Augustus - Revision history

Remsense: Undid revision 1248174582 by Alexandros17 (talk): clutter. have you considered asking before making highly visible changes to the infobox of a featured article?

2024-09-28T03:51:46Z

Undid revision 1248174582 by Alexandros17 (talk): clutter. have you considered asking before making highly visible changes to the infobox of a featured article?

← Previous revision		Revision as of 03:51, 28 September 2024
Line 6:		Line 6:
	{{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2024}}		{{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2024}}
	{{Infobox royalty		{{Infobox royalty
	\| title = {{lang\|la\|[[Princeps]]}}~~<br>[[Imperator]]<br>[[Pontifex maximus]]<br>[[Pater Patriae]]~~		\| title = {{lang\|la\|[[Princeps]]}}
	\| image = Augustus of Prima Porta (inv. 2290).jpg		\| image = Augustus of Prima Porta (inv. 2290).jpg
	\| image_size = 250px		\| image_size = 250px

Alexandros17: /* top */

2024-09-28T02:33:08Z

top

← Previous revision		Revision as of 02:33, 28 September 2024
Line 6:		Line 6:
	{{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2024}}		{{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2024}}
	{{Infobox royalty		{{Infobox royalty
	\| title = {{lang\|la\|[[Princeps]]}}		\| title = {{lang\|la\|[[Princeps]]}}<br>[[Imperator]]<br>[[Pontifex maximus]]<br>[[Pater Patriae]]
	\| image = Augustus of Prima Porta (inv. 2290).jpg		\| image = Augustus of Prima Porta (inv. 2290).jpg
	\| image_size = 250px		\| image_size = 250px

Citation bot: Added doi. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by RafaelTLS | #UCB_webform

2024-09-24T00:12:23Z

Added doi. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by RafaelTLS | #UCB_webform

← Previous revision		Revision as of 00:12, 24 September 2024
Line 445:		Line 445:
	* {{Cite book \|last=Grant \|first=Michael \|title=The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 476 \|date=1985 \|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons \|isbn=978-0297785552 \|location=New York \|author-link=Michael Grant (classicist)}}		* {{Cite book \|last=Grant \|first=Michael \|title=The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 476 \|date=1985 \|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons \|isbn=978-0297785552 \|location=New York \|author-link=Michael Grant (classicist)}}
	* {{Cite book \|last=Levick \|first=Barbara \|title=Augustus: Image and Substance \|date=2010 \|publisher=London: Longman \|isbn=978-0-582-89421-1 \|author-link=Barbara Levick}}		* {{Cite book \|last=Levick \|first=Barbara \|title=Augustus: Image and Substance \|date=2010 \|publisher=London: Longman \|isbn=978-0-582-89421-1 \|author-link=Barbara Levick}}
	* {{Cite journal \|last1=Lewis \|first1=P. R. \|last2=Jones \|first2=G. D. B. \|date=1970 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=60 \|pages=169–185 \|jstor=299421}}		* {{Cite journal \|last1=Lewis \|first1=P. R. \|last2=Jones \|first2=G. D. B. \|date=1970 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=60 \|pages=169–185 \|doi=10.1017/S0075435800043343 \|jstor=299421}}
	* {{Cite journal \|last1=Jones \|first1=R. F. J. \|last2=Bird \|first2=D. G. \|date=1972 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=62 \|pages=59–74 \|doi=10.2307/298927 \|jstor=298927\|s2cid=162096359 }}		* {{Cite journal \|last1=Jones \|first1=R. F. J. \|last2=Bird \|first2=D. G. \|date=1972 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=62 \|pages=59–74 \|doi=10.2307/298927 \|jstor=298927\|s2cid=162096359 }}
	* {{Cite journal \|last=Jones \|first=A. H. M. \|author-link=A. H. M. Jones \|date=1951 \|title=The Imperium of Augustus \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=41 \|issue=1–2 \|pages=112–119 \|doi=10.2307/298104 \|jstor=298104\|s2cid=162372767 }}		* {{Cite journal \|last=Jones \|first=A. H. M. \|author-link=A. H. M. Jones \|date=1951 \|title=The Imperium of Augustus \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=41 \|issue=1–2 \|pages=112–119 \|doi=10.2307/298104 \|jstor=298104\|s2cid=162372767 }}

Citation bot: Removed parameters. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by Jay8g | #UCB_toolbar

2024-09-22T02:31:45Z

Removed parameters. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by Jay8g | #UCB_toolbar

← Previous revision		Revision as of 02:31, 22 September 2024
Line 445:		Line 445:
	* {{Cite book \|last=Grant \|first=Michael \|title=The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 476 \|date=1985 \|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons \|isbn=978-0297785552 \|location=New York \|author-link=Michael Grant (classicist)}}		* {{Cite book \|last=Grant \|first=Michael \|title=The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 476 \|date=1985 \|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons \|isbn=978-0297785552 \|location=New York \|author-link=Michael Grant (classicist)}}
	* {{Cite book \|last=Levick \|first=Barbara \|title=Augustus: Image and Substance \|date=2010 \|publisher=London: Longman \|isbn=978-0-582-89421-1 \|author-link=Barbara Levick}}		* {{Cite book \|last=Levick \|first=Barbara \|title=Augustus: Image and Substance \|date=2010 \|publisher=London: Longman \|isbn=978-0-582-89421-1 \|author-link=Barbara Levick}}
	* {{Cite journal \|last1=Lewis \|first1=P. R. \|last2=Jones \|first2=G. D. B. \|date=1970 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=60 \|pages=169–185 ~~\|doi=10.2307/299421~~ \|jstor=299421}}		* {{Cite journal \|last1=Lewis \|first1=P. R. \|last2=Jones \|first2=G. D. B. \|date=1970 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=60 \|pages=169–185 \|jstor=299421}}
	* {{Cite journal \|last1=Jones \|first1=R. F. J. \|last2=Bird \|first2=D. G. \|date=1972 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=62 \|pages=59–74 \|doi=10.2307/298927 \|jstor=298927\|s2cid=162096359 }}		* {{Cite journal \|last1=Jones \|first1=R. F. J. \|last2=Bird \|first2=D. G. \|date=1972 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=62 \|pages=59–74 \|doi=10.2307/298927 \|jstor=298927\|s2cid=162096359 }}
	* {{Cite journal \|last=Jones \|first=A. H. M. \|author-link=A. H. M. Jones \|date=1951 \|title=The Imperium of Augustus \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=41 \|issue=1–2 \|pages=112–119 \|doi=10.2307/298104 \|jstor=298104\|s2cid=162372767 }}		* {{Cite journal \|last=Jones \|first=A. H. M. \|author-link=A. H. M. Jones \|date=1951 \|title=The Imperium of Augustus \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=41 \|issue=1–2 \|pages=112–119 \|doi=10.2307/298104 \|jstor=298104\|s2cid=162372767 }}

RedactedHumanoid: Added a better image of the Augustus of Prima Porta statue.

