Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Nestlé Bear Brand

2024-09-18T09:26:00Z

Zumbo: No credible source given for 1892 introduction in the Philippines.

{{short description|Powered milk brand}}
{{Use Philippine English|date=April 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2017}}
{{Refimprove|date=November 2016}}
{{Infobox brand
| name = Bear Brand
| logo = Nestlé Bear Brand logo.png
| logo_size =
| image =Daihatsu Luxio commercial van, Denpasar.jpg
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| producttype = [[Milk]]
| currentowner = [[Nestlé]]
| producedby = [[Nestlé|Nestlé Philippines]]
| country = [[Philippines]]
| introduced = {{Start date and age|1892}}
| related = Bärenmarke (Switzerland, under license)
| markets = Worldwide
| previousowners = Bernese Alps Milk Company<ref name=isa/> F.E. Zuellig, Inc. (until 1976)
| trademarkregistrations =
| ambassadors =
| tagline =
| website = {{url|https://www.bearbrand.com.ph/|bearbrand.com.ph}}
| misc = <div style="float:left">
'''Brand names'''</div>Bear Brand Choco, Bear Brand Real Strawberry,<ref>{{cite web | title=Is flavored milk nutritious or not? | website=GMA News Online | date=November 11, 2016 | url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/592981/lifestyle/food/is-flavored-milk-nutritious-or-not | access-date=December 29, 2016}}</ref> Bear Brand Adult Plus, Bear Brand Busog Lusog, Bear Brand Gold
}}
'''Bear Brand''' is a drink and [[powdered milk]] brand<ref name="Nicolas 2016" /> currently owned by [[Nestlé]].<ref>{{cite book | last1=David | first1=J.R.D. | last2=Graves | first2=R.H. | title=Aseptic Processing and Packaging of Food and Beverages: A Food Industry Perspective | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Contemporary Food Science | year=1996 | isbn=978-0-8493-8004-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RLYEpPiXMxAC&pg=PA27 | access-date=December 29, 2016 | pages=27–28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Yip | first=G.S. | title=The Asian Advantage | publisher=Basic Books | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-465-01083-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_R9g1K25Y8C&pg=PA216 | access-date=December 29, 2016 | page=216 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="G... 2016">{{cite web | last=Joseph G | first=Edison | title=Bear Brand donates chairs to public schools thru 'Laki sa Tibay' campaign | website=Malaya Business Insight | date=April 4, 2016 | url=http://www.malaya.com.ph/business-news/living/bear-brand-donates-chairs-public-schools-thru-%E2%80%98laki-sa-tibay%E2%80%99-campaign | access-date=November 20, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120151531/http://www.malaya.com.ph/business-news/living/bear-brand-donates-chairs-public-schools-thru-%E2%80%98laki-sa-tibay%E2%80%99-campaign | archive-date=November 20, 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref> The brand is available in most areas of Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Eastern Africa, as well as in Asian stores in the United States and Canada. It was marketed under the brand name "Marca Oso", which is Spanish for "Bear Brand".<ref>{{cite book | title=Industrial Bulletin | issue=nos. 1–14 | year=1914 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cw49AAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA12 | access-date=December 29, 2016 | page=12}}</ref> The brand's Indonesian name is "Susu Cap Beruang".

In 2014, a consumer research firm ranked Bear Brand milk as No. 6 among the top 50 "most popular fast-moving consumer goods" in the Philippines.<ref name="Diola 2014">{{cite web | last=Diola | first=Camille | title=Lucky Me! tops Philippines' 50 most popular brands | website=philstar.com | date=July 22, 2014 | url=http://www.philstar.com/business/2014/07/22/1349048/lucky-me-tops-philippines-50-most-popular-brands | access-date=December 29, 2016}}</ref>

== Variants ==

=== Sterilized milk ===
==== Philippines ====
{{multiple image
|align =
|direction =
|total_width = 400
|image1 = Bear brand ad 1906.jpg
|caption1 = Early 1906 ad showing a Bear Brand can
|image2 = 9894Cuisine food of Bulacan Baliuag 20.jpg
|caption2 = Cup of Bear Brand milk
|footer =
}}

* Bear Brand Sterilized [[Steel and tin cans|tin can]]<ref>{{cite web | title=Bear Brand Sterilized | website=Nestle.com.ph | url=https://www.nestle.com.ph/brands/lbdc/bearbrandsterilized | access-date=December 29, 2016}}</ref> – 140 ml
* Bear Brand Sterilized tin can – 155 ml (1906–2016)
* Bear Brand Sterilized [[Tetra Pak]] – 200 ml
* Bear Brand Sterilized Tetra Pak – 1 L

==== Indonesia ====
* Bear Brand Susu Steril slim tube – 189 ml

==== Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos and Cambodia ====
* Bear Brand Sterilized tin can – 140 ml
* Bear Brand Sterilized Low-Fat tin can – 140 ml
* Bear Brand Sterilized 0% Fat tin can – 140 ml

== Milestones ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Introductions and reception
|-
|1898
| Bear Brand (also known as Bärenmarke in Switzerland) was introduced.
|-
|1906
| Bear Brand Sterilized first appeared as Bear Brand Swiss Milk or Marca Oso.
|-
|1930s
| It was introduced in Indonesia.
|-
|1976
| The Bear Brand Powdered Milk<ref name="Nicolas 2016">{{cite web | last=Nicolas | first=Bernadette D. | title=Nestlé wages war versus waste in PH | website=Inquirer Business | date=April 3, 2016 | url=http://business.inquirer.net/209116/nestle-wages-war-versus-waste-in-ph | access-date=November 4, 2016}}</ref> was launched.
|-
|1980
| It was introduced in Thailand.
|-
|1992
| Bear Brand freshed its logo into a cartoony bear.
|-
|1998
| Bear Brand Fit 'n Fresh was introduced but was discontinued in the first month of 2000.
|-
|2001
| Bear Brand Jr. (for 1 to 3 years old), a baby milk supplement brand, was introduced. It was formerly named 'Bear Brand 1+'.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bear Brand 1+ | website=Mims | url=http://www.mims.com/philippines/drug/info/bear%20brand%201%2B/ | access-date=December 29, 2016}}</ref>
|-
|2002
| Bear Brand Sterilized was now sold in [[Tetra Pak]].
|-
|rowspan=2|2006
| Bear Brand Gold was introduced. It is available in flavors: White Malt, White Tea, Goji Berry and White Kidney Beans. It is fortified with Vitamin A, B1, B2, B6, B12, C, D, and E. This sterilized low-fat milk<ref>{{cite web | title=Calories in Nestle / Bear Brand Sterilized Low Fat Milk – Calories and Nutrition Facts | website=MyFitnessPal.com | date=January 20, 2016 | url=http://www.myfitnesspal.com/food/calories/nestle-bear-brand-sterilized-low-fat-milk-207575345 | access-date=December 29, 2016}}</ref> is high in calcium, with its malt extract flavor available in Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Indonesia.
|-
| Bear Brand Choco was introduced. The chocolate flavored [[powdered milk]] is also available in the form of Bear Brand Adult Plus.
|-
|2008
| The Bear Brand Busog Lusog cereal drink was introduced.<ref name="philstar.com 2015">{{cite web | title=Bear Brand Busog Lusog: A nutritious cereal drink | website=philstar.com | date=November 11, 2015 | url=http://www.philstar.com/science-and-technology/66071/bear-brand-busog-lusog-nutritious-cereal-drink | access-date=November 20, 2016}}</ref> It is one of the most popular cereal drinks in the Philippines This rendition of the Bear Brand Milk followed shortly after the increased popularity of the [[Energen (cereal drink)|Energen cereal drink]] in the market. This may have been one of Nestle's reactions to Sigmavit.
|-
|2009
| The bear cub in the Bear Brand logo was removed due to the Bear Brand Sweetened Creamer being misunderstood as a breast milk substitute for toddlers under 36 months of age in [[Laos]].
|-
|2010
| The Bear Brand sterilized milk was introduced with [[Ginseng]] and [[Ginkgo Biloba]] flavors.
|-
|2011
| Bear Brand Adult Plus was introduced. The drink is targeted for working adults.
|-
|2014
|Bear Brand powdered drink mix was reformulated circa 2014, which included the addition of 100% of the recommended daily intake of vitamin C per serving.<ref name="Inquirer-1">{{cite web | title=100% Vitamin C now in milk? | website=Inquirer | date=November 4, 2014 | url=http://lifestyle.inquirer.net/176276/100-vitamin-c-now-in-milk/ | access-date=December 29, 2016}}</ref> Iron and Zinc levels were also increased.<ref name="Inquirer-1"/>
|-
|2016
|In [[Cambodia]] and [[Myanmar]], Bear Brand Nutritious Cereal Drink was introduced.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nestle Bear Brand Cereal Chain Pa (22.5g*20(450 g))|url=http://www.untwholesale.com/product/nestle-bear-brand-cereal-chain-pa-22-5g20450g/|website=UNT Wholesale|access-date=November 28, 2016}}</ref>
|-
|2017
|Bear Brand Powdered Milk Drink upgraded its formula and it released in the Philippines and was named '''Bear Brand Fortified'''. The iron content was tripled and still has 100% Vitamin C and has high levels of zinc.
|-
|2017
|Myanmar introduced the Nestle Bear Brand Gold.
|-
|2017
|Bear Brand Yogu, a form of [[yoghurt]] milk drink version of '''Bear Brand''', was introduced.
|-
|2017
|Bear Brand Real Strawberry, the [[strawberry]] flavor of '''Bear Brand Powdered Milk''', was introduced. This powdered milk flavor of Bear Brand is the only one that has strawberry bits.
|-
|2019
|Bear Brand Adult Plus Milk Drink with Coffee, the [[coffee]] flavor of '''Bear Brand Adult Plus''' was introduced.
|-
|2019
|'''Bear Brand Fortified Powdered Milk Drink''' updated its formula with even more Zinc compared to the 2017 formulation, while having its previous improvements.
|-
|2020
|'''Bear Brand Fortified Powdered Milk Drink''' introduced its ready-to-drink Tetra Pak milk drink.
|-
|2021
|Both '''Bear Brand Real Strawberry Powdered Milk Drink''' and '''Bear Brand Yogu''' removed from the market on the same year.
|-
|2021
|Bear Brand Powdered Milk Drink reformulated, having 100% Vitamin D in their formula.
|-
|}

== International branding ==
In Thailand, the Bear Brand Sterilized is branded by other variants. In [[Cambodia]], Bear Brand was introduced in July 2015, while in [[Myanmar]], Bear Brand was introduced in October 2016.<ref name="Bear Brand Myanmar">{{cite web | title=Bear Brand Enriched Malted Milk to build strong Myanmar family | website=Minime Insights | date=December 21, 2017 | url=https://www.minimeinsights.com/2017/12/21/bear-brand-enriched-malted-milk-to-build-strong-myanmar-family/ | access-date=October 7, 2018}}</ref> Bear Brand's Indonesian package is in slim tube 189 mL content.<ref>{{cite web | last=W | first=Iman | title=Selama Ramadan, Beli 12 Kaleng Nestle Bear Brand Berkesempatan Dapat Hadiah | website=batampos.co.id | date=June 10, 2016 | url=http://batampos.co.id/2016/06/10/ramadan-beli-12-kaleng-nestle-bear-brand-berkesempatan-dapat-hadiah/ | language=id | access-date=December 29, 2016 | archive-date=July 24, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724213426/http://batampos.co.id/2016/06/10/ramadan-beli-12-kaleng-nestle-bear-brand-berkesempatan-dapat-hadiah/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> In [[Switzerland]], the brand is instead named ''Bärenmarke''<ref name="Taylor & Francis 2013 p. 254">{{cite book | title=Changing Food Habits | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-136-65124-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-_FBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA254 | access-date=December 29, 2016 | page=254}}</ref> in German origin of name.

