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==International Perceptions & Comparisons ==
==International Perceptions & Comparisons ==


The [[United States Department of State]] in its annual human rights report for 2006 noted attacks against religious minorities in India.<ref>[http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=82512 'India respects rights, but problems remain']</ref> State Department's annual reports on religious freedom for 2007 expressed concern over organized societal attacks against religious minorities.<ref name="USREPORT2007">{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2007:India|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90228.htm}}</ref> However in judging overall religious freedom, the report noted signs of improvement in India along with [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Vietnam]] compared to [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Burma]], [[Eritrea]], [[North Korea]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] and [[Egypt]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6995964.stm US reports on religious freedom]</ref>
The [[United States Department of State]] in its controversial <ref>{{cite web |title=ANNUAL U.S. HUMAN RIGHTS REPORT GARNERS CRITICISM/PRAISE, EXPOSES U.S. 'DOUBLE STANDARD' |url=http://www.fas.org/irp/news/1999/03/wwwh905m.htm |date=1999-03-05 |publisher="US Office of Research & Media Reaction}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. Rights Report Should Include U.S. Abuses |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Reform/2006/US-Rights-Report13mar06.htm |author=ANDRES OPPENHEIMER |date=2006-03-13 |publisher=Salt Lake Tribune}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=US human rights report spares allies|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/us-human-rights-report-spares-allies/2006/03/09/1141701632884.html |date=2006-03-10|publisher=The Age}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. rights report shows double standards: Russia |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSL1245705620080312|date=2008-03-12 |publisher=Reuters}}</ref>annual human rights report for 2006 noted attacks against religious minorities in India.<ref>[http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=82512 'India respects rights, but problems remain']</ref> State Department's annual reports on religious freedom for 2007 expressed concern over organized societal attacks against religious minorities.<ref name="USREPORT2007">{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2007:India|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90228.htm}}</ref> However in judging overall religious freedom, the report noted signs of improvement in India along with [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Vietnam]] compared to [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Burma]], [[Eritrea]], [[North Korea]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] and [[Egypt]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6995964.stm US reports on religious freedom]</ref>


==In film and literature==
==In film and literature==

Revision as of 21:32, 12 April 2008

Religious violence in India includes acts of violence by followers of one religious group against followers and institutions of another religious group, often in the form of rioting. Hinduism, the largest religion in India, accounts for 80% of the population; Islam, the second largest religion, accounts for 13% of the population; Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism taken together account for 3% of the population; and Christianity accounts for 2% of the population.[1]. Other religions such as Zoroastrianism and Judaism, although not popular, have a centuries long history in India. Religious fundamentalism is considered a major driver; with Hindu nationalism, Sikh separatism, Christian Evangelism, and Islamic fundamentalism acting as catalysts or as primary forces for outbreaks of violence.

Despite India's secular and religiously tolerant nature, broad religious representation in various aspects of society including the government, the active role played by autonomous bodies such as National Human Rights Commission of India and National Commission for Minorities, and the ground-level work being carried out by Non-governmental organizations, sporadic and sometimes serious acts of religious violence tend to occur as the root causes of religious violence often run deep in history, religious activities, and politics of India.[2][3][4][5]

Major conflicts include the 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots, the riots in Mumbai in 1992, the 2002 Gujarat violence, and the 2007 Orissa violence. Lesser incidents occur in many towns and villages.

Ancient India

Main article: Decline of Buddhism in India
It has been suggested that the Buddhist Stupa in Sanchi was vandalized by Hindu king Pusyamitra Sunga.[6]

Ancient India has no history of large scale religious violence where opponents were put to the sword.[7] However, King Pusyamitra of Sunga Empire is linked in legend with the persecution of Buddhists. There is some doubt as to whether he did or did not persecute Buddhists actively.[8]

The Divyavadana ascribes to him the razing of stupas and viharas built by Ashoka, the placing of a bounty of 100 dinaras upon the heads of Buddhist monks (bhiksus) and describes him as one who wanted to undo the work of Ashoka.[9] This account has however been described as "exaggerated".[9] Archaeological evidence is scarce and uncertain.[10] However to many scholars, Sunga kings were seen as more amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut.[11]

With the possible exception of reign of King Pusyamitra, Buddhism and Hinduism seem to have co-existed peacefully with almost all Buddhist temples, including the once at Ajanta Caves, being built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings.[12]

Medieval India

Main articles: Decline of Buddhism in India, Persecution of Hindus, Persecution_of_Buddhists, and Roma People

Muhammad bin Qasim

Muhammad bin Qasim, during his conquest of Sindh (in present day Pakistan), assaulted the town of Debal and destroyed its great temple while freeing both the captured women and the prisoners of a previous failed expedition.[13] He then built a mosque over the remains of the original temple at Debal and later in towns of Nerun and Sadusan (Sehwan)[13][14] After each battle all fighting men were executed and their wives and children enslaved. One fifth of the booty and slaves were dispatched back to Hajjaj and the Caliph.[13] Chach Nama also records instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at Nerun.