2024-09-13T18:21:49Z

Added a better image of the Augustus of Prima Porta statue.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 18:21, 13 September 2024
Line 7:		Line 7:
	{{Infobox royalty		{{Infobox royalty
	\| title = {{lang\|la\|[[Princeps]]}}		\| title = {{lang\|la\|[[Princeps]]}}
	\| image = Augustus of Prima Porta (~~2984423197~~).jpg		\| image = Augustus of Prima Porta (inv. 2290).jpg
	\| image_size = 250px		\| image_size = 250px
	\| alt = Statue of Augustus		\| alt = Statue of Augustus

Atubofsilverware: /* War and expansion */ link

2024-09-07T15:20:07Z

War and expansion: link

← Previous revision		Revision as of 15:20, 7 September 2024
Line 246:		Line 246:
	=== War and expansion ===		=== War and expansion ===
	{{Main\|Wars of Augustus}}		{{Main\|Wars of Augustus}}
	{{Further\|Roman–Iranian relations\|Augustus's Eastern policy}}		{{Further\|Roman–Iranian relations\|Augustus' Eastern policy}}

	By AD 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed him ''[[imperator]]'' after a successful battle. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti\|Res Gestae]]'' is devoted to his military victories and honors.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=93}}		By AD 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed him ''[[imperator]]'' after a successful battle. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti\|Res Gestae]]'' is devoted to his military victories and honors.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=93}}

ElegantEgotist: /* Month of August */

2024-08-31T20:22:31Z

Month of August

← Previous revision		Revision as of 20:22, 31 August 2024
Line 335:		Line 335:

	=== Month of August ===		=== Month of August ===
	The month of August (Latin: ''Augustus'') is named after Augustus; until his time it was called [[Sextilis]] (named so because it had been the sixth month of the original [[Roman calendar]] and the Latin word for six is ''sex''). Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar [[Johannes de Sacrobosco]]. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see [[Julian calendar]]).		The month of August (Latin: ''Augustus'') is named after Augustus; until his time it was called [[Sextilis]] (named so because it had been the sixth month of the original [[Roman calendar]] and the Latin word for six is ''sex''). Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th-century scholar [[Johannes de Sacrobosco]]. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see [[Julian calendar]]).

	According to a {{lang\|la\|senatus consultum}} quoted by [[Macrobius]], Sextilis was renamed to honor Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, fell in that month.<ref>Macrobius, ''Saturnalia'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Macrobius/Saturnalia/1*.html#12.35 1.12.35].</ref>		According to a {{lang\|la\|senatus consultum}} quoted by [[Macrobius]], Sextilis was renamed to honor Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, fell in that month.<ref>Macrobius, ''Saturnalia'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Macrobius/Saturnalia/1*.html#12.35 1.12.35].</ref>

Omnipaedista: MOS:SECTIONORDER

2024-08-30T22:31:47Z

MOS:SECTIONORDER

← Previous revision		Revision as of 22:31, 30 August 2024
Line 1:		Line 1:
	{{Short description\|First Roman emperor from 27 BC to AD 14}}		{{Short description\|First Roman emperor from 27 BC to AD 14}}
	{{About\|the first Roman emperor\|\|Augustus (title){{!}}''Augustus'' (title)\|and\|Augustus (disambiguation)\|and\|Octavian (disambiguation)}}		{{About\|the first Roman emperor\|\|Augustus (title){{!}}''Augustus'' (title)\|and\|Augustus (disambiguation)\|and\|Octavian (disambiguation)}}
		⚫	{{Featured article}}
	{{Pp-move}}		{{Pp-move}}
	{{Pp\|small=yes}}		{{Pp\|small=yes}}
Line 505:		Line 506:
	{{Pharaohs}}		{{Pharaohs}}
	{{Authority control}}		{{Authority control}}
⚫	{{Featured article}}

	[[Category:Augustus\| ]]		[[Category:Augustus\| ]]

RedactedHumanoid: Linked a phrase to another article.

2024-08-30T02:46:38Z

Linked a phrase to another article.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 02:46, 30 August 2024
Line 74:		Line 74:

	[[File:RSC 0022 - transparent background.png\|thumb\|300px\|left\|A [[denarius]] from 44 BC, showing [[Julius Caesar]] on the obverse and the goddess [[Venus (mythology)\|Venus]] on the reverse of the coin. Caption: CAESAR IMP. M. / L. AEMILIVS BVCA]]		[[File:RSC 0022 - transparent background.png\|thumb\|300px\|left\|A [[denarius]] from 44 BC, showing [[Julius Caesar]] on the obverse and the goddess [[Venus (mythology)\|Venus]] on the reverse of the coin. Caption: CAESAR IMP. M. / L. AEMILIVS BVCA]]
	His father died in 59 BC when Octavian was four years old.{{Sfn\|Chisholm\|Ferguson\|1981\|page=23}} His mother married a former governor of Syria, [[Lucius Marcius Philippus (consul 56 BC)\|Lucius Marcius Philippus]].{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc=''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus.html#4 4–8]}}{{sfn\|Nicolaus of Damascus\|loc=3}} Philippus claimed descent from [[Alexander the Great]] and was elected [[Roman consul\|consul]] in 56 BC. Philippus never had much of an interest in young Octavian. Because of this, Octavian was raised by his grandmother, [[Julia Minor (grandmother of Augustus)\|Julia]], the sister of Julius Caesar. Julia died in 52 or 51 BC, and Octavian delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother.{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc=''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus.html#8 8.1]}}<ref>[[Quintilian]], [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio12.shtml#6 12.6.1]. {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225070928/http://thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio12.shtml#6 \|date=25 February 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite EB1911\|wstitle=Augustus\|volume=2\|page=912\|first=Henry Francis\|last=Pelham\|author-link=Henry Francis Pelham}}</ref> From this point, his mother and stepfather took a more active role in raising him. He donned the ''[[toga]] virilis'' ("toga of manhood") four years later<ref name="Suet8.1">Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#8 8.1]</ref> and was elected to the [[College of Pontiffs]] in 47 BC.{{sfn\|Nicolaus of Damascus\|loc=[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html 4]}}{{Sfn\|Rowell\|1962\|page=16}} The following year he was put in charge of the [[Ancient Olympic Games\|Greek games]] that were staged in honor of the [[Temple of Venus Genetrix]], built by Julius Caesar.{{Sfn\|Rowell\|1962\|page=16}}		His father died in 59 BC when Octavian was four years old.{{Sfn\|Chisholm\|Ferguson\|1981\|page=23}} His mother married a former governor of [[Roman Syria\|Syria]], [[Lucius Marcius Philippus (consul 56 BC)\|Lucius Marcius Philippus]].{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc=''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus.html#4 4–8]}}{{sfn\|Nicolaus of Damascus\|loc=3}} Philippus claimed descent from [[Alexander the Great]] and was elected [[Roman consul\|consul]] in 56 BC. Philippus never had much of an interest in young Octavian. Because of this, Octavian was raised by his grandmother, [[Julia Minor (grandmother of Augustus)\|Julia]], the sister of Julius Caesar. Julia died in 52 or 51 BC, and Octavian delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother.{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc=''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus.html#8 8.1]}}<ref>[[Quintilian]], [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio12.shtml#6 12.6.1]. {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225070928/http://thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio12.shtml#6 \|date=25 February 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite EB1911\|wstitle=Augustus\|volume=2\|page=912\|first=Henry Francis\|last=Pelham\|author-link=Henry Francis Pelham}}</ref> From this point, his mother and stepfather took a more active role in raising him. He donned the ''[[toga]] virilis'' ("toga of manhood") four years later<ref name="Suet8.1">Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#8 8.1]</ref> and was elected to the [[College of Pontiffs]] in 47 BC.{{sfn\|Nicolaus of Damascus\|loc=[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html 4]}}{{Sfn\|Rowell\|1962\|page=16}} The following year he was put in charge of the [[Ancient Olympic Games\|Greek games]] that were staged in honor of the [[Temple of Venus Genetrix]], built by Julius Caesar.{{Sfn\|Rowell\|1962\|page=16}}

	According to [[Nicolaus of Damascus]], Octavian wished to join Caesar's staff for his campaign in [[Africa (Roman province)\|Africa]] but gave way when his mother protested.{{sfn\|Nicolaus of Damascus\|loc=[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html 6]}} In 46 BC, she consented for him to join Caesar in [[Hispania]], where he planned to fight the forces of [[Pompey]], Caesar's late enemy, but Octavian fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front but was shipwrecked. After coming ashore with a handful of companions, he crossed hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed Caesar considerably.<ref name="Suet8.1" /> [[Velleius Paterculus]] reports that after that time, Caesar allowed the young man to share his carriage.<ref>Velleius Paterculus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2C.html#59.3 2.59.3].</ref> When back in Rome, Caesar deposited a new will with the [[Vestal Virgin]]s, naming Octavian as the prime beneficiary.<ref name="Suetonius_Julius">Suetonius, ''Julius'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius.html#83 83].</ref>		According to [[Nicolaus of Damascus]], Octavian wished to join Caesar's staff for his campaign in [[Africa (Roman province)\|Africa]] but gave way when his mother protested.{{sfn\|Nicolaus of Damascus\|loc=[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html 6]}} In 46 BC, she consented for him to join Caesar in [[Hispania]], where he planned to fight the forces of [[Pompey]], Caesar's late enemy, but Octavian fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front but was shipwrecked. After coming ashore with a handful of companions, he crossed hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed Caesar considerably.<ref name="Suet8.1" /> [[Velleius Paterculus]] reports that after that time, Caesar allowed the young man to share his carriage.<ref>Velleius Paterculus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2C.html#59.3 2.59.3].</ref> When back in Rome, Caesar deposited a new will with the [[Vestal Virgin]]s, naming Octavian as the prime beneficiary.<ref name="Suetonius_Julius">Suetonius, ''Julius'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius.html#83 83].</ref>