== Logos ==
{{multiple image
|align =
|direction =
|total_width = 350
|image1 = Bearbrand logo ad.jpg
|caption1 = 1906 ad depicting a bear feeding a baby bear
|image2 = Daihatsu Luxio commercial van, Denpasar.jpg
|caption2 = [[Daihatsu Luxio]] used as a commercials van to advertise the Bear Brand
|footer =
}}
On its introduction in 1906, the Bear Brand logo depicted a bear [[bottle-feeding]] a baby bear. The bottle was removed on its logo in 1967.

In 1976, the launch of the Bear Brand Powdered Milk included the bear with a cub and the wordmark. In 1992, the bears refreshed with a cartoony look, and in 1996, the shield appeared one its logo, but in 2002 the shape was changed with the current shield logo form.

In 2004, the logo in most of the countries of Southeast Asia, used the circle logo variant. In 2013, the Bear Brand logo wordmark typeface was changed from [[Franklin Gothic]] to [[Arial]] for the shield logo. While in their circle logo, since 2016 (for Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar), uses [[Helvetica]] typeface.

== Commercials, advertisements and slogans ==
In the [[Philippines]], they use the slogan "Tibay Araw-Araw" starting from 2012. Their present "Laki Sa Gatas" nutrition education advocacy program<ref>{{cite web | title=Proper nutrition through meal planning | website=philstar.com | date=November 11, 2015 | url=http://www.philstar.com/health-and-family/530013/proper-nutrition-through-meal-planning | access-date=December 29, 2016}}</ref> was first launched in 2006.<ref name="Bear Brand Laki Sa Gatas: Advocating good nutrition">{{cite web|title=Bear Brand Laki Sa Gatas: Advocating good nutrition|url=http://www.philstar.com/business-usual/75710/bear-brand-laki-sa-gatas-advocating-good-nutrition|website=PhilStar|access-date=November 19, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BEAR BRAND Gives TIBAY to Kids of Sibul|url=https://www.nestle.com.ph/2016%20homepage%20stories/bear-brand-gives-tibay-to-kids-of-sibul|website=Nestlé Philippines|access-date=December 14, 2016}}</ref>

In 2015, Bear Brand's Alamat ng Matibay book was launched, which introduced the character Mina, and her friend Sonson.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bear Brand reinforces 'tibay' through 'Ang Alamat ng Matibay' children's book|url=http://lifestyle.inquirer.net/177624/bear-brand-reinforces-tibay-through-ang-alamat-ng-matibay-childrens-book/|website=Inquirer Business|date=November 20, 2014|access-date=December 3, 2016}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Drink}}
* [[List of Nestlé brands]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite web | last=Nicolas | first=Bernadette D. | title=Nestlé wages war versus waste in PH | website=Inquirer | date=April 3, 2016 | url=https://business.inquirer.net/209116/nestle-wages-war-versus-waste-in-ph | access-date=December 29, 2016}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* {{official website}}

{{Nestlé}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nestle Bear Brand}}
[[Category:Nestlé brands|Bear]]
[[Category:Milk-based drinks]]
[[Category:Food and drink in the Philippines]]
[[Category:Products introduced in 1892]]
[[Category:1892 establishments in the Philippines]]
[[Category:Philippine brands]]

Auguste Piccard

2024-09-16T14:09:19Z

Zumbo: link Jules Piccard

{{short description|Swiss physicist, inventor, and explorer}}
{{for|the submarine|Auguste Piccard (PX-8)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Auguste Piccard
| image = Bundesarchiv Bild 102-13738, Auguste Piccard.jpg
| caption = Auguste Piccard in 1932
| birth_name = Auguste Antoine Piccard
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1884|1|28|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Basel]], [[Switzerland]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1962|3|24|1884|1|28|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]]
| known_for = [[Bathyscaphe]] [[Magnetocaloric effect]]
| nationality = [[Switzerland|Swiss]]
| footnotes =
| relatives = {{ublist|[[Jean Piccard]] (brother)|[[Bertrand Piccard]] (grandson)|[[Don Piccard]] (nephew)}}
| children = [[Jacques Piccard]] (son)
| module =
{{Infobox scientist |child=yes
| field = [[physics]], [[inventor]], [[explorer]]
| work_institution =[[Université Libre de Bruxelles|Free University of Brussels]] (now [[Université Libre de Bruxelles]] and [[Vrije Universiteit Brussel]])
| alma_mater = [[ETH Zurich]]
| doctoral_advisor =
| doctoral_students =
| known_for =
| prizes =
| signature = Solvay1933Signature Piccard.jpg
}}
}}

'''Auguste Antoine Piccard''' (28 January 1884 – 24 March 1962) was a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[physicist]], [[inventor]] and [[explorer]] known for his record-breaking [[Gas balloon|hydrogen balloon]] flights, with which he studied the Earth's [[upper atmosphere]] and became the first person to enter the [[Stratosphere]]. Piccard was also known for his invention of the first [[bathyscaphe]], ''[[FNRS-2]]'', with which he made a number of unmanned dives in 1948 to explore the ocean's depths.

Piccard's twin brother [[Jean Piccard|Jean Felix Piccard]] is also a notable figure in the annals of science and exploration, as are a number of their relatives, including [[Jacques Piccard]], [[Bertrand Piccard]], [[Jeannette Piccard]] and [[Don Piccard]].

==Biography==
Piccard and his twin brother [[Jean Piccard|Jean Felix Piccard]] were born in [[Basel]], [[Switzerland]], on 28 January 1884.<ref name=obit/>

Showing an intense interest in science as a child, he attended the [[ETH Zurich|Swiss Federal Institute of Technology]] (ETH) in Zürich and became a professor of [[physics]] in [[Brussels]] at the [[Université Libre de Bruxelles|Free University of Brussels]] in 1922, the same year his son [[Jacques Piccard]] was born. He was a member of the [[Solvay Conference|Solvay Congress]] of 1922, 1924, 1927, 1930 and 1933.

In 1930, an interest in [[hot air ballooning|ballooning]] and a curiosity about the upper atmosphere led him to design a spherical, pressurized aluminum gondola that would allow ascent to a great altitude without requiring a pressure suit. Supported by the [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[NFWO|''Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique'']] (FNRS), Piccard constructed his gondola.
[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-11505, Vorbereitung für Stratosphären-Flug.jpg|right|Auguste Piccard and Paul Kipfer, wearing improvised crash helmets, September 1930|thumb|310px]]

An important motivation for his research in the upper atmosphere was measurements of [[cosmic radiation]], which were supposed to give experimental evidence for the theories of [[Albert Einstein]], whom Piccard knew from the Solvay conferences and who was a fellow alumnus of ETH.

{{Quote_box|
width=25%
|align=left
|quote="A huge yellow balloon soared skyward, a few weeks ago, from Augsberg, Germany. Instead of a basket, it trailed an air-thin black-and-silver aluminum ball. Within [the contraption] Prof. Auguste Piccard, physicist, and Charles Kipfer aimed to explore the air 50,000 feet up. Seventeen hours later, after being given up for dead, they returned safely from an estimated height of more than 52,000 feet, almost ten miles, shattering every aircraft altitude record."
|source=''[[Popular Science]]'', August, 1931<ref name="Popular science August 1931 page 23">{{cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BCgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA23 |magazine=[[Popular Science]] |date=August 1931 |publisher=Bonnier Corporation |title=Ten Miles High in an Air-Tight Ball |pages=23 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>
|}}

On 27 May 1931, Auguste Piccard and Paul Kipfer took off from [[Augsburg]], [[Germany]] in a hydrogen balloon,<ref>{{Cite news|date=May 27, 1931|title=Piccard Balloon Off To Rise 50,000 Feet: Swiss Scientist and Aide, Sealed in Gondola, Hope to Visit Stratosphere|page=1|work=[[The New York Times]]|id={{ProQuest|99083688}}}}</ref> and reached a record altitude of {{convert|15,781|m|ft mi||abbr=on}} (FAI Record File Number 10634). During this flight, they became the first human beings to enter the [[stratosphere]],<ref name="BPexplorer">{{cite web|url=https://bertrandpiccard.com/family-tradition-auguste-piccard|title=Explorer of the stratosphere, he paved the way for modern aviation access|access-date=12 February 2019|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111150037/https://bertrandpiccard.com/family-tradition-auguste-piccard|url-status=dead}}</ref> and were able to gather substantial data on the [[upper atmosphere]], as well as measure [[cosmic ray]]s.<ref name="Popular science August 1931 page 23"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lynch |first=David K. |date=1 December 2008 |title=Visually discerning the curvature of the Earth |url=https://thulescientific.com/Lynch%20Curvature%202008.pdf |journal=[[Applied Optics]] |language=en |volume=47 |issue=34 |pages=H39-43 |bibcode=2008ApOpt..47H..39L |doi=10.1364/AO.47.000H39 |issn=0003-6935 |pmid=19037349 |quote="The first direct visual detection of the curvature of the horizon has been widely attributed to Auguste Piccard and Paul Kipfer on 27 May 1931."}}</ref>

In the mid-1930s, Piccard's interests shifted when he realized that a modification of his high-altitude balloon cockpit would allow descent into the deep ocean. By 1937, he had designed the [[bathyscaphe]], a small steel gondola built to withstand great external pressure. Construction began, but was interrupted by the outbreak of [[World War II]]. Resuming work in 1945, he completed the bubble-shaped cockpit that maintained normal air pressure for a person inside the capsule even as the water pressure outside increased to over {{convert|46|MPa|psi|abbr=on|lk=on}}. Above the heavy steel capsule, a large flotation tank was attached and filled with a low density liquid for buoyancy. Liquids are relatively incompressible and can provide buoyancy that does not change as the pressure increases. And so, the huge tank was filled with gasoline, not as a fuel, but as flotation. To make the now floating craft sink, tons of iron were attached to the float with a release mechanism to allow resurfacing. This craft was named ''[[FNRS-2]]'' and made a number of unmanned dives in 1948 before being given to the [[French Navy]] in 1950.<ref name=brand>{{cite journal |last=Brand |first=V. |title=Submersibles - Manned and Unmanned. |journal=South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal |volume=7 |issue=3 |year=1977 |issn=0813-1988 |oclc=16986801 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6154 |access-date=10 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801135138/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6154 |archive-date=1 August 2008 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> There, it was redesigned, and in 1954, it took a man safely down {{convert|4,176|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. [[File:FRNS III (HDR) 01.jpg|thumb|The FNRS III at the Tour Royale in Toulon.]]