After the conquest, Muhammad bin Qasim adopted a conciliatory policy, asking for acceptance of Islamic Sharia law, in return for non-interference in their religious practice,[15]. No mass conversions were attempted and the destruction of temples such as the Sun Temple at Multan was forbidden.[13]

Mahmud of Ghazni

Mahmud of Ghazni was an Afghan Sultan who invaded the Indian subcontinent during the early 11th century. His campaigns across the gangetic plains are often cited[citation needed] for their iconoclastic plundering and destruction of Hindu temples such as those at Mathura, Dwarka, and others. In 1024 AD, Mahmud of Ghazni attacked and destroyed the third Somnath temple killing over 50,000 and personally destroying the Shiva lingam after stripping it of its gold. [16].

Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb cherished the ambition of converting India into a land of Islam and his reign was particularly brutal. Aurangzeb banned Hindu festival of Diwali, placed a jizya (tax) on non-Muslims and martyred the ninth Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur.

The temples that Aurangzeb destroyed include the two of the most sacred once at Varanasi and Mathura.[citation needed] Aurangzeb ordered the demolition of Vishwanath Temple of Varanasi in 1669[citation needed] and constructed a mosque[citation needed] which can be seen in modern day Varanasi.

Colonial Era

Main articles: Goa Inquisition and Indian Rebellion of 1857

Goa Inquisition

The first inquisitors, Aleixo Dias Falcão and Francisco Marques, established themselves in what was formerly the raja of Goa's palace, forcing the Portuguese viceroy to relocate to a smaller residence. The inquisitor's first act was forbidding Hindus from publicly practice of their faith through fear of death. Sephardic Jews living in Goa, many of whom had fled the Iberian Peninsula to escape the excesses of the Spanish Inquisition to begin with, were also persecuted. During the Goa Inquisition, described as "contrary to humanity" by Voltaire [17], conversions to Catholicism occurred by force and many native Goans were executed by the Portuguese.[18][19]The adverse effects of the inquisition were tempered somewhat by the fact that Hindus were able to escape Portuguese hegemony by migrating to other parts of the subcontinent[20]. Though officially repressed in 1774, it was reinstated by Queen Maria I in 1778. The last vestiges of the Goa Inquisition were finally swept away when the British occupied the city in 1812.

Indian Rebellion of 1857

In 1813, East India Company charter was amended to allow for missionary activity across India.[21] The missionaries soon spread almost everywhere and started denigrating Hinduism and Islam, besides promoting Christianity, in order to seek converts.[22] Many officers of the British East India Company, such as Herbert Edwardes and Colonel S.G. Wheeler, openly preached to the Sepoys.[23] Such activities caused a great deal of resentment and fear of forced conversions among Indian soldiers of the Company and civilians alike[22]. The perception that the the company was trying to convert Hindus and Muslims to Christianity is often cited as one of the causes of the revolt. The revolt is generally considered as a semi-national and religious war seeking freedom from English bondage[24][25] and started, among the Indian soldiers of British East India Company, when the British introduced new rifle cartridges, rumored to be greased with pig and cow fat - an abhorrent concept to Muslim and Hindu soldiers, respectively, for religious reasons. However, in the aftermath of the revolt, British reprisals were particularly severe with hundreds of thousands being killed. While the death toll is often debated by historians with figures ranging between one hundred thousand and one million, it is usually agreed that several hundred thousands were killed.[26] Estimates of death toll are made difficult since the British authorities actively suppressed information in the aftermath of the revolt.[26]

Partition of India

Direct Action Day, which started on August 16, 1946, led approximately 3000 dead and 17000 injured.[27]

File:Partion1.jpg
A railway station in Punjab during large-scale migration that followed partition of India along religious lines.