Regulov at 14:08, 24 August 2024

2024-08-24T14:08:19Z

← Previous revision		Revision as of 14:08, 24 August 2024
Line 55:		Line 55:
	After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Augustus restored the outward facade of the free republic, with governmental power vested in the [[Roman Senate]], the [[Roman magistrate\|executive magistrates]] and the [[Roman assemblies\|legislative assemblies]], yet he maintained autocratic authority by having the Senate grant him lifetime tenure as [[commander-in-chief]], [[tribune]] and [[Roman censor\|censor]]. A similar ambiguity is seen in his chosen names, the implied rejection of monarchical titles whereby he called himself {{lang\|la\|[[Princeps]] Civitatis}} ('First Citizen') juxtaposed with his adoption of the title [[Augustus (title)\|Augustus]].		After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Augustus restored the outward facade of the free republic, with governmental power vested in the [[Roman Senate]], the [[Roman magistrate\|executive magistrates]] and the [[Roman assemblies\|legislative assemblies]], yet he maintained autocratic authority by having the Senate grant him lifetime tenure as [[commander-in-chief]], [[tribune]] and [[Roman censor\|censor]]. A similar ambiguity is seen in his chosen names, the implied rejection of monarchical titles whereby he called himself {{lang\|la\|[[Princeps]] Civitatis}} ('First Citizen') juxtaposed with his adoption of the title [[Augustus (title)\|Augustus]].

	Augustus dramatically enlarged the empire, annexing Egypt, [[Dalmatia (Roman province)\|Dalmatia]], [[Pannonia]], [[Noricum]], and [[Raetia]], expanding possessions in [[Africa (Roman province)\|Africa]], and completing the conquest of [[Hispania]], but he suffered [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest\|a major setback]] in [[Germania]]. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the empire with a buffer region of [[client state]]s and made peace with the [[Parthian Empire]] through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed [[Roman roads\|networks of roads]] with an [[cursus publicus\|official courier system]], established a [[standing army]], established the [[Praetorian Guard]] as well as official [[cohortes urbanae\|police]] and [[vigiles\|fire-fighting services]] for Rome, and rebuilt much of the city during his reign. Augustus died in AD 14 at age 75, probably from natural causes. Persistent rumors, substantiated somewhat by deaths in the imperial family, have claimed his wife [[Livia]] poisoned him. He was succeeded as emperor by his adopted son [[Tiberius]], Livia's son and former husband of Augustus' only biological child, [[Julia the Elder\|Julia]].		Augustus dramatically enlarged the empire, annexing Egypt, [[Dalmatia (Roman province)\|Dalmatia]], [[Pannonia]], [[Noricum]], and [[Raetia]], expanding possessions in [[Africa (Roman province)\|Africa]], and completing the conquest of [[Hispania]], but he suffered [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest\|a major setback]] in [[Germania]]. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the empire with a buffer region of [[client state]]s and made peace with the [[Parthian Empire]] through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed [[Roman roads\|networks of roads]] with an [[cursus publicus\|official courier system]], established a [[standing army]], established the [[Praetorian Guard]] as well as official [[cohortes urbanae\|police]] and [[vigiles\|fire-fighting services]] for Rome, and rebuilt much of the city during his reign. Augustus died in AD 14 at age 75, probably from natural causes. Persistent rumors, substantiated somewhat by deaths in the imperial family, have claimed his wife [[Livia]] poisoned him. He was succeeded as emperor by his adopted son [[Tiberius]], Livia's son and former husband of Augustus's only biological child, [[Julia the Elder\|Julia]].