Piccard and his son, Jacques, built a second bathyscaphe and together they dove to a record-breaking depth of {{convert|3,150|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in 1953.<ref name="BPexplorer" />

Auguste Piccard died on 24 March 1962 of a [[heart attack]] at his home in [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]]; he was 78 years old.<ref name=obit>{{cite news |title=Auguste Piccard, Explorer, Is Dead. Auguste Piccard Is Dead at 78. Stratosphere and Sea Explorer |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1962/03/26/archives/auguste-piccard-explorer-is-dead-auguste-piccard-is-dead-at-78.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=26 March 1962 }}</ref>

== Piccard family ==
* [[Jules Piccard]] (professor of chemistry)
** '''Auguste Piccard''' (physicist, aeronaut, balloonist, hydronaut)
*** [[Jacques Piccard]] (hydronaut, engineer, oceanographer)
**** [[Bertrand Piccard]] (aeronaut, psychiatrist, balloonist)
** [[Jean Piccard|Jean Felix Piccard]] (organic chemist, aeronaut, and balloonist)
** [[Jeannette Piccard]] (wife of Jean Felix) (aeronaut and balloonist)
*** [[Don Piccard]] (balloonist)

== References in popular culture ==


* Auguste Piccard was the inspiration for [[Professor Cuthbert Calculus]] in ''[[The Adventures of Tintin]]'' by Belgian cartoonist [[Hergé]].<ref name="BPexplorer" /> Piccard held a teaching appointment in Brussels where Hergé spotted his unmistakable figure in the street. This connection was confirmed by Hergé in an interview with Numa Sadoul:
{{quote|Calculus is a reduced scale Piccard, as the real chap was very tall. He had an interminable neck that sprouted from a collar that was much too large... I made Calculus a mini-Piccard, otherwise I would have had to enlarge the frames of the cartoon strip.<ref>Horeau, Yves '' The Adventures of Tintin at Sea'' 1999, English translation 2004 for the National Maritime Museum, Published by John Maurray, {{ISBN|0-7195-6119-1}} . Chapter on Outside characters drawn into the Adventures.</ref>}}

* [[Gene Roddenberry]] named Captain [[Jean-Luc Picard]] in ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation|Star Trek]]'' after one or both of the twin brothers Auguste and [[Jean Piccard|Jean Felix Piccard]], and derived ''Jean-Luc Picard'' from their names.<ref name=UCBerkeley>{{cite web | author= University of California, Berkeley et al. [and informal sources on Jean Piccard talk page] | title= Living with a Star: 3: Balloon/Rocket Mission: Scientific Ballooning | publisher= The Regents of the University of California | year= 2003 | url= http://ds9.ssl.berkeley.edu/LWS_GEMS/3/scien.htm | access-date= 30 January 2007 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100626103845/http://ds9.ssl.berkeley.edu/LWS_GEMS/3/scien.htm | archive-date= 26 June 2010 | url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Piccard |first=Elizabeth |title=Talk of the Nation: Science on Stage | publisher= National Public Radio |date=23 January 2004 |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1614132 |access-date=29 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070307065346/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1614132 |archive-date=7 March 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Will Gregory]]'s opera, ''Piccard in Space'', premiered at the [[Queen Elizabeth Hall]] in London on 31 March 2011. The libretto, by [[Hattie Naylor]], focuses on Auguste Piccard's first balloon ascent with his assistant Paul Kipfer, and on the theories of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Isaac Newton]], who both appear as characters in the drama.<ref>{{cite news |last=Church |first=Michael |date=1 April 2011 |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/54c55c18-5c42-11e0-8f48-00144feab49a.html#axzz1IIFZXsW3 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210221214/https://www.ft.com/content/54c55c18-5c42-11e0-8f48-00144feab49a#axzz1IIFZXsW3 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=Piccard in Space, Queen Elizabeth Hall |newspaper=[[The Financial Times]] |access-date=1 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Seckerson |first=Edward |date=1 April 2011 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/classical/reviews/gregory-piccard-in-space-queen-elizabeth-hall-2259208.html |title=Gregory Piccard in Space, Queen Elizabeth Hall |newspaper=[[The Independent]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Christiansen |first=Rupert |date=1 April 2011 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/opera/8422093/Piccard-in-Space-Queen-Elizabeth-Hall-review.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/opera/8422093/Piccard-in-Space-Queen-Elizabeth-Hall-review.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Piccard in Space, Queen Elizabeth Hall, review |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
* In 2016, the exploits of Piccard and his son [[Jacques Piccard|Jacques]] were featured in an American television commercial for [[Hennessy]] cognac.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nudd |first=Tim |date=15 April 2016 |url=http://www.adweek.com/adfreak/droga5-beautifully-tells-one-historys-most-incredible-father-son-stories-hennessy-170861 |title=Droga5 Beautifully Tells One of History's Most Incredible Father-Son Stories for Hennessy: Reaching for heaven and earth with the Piccards |magazine=[[Ad Week]]}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of firsts in aviation]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Auguste Piccard}}
* [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=3134 Footage of Auguste Piccard and his 1932 balloon ascent]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070216155254/http://www.balloonlife.com/9707/piccard.htm Don Piccard - 50 Years of Ballooning Memories]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080908005325/http://www.msichicago.org/whats-here/exhibits/transportation-gallery/the-exhibit/the-piccard-gondola/ The Piccard Gondola Exhibit]
* {{PM20|FID=pe/013595}}

{{Underwater diving|hisdiv}}
{{Authority control}}

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box
| title = Human altitude record
| years = 1931-1932
| with = Paul Kipfer
| before = [[Hawthorne C. Gray]]
| after = Auguste Piccard and [[Max Cosyns]]
}}
{{Succession box
| title = Human altitude record
| years = 1932-1933
| with = Max Cosyns
| before = Auguste Piccard and Paul Kipfer
| after = [[USSR-1]]
}}
{{S-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Piccard, Auguste}}

[[Category:ETH Zurich alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of ETH Zurich]]
[[Category:Swiss balloonists]]
[[Category:Swiss explorers]]
[[Category:Swiss physicists]]
[[Category:Swiss Protestants]]
[[Category:Scientists from Basel-Stadt]]
[[Category:1884 births]]
[[Category:1962 deaths]]
[[Category:Flight altitude record holders]]
[[Category:Balloon flight record holders]]
[[Category:Swiss aviation record holders]]
[[Category:Swiss twins]]

Jean Piccard

2024-09-16T14:08:49Z

Zumbo: link Jules Piccard

{{about|the chemist, professor and balloonist|the 17th century [[France|French]] [[astronomer]]|Jean Picard}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jean Piccard
| image = Jean_Piccard-BYU-1938.jpg
| alt = shoulder high portrait outdoors 
| image_size = 200px
| caption = Jean Piccard visiting Brigham Young University in 1938
| birth_date = {{birth date|1884|1|28}}
| birth_place = [[Basel]], Switzerland
| death_date = {{death date and age|1963|1|28|1884|1|28}}
| death_place = [[Minneapolis]], United States
| nationality = [[Switzerland|Swiss]] and from 1931 American
| spouse = [[Jeannette Piccard|Jeannette Ridlon]]
| children = [[Don Piccard]] (son)
| relatives = {{ublist|[[Auguste Piccard]] (brother)|[[Jacques Piccard]] (nephew)}}
| occupation = chemist, engineer, professor and balloonist
| known_for =
| module = {{Infobox scientist |child=yes
| field = [[Inorganic chemistry]]
| work_institution = [[University of Munich]], [[University of Lausanne]], [[University of Chicago]], [[University of Minnesota]]
| alma_mater = [[ETH Zürich]]
| thesis_title = Ueber Konstitution und Farbe der Chinonimine
| thesis_url = https://www.research-collection.ethz.ch/handle/20.500.11850/134634
| thesis_year = 1909
| doctoral_advisor = [[Richard Willstätter]]
| known_for =
| awards =
| footnotes =
}}
}}

'''Jean Felix Piccard''' (January 28, 1884 in [[Basel]], Switzerland – January 28, 1963 in [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]]), also known as '''Jean Piccard''', was a [[Switzerland|Swiss]]-born [[Americans|American]] chemist, engineer, professor and high-altitude [[balloon (aircraft)|balloonist]]. He invented clustered [[high-altitude balloon]]s, and with his wife [[Jeannette Piccard|Jeannette]], the plastic balloon. Piccard's inventions and co-inventions are used in balloon flight, aircraft and [[spacecraft]].