After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British followed a divide-and-rule policy, exploiting differences between communities, in order to prevent similar revolts from taking place. In that respect, Indian Muslims were encouraged to forge a cultural and political identity separate from the Hindus.[28] In the years leading up to Independence, Mohammad Ali Jinnah became increasingly concerned about minority position of Muslim in an independent India largely composed of a Hindu majority. Although a partition plan was accepted, no large population movements were contemplated. As India and Pakistan become independent, 14.5 million people crossed borders to ensure their safely in an increasingly lawless and communal environment. While the British authority was gone, the the newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border along communal lines. Estimates of the number of deaths range around roughly 500,000, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000.[29]

Modern India

Constitutionally India is a secular state, [30] but large-scale violence have periodically occurred in India since independence. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent, [31] coinciding with a rise in Islamic terrorism. Although India is generally known for religious pluralism, [32] the Hindutva ideology propagates that India belongs to the Hindus, and the Christians and the Muslims are "aliens", [33] and many proponents of this ideology portray violence against Muslims and Christians as a form of "self-defence" against "invaders". [34] The Hindutva ideology is at the core of Sangh Parivar politics and its expression in violence against religious minority. [33] Throughout the history of post-Independence India, both Muslim and Christian communities have faced repeated attacks from Hindu activists. [35] As the Hindutva ideology has grown more powerful over the years, many Hindutva activists have partaken in riots against minority communities. [36] Over the last decade, religious violence in India has increasingly become what academics believe to be organized pogroms to eliminate minority communities. [37] [38] [39] Some state governments in India have been accused of not effectively prosecuting those who attack religious minorities. [40]

Sikh militancy and 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots

Main articles: Khalistan, Khalistan movement, and 1984 Anti-Sikh riots

Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, the leader of the Damdami Taksal, a Sikh religious group based in India,[41] had heavy influence among many Sikhs in Punjab. Bhindranwale was a Khalistani separatist militant leader who tried to spread the original values of Sikhism and persuaded young people to follow the original rules and tenets of the religion and supported the creation of the proposed Sikhism-based theocratic state of Khalistan.[42] Bhindranwale and other militants occupied the Akal Takht complex, including the Golden Temple, in Amritsar.[43] He was killed in Operation Blue Star by the Indian Army, who had orders from Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to kill separatist Sikh militants inside the temple.

Indira Gandhi was assassinated on October 31, 1984 by two of her Sikh guards as part of the retaliatian of many Sikhs after Operation Bluestar. After the assassination the 1984 anti-Sikh riots took place in Delhi. The main perpetrators were led by supporters of the Indian National Congress and the Nehru-Gandhi Dynasty.

The riots started on 1st November and continued till 3rd November 1984. The killings were led by activists and sympathizers of Indian National Congress. The first killing of a Sikh reported from east Delhi in the early hours of November 1. About 9 am, armed mobs took over the streets of Delhi and launched a massacre. Everywhere the first targets were Gurdwaras – to prevent Sikhs from collecting there and putting up a combined defence. The then Congress government was widely criticized for doing very little at the time, possibly acting as a conspirator, especially since voting lists were used to identify Sikh families. [44] The reactions seemed politically managed and confined to the Congress party .[45]

The period of insurgency in Punjab around Operation Bluestar saw clashes of the Sikh militants with the police, as well as with the Hindu-Nirankari groups resulting in many Hindu deaths. In 1987, 32 Hindus were pulled out of the bus and shot, near Lalru in Punjab by Sikh militants.[46]

Ayodhya and Babri Mosque

Main articles: Ayodhya debate, Bombay Riots, 1993 Bombay bombings, and 2002 Gujarat violence
File:Babri rearview.jpg
The 16th Century Babri Mosque was destroyed by the members of VHP and Bajrang Dal in 1992,[47] resulting in nationwide religious riots and persecution of Hindus in neighbouring Bangladesh and Pakistan

During the almost 800 years of Muslim conquest and rule in India, Islamic invaders and rulers destroyed and replaced many Hindu temples with mosques.[48] In more recent times, Hindu groups such as Vishva Hindu Parishad are attempting to reclaim some of these sites, which include some of the most scared sites such as Ram Janmabhoomi and Krishnajanmabhoomi. This attempt to reclaim such sites has often led to tensions between Hindu and Muslim communities in India[49] and has led to several major incidences of religious violence such as Bombay riots, 1993 Bombay bombings, Godhra Train Burning, and 2002 Gujarat violence.

On December 6, 1992, members of the Vishva Hindu Parishad and the Bajrang Dal destroyed the 430 year old Babri Mosque in Ayodhya,[47] allegedly built over the birthplace of the Hindu deity Rama. This action caused great anger in the Muslim community. The resulting religious riots caused at least 1200 deaths.[50][51] Reprisals against Hindu minorities also occurred in Pakistan and Bangladesh. Since then the Government of India has blocked off or heavily increased security at these disputed sites while encouraging attempts to resolve these disputes through court cases and negotiations.[52]

In the aftermatch of the destruction of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya by Hindu nationalists on December 6, 1992, roiting took place between Hindus and Muslims in the city of Mumbai. 500 people died in the resulting violence of the worst civil unrest in India since the partition. Four people died in a fire in the Asalpha timber mart at Ghatkopar, five were killed in the burning of Bainganwadi; shacks along the harbor line track between Sewri and Cotton Green stations were gutted; and a couple was pulled out of a rickshaw in Asalpha village and burnt to death. [53] The riots changed the demographics of Mumbai greatly, as Hindus moved to Hindu-majority areas and Muslims moved to Muslim-majority areas. It is estimated that almost 200,000 people moved location in the aftermath of the riots.