	== Name ==		== Name ==
Line 188:		Line 188:
	===Change to Augustus===		===Change to Augustus===
	[[File:Augustus first century aureus obverse.png\|thumb\|[[Aureus]] minted {{circa}} AD 13, marked: "Caesar Augustus Divi F Pater Patriae"]]		[[File:Augustus first century aureus obverse.png\|thumb\|[[Aureus]] minted {{circa}} AD 13, marked: "Caesar Augustus Divi F Pater Patriae"]]
	On 16 January 27 BC{{Refn\|''[[Fasti Praenestini]]''<ref>[[Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae\|InscrIt-13-02]] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20120118182420/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=InscrIt-13-02%2C+00017&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 00017]: ''XVII'' –[[Roman calendar\|Kalendas Februarias]]{{snd}}''c(omitialis) Imp(erator) Caesar [Augustus est a]ppell[a]tus ipso VII et Agrip[pa III co(n)s(ulibus)]''.</ref>''[[Feriale Cumanum]]''.<ref>[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum\|CIL]] [http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel.php?s_sprache=de&p_belegstelle=CIL+10%2C+08375 8375] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608013701/http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel.php?s_sprache=de&p_belegstelle=CIL+10,+08375 \|date=8 June 2021 }}: "''[X]VII K(alendas) Febr(uarias) eo di[e Caesar Augustu]s appellatus est supplicatio Augusto''".</ref> [[Ovid's Fasti]] gives 13 January, the very same date in which the Senate powers were "restored".<ref>[[Ovid]] [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/8738/pg8738.html 587–590] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608013703/https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/8738/pg8738.html \|date=8 June 2021 }}: "''[[Ides (calendar)\|Id.]] [...] Populo provinciae redditae. Octaviano Augusti nomen datum''".</ref> The 3rd century [[Censorinus\|''De die Natali'']] gives 17 January, a mistake.<ref>[[Censorinus]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Censorinus/text.html#21.8 XXI.8] : "''quamvis ex ante diem XVI kal. Febr. imperator Caesar''". The number is right, but the phrasing is not.</ref>}} the Senate gave Octavian the new title of ''[[Augustus (title)\|augustus]]''.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=50}} ''Augustus'' is from the Latin word ''augere'' (meaning "to increase") and can be translated as "illustrious one" or "sublime".<ref name=":0" />{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=50}} It was a title of religious authority rather than political one, and it indicated that Octavian now approached divinity.{{Sfn\|Eder\|2005\|\|page=24}} His name of Augustus was also more favorable than ''Romulus'', the previous one which he styled for himself in reference to the story of [[Romulus\|the legendary founder of Rome]], which symbolized a second founding of Rome.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=49}} The title of ''Romulus'' was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image that Octavian tried to avoid.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=149}} The Senate also confirmed his position as ''[[princeps senatus]]'', which originally meant the member of the Senate with the highest precedence,<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Roberts \|first=John \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9780192801463 \|title=Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World \|publisher=[[Oxford Reference]] \|date=2007 \|isbn=978-0-19-280146-3 \|pages=858 \|chapter=Princeps senatus \|doi=10.1093/acref/9780192801463.001.0001 \|chapter-url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100345995 }}{{Dead link\|date=August 2023 \|bot=InternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> but in this case it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|pages=3, 149}} The honorific ''augustus'' was inherited by all future emperors and became the ''de facto'' main title of the emperor.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal\|last=Strothmann\|first=Meret (Bochum)\|date=1 October 2006\|title=Augustus [2]\|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/augustus-2-e12220040\|journal=Brill's New Pauly}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last=Hammond\|first=Mason\|author-link=Mason Hammond\|year=1957\|title=Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire\|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4238646\|url-access=subscription\|journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome\|volume=25\|pages=29–31\|doi=10.2307/4238646 \|jstor=4238646 }}</ref> As a result, modern historians usually regard this event as the beginning of his reign as "emperor".{{Efn\|Ancient historians, however, often give him a rule of 56 years. None of them seem to agree on the exact start date, though, and often present errors or corruptions in their calculations.<ref>[[Josephus]] (1st century), ''[[The Jewish War]]'' [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850-images.html Book II, 9] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20211209203545/https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850-images.html Archive]). "Fifty-seven years, six months, and two days", which seems to give 17 February 44 BC. He actually reckons his reign from 15 March 44 BC, Caesar's murder, to 17 September AD 14, Tiberius' formal accession, see {{harnvb\|Burgess\|2014\|pp=39–43}}</ref><ref>[[Suetonius]] (121) ''[[Life of Augustus]]'' 8, "With Antony alone for nearly twelve years, and finally by himself for forty-four." 56 years in total (from 43 BC).</ref><ref>[[Theophilus of Antioch\|Theophilus]] (180–192), ''[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Ante-Nicene_Christian_Library_Vol_3.djvu/142 To Autolycus]'' XXVII ([https://web.archive.org/web/20211207223048/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Ante-Nicene_Christian_Library_Vol_3.djvu/142 Archive]). "56 years 4 months 1 day" (repeated in the [[Chronograph of 354]]): 18 April; referencing either his victory at the [[Battle of Mutina]] (21 April) or, more likely, his first acclamation as ''[[imperator]]'' (16 April).</ref><ref>[[Cassius Dio]] (230). ''[[Historia Romana]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/56.html#30 56, 30]. "Forty-four years lacking thirteen days." Dio is one of the few writers that reckons from the [[Battle of Actium]].</ref><ref>[[Jerome]] (4th century), ''[[Chronicon (Jerome)\|Chronicon]]'', [http://www.attalus.org/translate/jerome2.html 184.2.] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20120609023200/http://www.attalus.org/translate/jerome2.html Archive]) "56 years and 6 months", which appears to give February/March 43 BC. This incorrect calculation is followed by most later historians. The error derives from an extra year given to Julius Caesar's "reign", which in turn lead to the subtraction of one year from Augustus, see {{harnvb\|Burgess\|2014\|pp=38–40}}.</ref>}} Augustus himself appears to have reckoned his "reign" from 27 BC.<ref>''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti\|Res Gestae]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/1.html# I.7], "For ten years in succession I was one of the triumvirs for the re-establishment of the constitution. To the day of writing this [June/July AD 14] I have been ''[[princeps senatus]]'' for forty years." </ref>{{efn\|[[Cassius Dio]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53.html#1 (53.1)] indicates that he took the title ''princeps senatus'' in 28 BC. However, he also states that Augustus "added five years to his own terms as ''princeps'', since his ten-year period was about to expire (this was in the consulship of [[Publius Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus\|Publius]] and [[Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus (consul 18 BC)\|Gnaeus Lentulus]] [18 BC])" [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html#12 (54.12)], meaning that his official tenure as ''princeps'' began in 27 BC.}}		On 16 January 27 BC{{Refn\|''[[Fasti Praenestini]]''<ref>[[Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae\|InscrIt-13-02]] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20120118182420/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=InscrIt-13-02%2C+00017&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 00017]: ''XVII'' –[[Roman calendar\|Kalendas Februarias]]{{snd}}''c(omitialis) Imp(erator) Caesar [Augustus est a]ppell[a]tus ipso VII et Agrip[pa III co(n)s(ulibus)]''.</ref>''[[Feriale Cumanum]]''.<ref>[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum\|CIL]] [http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel.php?s_sprache=de&p_belegstelle=CIL+10%2C+08375 8375] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608013701/http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel.php?s_sprache=de&p_belegstelle=CIL+10,+08375 \|date=8 June 2021 }}: "''[X]VII K(alendas) Febr(uarias) eo di[e Caesar Augustu]s appellatus est supplicatio Augusto''".</ref> [[Ovid's Fasti]] gives 13 January, the very same date in which the Senate powers were "restored".<ref>[[Ovid]] [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/8738/pg8738.html 587–590] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608013703/https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/8738/pg8738.html \|date=8 June 2021 }}: "''[[Ides (calendar)\|Id.]] [...] Populo provinciae redditae. Octaviano Augusti nomen datum''".</ref> The 3rd century [[Censorinus\|''De die Natali'']] gives 17 January, a mistake.<ref>[[Censorinus]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Censorinus/text.html#21.8 XXI.8] : "''quamvis ex ante diem XVI kal. Febr. imperator Caesar''". The number is right, but the phrasing is not.</ref>}} the Senate gave Octavian the new title of ''[[Augustus (title)\|augustus]]''.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=50}} ''Augustus'' is from the Latin word ''augere'' (meaning "to increase") and can be translated as "illustrious one" or "sublime".<ref name=":0" />{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=50}} It was a title of religious authority rather than political one, and it indicated that Octavian now approached divinity.{{Sfn\|Eder\|2005\|\|page=24}} His name of Augustus was also more favorable than ''Romulus'', the previous one which he styled for himself in reference to the story of [[Romulus\|the legendary founder of Rome]], which symbolized a second founding of Rome.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=49}} The title of ''Romulus'' was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image that Octavian tried to avoid.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=149}} The Senate also confirmed his position as ''[[princeps senatus]]'', which originally meant the member of the Senate with the highest precedence,<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Roberts \|first=John \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9780192801463 \|title=Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World \|publisher=[[Oxford Reference]] \|date=2007 \|isbn=978-0-19-280146-3 \|pages=858 \|chapter=Princeps senatus \|doi=10.1093/acref/9780192801463.001.0001 \|chapter-url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100345995 }}{{Dead link\|date=August 2023 \|bot=InternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> but in this case it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|pages=3, 149}} The honorific ''augustus'' was inherited by all future emperors and became the ''de facto'' main title of the emperor.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal\|last=Strothmann\|first=Meret (Bochum)\|date=1 October 2006\|title=Augustus [2]\|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/augustus-2-e12220040\|journal=Brill's New Pauly}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last=Hammond\|first=Mason\|author-link=Mason Hammond\|year=1957\|title=Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire\|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4238646\|url-access=subscription\|journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome\|volume=25\|pages=29–31\|doi=10.2307/4238646 \|jstor=4238646 }}</ref> As a result, modern historians usually regard this event as the beginning of his reign as "emperor".{{Efn\|Ancient historians, however, often give him a rule of 56 years. None of them seem to agree on the exact start date, though, and often present errors or corruptions in their calculations.<ref>[[Josephus]] (1st century), ''[[The Jewish War]]'' [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850-images.html Book II, 9] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20211209203545/https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850-images.html Archive]). "Fifty-seven years, six months, and two days", which seems to give 17 February 44 BC. He actually reckons his reign from 15 March 44 BC, Caesar's murder, to 17 September AD 14, Tiberius's formal accession, see {{harnvb\|Burgess\|2014\|pp=39–43}}</ref><ref>[[Suetonius]] (121) ''[[Life of Augustus]]'' 8, "With Antony alone for nearly twelve years, and finally by himself for forty-four." 56 years in total (from 43 BC).</ref><ref>[[Theophilus of Antioch\|Theophilus]] (180–192), ''[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Ante-Nicene_Christian_Library_Vol_3.djvu/142 To Autolycus]'' XXVII ([https://web.archive.org/web/20211207223048/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Ante-Nicene_Christian_Library_Vol_3.djvu/142 Archive]). "56 years 4 months 1 day" (repeated in the [[Chronograph of 354]]): 18 April; referencing either his victory at the [[Battle of Mutina]] (21 April) or, more likely, his first acclamation as ''[[imperator]]'' (16 April).</ref><ref>[[Cassius Dio]] (230). ''[[Historia Romana]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/56.html#30 56, 30]. "Forty-four years lacking thirteen days." Dio is one of the few writers that reckons from the [[Battle of Actium]].</ref><ref>[[Jerome]] (4th century), ''[[Chronicon (Jerome)\|Chronicon]]'', [http://www.attalus.org/translate/jerome2.html 184.2.] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20120609023200/http://www.attalus.org/translate/jerome2.html Archive]) "56 years and 6 months", which appears to give February/March 43 BC. This incorrect calculation is followed by most later historians. The error derives from an extra year given to Julius Caesar's "reign", which in turn lead to the subtraction of one year from Augustus, see {{harnvb\|Burgess\|2014\|pp=38–40}}.</ref>}} Augustus himself appears to have reckoned his "reign" from 27 BC.<ref>''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti\|Res Gestae]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/1.html# I.7], "For ten years in succession I was one of the triumvirs for the re-establishment of the constitution. To the day of writing this [June/July AD 14] I have been ''[[princeps senatus]]'' for forty years." </ref>{{efn\|[[Cassius Dio]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53.html#1 (53.1)] indicates that he took the title ''princeps senatus'' in 28 BC. However, he also states that Augustus "added five years to his own terms as ''princeps'', since his ten-year period was about to expire (this was in the consulship of [[Publius Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus\|Publius]] and [[Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus (consul 18 BC)\|Gnaeus Lentulus]] [18 BC])" [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html#12 (54.12)], meaning that his official tenure as ''princeps'' began in 27 BC.}}

