Origins of Asian martial arts

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This article is about a matter under debate within the martial arts.
See also Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection.

Foreign influence on Chinese martial arts, or more specifically, Shaolin Kung Fu, is endorsed by the traditional Shaolin temple claims and the claims of a large number of martial arts historians. Both versions agree that while organized martial traditions in China predate the establishment of the Shaolin temple, foreign influence was vital on Shaolin's approach to institutionalized martial arts in China.[1][2][3]

Main gate of the Shaolin temple in Henan

Centres of foreign influence

Some of the The oldest known records concerning combat techniques are hieroglyphic scrolls from Egyptian tombs, dating as far back as 4000 B.C. The Beni Hasan tombs are shown in the picture.

Earliest evidence of martial arts is found in Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. [4] A Babylonian copper stand, dating from the third Millennium B.C., shows two men trying to unbalance each other by controlling the hip. [5] There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Indus Valley and Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce being handled by the "middlemen merchants from Dilmun". [6] Ancient Egypt had trading relations with India. [7][8] Ancient Greece was in contact with India before Alexander the Great's Invasion. The Greek Pankration system was practiced by Alexander the Great's army. [9] It has been suggested that over time, concepts in primitive martial arts spread east to India, where they fell on fertile ground and began their development in relationship to Yoga, dharma, and dharmic religions, and were eventually transmitted to China. [10][11] Historians, notably Tatsuo Suzuki, Hirokazu Kanazawa, and Masutasu Oyama have asserted on the Greek influence on Chinese martial arts. [12][13]

Chinese wrestling is the oldest fighting system in China. This practice was later influenced by Mongolian sportive practices. [14][15]

Establishment of the Shaolin temple

The Indian dhyana master Buddhabhadra (Chinese: 跋陀; pinyin: Bátuó) was the founding abbot and patriarch[16] of the Shaolin temple.[17]

According to the Deng Feng County Recording (Deng Feng Xian Zhi), Bátuó came to China in 464 CE to preach Nikaya (小乘) Buddhism. Thirty-one years later, in 495, the Shaolin Monastery was built by the order of Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei for Batuo's preaching.[18] The temple originally consisted of a round dome used as a shrine and a platform where Indian and Chinese monks translated Indian Buddhist scriptures into native Chinese languages.[19]

Bodhidharma

Origins of Bodhidharma

Bodhidharma (A.D. 520) went to China from Kandhipuram to spread Bhuddhism. He stayed at the Shaolin monastery and preached Buddhist ideologies. At that time he trained the local people in the art of Varmakkalai. The art underwent many changes and came to be known as Shaolin boxing or Kung-Fu. In Japan it came to be known as karate and judo. But it is interesting to note that the Chinese school agrees with the southern school of this art in that it has the same 108 varma points.[20][21]

The major accounts regarding the origins of Bodhidharma are given by Yáng Xuànzhī, Tanlin and Daoxuan.

According to Yáng Xuànzhī:

At that time there was a monk of the Western Region named Bodhidharma, a Persian Central Asian. He traveled from the wild borderlands to China.[22]

— Yang Xuanzhi, The Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Lo-yang (547)

Jeffrey Broughton notes that Yáng Xuànzhī may have been referring to a different monk named Bodhidharma, as he mentions a Bodhidharma twice. [23]

Bodhidharma's original name was Bodhitara. [24] The suffix "dharma" means duty in context of Dharmic religions. Yáng Xuànzhī may have been honoring another dharma teacher with the suffix (of dharma). There have been other Indian monks sharing the prefix of "Bodhi" (Sanskrit word for "awakening" or "enlightenment"), such as Bodhiruci, regarded as the patriarch of the Ti-Lun School.

The claim that Bodhidharma was South Indian has its origins in Tanlin's preface to the Two Entrances and Four Acts.

The Dharma Master was a South Indian of the Western Region.[25] He was the third son of a great Indian King. [26]

— Tanlin, The Two Entrances and Four Acts (pre-645)

Daoxuan adds more detail concerning Bodhidharma's origins, writing that he was "of South Indian Brahman stock" (南天竺婆羅門種 nán tiānzhú póluómén zhŏng). [27]

Bodhidharma [was] of South Indian Brahman stock. [28]

— Daoxuan, Xu Gaoseng Zhuan (645)

Broughton notes that Bodhidharma's royal pedigree implies that he was of the Kshatriya warrior caste, [29] though South Indian inscriptions in the 4th and 5th centuries imply that the Pallava dynasty also had Brahmin origins; hence, they may have belonged to the caste of Braham-Kshatriya (Brahmin in origin and Kshatriya by profession). [30] Other Indian social groups, such as the Nairs and the Kayasthas, also adhere to more than one varnas.