After the riots the 1993 Bombay bombings occurred, where a series of thirteen bomb explosions took place in Mumbai (then Bombay) on March 12, 1993.[54] The coordinated attacks were the most destructive bomb explosions in Indian history. The single-day attacks resulted in over 250 civilian fatalities and 700 injuries.[55] The attacks are believed to have been coordinated by Dawood Ibrahim, don of the organized crime syndicate named D-Company, which had operated as a terrorist organization.[56] It is believed that the attacks were carried out in retaliation for the destruction of Babri Mosque. There were fears that the attacks would restart the rioting, but this did not occur.

Many Ahmedabad's buildings were set on fire during 2002 Gujarat violence

Later on 27 February 2002, the Godhra train burning incident occurred in the town of Godhra in the Indian state of Gujarat, One of the coaches (Coach #S6) of a train named the "Sabarmati Express" was set on fire right after it left the train station. The coach was occupied by Hindu religious pilgrims called Kar Sevaks who were returning from Ayodhya. 58 Hindu pilgrims (23 men, 15 women and 20 children) who were inside, were burnt alive, and the coach was completely gutted by the fire. The fire started during an attack by a Muslim mob following an altercation between the Hindu pilgrims and local Muslims when the train was in platform.

The Godhra train burning incident led to the 2002 Gujarat riots in which mosly Muslims were killed in an obvious act of retaliation. According to the death toll given to the parliament on May 11, 2005 by the government, 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus were killed, and another 2,548 injured. 223 people are missing. The report placed the number of riot widows at 919 and 606 children were declared orphaned.[57][58][59] According to human rights groups, the death tolls were up to 2000.[60][61][62][63][64][65][66] According to the Congressional Research Service, up to 2000 people, mostly Muslim were killed in the violence.[67] Tens of thousands were displaced from their homes because of the violence. The large-scale, collective violence has been described by some as a "massacre"[68] and an attempted pogrom or genocide[69] of the Muslim population. According to New York Times reporter Celia Williams Dugger, witnesses were "dismayed by the lack of intervention from local police", who often "watched the events taking place and took no action against the attacks on Muslims and their property".[70] The perpetrators of the violence, Sangh leaders[71][72] as well as the Gujarat government[73][74] maintain that the violence was rioting or inter-communal clashes - spontaneous and uncontrollable reaction to the Godhra train burning.[75]

Ethnic cleansing of Kashmiri Pandits

In the Kashmir region, approximately 300 Kashmiri Pandits were killed between September 1989 to 1990 in various incidents.[76] In early 1990, local Urdu newspapers Aftab and Al Safa called upon Kashmiris to wage jihad against India and ordered the expulsion of all Hindus choosing to remain in Kashmir.[76] In the following days masked men ran in the streets with AK-47 shooting to kill Hindus who would not leave.[76] Notices were placed on the houses of all Hindus, telling them to leave within 24 hours or die.[76]

Since March 1990, estimates of between 250,000 to 300,000 pandits have migrated outside Kashmir due to persecution by Islamic fundamentalists in the largest case of ethnic cleansing since the partition of India.[77]

Many Kashmiri Pandits have been killed by Islamist militants in incidents such as the Wandhama massacre and the 2000 Amarnath pilgrimage massacre.[78][79][80][81][82] The incidents of massacring and forced eviction have been termed ethnic cleansing by some observers.[76]

Conversion and Anti-Christian violence

In recent years, there has been a sharp increase in violent attacks on Christians in India, often perpetrated by Hindu Nationalists.[83] Between 1964 and 1996, thirty-eight incidents of violence against Christians were reported.[84] In 1997, twenty-four such incidents were reported.[85] In 1998, it went up to ninety.[84] Between January 1998 and February 1999 alone, there were one hundred and sixteen attacks against Christians in India.[86] Between 1 January and 30 July 2000, more than fifty-seven attacks on Christians were reported.[87] These acts of violence include arson of churches, forcible conversion of Christians to Hinduism, distribution of threatening literature, burning of Bibles, murder of Christian priests and destruction of Christian schools, colleges, and cemeteries.[84],[83]. The attacks are often accompanied by large amounts of anti-Christian hate literature.[87]