	Augustus styled himself as ''Imperator Caesar divi filius'', "Commander Caesar son of the deified one". With this title, he boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, and the use of ''[[imperator]]'' signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory.{{efn\|He was first proclaimed ''imperator'' on 16 April 43 BC, after the [[Battle of Forum Gallorum]].{{sfn\|Fishwick\|2004\|p=250}}}} He transformed ''Caesar'', a cognomen for one branch of the [[Julia gens\|Julian family]], into a new family line that began with him.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=50}}		Augustus styled himself as ''Imperator Caesar divi filius'', "Commander Caesar son of the deified one". With this title, he boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, and the use of ''[[imperator]]'' signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory.{{efn\|He was first proclaimed ''imperator'' on 16 April 43 BC, after the [[Battle of Forum Gallorum]].{{sfn\|Fishwick\|2004\|p=250}}}} He transformed ''Caesar'', a cognomen for one branch of the [[Julia gens\|Julian family]], into a new family line that began with him.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=50}}
Line 245:		Line 245:
	=== War and expansion ===		=== War and expansion ===
	{{Main\|Wars of Augustus}}		{{Main\|Wars of Augustus}}
	{{Further\|Roman–Iranian relations\|Augustus' Eastern policy}}		{{Further\|Roman–Iranian relations\|Augustus's Eastern policy}}

	By AD 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed him ''[[imperator]]'' after a successful battle. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti\|Res Gestae]]'' is devoted to his military victories and honors.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=93}}		By AD 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed him ''[[imperator]]'' after a successful battle. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti\|Res Gestae]]'' is devoted to his military victories and honors.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=93}}

← Previous revision		Revision as of 00:12, 24 September 2024
Line 445:		Line 445:
	* {{Cite book \|last=Grant \|first=Michael \|title=The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 476 \|date=1985 \|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons \|isbn=978-0297785552 \|location=New York \|author-link=Michael Grant (classicist)}}		* {{Cite book \|last=Grant \|first=Michael \|title=The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 476 \|date=1985 \|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons \|isbn=978-0297785552 \|location=New York \|author-link=Michael Grant (classicist)}}
	* {{Cite book \|last=Levick \|first=Barbara \|title=Augustus: Image and Substance \|date=2010 \|publisher=London: Longman \|isbn=978-0-582-89421-1 \|author-link=Barbara Levick}}		* {{Cite book \|last=Levick \|first=Barbara \|title=Augustus: Image and Substance \|date=2010 \|publisher=London: Longman \|isbn=978-0-582-89421-1 \|author-link=Barbara Levick}}
	* {{Cite journal \|last1=Lewis \|first1=P. R. \|last2=Jones \|first2=G. D. B. \|date=1970 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=60 \|pages=169–185 \|jstor=299421}}		* {{Cite journal \|last1=Lewis \|first1=P. R. \|last2=Jones \|first2=G. D. B. \|date=1970 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=60 \|pages=169–185 \|doi=10.1017/S0075435800043343 \|jstor=299421}}
	* {{Cite journal \|last1=Jones \|first1=R. F. J. \|last2=Bird \|first2=D. G. \|date=1972 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=62 \|pages=59–74 \|doi=10.2307/298927 \|jstor=298927\|s2cid=162096359 }}		* {{Cite journal \|last1=Jones \|first1=R. F. J. \|last2=Bird \|first2=D. G. \|date=1972 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=62 \|pages=59–74 \|doi=10.2307/298927 \|jstor=298927\|s2cid=162096359 }}
	* {{Cite journal \|last=Jones \|first=A. H. M. \|author-link=A. H. M. Jones \|date=1951 \|title=The Imperium of Augustus \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=41 \|issue=1–2 \|pages=112–119 \|doi=10.2307/298104 \|jstor=298104\|s2cid=162372767 }}		* {{Cite journal \|last=Jones \|first=A. H. M. \|author-link=A. H. M. Jones \|date=1951 \|title=The Imperium of Augustus \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=41 \|issue=1–2 \|pages=112–119 \|doi=10.2307/298104 \|jstor=298104\|s2cid=162372767 }}

← Previous revision		Revision as of 02:31, 22 September 2024
Line 445:		Line 445:
	* {{Cite book \|last=Grant \|first=Michael \|title=The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 476 \|date=1985 \|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons \|isbn=978-0297785552 \|location=New York \|author-link=Michael Grant (classicist)}}		* {{Cite book \|last=Grant \|first=Michael \|title=The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 476 \|date=1985 \|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons \|isbn=978-0297785552 \|location=New York \|author-link=Michael Grant (classicist)}}
	* {{Cite book \|last=Levick \|first=Barbara \|title=Augustus: Image and Substance \|date=2010 \|publisher=London: Longman \|isbn=978-0-582-89421-1 \|author-link=Barbara Levick}}		* {{Cite book \|last=Levick \|first=Barbara \|title=Augustus: Image and Substance \|date=2010 \|publisher=London: Longman \|isbn=978-0-582-89421-1 \|author-link=Barbara Levick}}
	* {{Cite journal \|last1=Lewis \|first1=P. R. \|last2=Jones \|first2=G. D. B. \|date=1970 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=60 \|pages=169–185 ~~\|doi=10.2307/299421~~ \|jstor=299421}}		* {{Cite journal \|last1=Lewis \|first1=P. R. \|last2=Jones \|first2=G. D. B. \|date=1970 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=60 \|pages=169–185 \|jstor=299421}}
	* {{Cite journal \|last1=Jones \|first1=R. F. J. \|last2=Bird \|first2=D. G. \|date=1972 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=62 \|pages=59–74 \|doi=10.2307/298927 \|jstor=298927\|s2cid=162096359 }}		* {{Cite journal \|last1=Jones \|first1=R. F. J. \|last2=Bird \|first2=D. G. \|date=1972 \|title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=62 \|pages=59–74 \|doi=10.2307/298927 \|jstor=298927\|s2cid=162096359 }}
	* {{Cite journal \|last=Jones \|first=A. H. M. \|author-link=A. H. M. Jones \|date=1951 \|title=The Imperium of Augustus \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=41 \|issue=1–2 \|pages=112–119 \|doi=10.2307/298104 \|jstor=298104\|s2cid=162372767 }}		* {{Cite journal \|last=Jones \|first=A. H. M. \|author-link=A. H. M. Jones \|date=1951 \|title=The Imperium of Augustus \|journal=Journal of Roman Studies \|volume=41 \|issue=1–2 \|pages=112–119 \|doi=10.2307/298104 \|jstor=298104\|s2cid=162372767 }}

← Previous revision		Revision as of 02:46, 30 August 2024
Line 74:		Line 74:

	[[File:RSC 0022 - transparent background.png\|thumb\|300px\|left\|A [[denarius]] from 44 BC, showing [[Julius Caesar]] on the obverse and the goddess [[Venus (mythology)\|Venus]] on the reverse of the coin. Caption: CAESAR IMP. M. / L. AEMILIVS BVCA]]		[[File:RSC 0022 - transparent background.png\|thumb\|300px\|left\|A [[denarius]] from 44 BC, showing [[Julius Caesar]] on the obverse and the goddess [[Venus (mythology)\|Venus]] on the reverse of the coin. Caption: CAESAR IMP. M. / L. AEMILIVS BVCA]]
	His father died in 59 BC when Octavian was four years old.{{Sfn\|Chisholm\|Ferguson\|1981\|page=23}} His mother married a former governor of Syria, [[Lucius Marcius Philippus (consul 56 BC)\|Lucius Marcius Philippus]].{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc=''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus.html#4 4–8]}}{{sfn\|Nicolaus of Damascus\|loc=3}} Philippus claimed descent from [[Alexander the Great]] and was elected [[Roman consul\|consul]] in 56 BC. Philippus never had much of an interest in young Octavian. Because of this, Octavian was raised by his grandmother, [[Julia Minor (grandmother of Augustus)\|Julia]], the sister of Julius Caesar. Julia died in 52 or 51 BC, and Octavian delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother.{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc=''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus.html#8 8.1]}}<ref>[[Quintilian]], [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio12.shtml#6 12.6.1]. {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225070928/http://thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio12.shtml#6 \|date=25 February 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite EB1911\|wstitle=Augustus\|volume=2\|page=912\|first=Henry Francis\|last=Pelham\|author-link=Henry Francis Pelham}}</ref> From this point, his mother and stepfather took a more active role in raising him. He donned the ''[[toga]] virilis'' ("toga of manhood") four years later<ref name="Suet8.1">Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#8 8.1]</ref> and was elected to the [[College of Pontiffs]] in 47 BC.{{sfn\|Nicolaus of Damascus\|loc=[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html 4]}}{{Sfn\|Rowell\|1962\|page=16}} The following year he was put in charge of the [[Ancient Olympic Games\|Greek games]] that were staged in honor of the [[Temple of Venus Genetrix]], built by Julius Caesar.{{Sfn\|Rowell\|1962\|page=16}}		His father died in 59 BC when Octavian was four years old.{{Sfn\|Chisholm\|Ferguson\|1981\|page=23}} His mother married a former governor of [[Roman Syria\|Syria]], [[Lucius Marcius Philippus (consul 56 BC)\|Lucius Marcius Philippus]].{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc=''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus.html#4 4–8]}}{{sfn\|Nicolaus of Damascus\|loc=3}} Philippus claimed descent from [[Alexander the Great]] and was elected [[Roman consul\|consul]] in 56 BC. Philippus never had much of an interest in young Octavian. Because of this, Octavian was raised by his grandmother, [[Julia Minor (grandmother of Augustus)\|Julia]], the sister of Julius Caesar. Julia died in 52 or 51 BC, and Octavian delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother.{{sfn\|Suetonius\|loc=''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus.html#8 8.1]}}<ref>[[Quintilian]], [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio12.shtml#6 12.6.1]. {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225070928/http://thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio12.shtml#6 \|date=25 February 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite EB1911\|wstitle=Augustus\|volume=2\|page=912\|first=Henry Francis\|last=Pelham\|author-link=Henry Francis Pelham}}</ref> From this point, his mother and stepfather took a more active role in raising him. He donned the ''[[toga]] virilis'' ("toga of manhood") four years later<ref name="Suet8.1">Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#8 8.1]</ref> and was elected to the [[College of Pontiffs]] in 47 BC.{{sfn\|Nicolaus of Damascus\|loc=[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html 4]}}{{Sfn\|Rowell\|1962\|page=16}} The following year he was put in charge of the [[Ancient Olympic Games\|Greek games]] that were staged in honor of the [[Temple of Venus Genetrix]], built by Julius Caesar.{{Sfn\|Rowell\|1962\|page=16}}

	According to [[Nicolaus of Damascus]], Octavian wished to join Caesar's staff for his campaign in [[Africa (Roman province)\|Africa]] but gave way when his mother protested.{{sfn\|Nicolaus of Damascus\|loc=[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html 6]}} In 46 BC, she consented for him to join Caesar in [[Hispania]], where he planned to fight the forces of [[Pompey]], Caesar's late enemy, but Octavian fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front but was shipwrecked. After coming ashore with a handful of companions, he crossed hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed Caesar considerably.<ref name="Suet8.1" /> [[Velleius Paterculus]] reports that after that time, Caesar allowed the young man to share his carriage.<ref>Velleius Paterculus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2C.html#59.3 2.59.3].</ref> When back in Rome, Caesar deposited a new will with the [[Vestal Virgin]]s, naming Octavian as the prime beneficiary.<ref name="Suetonius_Julius">Suetonius, ''Julius'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius.html#83 83].</ref>		According to [[Nicolaus of Damascus]], Octavian wished to join Caesar's staff for his campaign in [[Africa (Roman province)\|Africa]] but gave way when his mother protested.{{sfn\|Nicolaus of Damascus\|loc=[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html 6]}} In 46 BC, she consented for him to join Caesar in [[Hispania]], where he planned to fight the forces of [[Pompey]], Caesar's late enemy, but Octavian fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front but was shipwrecked. After coming ashore with a handful of companions, he crossed hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed Caesar considerably.<ref name="Suet8.1" /> [[Velleius Paterculus]] reports that after that time, Caesar allowed the young man to share his carriage.<ref>Velleius Paterculus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2C.html#59.3 2.59.3].</ref> When back in Rome, Caesar deposited a new will with the [[Vestal Virgin]]s, naming Octavian as the prime beneficiary.<ref name="Suetonius_Julius">Suetonius, ''Julius'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius.html#83 83].</ref>

← Previous revision		Revision as of 14:08, 24 August 2024
Line 55:		Line 55:
	After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Augustus restored the outward facade of the free republic, with governmental power vested in the [[Roman Senate]], the [[Roman magistrate\|executive magistrates]] and the [[Roman assemblies\|legislative assemblies]], yet he maintained autocratic authority by having the Senate grant him lifetime tenure as [[commander-in-chief]], [[tribune]] and [[Roman censor\|censor]]. A similar ambiguity is seen in his chosen names, the implied rejection of monarchical titles whereby he called himself {{lang\|la\|[[Princeps]] Civitatis}} ('First Citizen') juxtaposed with his adoption of the title [[Augustus (title)\|Augustus]].		After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Augustus restored the outward facade of the free republic, with governmental power vested in the [[Roman Senate]], the [[Roman magistrate\|executive magistrates]] and the [[Roman assemblies\|legislative assemblies]], yet he maintained autocratic authority by having the Senate grant him lifetime tenure as [[commander-in-chief]], [[tribune]] and [[Roman censor\|censor]]. A similar ambiguity is seen in his chosen names, the implied rejection of monarchical titles whereby he called himself {{lang\|la\|[[Princeps]] Civitatis}} ('First Citizen') juxtaposed with his adoption of the title [[Augustus (title)\|Augustus]].