Bodhidharma's influence

Bodhidharma by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839-1892)

Bodhidharma is credited with the establishment of the Chan and Zen sects of Buddhism. [31] Bodhidharma arrived in China during the 5th century. He stayed and taught for several years in the Shaolin temple.

Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit, 4th generation successor of the Southern Shaolin Monastery writes [32]:-

It was during this time that the Venerable Bodhidharma came from India to China to spread Buddhism. In 527 CE he settled down in the Shaolin monastery in Henan province, and inspired the development of Shaolin Kung Fu. This marked a watershed in the history of of Kung Fu, because it led to a change of course, as Kung Fu became institutionalized. Before this, martial arts were known only in general sense.

Chinese martial arts, like martial arts of Greece and India, have existed before the arrival of Bodhidharma. Bodhidharma's status in martial arts is due to his role in the institutionalization of Chinese martial arts, presumably by introducing excercises, meditation, discipline, newer techniques etc. to the native fighting methods during his tenure at the Shaolin monastery. [33]

In addition to being a master of Dhyana, Bodhidharma is also related to Yogacara (Sanskrit: "Practice of Yoga [Union]" [34] ). He is described as a "master of the Lankavatara Sutra", and an early history of Zen in China is titled "Record of the Masters and Disciples of the Lankavatara Sutra" (Chin. Leng-ch'ieh shih-tzu chi).

It has also been suggested that these techniques which are the foundation for many martial arts today were never originally intended to be utilized as methods of fighting but were a manner in which the monks could attain enlightenment while preserving their bodies' health. [35][36][37]

Similarities

Indian movement patterns of "Nata" were later incorporated into various martial arts. [38] Shown here is the Nataraja pose.

Historians have noted foreign influences on aspects of Chinese culture, such as mythology (Sun Wukong and Guan Yin, which were influenced by Hanumana and Avalokiteshvara respectively [39] ) and architecture (Pagodas influenced by Buddhist Stupas) [40] in the past.

The similarities between arts of India and Chinese martial arts have also been noted by martial arts practitioners, historians and news organisations. [41]

Around the 3rd century BC, Patanjali wrote the Yoga Sutras, which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These Yoga elements, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts. [38] [42][43][44]

References to martial arts are found in early Buddhist texts. The Lotus Sutra also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples, and throws,[45] and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called Nara.[46] Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion wrestler and archer before becoming the Buddha.[38]

Knowledge of the Indian arts was carried into China by Buddhist monks. [47] Joyotpaul Chaudhuri notes that far too much attention is given to the Bodhidharma alone. Buddhist monks were active in China before Bodhidharma. [48]

File:Matemple.jpg
Statues in an ancient hindu temple, showing warriors in combat

The Lankavatara Sutra repeatedly refers to the 108 steps. The 108 of the Yang long form and Wing Chun, taught by Yip Man having 108 movements are noted in this regard. The similarities between the posture of the "Nataraja" and bong sau and bong gurk in one hand and one foot position are also noted. [49]

The foreign connection with China's martial heritage is marked visually in several ways within the Shaolin temple. A significant aspect in this respect is the Shaolin wall painting. The painting depicts Chinese and Indian monks practicing martial arts together for spirtual edification. Doshin So, the founder of Shorinji Kempo, has described the paintings as his main inspiration. [50][51][52][53]

Historians have also noted that Indian works of art and particularly in temple sculptures show warriors in positions similar to modern day East Asian martial arts. [54]

Kalaripayattu and Chinese martial arts have division into Northern and Southern styles, separation of systems and techniques into "external" and "internal" categories, medical tradition (Ayurveda), vital points discipline, spiritual aspect and weapons training tradition. In some systems the empty hand arts are secondary - as in some South-East Asian martial disciplines. [55]

Similarities were also recorded by the British Broadcasting Corporation in a television documentary in 1981 titled "Kalari, the Indian way" which noted that a Southern Kalaripayattu practitioner performed martial arts identical to one found in a branch lineage from the Wong-Hon-Wing line of Tibetan Hop-Gar Kung-Fu.