The rise of anti-Christian violence has been directly linked to the ascendancy of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)[84] and Human Rights Watch pins the responsibility for much of the violence on the Sangh Parivar; an umbrella for the three Hindu Nationalist organizations, Vishwa Hindu Parishad, Bajrang Dal, and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh.[83] HRW also points to the involvement of the Sangh Parivar, as well as the local media, for promoting anti-Christian propaganda in the BJP controlled state of Gujarat.[83] In addition to Gujarat, anti-Christian violence has been the most prevalent in the states of Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and New Delhi, all of which have had administrations lead by the BJP.[84]

In some cases, anti-Christian violence has been co-ordinated, involving multiple attacks. In 2007 Orissa violence Christians were attacked in Kandhamal, Orissa, resulting in 9 deaths and destruction of houses and churches.[88][89] Nearly twelve churches were targeted in the attack by Hindu activists.[90][91][92] Twenty people were arrested following the attacks on churches.[91]

Foreign Christian missionaries have also been targets of attacks.[35] In a well-publicised case Graham Staines, an Australian missionary, was burnt to death while he was sleeping with his two sons Timothy (aged 9) and Philip (aged 7) in his station wagon at Manoharpur village in Keonjhar district in Orissa in January 1999.[83][93][94][35] In 2003, the Hindu nationalist activist Dara Singh was convicted of leading the gang responsible.[95]

In its annual human rights reports for 1999, the United States Department of State criticised India for "increasing societal violence against Christians."[96] The report listed over 90 incidents of anti-Christian violence, ranging from damage of religious property to violence against Christian pilgrims.[96]

Religious involvement in North-East India Militancy

Religion has begun to play an increasing role in reinforcing ethnic divides among the decades old militant separatist movements in north-east India.[97][98][99]

The separatist group National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT) seeks to convert all tribals in the state of Tripura, who are mostly Hindu or Buddhist, to Christianity. It has proclaimed bans on Hindu worship and has attacked animist Reangs and Hindu Jamatia tribesmen who resisted. Some resisting tribal leaders have been killed and their womenfolk raped. The RSS has attempted to counter Christian separatist groups by backing Reang and Jamatia tribals, and has called for the central government to help arm and fund them.[98]

Hindu nationalists, upset with the rapid spread of Chistianity in the region, link the overt Christian religiosity of the groups and the local churches' liberation theology-based doctrine to allege church support for ethnic separatism.[98] Vatsala Vedantam identifies statements from the American Baptist Churches USA as endorsing the Naga separatist cause.[100]

According to The Government of Tripura, the Baptist Church of Tripura is involved in supporting the NLFT and arrested two church officials in 2000, one of them for possessing explosives.[101]. In late 2004, the National Liberation Front of Tripura banned all Hindu celebrations of Durga Puja and Saraswati Puja[102]. The Naga insurgency has Christianity as its basis, and has been repeatedly involved in violence against Hindus in the region.[103][104][105][106]

Attack on hindu temples

There have been many attacks on hindu temples prominent among them are: 2002 fidayeen attacks on Raghunath temple,Akshardham Temple attackin 20003 and 2006 Varanasi bombings.

Lesser incidents

Lesser incidents of religious violence happen in many towns and villages in India. In October 2005, five people were killed in Mau in Uttar Pradesh during Hindu-Muslim rioting, which was triggered by the proposed celebration of a Hindu festival.[107]

On January 3rd and 4th of 2002, three Hindus and two Muslims were killed in Marad, near Calicut due to scuffles between two groups, in what began as a trivial altercation over drinking water at the public tap.[108].

On May 2 of 2003, eight Hindus and one Muslim were hacked to death by a Muslim mob, in what is believed to be a sequel to the earlier incident[109][110]. The National Development Front (NDF), a right-wing militant Islamist organization, was suspected as the perpetrator of the Marad Massacre[111].

International Perceptions & Comparisons

The United States Department of State in its controversial [112][113][114][115]annual human rights report for 2006 noted attacks against religious minorities in India.[116] State Department's annual reports on religious freedom for 2007 expressed concern over organized societal attacks against religious minorities.[40] However in judging overall religious freedom, the report noted signs of improvement in India along with Saudi Arabia and Vietnam compared to Iran, Iraq, Burma, Eritrea, North Korea, China and Egypt.[117]

In film and literature

Parzania, a film about 2002 Gujarat violence did not release in Gujarat due to fear of attack from Hindu activists.