==Family==
Piccard and [[Jeannette Piccard|Jeannette Ridlon]] met at the [[University of Chicago]] where he taught and she received her master's degree. They married and had three sons, John, Paul and [[Don Piccard|Donald]], and also had foster children.<ref name=UCBerkeley>{{cite web| author= University of California et al. [and informal sources on Jean Piccard talk page]| title= Living With A Star: 3: Balloon/Rocket Mission: Scientific Ballooning| year= 2003| url= http://ds9.ssl.berkeley.edu/LWS_GEMS/3/scien.htm| accessdate= 2007-01-27| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100626103845/http://ds9.ssl.berkeley.edu/LWS_GEMS/3/scien.htm| archive-date= 2010-06-26| url-status= dead}}</ref><ref name=EP>{{cite web| author= Piccard, Elizabeth via National Public Radio| title= Talk of the Nation: Science on Stage| website= [[NPR]]| date= January 23, 2004| url= https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1614132| accessdate= 2007-01-29}}</ref>

==Stratosphere flight==
[[File:Jean-Piccard-from video.png|thumb|left|alt=Waist high portrait of male in his forties, quite poor quality, taken before sunrise, wearing a light colored suit. Man in uniform to his right, onlooker at right.|Piccard signing autographs at the 1933 Chicago World's Fair]]
Piccard was the co-pilot for his wife Jeannette on the third and final voyage of the ''Century of Progress''. The largest balloon in the world was conceived for him to fly at the [[Century of Progress|World's Fair]] in 1933 but was flown there by US Navy pilots who were licensed.<ref name=Navy>{{cite web| author= Unknown author| title= To Leave the Earth| publisher= US Department of the Navy - Navy Historical Center| date= n.d.| url= http://www.history.navy.mil/download/space-04.PDF| accessdate= 2007-01-26}}</ref> After this flight he created the liquid oxygen converter when the liquid failed to vaporize on descent after the cabin doors were open.<ref name=CFC>{{cite web| author= US Centennial of Flight Commission| title= Jean Piccard| year= 2003| url= http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/Jean_Piccard/DI65.htm| accessdate= 2007-01-27| url-status= dead| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060923165719/http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/Jean_Piccard/DI65.htm| archivedate= 2006-09-23}}</ref> Piccard developed a frost-free window, that was used on this flight and later by the Navy and Air Force in the [[B-24 Liberator]] or [[B-26 Marauder]]. He used [[blasting cap]]s and [[trinitrotoluene|TNT]] for releasing the balloon at launch and for remote release of external ballast from inside the sealed cabin. This was the first use of [[pyrotechnics]] for remote-controlled actuating devices in [[aircraft]], an unpopular, revolutionary idea at the time. Later his student [[Robert R. Gilruth]], who became the director of the [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|NASA Manned Spacecraft Center]], approved and used them in [[spacecraft]].<ref name=DLP>{{cite web| author= Piccard, Don| title= Balloon Information Resources: The Beginning| year= 2005| url= http://www.mesasphere.com/Balloon%20Information%20Resources.htm| accessdate= 2007-01-28}}</ref><ref name=Kraft>{{cite web| author= Kraft, Christopher Jr.| title= Robert R. Gilruth in ''Biographical Memoirs'' V.84 92-111| publisher= National Academy of Sciences| year= 2004| url= http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10992&page=92| accessdate= 2007-01-30}}</ref>

The [http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/2860037/700599 July 21st, 1952 issue of The Canberra Times] newspaper printed an incorrect front-page article in which Piccard claimed it would be possible for humans to fly to Mars with balloons as early as 1954, if anyone was willing to invest $250,000. Piccard had claimed he would study the light from Mars through a spectroscope to try to find evidence of oxygen and water at a high altitude to ensure his measurements were as precise as possible.

==Plastic balloons==
[[File:Gruppenbild der Montagemannschaft - CH-BAR - 3238344.tif|thumb|Jean Piccard (left) with his brother [[Auguste Piccard|Auguste]] (right) during [[World War I]]<ref>[https://www.swiss-archives.ch/detail.aspx?ID=3238344 Gruppenbild der Montagemannschaft, 1914.01.01-1918.12.31], Archives fédérales suisses</ref>]]

In 1935 and 1936, to reduce weight and thus enabling a balloon to reach higher altitudes, [[plastic]] balloon construction began independently by [[Max Cosyns]] in Belgium, [[Erich Regener]] in Germany, and Thomas H. Johnson and Jean Piccard, then at the [[Franklin Institute]]'s [[Bartol Research Institute|Bartol Research Foundation]] in [[Swarthmore, Pennsylvania]]. Johnson suggested [[cellophane]] to Jean Piccard.<ref name=Winker>{{cite web| author= Winker, J. A., via sample page| title= Scientific ballooning, past and present| publisher= American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics| year= 1986| url= http://www.aiaa.org/content.cfm?pageid=406&gTable=mtgpaper&gID=92979| accessdate= 2007-01-28| url-status= dead| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070927230153/http://www.aiaa.org/content.cfm?pageid=406&gTable=mtgpaper&gID=92979| archivedate= 2007-09-27}}</ref>

Piccard with his wife co-invented the plastic balloon<ref name=Rechs-JRP>{{cite web| author= Robert Rechs| title= Who's Who of Ballooning - P| date= November 21, 1983| url= http://www.ballooninghistory.com/whoswho/who'swho-p.html| accessdate= 2007-01-27}}</ref> and he designed and on 24 June 1936<ref>[https://www.aem.umn.edu/info/history/piccard.shtml University of Minnesota Aerospace Engineering and Mechanics: Professor Jean F. Piccard's Contribution to Balloon Flight]</ref> flew a cellophane balloon built by his students. The balloon was unmanned, {{convert|25|ft|m|abbr=off|sp=us}} wide, and made of tapered 33-foot (10-meter) [[Gore (segment)|gores]] and one-inch (2.54-cm) [[3M]] [[Scotch Tape|Scotch]] transparent tape. Jean Barnhill, Harold Larson and Lloyd Schumacher cut the gores that fit together like an "orange peel." Harold Hatlestad built the radio equipment and Robert Silliman built the [[telemeter (rangefinder)|telemeter]]<ref name=Gilruth>{{cite web| author= Gilruth, Dr. Robert| title= NASM Oral History Project, Gilruth #2| publisher= Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum| date= May 14, 1986| url= http://www.nasm.si.edu/research/dsh/TRANSCPT/GILRUTH2.HTM| accessdate= 2007-01-27| url-status= dead| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070217115856/http://www.nasm.si.edu/research/dsh/TRANSCPT/GILRUTH2.HTM| archivedate= February 17, 2007}}</ref> that sent temperature and pressure data back. Robert Hatch and Silliman maintained radio contact from a station on the roof of the university armory until the radio's battery froze from insufficient insulation.<ref name=Winker /><ref name=AEM-Notable>{{cite web| author= Aerospace Engineering and Mechanics (AEM) Department| publisher= University of Minnesota| title= Some Notable Early Faculty Members| date= July 23, 2004| url= http://www.aem.umn.edu/info/history/03_NotableFaculty.shtml| accessdate= 2007-01-27}}</ref> The balloon floated at 50,000 feet, and in ten hours traveled over 600 miles to near [[Huntsville, Arkansas]].<ref name=Winker /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Akerman |first1=John D. |last2=Piccard |first2=Jean F. |date=1937 |journal=Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences |publisher=The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) |volume=4 |issue=8 |pages=332–337 |access-date=March 14, 2015 |url=http://arc.aiaa.org/doi/abs/10.2514/8.423?journalCode=jans |title=Upper Air Study by Means of Balloons and the Radio Meteorograph |doi=10.2514/8.423}}</ref>

==Cluster balloons==
Developed with John Akerman of the University of Minnesota and piloted by Jean Piccard in 1937 in [[Rochester, Minnesota]], the first multi-celled balloon was called ''The Pleiades'' and was made of 98 [[latex (rubber)|latex rubber]] balloons. In a letter to Robert Gray of the Dewey and Almy Chemical Co. later published in ''Time'' magazine, Piccard describes how he broke balloons with a hunting knife and revolver to control his descent. A TNT charge released the cluster as he expected but sent burning [[excelsior (wood wool)|excelsior]] down that destroyed the first ''Pleiades''. He suggested to Gray that [[mineral wool|rock wool]] in place of excelsior would prevent similar accidents in the future.<ref name=Egg-Shell>{{cite magazine| author= Piccard, Jean via Robert Gray| title= Egg Shell Landing| magazine= Time| date= August 16, 1937| url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,770771,00.html?promoid=googlep| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121022125122/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,770771,00.html?promoid=googlep| url-status= dead| archive-date= October 22, 2012| accessdate= 2007-01-27}}</ref>

Balloon research stopped for the most part during [[World War II]].<ref name=Goebel>{{cite web| author= Goebel, Greg| title= A Short History Of Balloons & Ballooning: 3.0 The Stratosphere Expeditions| date= July 1, 2006| url= http://www.vectorsite.net/avbloon_3.html| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060719011615/http://www.vectorsite.net/avbloon_3.html| url-status= dead| archive-date= July 19, 2006| accessdate= 2007-02-01}}</ref>

In February 1946 with [[Otto C. Winzen]], Jean Piccard proposed manned flight to the US Navy using clustered balloons made of thin plastic. In June the Office of Naval Research approved ''Project Helios'' and that year [[General Mills]] and the University of Minnesota contracted to build a cluster of 100 [[polyethylene]] balloons for atmospheric research.<ref name=Navy-FAQ>{{cite web| author= US Department of the Navy - Navy Historical Center| title= Navy in Space Chronology, 1945 - 1981| date= July 24, 2003| url= http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq124-1.htm| accessdate= 2007-01-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blog.generalmills.com/2011/08/the-daddy-of-the-balloon-industry/ |last=Goodsell |first=Suzy |title=The "daddy" of the balloon industry |date=August 4, 2011 |website=General Mills blog website |accessdate=2015-03-15}}</ref> ''Helios'' was designed to reach 100,000 feet for ten hours with a payload of instruments.<ref name=Navy-Space>{{cite web| author= Unknown author| title= Manned| publisher= US Department of the Navy - Navy Historical Center| date= n.d.| url= http://www.history.navy.mil/download/space-11.PDF| accessdate= 2007-01-26}}</ref>

Jean Piccard helped Winzen design the [[Skyhook balloon|Skyhook]] polyethylene balloons that replaced ''Project Helios'' in 1947. Skyhook balloons were used unmanned for atmospheric research by the Navy and for manned flights by the [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]].<ref name=Navy-FAQ /><ref name=BalloonLife>{{cite web|author=Stekel, Peter |publisher=Balloon Life Magazine |title=Don Piccard - 50 Years of Ballooning Memories |date=August 1997 |url=http://www.balloonlife.com/9707/piccard.htm |accessdate=2007-01-26 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216155254/http://www.balloonlife.com/9707/piccard.htm |archivedate=2007-02-16 }}</ref> Later Jean Piccard developed electronics for emptying ballast bags.<ref name=CFC/>

Piccard died on January 28, 1963 (his 79th birthday) in Minneapolis.

