on the French flagship, Sirène, and within a short time, the entire Allied fleet became engaged, as well as the Russian ships which were still entering the harbour.
Heavier Allied guns and superior gunnery skills quickly prevailed, and in a few hours, three quarters of the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet was either sunk or set on fire by their own crews. On 17 November it was reported that the Ottoman-Egyptian ships remaining afloat in Navarino Bay were 1 battleship and 4 frigates damaged, and 1 rasée battleship, 2 frigates, 5 corvettes, 11 brigs and 5 schooners ready for sea, although this included some ships from Modon which had arrived after the battle (see this page for figures). Allied casualties were about 181 men killed and about 480 men wounded; Ottoman and Egyptian casualties were given as 4109 (3000 killed and 1109 wounded, although those figures might be reversed).
After the battle the Allied fleet remained in Navarino Bay until 26 October. Several Allied ships were badly damaged — Azov had been hit 153 times, 7 of them below the waterline, and was not fully repaired until March 1828. Gangut and Iezekiil were damaged too. The British returned to Malta on 3 November, and the Russians on 8 November. Albion, Asia and Genoa were sent to England for repairs, while the French ships returned to Toulon.
An Egyptian corvette left Navarino Bay on 27 October and arrived in Alexandria on 2 November with news of the battle. Other survivors made their way to Alexandria around the end of the year.
Aftermath
Militarily, the most important result of the battle was that it crippled the Ottoman seapower, effectively ruling out any possibility of defeating the Greek revolution. Ottoman land forces in the Peloponnese were still in place, however. After tense negotiations, it was agreed that the main Ottoman army would return to Egypt, but that the Ottomans would be left in control of 5 forts, garrisoned by no more than 1200 men. But the French government ignored the agreement, promptly despatching troops to remove the Turkish garrisons. With the additional help of some British marines, the Peloponnese was finally cleared of Ottoman forces: the last holdout was Morea Castle, near Patrai, which fell on 1 November 1828. By March 1829, the Greek State's forces had expanded their area of control from just the Peloponnese and some islands to include all of Central Greece.
Politically, the Ottoman naval disaster enabled the Greeks to ignore the Treaty of London's provision of Ottoman suzerainty and to insist on full independence. In 1832, at the Convention of London, the Allied powers accepted Greek independence, but insisted the state should be a monarchy not a republic. The new independent Kingdom of Greece was formally recognised by the Sublime Porte under the Treaty of Constantinople (1832).
Ships involved
Allies
Battleships:
Asia 84 (fleet flagship)
Genoa 76
Albion 74
Frigates:
Glasgow 50
Cambrian 48
Dartmouth 42
Talbot 28
Brigs:
Mosquito 10
Philomel 10
Schooners:
Brisk 10
Hind 6
Cutter:
Rose 18
France (Rear Admiral Henri de Rigny)
Battleships:
Breslau 84
Scipion 80
Trident 74
Frigates:
Sirène 60 (flagship, 2-decker)
Armide 44
Brigs and schooners:
Alcyone 10
Daphné 6
Russia (Rear Admiral Count Login Petrovich Geiden)
Battleships:
Gangut 84
Azov 80 (flagship)
Iezekiil 80
Aleksandr Nevskii 80
Frigates:
Provornyi 48
Konstantin 44
Elena 38
Kastor 36
Ottoman Empire/Egypt/Tunisia (Ibrahim Pasha)
- Captain Bei Squadron (Alexandria): 2 battleships, 5 frigates, 12 corvettes
- Moharram Bei Squadron (Alexandria): 4 frigates, 11 corvettes, 21 brigs, 5 schooners, and 5 (or 6?) fireships
- Tunis Squadron (Alexandria): 2 frigates, 1 brig
- Tahir Pasa Squadron (Constantinople): 1 battleship, 6 frigates, 7 corvettes, 6 brigs
There were also perhaps 41 transports; 8 Austrian and 33 Ottoman.
The line of battle, in order, was:
3 fire ships*
Ihsania* 64 (2-decker frigate) - Blew up
Souriya* 56 (2-decker frigate) - Aground, destroyed
? 64 (frigate) - Blew up
Guerrière* 60 (2-decker frigate, Egyptian flagship of Moharem Bey, captain Letellier) - Aground, scuttled
Ghyu h Rewan 84 (battleship, fleet flagship of Tahir Pasha) - Dismasted and aground
Fatih Bahri 74 (battleship) - Aground, scuttled
Leone* 60 (2-decker frigate) - Damaged, refloated
? 56 (frigate) - Captured by Albion and blew up
Burj Zafer 74 (battleship) - Survived
? (frigate)
? (frigate)
? 52 (frigate, flag of Mustapha, Padrona Bey)
? 64 (2-decker frigate) - Sunk by Gangut
? (frigate)
? (frigate, flag of Hallil, Reala Bey)
? (frigate)
"Conquerant" 56 (same as Fevz Nussret 64?) - Captured by Aleksandr Nevskii, scuttled next day
? (frigate)
"Grande Sultane" 54 (frigate) - Captured by Armide
? (frigate)
2 (or 3?) fireships* (one sunk by Gangut?)
Ships marked * were Egyptian.
Names of frigates in the above line whose position are not known:
Fevz Nussret 64 (2-decker)
Ka'id Zafer 64 (2-decker) - Survived
Bandino Seret
Mejra Zafer 48
Keywan Bahri 48
Feyz Mi''raj 48
The Tunisian ships were north of the main Ottoman line, near the small Khelonísi Island. The other ships were east of the main line.
Approximate total: 1 84-gun Ottoman battleship, 2 74-gun Ottoman battleships, 4 2-decker 64-gun Egyptian frigates, 2 2-decker Ottoman frigates, 3 48-gun Ottoman frigates, 8 or 10 42-gun Ottoman frigates, 2 or 3 48-gun Tunisian frigates, 8 Egyptian corvettes, 14-18 Ottoman 22-gun corvettes, 5 10-gun Ottoman brigs, 7 Egyptian brigs, 1 Tunisian brig, 5 (or 6?) fireships, perhaps 41 transports. Other ships in the harbour included 3 Tunisian, 3 Tripolitan and 4 Algerian warships and 5 European transports. The Ottomans and Egyptians used many hired European transports, mainly Austrian.
Note: It is hard to get an accurate list of Muslim ships for this battle. Some of the confusion stems from the smaller ships being counted as transports on leaving Alexandria and warships on their return. There is some uncertainty in the number of guns carried by several ships also.
See also
References
- Naval wars in the Levant 1559–1853 (1952), R. C. Anderson. ISBN 1-57898-538-2