Religious violence in India have been a topic of various films and novels.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "Census of India: Population by religious communities". 2001.
  2. ^ Rao, Prabhakar (2007). "Should religions try to convert others?". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ^ "Teachings of religious tolerance and intolerance in world religions".
  4. ^ Subrahmaniam, Vidya (2003-11-06). "Ayodhya: India's endless curse".
  5. ^ "A new breed of missionary". 2--5-04-01. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ^ "Who was responsible for the wanton destruction of the original brick stupa of Asoka and when precisely the great work of reconstruction was carried out is not known, but it seems probable that the author of the former was Pushyamitra, the first of the Sunga kings (184-148 BCE), who was notorious for his hostility to Buddhism, and that the restoration was affected by Agnimitra or his immediate successor." in John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, p. 38. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918).
  7. ^ Goel, Madan (2007-08-14). "Pluralism, Dissent and Democracy in India". University of West Florida. Retrieved 2008-04-04.
  8. ^ Sarvastivada pg 38-39
  9. ^ a b Ashok, pg 91-93
  10. ^ Article on Deokothar Stupas possibly being targeted by Pushyamitra
  11. ^ Akira Hirakawa, Paul Groner, A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayan, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1996, ISBN 8120809556, p. 223
  12. ^ O'Neill, Tom (2008). India's Ancient Art. Benoy K. Behl. National Geographic Magazine. The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at Ajanta, were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ^ a b c d Wink (2004) pg 201-205
  14. ^ Keay pg. 184
  15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Appleby292 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  16. ^ Keay, J. India a History, HarperCollinsPublishers London, pg. 209
  17. ^ Voltaire, Lettres sur l'origine des sciences et sur celle des peuples de l'Asie (first published Paris, 1777), letter of 15 December 1775
  18. ^ Salomon, H. P. and Sassoon, I. S. D., in Saraiva, Antonio Jose. The Marrano Factory. The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians, 1536-1765 (Brill, 2001), pp. 345-7.
  19. ^ Hunter, William W, The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Trubner & Co, 1886
  20. ^ Shirodhkar, P. P., Socio-Cultural life in Goa during the 16th century, p. 123
  21. ^ Seth, Vijay. "Secular Enlightenment and Christian Conversion: Missionaries and Education in Colonial India" (PDF). p. 28.
  22. ^ a b {{cite book | title=Modern Indian History |last=Mahajan|first= V D |isbn=812190935X|page=188
  23. ^ {{cite book| title=The Victorians |author=A. N. Wilson |isbn=0393049744 |year=2003 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |page=202
  24. ^ Hukum Chand. History of Medieval India. Anmol Publications PVT LTD. p. 424,433. ISBN 8126123133. "It was a semi-national and a religious war which had for its object freedom from English bondage and establishment of Mughal Empire with Empror Bahadur Shah as the head although the latter objective was not so common as the former.
  25. ^ Stephen Neill. A history of Christianity in India. Cambridge University Press. p. 471. ISBN 0521893321. "What began as a fight for religion ended as a war of independence
  26. ^ a b Ramesh, Randeep (2007-08-27). "Millions died in Indian Mutiny of 1857".
  27. ^ Wavell to Pethick Lawrence, August 21, 1946, Mansergh, Transfer of Power, Vol. VIII, P.274
  28. ^ Lal, Vinay. "The Partition of India".
  29. ^ Death toll in the partition
  30. ^ Preamble of the Constitution
  31. ^ Ludden 1996, p. 253
  32. ^ Barbara Harriss-White (2003). India Working: Essays on Society and Economy. Cambridge University Press. pp. p132. ISBN 0521007631. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  33. ^ a b Ram Puniyani (2003). Communal Politics: Facts Versus Myths. SAGE. p. 174. ISBN 0761996672.
  34. ^ Basu, Tapan Kumar (1993). Khaki shorts and saffron flags: a critique of the Hindu right. [New Delhi]: Orient Longman. p. 20. ISBN 0-86311-383-4.
  35. ^ a b c Hindu Extremists Attack Indian Churches, Torch Home of Prominent Christian
  36. ^ Paul Brass, The Production of Hindu-Muslim Violence in Contemporary India, University of Washington Press, 2003: p1144.
  37. ^ Bhatt, Chetan. "Majority ethnic" claims and authoritarian nationalism", in Eric Kaufman (ed.) Rethinking Ethnicity: Majority Groups and Dominant Minorities, Routledge, 2004.