==Piccard family==
* [[Jules Piccard]] (professor of chemistry)
** [[Auguste Piccard]] (physicist, aeronaut, balloonist, hydronaut)
*** [[Jacques Piccard]] (hydronaut)
**** [[Bertrand Piccard]] (aeronaut, balloonist)
** Jean Felix Piccard (organic chemist, aeronaut, and balloonist)
** [[Jeannette Piccard]] (wife of Jean Felix) (aeronaut and balloonist)
*** [[Don Piccard]] (balloonist)

== Legacy ==
In 1991, Piccard was inducted into the [[International Air & Space Hall of Fame]] at the [[San Diego Air & Space Museum]].<ref>Sprekelmeyer, Linda, editor. ''These We Honor: The International Aerospace Hall of Fame''. Donning Co. Publishers, 2006. {{ISBN|978-1-57864-397-4}}.</ref> [[Gene Roddenberry]] named the ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation|Star Trek]]'' character [[Jean-Luc Picard]] after either Jean or his twin [[Auguste Piccard|Auguste]], and it is implied that the character is a descendant of one of the brothers. The Swiss explorer and environmentalist [[Bertrand Piccard]] claims that it was after his great-uncle Jean Piccard.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Star Trek's Jean-Luc Picard & Solar Impulse's Bertrand Piccard – The Connection |website = [[YouTube]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ckUirmdW66g | access-date=2021-11-30}}</ref>

==Notes and references==
{{reflist|40em}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070216155254/http://www.balloonlife.com/9707/piccard.htm Don Piccard - 50 Years of Ballooning Memories]
*{{cite web
| author=University of Minnesota Archives
| title=Jean Felix Piccard Papers
| year=2002
| url=http://special.lib.umn.edu/findaid/xml/uarc00475.xml
| accessdate=2007-01-24
}}
*{{cite video|publisher=Universal City Studios: Universal Newsreels via Internet Archive|title=Stratosphere Balloon Falls|date=August 7, 1933|url=https://archive.org/details/1933-08-07_Stratosphere_Balloon_Falls|accessdate=January 16, 2010}}

{{Portal bar|Aviation}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Piccard, Jean}}
[[Category:1884 births]]
[[Category:1963 deaths]]
[[Category:American aviators]]
[[Category:20th-century American chemists]]
[[Category:American balloonists]]
[[Category:Scientists from Chicago]]
[[Category:Scientists from Minneapolis]]
[[Category:Swiss emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:University of Chicago faculty]]
[[Category:Scientists from Basel-Stadt]]
[[Category:University of Lausanne alumni]]
[[Category:Swiss twins]]

Abdul

2024-07-23T12:14:36Z

Zumbo: /* Given name */

{{for|the village in Iran|Abdul, Iran}}
{{Infobox given name2
| name = Abdul
| image=
| image_size=
| caption=
| pronunciation= {{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|b|d|ʊ|l}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref> {{IPA-ar|ʕæbdel, ʕabdɪl, ʕæbdʊl|lang}}
| gender = Male
| meaning = ''servant of the…''
| language = [[Arabic]]
| seealso = [[Abdo (disambiguation)|Abdu]], [[Abdi]]
}}

'''Abdul''' (also [[Romanization of Arabic|transliterated]] as '''Abdal''', '''Abdel''', '''Abdil''', '''Abdol''', '''Abdool''', or '''Abdoul'''; {{lang-ar|عبد ال}}, {{transliteration|ar|DIN|''ʿAbd al-''}}) is the most frequent transliteration of the combination of the Arabic word ''[[Abd (Arabic)|Abd]]'' ({{lang|ar|عبد}}, meaning "Servant") and the definite prefix ''[[Al-|al]] / el'' ({{lang|ar|ال}}, meaning "the").<ref name="Hanks 2003">{{cite book |last=Hanks |first=P. |title=Dictionary of American Family Names: 3-Volume Set |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |issue=v. 3 |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-508137-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vG7MZ9J6dAgC&pg=PA3 |access-date=2 September 2018 |page=3}}</ref>

It is the initial component of many [[compound (linguistics)|compound]] names, names made of two words. For example, {{lang|ar|عبد الحميد}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|ʿAbd el-Ḥamīd}}'', usually spelled ''Abdel Hamid'', ''Abdelhamid'', ''Abd El Hamid'' or ''Abdul Hamid'', which means "servant of The Praised" (God).

The most common use for ''Abdul'' by far, is as part of a male [[#Theophoric naming|given name]], written in English. When written in [[English language|English]], ''Abdul'' is subject to variable spacing, spelling, and hyphenation. It is a common name in the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], [[West Africa]], [[East Africa]], [[Central Asia]], the [[Balkans]], the [[Caucasus]], and predominantly [[Muslim]] countries of [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. It is also used amongst [[African American]]s and [[Turkic peoples]] of [[Russia]].

The meaning of ''Abdul'' literally and normally means "Slave of the", but English translations also often translate it to "Servant of the".<ref name=ahmed>{{cite book| title=A Dictionary of Muslim Names| author=Salahuddin Ahmed| publisher = Hurst & Company| location=London| year=1999}}</ref><ref name=rahman>{{cite book| title=A Dictionary of Muslim Names| author= S. A. Rahman| publisher=Goodword Books| location=New Delhi| year=2001}}</ref>

== Spelling variations ==
Variations in spelling are primarily because of the variation in pronunciation. Arabic speakers normally pronounce and transcribe their names of Arabic origin according to their [[varieties of Arabic|spoken Arabic dialects]]. Therefore, it is pronounced {{IPA|/ʕabdel/}} and written ''Abdel...'' or ''Abd El...''. However, non-Arabic speakers or Arabic speakers may choose to transcribe the name according to the [[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]] pronunciation, which is the language of [[Quran]], pronounced as {{IPA|/ʕabdul/}} and written ''Abdul...''. For other variations in spelling, see the [[#Arabic grammar|Arabic grammar]] section.

== Etymology ==
In Arabic language, the word {{lang|ar|عبد}} ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʿabd}}'' means "slave" or "servant", from the [[triliteral root]] {{lang|ar|[[ع]]-[[ب]]-[[د]]}} ''{{transliteration|ar|ʕ-B-D}}'', which is also related to the word {{lang|ar|عبادة}} ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʿibādah}}'', "worshiping". Therefore, the word has the positive connotation.<ref>In an Islamic sense, of worshiping and praising God, i.e. being a servant to God rather than idols.</ref>

=== Theophoric naming ===
Essentially there is no ''Abdul'', without the second part when written in Arabic, thus it appears as a component of many Arabic and specifically Muslim names, where it is the opening of a religiously based name, meaning: "Servant of..." with the last component of the name being one of the [[names of God in Islam]], which would form a Muslim Arabic [[theophoric name]]. Such as Abdullah simply meaning "Servant of God" while "Abdul Aziz" means "Servant of the Almighty" and so on.
The name ''Abdul Masih'', ("Servant of Christ") is an Arabic [[Christians|Christian]] equivalent.

In addition, ''Abdul'' is occasionally, though much more rarely, used in reference to a figure other than God. For example, the Indian name ''Abdul Mughal'' ("Servant of the Mughal Empire").

=== Derived theophoric names ===
{{Main|List of Arabic theophoric names}}
;The most common names are listed below
* [[Abdullah (name)|Abdullah]], [[Servant of God|Servant]] of [[Allah]]
* [[Abd al-Aziz|Abdulaziz]], Servant of ''the Almighty''
* [[Abdulkarim]], Servant of ''the most Generous''
* [[Abdur Rahim|Abdurrahim]], Servant of ''the Merciful''
* [[Abdur Rahman|Abdurrahman]], Servant of ''the Benevolent''
* [[Abdus Salam (name)|Abdussalam]], Servant of ''the Peaceful''
* [[Abdul Qadir|Abdulqadir]], Servant of ''the Powerful''
* [[Abdul Latif]], Servant of ''the Gentle''

=== Arabic grammar ===
When followed by a [[Sun and moon letters|sun letter]], the ''l'' in ''[[Al-|al]]'' (normally pronounced colloquially ''el'') assimilates to the initial consonant of the following noun, resulting in a [[Gemination|doubled consonant]]. For example, "Abdul Rahman", would be pronounced in [[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]]: Abdur-Rahman {{IPA-ar|ʕæbdʊr ræħˈmæːn|}}. When the definite article is followed by a [[moon letter]], no assimilation takes place.

Therefore, ''Abdul'' is not always used as the opening part of the name; if the second part starts with a sun letter, it may become forms including '''Abdun''', '''Abdur''', '''Abdus''', or '''Abdush''', the vowel in each name, similarly with ''Abdul'', is also open to differing transliterations.

=== Independent naming ===
''Abdul'' does not appear on its own as a male given name when written in Arabic. In some cultures, the theophoric part may appear to be a stand-alone middle name, or surname, thus confusing people as to whether ''Abdul'' is an accepted given name. Often if someone shortens his/her name, he may equally choose the theophoric part or ''Abdul''. However, ''Abdul'' by itself is sometimes used as an independent full given first name outside of Arabic-speaking societies. Most commonly ''Abdul'' is followed by one of the names of God found in the Quran, the Islamic scriptures, for example "Abdul Rahman", which means "slave/servant of the Merciful".