The Discovery Channel also notes "Possibly the oldest martial art in the world, Kalarippayattu is still being practiced widely today in the Indian state of Kerala. Shaolin chuan is said to have evolved from Kalarippayattu." [56]

Views from the martial arts community

The foreign influence is noted in the works of prominent figures across the martial arts community, including Charles C. Goodin, [57] Hidetaka Nishiyama, [58] Simmone Kuo, [59][60] Lawrence Galante, [61] Robert Scaglione, [62] George A. Kirby, [63] and George E. Mattson. [64]

Academic authors related to martial arts, including Bruce A. Haines, [65] Joyotpaul Chaudhari, [66] Howard Reid, [67] Howard W. French [68] and Christopher Wren [3] have noted the foreign influence. Encyclopedia Brittanica [69] and Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki [70][71] note the Indian foundation of Zen/Chan.

The foreign influence has been recognized by legendary martial arts practitioners and authorities, including Steve De Masco, [72] Dr. William Durbin, [73] Jhoon Rhee, [74] Doshin So, [75] Chojun Miyagi, [76] Funakoshi Gichin, [77] Wong Kiew Kit, [78][79] Tadashi Nakamura, [80] Carlos Machado, [81] Royler Gracie [82] and Rickson Gracie. [83]

Reputed organizations such as the British Broadcasting Corporation, [84][85] the New York Times, [86][87] The Hindu [88][89][90][91] and the Discovery Channel [92] to name a few, have also taken a note of the foreign influence.

Claims that that Chinese martial arts are independent of any foreign influence have been rejected by prestigious martial arts institutions, [93] including the Gracie family, [94][95][96][97] Gracie Barra, [98] International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation, [99] Florida Federation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu [100] and the Shaolin temple. [101]

In addition, journalists and writers, including June Lordi, [102] Cezar Borkowski, [103] Robin L. Rielly, [104] Liow Kah Joon and Kah Joon Liow, [105] Annellen M Simpkins and C Alexander Simpkins, [106] Bruce Thomas, [107] Thomas D. Seabourne and Yeon Hwan Park, [108] Stephen Kuei, [109] Pat Zukeran, [110][111] Ervin de Castro, BJ Oropeza and Ron Rhodes, [112] Prof. J. Roe, [113] P. E. Katzer, [114] Jess O'Brien [115] and Tony Sims [116] have noted the foreign influence on Chinese martial arts.

Opposing theories

Further information: Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection

Most accounts of martial arts history have credited the foreign influence. [117] Given the long history of cultural exchange between China and her neighbors, claiming an absolute lack of foreign influence within the Chinese martial arts may be extreme -- though the extent and manner of influence is subject to debate.

A number of martial arts historians have conducted independent research on this matter and have reached separate conclusions. Some criticisms of the "Foreign Influence" theory have included:

  • Questions on whether Bodhidharma provided more than simply religious influence upon China.
  • Questions on whether Bodhidharma was simply a legendary character.
  • Disputes over the dating of texts supposidly written by Bodhidharma.

Of note, these historians are not without criticism either. For example, historian Matsuda Ryuchi dates the Yi Jin Jing, a text often associated with Bodhidharma, to 1827. [118] Another historian however, Lin Boyuan, dates it to over two centuries earlier in 1624. [119] Ling Tingkan concluded that the author of the Yì Jīn Jīng must have been an "ignorant village master." This claim has also been rejected by Lin Boyuan who attributes the Yì Jīn Jīng to the Taoist priest Zining writing in 1624. [120] Historian Paul Pelliot presents a version claiming that Bodhidharma did not exist at all, he is an entirely fictional creation, a proposal which conflicts with results of reseach conducted by Matsuda Ryuchi, Lin Boyuan and Ling Tingkan. [121]