	Augustus dramatically enlarged the empire, annexing Egypt, [[Dalmatia (Roman province)\|Dalmatia]], [[Pannonia]], [[Noricum]], and [[Raetia]], expanding possessions in [[Africa (Roman province)\|Africa]], and completing the conquest of [[Hispania]], but he suffered [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest\|a major setback]] in [[Germania]]. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the empire with a buffer region of [[client state]]s and made peace with the [[Parthian Empire]] through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed [[Roman roads\|networks of roads]] with an [[cursus publicus\|official courier system]], established a [[standing army]], established the [[Praetorian Guard]] as well as official [[cohortes urbanae\|police]] and [[vigiles\|fire-fighting services]] for Rome, and rebuilt much of the city during his reign. Augustus died in AD 14 at age 75, probably from natural causes. Persistent rumors, substantiated somewhat by deaths in the imperial family, have claimed his wife [[Livia]] poisoned him. He was succeeded as emperor by his adopted son [[Tiberius]], Livia's son and former husband of Augustus' only biological child, [[Julia the Elder\|Julia]].		Augustus dramatically enlarged the empire, annexing Egypt, [[Dalmatia (Roman province)\|Dalmatia]], [[Pannonia]], [[Noricum]], and [[Raetia]], expanding possessions in [[Africa (Roman province)\|Africa]], and completing the conquest of [[Hispania]], but he suffered [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest\|a major setback]] in [[Germania]]. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the empire with a buffer region of [[client state]]s and made peace with the [[Parthian Empire]] through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed [[Roman roads\|networks of roads]] with an [[cursus publicus\|official courier system]], established a [[standing army]], established the [[Praetorian Guard]] as well as official [[cohortes urbanae\|police]] and [[vigiles\|fire-fighting services]] for Rome, and rebuilt much of the city during his reign. Augustus died in AD 14 at age 75, probably from natural causes. Persistent rumors, substantiated somewhat by deaths in the imperial family, have claimed his wife [[Livia]] poisoned him. He was succeeded as emperor by his adopted son [[Tiberius]], Livia's son and former husband of Augustus's only biological child, [[Julia the Elder\|Julia]].

	== Name ==		== Name ==
Line 188:		Line 188:
	===Change to Augustus===		===Change to Augustus===
	[[File:Augustus first century aureus obverse.png\|thumb\|[[Aureus]] minted {{circa}} AD 13, marked: "Caesar Augustus Divi F Pater Patriae"]]		[[File:Augustus first century aureus obverse.png\|thumb\|[[Aureus]] minted {{circa}} AD 13, marked: "Caesar Augustus Divi F Pater Patriae"]]
	On 16 January 27 BC{{Refn\|''[[Fasti Praenestini]]''<ref>[[Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae\|InscrIt-13-02]] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20120118182420/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=InscrIt-13-02%2C+00017&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 00017]: ''XVII'' –[[Roman calendar\|Kalendas Februarias]]{{snd}}''c(omitialis) Imp(erator) Caesar [Augustus est a]ppell[a]tus ipso VII et Agrip[pa III co(n)s(ulibus)]''.</ref>''[[Feriale Cumanum]]''.<ref>[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum\|CIL]] [http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel.php?s_sprache=de&p_belegstelle=CIL+10%2C+08375 8375] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608013701/http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel.php?s_sprache=de&p_belegstelle=CIL+10,+08375 \|date=8 June 2021 }}: "''[X]VII K(alendas) Febr(uarias) eo di[e Caesar Augustu]s appellatus est supplicatio Augusto''".</ref> [[Ovid's Fasti]] gives 13 January, the very same date in which the Senate powers were "restored".<ref>[[Ovid]] [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/8738/pg8738.html 587–590] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608013703/https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/8738/pg8738.html \|date=8 June 2021 }}: "''[[Ides (calendar)\|Id.]] [...] Populo provinciae redditae. Octaviano Augusti nomen datum''".</ref> The 3rd century [[Censorinus\|''De die Natali'']] gives 17 January, a mistake.<ref>[[Censorinus]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Censorinus/text.html#21.8 XXI.8] : "''quamvis ex ante diem XVI kal. Febr. imperator Caesar''". The number is right, but the phrasing is not.</ref>}} the Senate gave Octavian the new title of ''[[Augustus (title)\|augustus]]''.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=50}} ''Augustus'' is from the Latin word ''augere'' (meaning "to increase") and can be translated as "illustrious one" or "sublime".<ref name=":0" />{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=50}} It was a title of religious authority rather than political one, and it indicated that Octavian now approached divinity.{{Sfn\|Eder\|2005\|\|page=24}} His name of Augustus was also more favorable than ''Romulus'', the previous one which he styled for himself in reference to the story of [[Romulus\|the legendary founder of Rome]], which symbolized a second founding of Rome.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=49}} The title of ''Romulus'' was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image that Octavian tried to avoid.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=149}} The Senate also confirmed his position as ''[[princeps senatus]]'', which originally meant the member of the Senate with the highest precedence,<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Roberts \|first=John \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9780192801463 \|title=Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World \|publisher=[[Oxford Reference]] \|date=2007 \|isbn=978-0-19-280146-3 \|pages=858 \|chapter=Princeps senatus \|doi=10.1093/acref/9780192801463.001.0001 \|chapter-url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100345995 }}{{Dead link\|date=August 2023 \|bot=InternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> but in this case it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|pages=3, 149}} The honorific ''augustus'' was inherited by all future emperors and became the ''de facto'' main title of the emperor.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal\|last=Strothmann\|first=Meret (Bochum)\|date=1 October 2006\|title=Augustus [2]\|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/augustus-2-e12220040\|journal=Brill's New Pauly}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last=Hammond\|first=Mason\|author-link=Mason Hammond\|year=1957\|title=Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire\|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4238646\|url-access=subscription\|journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome\|volume=25\|pages=29–31\|doi=10.2307/4238646 \|jstor=4238646 }}</ref> As a result, modern historians usually regard this event as the beginning of his reign as "emperor".{{Efn\|Ancient historians, however, often give him a rule of 56 years. None of them seem to agree on the exact start date, though, and often present errors or corruptions in their calculations.<ref>[[Josephus]] (1st century), ''[[The Jewish War]]'' [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850-images.html Book II, 9] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20211209203545/https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850-images.html Archive]). "Fifty-seven years, six months, and two days", which seems to give 17 February 44 BC. He actually reckons his reign from 15 March 44 BC, Caesar's murder, to 17 September AD 14, Tiberius' formal accession, see {{harnvb\|Burgess\|2014\|pp=39–43}}</ref><ref>[[Suetonius]] (121) ''[[Life of Augustus]]'' 8, "With Antony alone for nearly twelve years, and finally by himself for forty-four." 56 years in total (from 43 BC).</ref><ref>[[Theophilus of Antioch\|Theophilus]] (180–192), ''[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Ante-Nicene_Christian_Library_Vol_3.djvu/142 To Autolycus]'' XXVII ([https://web.archive.org/web/20211207223048/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Ante-Nicene_Christian_Library_Vol_3.djvu/142 Archive]). "56 years 4 months 1 day" (repeated in the [[Chronograph of 354]]): 18 April; referencing either his victory at the [[Battle of Mutina]] (21 April) or, more likely, his first acclamation as ''[[imperator]]'' (16 April).</ref><ref>[[Cassius Dio]] (230). ''[[Historia Romana]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/56.html#30 56, 30]. "Forty-four years lacking thirteen days." Dio is one of the few writers that reckons from the [[Battle of Actium]].</ref><ref>[[Jerome]] (4th century), ''[[Chronicon (Jerome)\|Chronicon]]'', [http://www.attalus.org/translate/jerome2.html 184.2.] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20120609023200/http://www.attalus.org/translate/jerome2.html Archive]) "56 years and 6 months", which appears to give February/March 43 BC. This incorrect calculation is followed by most later historians. The error derives from an extra year given to Julius Caesar's "reign", which in turn lead to the subtraction of one year from Augustus, see {{harnvb\|Burgess\|2014\|pp=38–40}}.</ref>}} Augustus himself appears to have reckoned his "reign" from 27 BC.<ref>''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti\|Res Gestae]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/1.html# I.7], "For ten years in succession I was one of the triumvirs for the re-establishment of the constitution. To the day of writing this [June/July AD 14] I have been ''[[princeps senatus]]'' for forty years." </ref>{{efn\|[[Cassius Dio]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53.html#1 (53.1)] indicates that he took the title ''princeps senatus'' in 28 BC. However, he also states that Augustus "added five years to his own terms as ''princeps'', since his ten-year period was about to expire (this was in the consulship of [[Publius Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus\|Publius]] and [[Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus (consul 18 BC)\|Gnaeus Lentulus]] [18 BC])" [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html#12 (54.12)], meaning that his official tenure as ''princeps'' began in 27 BC.}}		On 16 January 27 BC{{Refn\|''[[Fasti Praenestini]]''<ref>[[Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae\|InscrIt-13-02]] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20120118182420/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epieinzel_en?p_belegstelle=InscrIt-13-02%2C+00017&r_sortierung=Belegstelle 00017]: ''XVII'' –[[Roman calendar\|Kalendas Februarias]]{{snd}}''c(omitialis) Imp(erator) Caesar [Augustus est a]ppell[a]tus ipso VII et Agrip[pa III co(n)s(ulibus)]''.</ref>''[[Feriale Cumanum]]''.<ref>[[Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum\|CIL]] [http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel.php?s_sprache=de&p_belegstelle=CIL+10%2C+08375 8375] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608013701/http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel.php?s_sprache=de&p_belegstelle=CIL+10,+08375 \|date=8 June 2021 }}: "''[X]VII K(alendas) Febr(uarias) eo di[e Caesar Augustu]s appellatus est supplicatio Augusto''".</ref> [[Ovid's Fasti]] gives 13 January, the very same date in which the Senate powers were "restored".<ref>[[Ovid]] [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/8738/pg8738.html 587–590] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608013703/https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/8738/pg8738.html \|date=8 June 2021 }}: "''[[Ides (calendar)\|Id.]] [...] Populo provinciae redditae. Octaviano Augusti nomen datum''".</ref> The 3rd century [[Censorinus\|''De die Natali'']] gives 17 January, a mistake.<ref>[[Censorinus]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Censorinus/text.html#21.8 XXI.8] : "''quamvis ex ante diem XVI kal. Febr. imperator Caesar''". The number is right, but the phrasing is not.</ref>}} the Senate gave Octavian the new title of ''[[Augustus (title)\|augustus]]''.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=50}} ''Augustus'' is from the Latin word ''augere'' (meaning "to increase") and can be translated as "illustrious one" or "sublime".<ref name=":0" />{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=50}} It was a title of religious authority rather than political one, and it indicated that Octavian now approached divinity.{{Sfn\|Eder\|2005\|\|page=24}} His name of Augustus was also more favorable than ''Romulus'', the previous one which he styled for himself in reference to the story of [[Romulus\|the legendary founder of Rome]], which symbolized a second founding of Rome.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=49}} The title of ''Romulus'' was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image that Octavian tried to avoid.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=149}} The Senate also confirmed his position as ''[[princeps senatus]]'', which originally meant the member of the Senate with the highest precedence,<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Roberts \|first=John \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9780192801463 \|title=Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World \|publisher=[[Oxford Reference]] \|date=2007 \|isbn=978-0-19-280146-3 \|pages=858 \|chapter=Princeps senatus \|doi=10.1093/acref/9780192801463.001.0001 \|chapter-url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100345995 }}{{Dead link\|date=August 2023 \|bot=InternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> but in this case it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|pages=3, 149}} The honorific ''augustus'' was inherited by all future emperors and became the ''de facto'' main title of the emperor.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal\|last=Strothmann\|first=Meret (Bochum)\|date=1 October 2006\|title=Augustus [2]\|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/augustus-2-e12220040\|journal=Brill's New Pauly}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|last=Hammond\|first=Mason\|author-link=Mason Hammond\|year=1957\|title=Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire\|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4238646\|url-access=subscription\|journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome\|volume=25\|pages=29–31\|doi=10.2307/4238646 \|jstor=4238646 }}</ref> As a result, modern historians usually regard this event as the beginning of his reign as "emperor".{{Efn\|Ancient historians, however, often give him a rule of 56 years. None of them seem to agree on the exact start date, though, and often present errors or corruptions in their calculations.<ref>[[Josephus]] (1st century), ''[[The Jewish War]]'' [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850-images.html Book II, 9] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20211209203545/https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/2850/pg2850-images.html Archive]). "Fifty-seven years, six months, and two days", which seems to give 17 February 44 BC. He actually reckons his reign from 15 March 44 BC, Caesar's murder, to 17 September AD 14, Tiberius's formal accession, see {{harnvb\|Burgess\|2014\|pp=39–43}}</ref><ref>[[Suetonius]] (121) ''[[Life of Augustus]]'' 8, "With Antony alone for nearly twelve years, and finally by himself for forty-four." 56 years in total (from 43 BC).</ref><ref>[[Theophilus of Antioch\|Theophilus]] (180–192), ''[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Ante-Nicene_Christian_Library_Vol_3.djvu/142 To Autolycus]'' XXVII ([https://web.archive.org/web/20211207223048/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Ante-Nicene_Christian_Library_Vol_3.djvu/142 Archive]). "56 years 4 months 1 day" (repeated in the [[Chronograph of 354]]): 18 April; referencing either his victory at the [[Battle of Mutina]] (21 April) or, more likely, his first acclamation as ''[[imperator]]'' (16 April).</ref><ref>[[Cassius Dio]] (230). ''[[Historia Romana]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/56.html#30 56, 30]. "Forty-four years lacking thirteen days." Dio is one of the few writers that reckons from the [[Battle of Actium]].</ref><ref>[[Jerome]] (4th century), ''[[Chronicon (Jerome)\|Chronicon]]'', [http://www.attalus.org/translate/jerome2.html 184.2.] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20120609023200/http://www.attalus.org/translate/jerome2.html Archive]) "56 years and 6 months", which appears to give February/March 43 BC. This incorrect calculation is followed by most later historians. The error derives from an extra year given to Julius Caesar's "reign", which in turn lead to the subtraction of one year from Augustus, see {{harnvb\|Burgess\|2014\|pp=38–40}}.</ref>}} Augustus himself appears to have reckoned his "reign" from 27 BC.<ref>''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti\|Res Gestae]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/1.html# I.7], "For ten years in succession I was one of the triumvirs for the re-establishment of the constitution. To the day of writing this [June/July AD 14] I have been ''[[princeps senatus]]'' for forty years." </ref>{{efn\|[[Cassius Dio]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53.html#1 (53.1)] indicates that he took the title ''princeps senatus'' in 28 BC. However, he also states that Augustus "added five years to his own terms as ''princeps'', since his ten-year period was about to expire (this was in the consulship of [[Publius Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus\|Publius]] and [[Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus (consul 18 BC)\|Gnaeus Lentulus]] [18 BC])" [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html#12 (54.12)], meaning that his official tenure as ''princeps'' began in 27 BC.}}