== Given name ==
* [[Abdul Thompson Conteh]] (born 1970), Sierra Leonean footballer
* [[Abdul Diallo]] (born 1985), Burkina Faso footballer
* [[Abdul "Duke" Fakir]] (1935 – 2024), American singer, best known as a member of the [[Four Tops]]
* [[Abdul Gaddy]] (born 1992), American basketball player
* [[Abdul Hodge]] (born 1983), American football linebacker
* [[Abdul Salis]] (born 1979), British actor
* [[Abdul Shamsid-Deen]] (born 1968), American former basketball player
* [[Abdul Vas]] (born 1981), Venezuelan artist
* [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]] (1931 – 2015), 11th President of India
* [[DJ Abdel]], French DJ and producer of Moroccan descent playing hip hop, funk and contemporary R&B
{{given name}}

== Surname ==
* [[David Abdul]] (born 1989), Aruban footballer
*[[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]] (born 1947), American basketball player
* [[Lida Abdul]] (born 1973), Persian artist
* [[Paula Abdul]] (born 1962), American singer and television personality

{{surname}}

== Fictional characters ==
* Abdul-Adl (阿布杜爾阿德勒), a character in the Taiwanese television series ''{{ill|Port of Lies|zh|八尺門的辯護人}}'' (八尺門的辯護人).
* [[Abdul Alhazred]], character created by American horror writer [[H. P. Lovecraft]]
* [[Mohammed Avdol]] (also spelled Abdul), fictional character in the [[manga]] and [[anime]] ''[[JoJo's Bizarre Adventure]]'' created by [[Hirohiko Araki]]

== See also ==
* [[Abdo (disambiguation)|Abdu]], a nickname for the compound name or a given name. In this case it's not necessarily a name given to a [[Muslim name|Muslim]]
* [[Abdi]], similar to Abdu
* [[Abdiel]], Biblical name meaning "Servant of God"
* [[Abdullah (disambiguation)]], often confused with having the same meaning as ''Abdul''
* [[Arabic name]]
* [[List of Arabic theophoric names|Arabic theophoric names]], including a list of names where ''Abdul'' is an element.
* [[Turkish name]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Arabic-language surnames]]
[[Category:Arabic-language masculine given names]]
[[Category:Masculine given names]]
[[Category:Pakistani masculine given names]]

Nazi chic

2024-05-07T15:11:22Z

Zumbo: Deleted paragraph. This is an example of pro-Nazi ideology, not of Nazi chic.

{{Short description|Dress or play as Nazis for publicity}}
{{use dmy dates |date=July 2023}}
[[File:Nazi cosplay uniforms for sale on display in Akihabara, Tokyo, Japan 2006. Panzer, SS parade uniform, miniature cale models toy soldiers black uniforms etc.jpg|thumb|Examples of Nazi-inspired fashion for sale in [[Tokyo]]]]
{{Nazism sidebar}}
'''Nazi chic''' is the use of style, imagery, and [[paraphernalia]] in clothing and popular culture related to [[Nazi Germany|Nazi-era Germany]], especially when used for taboo-breaking or shock value rather than out of genuine support of [[Nazism]] or [[Nazi ideology]].

Its popularity began in the 1970s with the emergence of the [[Heavy metal music|Heavy metal]], [[Punk subculture|punk]] and [[glam rock]] movements: the [[Sex Pistols]]' first television appearance occurred with a person of their entourage wearing a [[swastika]].<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jRNOUz7uefA "Today Show - Bill Grundy"] ''ITV''. December 1976. Retrieved 3 April 2011.</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=February 2024}} Nazi chic was later used in the [[fashion industry]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kidd|first=Laura K.|date=2011|title=Goose-Stepping Fashion: Nazi Inspiration|url=http://smu-facweb.smu.ca/~paideusis/volume5/F_v5_LauraKKidd.pdf|journal=Paideusis - Journal for Interdisciplinary and Cross-Cultural Studies|volume=5}}</ref> The trend, while having originated in the Western culture, by the late 20th and early 21st century became particularly popular in Asia.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Manning|first=Charles|date=2015-02-13|title=Trendy Teens in Asia Are Dressing Up Like Nazis|url=https://www.cosmopolitan.com/style-beauty/fashion/news/a36490/nazi-chic-teens-asia/|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Cosmopolitan|language=en-US}}</ref> Nazi chic also partly inspired some of the fashion of the [[leather subculture]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maigné |first=Juliette |date=2018-06-21 |title=There's a Lot More to Being a Leatherman Than You'd Expect |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/7xmqmq/theres-a-lot-more-to-being-a-leatherman-than-youd-expect |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=Vice |language=en}}</ref>

==Europe and United States==
In the [[surf culture]] of the 1950s and 1960s, "Surf Nazis" would experiment with Nazi aesthetics, such as swastikas and Nazi helmets, and sometimes paint swastikas on their surfboards. Their motivation was often anti-establishment rebelliousness, rather than genuine sympathy with the Nazis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://beachgrit.com/2017/09/nuanced-surf-nazis-were-some-fine-people/|title=Revealed: Surf Nazis were fine people!|date=September 2, 2017|website=BeachGrit}}</ref> American artist [[Ed Roth]] sold plastic Nazi stormtrooper helmets to surfers in the 1960s, and told ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine, "That Hitler really did a helluva public relations job for me."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/28/opinion/sunday/surf-racism.html|title=Opinion | The Long, Strange Tale of California's Surf Nazis|first=Daniel|last=Duane|newspaper=The New York Times|date=September 28, 2019}}</ref> In the 1960s, some filmmakers looking for edgy and controversial ideas incorporated Nazi themes into their works for [[shock value]], with the 1965 film ''Censored'' described as having "the dubious honour of being the very first skinflick to mix Nazis and naked women".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.somethingweird.com/product_info.php?products_id=57392 |title=Somethingweird.com | Age Consent Form|website=www.somethingweird.com}}</ref>{{Unreliable-inline|date=June 2021}}

In the early 1970s, [[glam rock]] acts incorporated nazi symbolism into their works, often for the [[shock value]] and outrageousness, or for comedic effect. [[Steve Priest]], of the glam rock band [[The Sweet]], wore a nazi uniform and fake [[toothbrush moustache]] in a December 1973 live performance of "[[Block Buster!]]", on ''[[Top of the Pops]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thesweetband.com/bio/steve-priest/ |title=Steve Priest | The Sweet |website=Thesweetband.com |access-date=8 October 2016 |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807230959/https://thesweetband.com/bio/steve-priest/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> In the 1970s [[punk subculture]], several items of clothing designed to shock and offend [[the Establishment]] became popular. Among these [[punk fashion]] items was a [[T-shirt]] displaying a [[Swastika]], an upside-down [[crucifix]] and the word ''DESTROY''– which was worn by [[John Lydon|Johnny Rotten]] of the [[Sex Pistols]], seen in the video for "[[Pretty Vacant]]". Rotten wore the swastika another time with a gesture that looked like a [[Nazi salute]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accum.se/~samhain/summerofhate/punk.html |title=Punk and the Svastika |publisher=accum.se |access-date=1 July 2016 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321032935/http://www.accum.se/~samhain/summerofhate/punk.html |archive-date=21 March 2007 }}</ref> In 1976, [[Siouxsie Sioux]] of [[Siouxsie and the Banshees]] was also known to wear a Swastika armband with fetish [[Sadomasochism|S and M]] clothing, including fishnets and a whip. These musicians are commonly thought to have worn such clothing for shock value directed towards [[Timeline of the United Kingdom home front during World War II|the British WWII generation]] rather than being genuinely associated with any [[National Socialist]] or [[fascist]] ideologies, and those with such interests likely became part of the [[Nazi punk]] or [[white power skinhead]] subcultures. However, the English classical composer, [[Cornelius Cardew]], a Maoist, wrote a tract that called punk rock fascist.

In 1984, two T-shirt designs featuring [[Adolf Hitler]] were produced in [[West Germany]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5-toAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA367|title=Charting the Divide Between Common and Civil Law|first=Thomas|last=Lundmark|date=15 August 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-987636-5|access-date=13 October 2018|via=Google Books}}</ref> The more famous of the two was the "Adolf Hitler European Tour" design, which featured a picture of Hitler against the backdrop of a map of [[Europe]], with conquered territories shaded; A less popular T-shirt featured Hitler giving the [[Roman salute]], and a [[yo-yo]] hanging from his hand. The text read "European yo-yo champion 1939-1945". Sale of the apparel led to a legal case in Germany, in an attempt to have it banned as "glorifying genocide".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/laws/global_law/german-cases/cases_bverg.shtml?03apr1990|title=UCL Laws : Institute of Global Law|access-date=13 October 2018|archive-date=14 January 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060114165115/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/laws/global_law/german-cases/cases_bverg.shtml?03apr1990|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1988, [[Ralph Engelstad]] was criticized for a party he held at his [[The Linq|Imperial Palace]] hotel-casino in Las Vegas featuring bartenders wearing the "European Tour" shirts.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2199&dat=19890503&id=STEyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=cOYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4910,459971&hl=en|title=Lawrence Journal-World - Google News Archive Search|website=news.google.com|access-date=13 October 2018}}</ref> In 1990, the [[ACLU]] represented a high school student on [[Long Island]] who was told to remove the shirt or face suspension by school officials who claimed the shirt was anti-semitic.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.apnews.com/article/d78b2745d004cc918c556f0415f12786 |date=September 21, 1990 |url-status=live |title=ACLU Takes Up Case of Student Forced to Remove Hitler Shirt |website=[[Associated Press]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819182515/https://www.apnews.com/article/d78b2745d004cc918c556f0415f12786 |access-date=13 October 2018|archive-date=19 August 2022 }}</ref>

In an interview with ''[[Welt am Sonntag]]'', [[Bryan Ferry]], the English singer and musician, acknowledged that he calls his studio in west London his "[[Führerbunker]]". He was quoted as saying, "My God, the Nazis knew how to put themselves in the limelight and present themselves. ... [[Leni Riefenstahl|Leni Riefenstahl's]] movies and [[Albert Speer|Albert Speer's]] buildings and the mass parades and the flags - just amazing. Really beautiful."<ref>{{cite news|title=Bryan Ferry's Nazi Gaffe|newspaper=The Independent|last=Goodchild|first=Sophie|date=2007-04-15}}</ref>

English heavy metal and rock and roll musician [[Lemmy]] of the band [[Motörhead]] collected Nazi memorabilia and had an [[Iron Cross]] on his bass guitar, but stated that he collected these memorabilia for aesthetic values and historical purposes and interests only, and considered himself an [[anarchist]] or [[libertarian]] and actually despised the Nazi regime's ideologies and their subsequent genocidal actions.<ref>{{cite web|title=damage case|url=http://www.motorhead.ru/art11damagecase.htm|work=Russian MOTÖRHEAD Home page|access-date=26 April 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120526042049/http://www.motorhead.ru/art11damagecase.htm|archive-date=26 May 2012}}</ref>