  38. ^ Joshi, Sanjay; Walhof, Darren R.; Peterson, Derek R. (2002). The invention of religion: rethinking belief in politics and history. New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press. p. 92. ISBN 0-8135-3093-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Jalal, Ayesha (1995). Democracy and authoritarianism in South Asia: a comparative and historical perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 99. ISBN 0-521-47271-7.
  40. ^ a b c d "International Religious Freedom Report 2007:India".
  41. ^ Lamba, Puneet Singh (2004-06-06). "Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale: Five Myths". The Sikh Times. Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  42. ^ Joshi, Chand (1985). Bhindranwale: Myth and Reality. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House. pp. p129. ISBN 0706926943. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  43. ^ Kaur, Naunidhi (2004-06-03). "Flashbacks: Golden Temple attack". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-03-28.
  44. ^ Swadesh Bahadur Singh (editor of the Sher-i-Panjâb weekly): “Cabinet berth for a Sikh”, Indian Express, 31-5-1996.
  45. ^ Remembering 1984
  46. ^ Gunment Slaughter 38 on Bus in India in Bloodiest Attack of Sikh Campaign. July 7, 1987. Page A03. The Philadelphia Inquirer.
  47. ^ a b The Context of Anti-Christian Violence
  48. ^ Satish Chandra, Medieval India, NCERT, 1990, pp.70-71, 230-33; Romila Thapar, Medieval India, NCERT, 1979, p.141.
  49. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2528025.stm
  50. ^ Gargan, Edward (December 16, 1992). "India, Acting on Militants, Ousts Local Rulers". New York Times. Retrieved November 29, 2007. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help)
  51. ^ Serrill, Michael (December 21, 1992). "The Unholy War". New York Times. Retrieved November 29, 2007. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help)
  52. ^ "Ayodhya excavation: Digging for trouble". 2003-03-13.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
  53. ^ Bombay Riots (1993),The Times Group
  54. ^ "Mumbai bombings: 400 detained". CNN. July 13, 2006. Retrieved on March 15, 2007
  55. ^ Hansen, Thomas (2001). Wages of Violence: Naming and Identity in Postcolonial Bombay. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. p125. ISBN 0691088403. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  56. ^ James S. Robbins (July 12, 2006). "The Mumbai Blasts". National Review Online. Retrieved on March 15, 2007
  57. ^ Gujarat riot death toll revealed,BBC
  58. ^ BJP cites govt statistics to defend Modi,Indian Express
  59. ^ 254 Hindus, 790 Muslims killed in post-Godhra riots,Indiainfo.com
  60. ^ Human Rights Watch 2006, p. 265.
  61. ^ "Talibanization" and "Saffronization" in India,hir.harvard.edu
  62. ^ Why is Narendra Modi in Wembley?,The Guardian
  63. ^ India Shining, Communal Darkness,pucl.org
  64. ^ India's Calculated Ethnic Violence
  65. ^ Communal violence and nuclear stand-off
  66. ^ India in crisis
  67. ^ India-U.S. Relations
  68. ^ Ram Puniyani (2003). Communal Politics: Facts Versus Myths. SAGE. p. 282. ISBN 0761996672.
  69. ^ Tamara Sonn (2004). A Brief History of Islam. Blackwell Publishing. p. 371. ISBN 1405109009.
  70. ^ Dugger, Celia W. Hindu Rioters Kill 60 Muslims in India New York Times. New York, N.Y.:1 March 2002.
  71. ^ ""People Wanted Revenge And Got It"". Outlook. March 18, 2002.
  72. ^ "Muslim forum flays RSS resolution". The Hindu. March 19, 2002.
  73. ^ "Sectarian violence in India". The Economist. May 1st 2002. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  74. ^ "NGO says Gujarat riots were planned". BBC News Online. 19 March, 2002. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  75. ^ Brass (2005), pp. 387
  76. ^ a b c d e When Kashmiri pandits fled Islamic Terror
  77. ^ "Kashmiri Pandits in Nandimarg decide to leave Valley". Outlook. 30 March 2003. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  78. ^ "'I heard the cries of my mother and sisters'". Rediff. 27 January 1998. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  79. ^ "Migrant Pandits voted for end of terror in valley". The Tribune. April 27 2004]. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  80. ^ "At least 58 dead in 2 attacks in Kashmir". CNN. August 2 2000. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  81. ^ "City shocked at killing of Kashmiri Pandits". The Times of India. 25 March 2003. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  82. ^ Phil Reeves (March 25 2003). "Islamic militants kill 24 Hindus in Kashmir massacre". The Independent. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  83. ^ a b c d e "Anti-Christian Violence on the Rise in India".
  84. ^ a b c d e "Anti-Christian Violence in India".