References

  1. ^ Shaolin.cn.com
  2. ^ The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health and Enlightenment by Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit
  3. ^ a b "Of Monks and Martial Arts"; Sept. 11, 1983; New York Times
  4. ^ African Martial Arts Homepage
  5. ^ Official Gracie Miami Websites: History of BJJ
  6. ^ Neyland, R.S. (1992) “The seagoing vessels on Dilmun seals”, in D.H. Keith & T.L. Carrell (ed.), Underwater archaeology proceedings of the Society for Historical Archaeology Conference at Kingston, Jamaica 1992 pp. 68-74. Tucson (AZ): Society for Historical Archaeology.
  7. ^ [1] Archaeologists Uncover Ancient Maritime Spice Route Between India, Egypt. Publication: Popular-Science.Net. Date: April 1, 2004
  8. ^ [2] New Proof Of Ancient India's Flourishing Trade With Rome by Anand Parthasarathy
  9. ^ [3] History and backgroud of Pankration
  10. ^ [4] The Roots of Martial Arts
  11. ^ [5] Martial Arts-Basic History by Rick Gill
  12. ^ Kalari Payatt: Martial Art Of India by Steve Richards 2002
  13. ^ [6] History and backgroud of Pankration
  14. ^ The Method of Chinese Wrestling By Tong Zhongyi, Zhongyi Tong, Tim Cartmell
  15. ^ Chinese Martial Arts Training Manuals: A Historical Survey By Brian L. Kennedy, Elizabeth Guo (248)
  16. ^ Faure, Bernard. Chan Insights and Oversights: an epistemological critique of the Chan tradition, Princeton University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-691029-02-4
  17. ^ The Founder Of Shaolinsi The founder of Shaolinsi
  18. ^ Kungfu History at EasternMartialArts.com
  19. ^ [7] Legacy of Shaolin Fighting Monks by Salvatore Canzonieri
  20. ^ Subramaniam Phd., P., (general editors) Dr. Shu Hikosaka, Asst. Prof. Norinaga Shimizu, & Dr. G. John Samuel, (translator) Dr. M. Radhika (1994). Varma Cuttiram வர்ம சுத்திரம்: A Tamil Text on Martial Art from Palm-Leaf Manuscript. Madras: Institute of Asian Studies. pp. 90 & 91. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Reid Phd., Howard, Michael Croucher (1991). The Way of the Warrior: The Paradox of the Martial Arts. New York: Outlook Press. pp. 58–85. ISBN 0879514337.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Broughton 1999:54
  23. ^ Broughton 54
  24. ^ Denkoroku: Record of the Transmission of Luminosity by Keizan Jokin zenji, translated by Anzan Hoshin roshi and Joshu Dainen zenji
  25. ^ "Western Region" is the Chinese literary term for the region that encompasses the territory between present-day Kazakhstan in the north and the tip of the Indian subcontinent in the south. "The Dharma Master was from South India, which is part of the Western Region" is a valid interpretation of this sentence.
  26. ^ Broughton, Jeffrey L. (1999). The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21972-4.
  27. ^ Dumoulin (2005), 87
  28. ^ Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005). Zen Buddhism: A History, India and China. Bloomington: World Wisdom. ISBN 0-941532-89-5.
  29. ^ Broughton 2
  30. ^ Mahajan 705–707
  31. ^ [8] Concise Encyclopedia Brittanica Article on Bodhidharma
  32. ^ The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health and Enlightenment by Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit
  33. ^ The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health and Enlightenment by Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit
  34. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica Article: Yogacara
  35. ^ [9] The five holy mountains
  36. ^ [10] Our Martial Arts History and Tradition: A Brief History Of Kempo by Prof. J. Roe
  37. ^ [11] Systematic study and training in ancient Chinese discipline of Shaolin Kung Fu Wushu for holistic health and self-defense, including the study of various aspects of Eastern philosophy and religions - International Curriculum Proposal
  38. ^ a b c J. R. Svinth (2002). A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports. Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences.