In early 2005, a designer using the pseudonym "[[The Day the Clown Cried|Helmut Doork]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://metzitzah.blogspot.com/2007/10/auschwitz-souvenir-t-shirt.html|title=Auschwitz Souvenir T-shirt|work=Metzitzah B’peh |access-date=13 October 2018}}</ref> began marketing a parody souvenir T-shirt with the slogans "My grandparents went to Auschwitz and all I got was this lousy t-shirt!" and "[[Arbeit Macht Frei]]."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3336745,00.html|title=Auschwitz t-shirts for sale?| newspaper=Ynetnews |date=12 June 2006|access-date=13 October 2018| last1=Mozgovia | first1=Natasha }}</ref> In response to a complaint from the [[Anti-Defamation League]], the design was removed from [[CafePress.com|CafePress]]' website in late 2006.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adl.org/PresRele/HolNa_52/4936_52.htm |url-status=dead |title=Online Retailer Removes Auschwitz T-Shirts After ADL Voices Concern |access-date=13 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061216012013/https://www.adl.org/PresRele/HolNa_52/4936_52.htm|archive-date=16 December 2006}}</ref>
The creator later uploaded it to Printfection. After Printfection removed it without explanation the creator then released it into the public domain, giving anyone permission to print and/or commercialize the design without permission.<ref>{{Cite web |title=My Grandparents Went to Auschwitz and all I got was this lousy t-shirt! |work=Metzitzah B’peh |date=31 May 2008 |access-date=22 February 2019 |url= http://metzitzah.blogspot.com/ }}</ref>

[[Prince Harry]] was criticized for [[Prince Harry#Harry_swastika|wearing a costume with a swastika armband]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4170083.stm |title=Harry says sorry for Nazi costume |work=BBC News |date=January 13, 2005 |access-date=July 17, 2023 }}</ref> causing considerable embarrassment to his family. Harry's impromptu costume resembled the [[Afrika Korps]], rather than more political units such as the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]]. Writer Moyra Bremner commented on [[BBC News 24]] that no one had stopped the prince wearing the costume.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4170623.stm |title=Harry public apology 'not needed' |work=BBC News |date=January 14, 2005 }}</ref>

[[Alternative hip hop]] group [[OFWGKTA]] uses the swastika symbol and makes references to Nazism in its lyrics.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-past-the-present-and_b_807734 |first=Yasi |last=Salek |access-date=18 July 2023 |title=The Past, the Present, and the Odd Future |work=Huffington Post |date=January 11, 2011 }}</ref>

Nazi chic fashion can be seen in the music videos for [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]'s "[[Justify My Love]]" (1990), [[Marilyn Manson (band)|Marilyn Manson]]'s "[[The Fight Song (Marilyn Manson song)|The Fight Song]]" (2001) and [[Lady Gaga]]'s "[[LoveGame]]" (2009).<ref name=dazed>{{cite magazine| url=http://www.dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/33523/1/nazi-chic-the-stylistic-legacy-of-the-night-porter| last=Hope Allwood| first=Emma| title=Nazi Chic: the stylistic legacy of The Night Porter| magazine=[[Dazed]]| date=October 31, 2016| access-date=April 9, 2018}}</ref>

== Asia ==
[[File:Nazi cosplay @ Winter Comiket 85 @ Tokyo Big Sight @ Ariake.jpg|thumb|Nazi [[cosplay]] at Winter [[Comiket]] 85 in Tokyo, 2013]]

In Japan, [[World War II]] is not taught in schools as a battle of political ideologies, but as a conventional war. This type of education treats Hitler and the [[Nazi Party]] as charismatic and powerful leaders of countries during wartime, instead of war criminals as elsewhere.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} Uniforms and other imagery related to [[Nazi Germany]] are sold in [[East Asia|East]] and [[South East Asia]], where some consider it fashionable.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} Pop groups have dressed in [[SS]]-inspired uniforms.

Sometimes in East Asia, for example South Korea and Japan, Nazi uniforms are used as part of [[cosplay]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sasportas |first=Olivier |title=Le Nazi chic, la nouvelle mode qui fascine de jeunes Chinois |work=Les Inrocks |url=https://www.lesinrocks.com/actu/le-nazi-chic-la-nouvelle-mode-qui-fascine-de-jeunes-chinois-34396-28-11-2011/ |access-date=2021-06-23 |trans-title=Nazi chic, the new fashion that fascinates young Chinese |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jaworowicz-Zimny |first=Aleksandra |date=2019-01-02 |title=Nazi Cosplay in Japan |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/17526272.2018.1427015 |journal=Journal of War & Culture Studies |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=37–52 |doi=10.1080/17526272.2018.1427015 |s2cid=165475524 |issn=1752-6272}}</ref> Several Japanese products have reused Nazi themes in their artwork, such as the 2010 card game ''Barbarossa'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Barbarossa |url=https://boardgamegeek.com/boardgame/72809/barbarossa |access-date=2021-06-23 |website=BoardGameGeek |language=en-US}}</ref> described as the "softcore Nazi anime porn" with "anime Nazi girls".<ref>{{Cite web |last=tomreimann |date=2014-03-26 |title=4 Reasons This One Kickstarter Proves Humanity Is Doomed |url=https://www.cracked.com/quick-fixes/4-reasons-this-one-kickstarter-proves-humanity-doomed |access-date=2021-06-23 |website=Cracked.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> The game was successful enough to receive an English release in 2013<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anime-Based 'Barbarossa Deck Building Game' |url=https://icv2.com/articles/games/view/22684/anime-based-barbarossa-deck-building-game |access-date=2021-06-23 |website=icv2.com |language=en}}</ref> as well as a stand-alone sequel ''El Alamein''<ref>{{Cite web |title=El Alamein|url=https://boardgamegeek.com/boardgame/86167/el-alamein |access-date=2021-06-23 |website=BoardGameGeek |language=en-US}}</ref> (also released in English).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Anime-Style 'El Alamein' Deck Building Game |url=https://icv2.com/articles/news/view/32561/anime-style-el-alamein-deck-building-game |access-date=2021-06-23 |website=icv2.com |language=en}}</ref> 2019 saw the release of video game ''Mein Waifu is the Fuhrer'',<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Feder |first=Shira |date=2019-08-05 |title=Inside the Nazi Anime Video Game That's Raised Over $50,000 on Kickstarter |language=en |work=The Daily Beast |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/inside-the-nazi-anime-video-game-thats-raised-over-dollar50000-on-kickstarter |access-date=2021-06-23}}</ref> described as a "Nazi-themed anime dating simulator" and inspired by the Japanese art and the [[visual novel]]-type of game.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The worst Kickstarter projects of all time according to 2 podcasters who call out the most egregious|url=https://www.businessinsider.in/slideshows/miscellaneous/the-worst-kickstarter-projects-of-all-time-according-to-2-podcasters-who-call-out-the-most-egregious/slidelist/71674825.cms|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Business Insider}}</ref>

In South Korea, an area generally isolated from Nazi cultural influences during the Nazi era, [[Time magazine|''Time'' magazine]] observed in 2000 "an unthinking fascination with the icons and imagery of the [[Third Reich]]."<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.time.com/time/asia/magazine/2000/0605/southkorea.trouble.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010129033200/http://www.time.com/time/asia/magazine/2000/0605/southkorea.trouble.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 29, 2001|title="They Dressed Well" A troubling fascination with Third Reich regalia elevates the Nazi look to what's chic in South Korea |journal=Time Asia|date=2000-06-05 |access-date=2007-04-15|first=Donald|last=MacIntyre}}</ref>

In Indonesia, the SoldatenKaffee, a café featuring Nazi decoration and memorabilia closed in 2013 due to controversies and critiques by international media as well as death threats and hate mail to the owners. The SoldatenKaffee, however, reopened in 2014, the owner claimed that his establishment was never aimed to promote Nazi ideology explaining that Nazism was only seen from a historical perspective in Indonesia. The SoldatenKaffee closed again in 2017 due to moving elsewhere for lack of local demand.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-06-22|title=Nazi-themed café in Indonesia reopens — keeping the swastikas and|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/nazi-themed-cafe-indonesia-re-opens-keeping-swastikas-and-images-hitler-it-pledged-remove-9554643.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220618/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/nazi-themed-cafe-indonesia-re-opens-keeping-swastikas-and-images-hitler-it-pledged-remove-9554643.html |archive-date=2022-06-18 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-23|website=The Independent|language=en}}</ref>

There is an ongoing interest in [[Thailand]] in [[Nazi symbolism]], particularly among young people. The fascination with such imagery is considered to be based on a lack of understanding of the Holocaust rather than political leanings or hate crime.<ref name=MnG>{{cite news|title=Hitler imagery in Thai junta propaganda film sparks outrage|url=http://mg.co.za/article/2014-12-10-hitler-imagery-in-thai-junta-propaganda-film-sparks-outrage/|accessdate=4 June 2015|work=Mail & Guardian|date=10 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/12/10/asia-pacific/politics-diplomacy-asia-pacific/thai-junta-propaganda-film-stuns-with-hitler-scene
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112234146/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/12/10/asia-pacific/politics-diplomacy-asia-pacific/thai-junta-propaganda-film-stuns-with-hitler-scene
|title=Thai junta propaganda film stuns with Hitler scene
|archive-date=2017-01-12
|access-date=2019-10-09
|date=10 May 2013
|work=The Japan Times
}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://newsfeed.time.com/2013/07/08/kfc-is-not-amused-by-hitler-fried-chicken/|title=KFC Is Not Amused by 'Hitler' Fried Chicken|first=Melissa|last=Locker| magazine=Time | date=8 July 2013 |publisher=|via=newsfeed.time.com}}</ref><ref name="aljazeera">{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/08/20138916509337563.html|title=Thai educators grapple with Nazi imagery|first=Tom|last=Tuohy|website=www.aljazeera.com |date=15 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Ramasoota |first1=Pirongrong |title=Ignorance, hypocrisy and Chula's Hitler billboard |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/360384/ignorance-hypocrisy-and-chula-hitler-billboard |accessdate=18 July 2018 |work=Bangkok Post |date=18 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2014/12/10/hitler-appears-in-thai-propaganda-video/|title=Hitler appears in Thai propaganda video|work=Fox News World|agency=AP|date=10 December 2014}}</ref> A Nazi-themed restaurant in Bangkok was opened in 2013 called Hitler Fried Chicken.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/hitler-fried-chicken_n_3550351 | title=KFC Threatens Legal Action Against 'Hitler' Chicken Restaurant | website=[[HuffPost]] | date=5 July 2013 }}</ref>