	Augustus styled himself as ''Imperator Caesar divi filius'', "Commander Caesar son of the deified one". With this title, he boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, and the use of ''[[imperator]]'' signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory.{{efn\|He was first proclaimed ''imperator'' on 16 April 43 BC, after the [[Battle of Forum Gallorum]].{{sfn\|Fishwick\|2004\|p=250}}}} He transformed ''Caesar'', a cognomen for one branch of the [[Julia gens\|Julian family]], into a new family line that began with him.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=50}}		Augustus styled himself as ''Imperator Caesar divi filius'', "Commander Caesar son of the deified one". With this title, he boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, and the use of ''[[imperator]]'' signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory.{{efn\|He was first proclaimed ''imperator'' on 16 April 43 BC, after the [[Battle of Forum Gallorum]].{{sfn\|Fishwick\|2004\|p=250}}}} He transformed ''Caesar'', a cognomen for one branch of the [[Julia gens\|Julian family]], into a new family line that began with him.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=50}}
Line 245:		Line 245:
	=== War and expansion ===		=== War and expansion ===
	{{Main\|Wars of Augustus}}		{{Main\|Wars of Augustus}}
	{{Further\|Roman–Iranian relations\|Augustus' Eastern policy}}		{{Further\|Roman–Iranian relations\|Augustus's Eastern policy}}

	By AD 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed him ''[[imperator]]'' after a successful battle. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti\|Res Gestae]]'' is devoted to his military victories and honors.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=93}}		By AD 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed him ''[[imperator]]'' after a successful battle. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti\|Res Gestae]]'' is devoted to his military victories and honors.{{Sfn\|Eck\|Takács\|2003\|page=93}}