  39. ^ [12] The creation of Goddess of mercy from Aalokitesvara by Bagyalakshmi]
  40. ^ Chinese Steles: pre-Buddhist and Buddhist use of a symbolic form By Dorothy C. Wong
  41. ^ Kalari Payatt: Martial Art Of India by Steve Richards 2002
  42. ^ The Bodhisattva warriors : the origin, inner philosophy, history, and symbolism of the Buddhist martial art within India and China by Terence Dukes (1994). Publisher: York Beach, Me. ISBN 0877287856
  43. ^ The Spiritual Legacy of Shaolin Temple: Buddhism, Daoism, and the Energetic Arts - Page 78 by Andy James
  44. ^ [13] A Historical Prespective: The Origins of Kwon Bup, Chuan Fa, Kempo, Kuntao by Ian A. Cyrus, 9th Dan, Headmaster, Choson Kwon Bup International Chosondo Federation
  45. ^ History of Taekwondo. University Martial Arts Association.
  46. ^ Tim Steinwachs. History of Karate.
  47. ^ Ancient Okinawan Martial Arts: Koryu Uchinadi by Patrick McCarthy
  48. ^ [14] 108 STEPS: The Sino-Indian Connection in the Martial Arts by Joyotpaul Chaudhuri
  49. ^ [15] 108 STEPS: The Sino-Indian Connection in the Martial Arts by Joyotpaul Chaudhuri
  50. ^ Zen Arts: An Anthropological Study of the Culture of Aesthetics Form in Japan By Rupert A. Cox, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (page 157)
  51. ^ History of Shorinji Kempo compiled by R. Codling
  52. ^ UWE Shorinji Kempo club Since his first visit to the Shaolin Temple, Doshin So had been impressed with the wall paintings which depicted Indian and Chinese monks training and enjoying themselves together. This method of training together stood in contrast to his own training, and he developed the idea that training should be a collaboration between partner, for the purpose of mutual progress. In Japanese this concept is expressed as "otagai renshu" (training for each other) or "jita kyoraku" (enjoying things with other people).
  53. ^ Shorinji Kempo by Richard Killion - Dragon Times #14 The symbol of Shorinji Kempo is an commonly seen Buddhist symbol of Indian origin, and great antiquity. In Japan it is used to denote a Buddhist temple, on maps and the symbol itself is displayed in and around the temples. The religious device is composed of four Ls at right angles to each other similar to, but not to be confused with the swastika used in Nazi Germany which is its mirror image. Another form of the Manji in Shorinji Kempo is two flowing lines within a circle, somewhat similar to a double yin-yang symbol. This modified symbol commonly used in Shorinji Kempo dojos in the West.
  54. ^ Tae kwon do: secrets of Korean karate By Sihak Henry CHO
  55. ^ [16]
  56. ^ [17] Kalaripayatta- Discovery Channel
  57. ^ [18] Daruma: Determination and Zen training in Budo by Charles C. Goodin
  58. ^ [19] Karate: The Art of Empty-Hand Fighting By Richard C. Brown, Hidetaka Nishiyama
  59. ^ [20] Long Life, Good Health Through Tai-Chi Chuan by Simmone L. Kuo
  60. ^ [21] Yin-Yang in Tai-Chi Chuan and Daily Life by Simmone Kuo
  61. ^ Tai Chi: The Supreme Ultimate By Lawrence Galante, Betsy Selman
  62. ^ Building Warrior Spirit: With Gan Soku Tanden Riki By Robert Scaglione
  63. ^ Jujitsu: Basic Techniques of the Gentle Art By George A. Kirby
  64. ^ The Way of Karate By George E. Mattson
  65. ^ Karate's History and Traditions By Bruce A. Haines
  66. ^ [22] 108 STEPS: The Sino-Indian Connection in the Martial Arts by Joyotpaul Chaudhuri
  67. ^ [23] The Book of Soft Martial Arts: Finding Personal Harmony with Chi Kung, Hsing I, Pa Kua and T'ai Ch'i by Danny Connor and Howard Reid
  68. ^ [24] So Many Paths. Which Shaolin Is Real? The Reply: Yes. by Howard W. French
  69. ^ [25] Concise Encyclopedia Brittanica Article on Bodhidharma
  70. ^ [26] D.T. Suzuki's The Zen Doctrine of No-Mind
  71. ^ MANUAL OF ZEN BUDDHISM - DAISETZ TEITARO SUZUKI, D.LITT. (1934)