  85. ^ Ram Puniyani (2003). Communal Politics: Facts Versus Myths. SAGE. pp. p167. ISBN 0761996672. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  86. ^ Indian Christians are victims of a 'concerted campaign'
  87. ^ a b Violence against Christians continues
  88. ^ "Orissa carnage: Christian group demands CBI probe".
  89. ^ "India: Stop Hindu-Christian Violence in Orissa".
  90. ^ "Stop the hate crime".
  91. ^ a b "Fresh violence in Orissa, curfew continues".
  92. ^ "Church Attack: Indefinite curfew in Orissa".
  93. ^ Catholic priest killed in Mathura
  94. ^ INDIA
  95. ^ The Staines case verdict V. Venkatesan, Frontline Magazine, Oct 11-23, 2003
  96. ^ a b "US rights report slams India for anti-Christian violence". 1999-02-27. Retrieved 2007-12-17.
  97. ^ Fernandes, Edna. "Part II: The Crusaders, Chapter 11: 'Nagaland for Christ'". Holy Warriors: A Journey Into the Heart of Indian Fundamentalism. Penguin Global. ISBN 978-0670058709.
  98. ^ a b c Subir Bhaumik (Spring 2004), "Ethnicity, Ideology and Religion: Separatist Movements in India's Northeast", Religious Radicalism and Security in South Asia (PDF), Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies
  99. ^ Anatomy of an Insurgency Ethnicity & Identity in Nagaland
  100. ^ Vatsala Vedantam (April 14, 1999), Privilege and resentment: Religious conflict in India, Christian Century
  101. ^ "Church backing Tripura rebels". BBC. April 18 2000. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  102. ^ 'Church backing Tripura rebels' BBC News - April 18, 2000
  103. ^ Parratt (2003). "Christianity, ethnicity and structural violence: The north-east India case". Kangla Online. Retrieved 2008-03-10. ... it is clear that the Naga insurgency movements in India ... have to a degree a Christian ideological base... It is significant the Rev Michael Scott, one of the members of the earlier abortive Peace Mission, was widely perceived as being the Nagas' spokesman. Phizo (the first Naga independence leader) was a convinced Baptist. In the earlier period a substantial number of pastors joined the underground. The insurgents did not fight on Sundays unless attacked (Horam 1988:76-77). The slogan "Nagaland for Christ" was a recognised rallying cry, and to some extent still is. Overtly Christian elements have appeared in official statements. The Constitution of the Federal Government of Nagaland, while it guaranteed free profession and practice of any religion, declared that Christianity would be the religion of the Naga state (Horam 1988:61). It was not averse to using religion as propaganda tool either, when it claimed that the "Hindu government" of India had adopted a policy of stopping Nagas eating meat. In the earlier days of the movement (Phanjoubam 1993:125) volunteer gospel teams preached under armed guard (one might almost say gun in one hand Bible in the other), and the conduct of the jungle camps was (and to some extent remains, like those in Myanmar) ordered by Christian spiritual activities. As with the non-Christian Meitei movements, the NSCN tended towards puritannical life style, banning alcohol and drugs, and discouraging sexual immorality. Provision of social amenities, like schools and clinics, goes hand in hand with religious teaching. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  104. ^ Horam, B (1988) Naga Insurgency (New Delhi)
  105. ^ Horam, B (1977) Social and cultural life of the Nagas (New Delhi)
  106. ^ Phanjoubam, Tarapot (1993) Insurgency Movement in North Eastern India (New Delhi 1993)
  107. ^ Human Rights Watch World Report 2006
  108. ^ Marad can yet be retrieved [1]
  109. ^ IMC India - 8 Hindus hacked to death by muslim mob in kerala
  110. ^ Marad can yet be retrieved
  111. ^ NDF behind Marad massacre?
  112. ^ "ANNUAL U.S. HUMAN RIGHTS REPORT GARNERS CRITICISM/PRAISE, EXPOSES U.S. 'DOUBLE STANDARD'". "US Office of Research & Media Reaction. 1999-03-05.
  113. ^ ANDRES OPPENHEIMER (2006-03-13). "U.S. Rights Report Should Include U.S. Abuses". Salt Lake Tribune.
  114. ^ "US human rights report spares allies". The Age. 2006-03-10.
  115. ^ "U.S. rights report shows double standards: Russia". Reuters. 2008-03-12.
  116. ^ 'India respects rights, but problems remain'
  117. ^ US reports on religious freedom
  118. ^ Bumbai (1995) IMDB
  119. ^ Earth (1998) IMDB
  120. ^ Fiza (2000) IMDB
  121. ^ Hey Ram (2000) IMDB
  122. ^ Mr. and Mrs. Iyer (2002) IMDB
  123. ^ Final Solution (2003) IMDB
  124. ^ Black Friday (2004) IMDB
  125. ^ Parzania (2005) IMDB
  126. ^ Parzania not screened in Gujarat
  127. ^ Cinema at its very best... and then some not quite so at all

References

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