  72. ^ [27] An American's Journey to the Shaolin Temple by Steve De Masco
  73. ^ [28] The History of Teaching Methods used in the Martial Arts by Dr. William Durbin
  74. ^ Chon-Ji of Tae Kwon Do Hyung By Jhoon Rhee
  75. ^ Shorinji Kempo by Doshin So
  76. ^ [29] Breathing In and Breathing Out In Accordance With "Go" and "Ju": A Miscellaneous Essay on Karate by Chojun Miyagi
  77. ^ [30] Okinawa Kata Classification: An Historical Overview by Mario McKenna
  78. ^ The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health and Enlightenment by Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit
  79. ^ [31] Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit's Homepage
  80. ^ Karate: Technique and Spirit by Tadashi Nakamura
  81. ^ [32] Origins of Jiu-Jitsu at Carlosmachado.net
  82. ^ Historia do Jiu-Jitsu at Royler Gracie's official website
  83. ^ [33] History of Jiu-Jitsu
  84. ^ Documentary used: 1981 Television documentary titled "Kalari, the Indian way"
  85. ^ [34] How Hong Kong took Hollywood- BBC
  86. ^ [35] So Many Paths. Which Shaolin Is Real? The Reply: Yes. by Howard W. French
  87. ^ [36] Of Monks and martial arts by Christopher Wren. Published: September 11, 1983
  88. ^ [37] Journey to self-discovery
  89. ^ [38] Art most ancient by Karthi Sekar
  90. ^ [39] The story of Bodhidharma
  91. ^ [40] Zen and the art of storytelling
  92. ^ [41] Kalaripayatta- Discovery Channel
  93. ^ [42] Phoenix International Academy of Mixed Martial Arts
  94. ^ Official Gracie Miami Websites: History of BJJ
  95. ^ Historia do Jiu-Jitsu at Royler Gracie's official website
  96. ^ [43] Origins of Jiu-Jitsu at Carlosmachado.net
  97. ^ [44] History of Jiu-Jitsu
  98. ^ [45] The History of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu at Gracie Barra
  99. ^ [46] The History of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu: International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation
  100. ^ [47] The beginning: Florida Federation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
  101. ^ [48] History Facts: The Founder Of Shaolinsi
  102. ^ [49] Tai Chi by June Lordi
  103. ^ [50] The Complete Idiot's Guide to Martial Arts By Cezar Borkowski, Marion Manzo
  104. ^ [51] Karate for Kids by Robin L. Rielly
  105. ^ [52] A Musical Journey: from the Great Wall of China to the water towns of Jiangnan by liow kah Joon, Kah Joon Liow
  106. ^ [53] Zen in Ten: Easy Lessons for Spiritual Growth by C. Alexander Simpkins, Annellen M. Simpkins
  107. ^ [54] Bruce Lee: Fighting Spirit: A Biography by Bruce Thomas
  108. ^ [55] Tae Kwon Do Techniques & Tactics by Thomas D. Seabourne, Yeon Hwan Park
  109. ^ [56] Beginning Qigong: Chinese secrets for health and longevity by Stephen Kuei, Stephen Comee
  110. ^ [57] Martial Arts by Pat Zukeran
  111. ^ [58]Patrick Zukeran: The Origins and Popularity of the Martial Arts
  112. ^ [59]Enter the Dragon? Wrestling with the martial arts phenomenon. Part I: The historical-philosophical backdrop by Ervin de Castro, BJ Oropeza and Ron Rhodes
  113. ^ [60] Our Martial Arts History and Tradition... by Prof. J. Roe
  114. ^ [61]History of Shotokan Karate by P. E. Katzer
  115. ^ Nei Jia Quan: Internal Martial Arts Teachers of Tai Ji Quan, Xing Yi Quan, and Ba Gua Zhang edited by Jess O'Brien
  116. ^ [62] Kempo Jitsu – Pre 1900 Martial Art System by Tony Sims
  117. ^ [63] A Historical Prespective: The Origins of Kwon Bup, Chuan Fa, Kempo, Kuntao by Ian A. Cyrus, 9th Dan, Headmaster, Choson Kwon Bup International Chosondo Federation
  118. ^ Matsuda Ryuchi 松田隆智 (1986). Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐlüè 中國武術史略 (in Chinese). Taipei 臺北: Danqing tushu.
  119. ^ Lin 1996:183
  120. ^ Lin 1996:183
  121. ^ In his "Notes on some artists of the Six Dynasties and the Tang," Paul Pelliot asserts that all accounts of Bodhidharma are legendary.

See also

Further reading

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