In 2006, a restaurant named Hitler's Cross was opened in Mumbai, India. It was later renamed after protests by the [[History of the Jews in India|Indian Jewish community]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Mumbai's 'Hitler's Cross' Restaurant to Change Name After Uproar |url=https://www.haaretz.com/2006-08-24/ty-article/mumbais-hitlers-cross-restaurant-to-change-name-after-uproar/0000017f-db48-df9c-a17f-ff58f0200000 |date=August 24, 2008 |agency=Associated Press |access-date=12 February 2022 |work=Haaretz |language=en}}</ref> 'Nazi Collection' Bedspread was launched, by a [[Mumbai]]-based home furnishing company in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |title='Nazi Collection' Bedspread Outrages Indian Jews |url=https://www.haaretz.com/1.4980469 |access-date=12 February 2022 |work=Haaretz |language=en}}</ref> In 2007, in Gujarat a men's clothing store named Hitler was in the news. After the outrage owners claimed they did not know Adolf Hitler.<ref name="Clothing Store">{{cite news |title='Hitler' Clothing Store in India Asked by Jewish Community to Change Name |url=https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/jews-ask-indian-hitler-store-to-change-name-1.5292021 |access-date=12 February 2022 |work=Haaretz |language=en}}</ref> In 2011, a pool parlour named Hitler's Den was opened in [[Nagpur]]. It included the Nazi [[Swastika]] and insignia. The [[India–Israel relations|Israeli embassy in India]] expressed displeasure with the naming. [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]], an international Jewish human rights organisation called for the parlour to be renamed but the owners of the establishment refused to rename it.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jewish rights body demand renaming of 'Hitler's Den' in Nagpur |url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/jewish-rights-body-demand-renaming-of-hitlers-den-in-nagpur-451191 |access-date=10 February 2022 |work=NDTV.com}}</ref>

A clothing store in [[Karachi]], Pakistan called "Hitler Reloaded" is named after Hitler.<ref>{{Cite web |work=theoutline.com |first=Meher |last=Ahmad |url=https://theoutline.com/post/2390/where-hitler-doesnt-mean-anything |date=October 12, 2017 |access-date=July 17, 2023 |title=Where 'Hitler' doesn't mean anything }}</ref>

A clothing store in [[Gaza City|Gaza]] is named after Hitler.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/name-of-shop-is-hitler-and-i-like-him-because-he-was-the-most-anti-jewish-person-432190 | title='Name of shop is Hitler and I like him because he was the most anti Jewish person' | date=5 November 2015 }}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Communist chic]]
**[[Che Guevara in fashion]]
*[[Jihad Cool]]
*[[List of chics]]
*[[Nazi exploitation]]
**[[:Category:Nazi exploitation films]]
**[[Stalag fiction]], Israeli pornography
** [[Nazi zombies]]
**[[Holocaust pornography]]
**[[World War II in popular culture]]
**[[Waffen-SS in popular culture]]
**[[Nazi imagery in Thailand]]
**[[Nazi propaganda]]
**[[Nazi symbolism]]
**[[Nazi memorabilia]]
**[[Murderabilia]]
**[[Bans on Nazi symbols]]
*[[Thor Steinar]]
*[[Toothbrush moustache]]
*[[Uniform fetishism#Military, police, and Nazi chic|Uniform fetishism]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Fashion aesthetics]]
[[Category:Neo-Nazi concepts]]
[[Category:Clothing controversies]]
[[Category:German fashion]]
[[Category:Fetish clothing]]

Entryism

2023-01-24T13:37:32Z

Zumbo: Delete section Definitions, see talk page.

{{short description|Strategy of joining an organisation to influence it}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=January 2008}}
{{Original research|date=May 2008}}
}}
'''Entryism''' (also called '''entrism''', '''enterism''', or '''infiltration''') is a political strategy in which an organisation or state encourages its members or supporters to join another, usually larger, organization in an attempt to expand influence and expand their ideas and program. If the organization being "entered" is hostile to entrism, the entrists may engage in a degree of subterfuge and [[subversion]] to hide the fact that they are an organization in their own right.

==Socialist entryism==
===Trotsky's "French Turn"===
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2020}}
The "[[French Turn]]" refers to the classic form of entrism advocated by [[Leon Trotsky]] in his essays on "The French Turn". In June 1934, he proposed for the French [[Trotskyism|Trotskyists]] to dissolve their Communist League and to join the [[French Section of the Workers' International]] (SFIO) and for the Communist League to dissolve its youth section to join more easily with revolutionary elements. The tactic was adopted in August 1934, despite some opposition, and successfully raised the group's membership to 300 activists.

Proponents of the tactic advocated that the Trotskyists should enter the [[social democracy|social democratic]] parties to connect with [[Revolutionary socialism|revolutionary socialist]] currents within them and then to steer those currents toward [[Leninism]]. However, entryism lasted briefly since the leadership of the SFIO started to expel the Trotskyists. The Trotskyists of the [[Workers Party of the United States]] also successfully used their entry into the [[Socialist Party of America]] to recruit their youth group and other members. Similar tactics were also used by Trotskyist organisations in other countries, including the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Switzerland]], and [[Poland]]. Entryism was used to connect with and recruit leftward-moving political currents inside radical parties.

Since it was used in [[France]], [[Marxism|Marxists]] have used the tactic even if they had different preconceptions of how long the period of entry would last:
*A "split perspective" is sometimes employed in which the smaller party intends to remain in the larger party for a short period of time, with the intention of splitting the organisation and leaving with more members than it began with.
*The entrist tactic can work successfully, in its own terms, over a long period. For example, it was attempted by the [[Militant tendency]] in the [[United Kingdom]], whose members worked within the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] from the 1950s onward and managed to get control in the [[Labour Party Young Socialists]] and [[Liverpool City Council]] before it was expelled in the 1980s. Many other Trotskyist groups have attempted similar feats, but few have gained the influence that the Militant tendency attained.

===Entryism ''sui generis''{{anchor|Deep entrism|Deep entryism|Entrism sui generis|Entryism sui generis}}===
After the end of World War 2, Michel Pablo - then in the Leadership of the Fourth International - proposed a tactic of long-term entry into the "mass-parties of the working class", primarily because the meagre prospects of building independent parties in the post-war circumstances. This would primarily prevent the tiny propaganda-circles of the Trotskyist movement becoming sectarian circles, isolated from the working class.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Michel Pablo: Where Are We Going? (January 1951) |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/pablo/1951/01/where.html |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref>

The organizations were understood to retain their political identity and their own press.

The ''[[sui generis]]'' ("of a special type") variant did contain the difference that, where their own political identity could not maintained, the group would maintain an independent presence, which would primarily aid the task of entry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alexander |first=Robert J. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/21594038 |title=International Trotskyism, 1929-1985 : a documented analysis of the movement |date=1991 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=0-8223-0975-0 |location=Durham |pages=316-321 |oclc=21594038}}</ref>

In Europe, that was the approach used, for example, by [[The Club (Trotskyist)|The Club]] and later [[Socialist Action (UK)|Socialist Action]] in the Labour Party,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/Jeremy_Corbyn/11893986/Jeremy-Corbyns-top-team-encouraged-street-riots.html|title=Jeremy Corbyn's top team encouraged street riots|last=Gilligan|first=Andrew|author-link=Andrew Gilligan|date=26 September 2015|website=[[telegraph.co.uk]]|access-date=2 April 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180404121300/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/Jeremy_Corbyn/11893986/Jeremy-Corbyns-top-team-encouraged-street-riots.html|archive-date=4 April 2018}}</ref> and by Fourth Internationalists inside the Communist Parties. In [[France]], Trotskyist organizations, most notably the ''[[Workers' Party (France)|Parti des Travailleurs]]'' and its predecessors, have successfully entered [[trade union]]s and mainstream [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] parties.

===Open entryism===
{{See also|Platform (European politics)}}
Some political parties, such as the [[Workers' Party (Brazil)|Workers' Party]] in [[Brazil]] or the [[Scottish Socialist Party]], allow political tendencies to organise within them openly. In those cases, the term "entryism" is not usually used. Political groups that work within a larger organisation but also maintain a "public face" often reject the term "entryism" but are sometimes still considered to be entryists by the larger organization.

==Examples by country==
===Australia===
In [[Australia]], the practice was widespread during the 1950s, when the [[Communist Party of Australia]] battled against right-wing [[Industrial Groups]] for control of Australian [[trade union]]s. The 'Groupers' subsequently formed the [[Democratic Labour Party (Australia)|Democratic Labor Party]]. Today, the practice in Australia is often known as a type of [[branch stacking]].

In 1985, the [[Nuclear Disarmament Party]] was split after accusations that it had been infiltrated by the [[Democratic Socialist Perspective|Socialist Workers Party]] (SWP), a [[Trotskyism|Trotskyist]] group.<ref>Nic MacLellan, 'The Election and Defection of the NDP', ''Peace Studies'', July 1985, pp 18-19</ref><ref>Ken Mansell, 'Making Sense of the NDP Split', ''Peace Studies'', July 1985, pp 19-20</ref><ref>Greg Adamson, '[http://www.greenleft.org.au/1999/361/18803 The rise and undermining of anti-nuclear political action] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817112817/http://www.greenleft.org.au/1999/361/18803|date=17 August 2009}}', [[Green Left (Australian newspaper)|Green Left Weekly]] issue 361, 19 May 1999.</ref>

In recent times, [[RSPCA Australia]] has been described as being the victims of the practice.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2004/s1137257.htm|title=A Blind Eye", ABC Four Corners|website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=21 June 2004|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810215129/http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2004/s1137257.htm|archive-date=10 August 2011}}</ref> The [[National Farmers' Federation]] and [[Animals Australia]] have each been accused of infiltrating branches of RSPCA Australia in an attempt to promote opposing policies concerning [[Battery cage|battery hens]], [[intensive pig farming]], and the [[live export]] of sheep.

Since the 2000s, the [[Christian right|religious right]] has practiced entryism into a number of state branches of the [[Liberal Party of Australia]], notably in New South Wales, Western Australia, Queensland and Victoria.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/whos-behind-the-safe-school-videos-the-concerned-mums-political-connections-20170811-gxukuu.html|title=Who's behind the Safe School videos? The concerned mums' political connections|journal=The Age|date=12 Aug 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815171054/http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/whos-behind-the-safe-school-videos-the-concerned-mums-political-connections-20170811-gxukuu.html|archive-date=2017-08-15}}</ref> During the 2022 Victorian State Election one upper house candidate, Renee Heath, was accused of being a part of an entryist plot begun by the Pentecostal church begun by her father, by [[Catherine Burnett-Wake]], who Heath had defeated for pre-selection. Heath would later have her position in the Liberal party ended by [[Matthew Guy]], although the move came too late for her to be disendorsed from her near certain victory as the first ranked candidate in her upper house zone.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/liberal-leader-matthew-guy-ignored-warnings-about-renee-heath-s-religious-views-20221119-p5bzme.html | title=Liberal leader Matthew Guy ignored warnings about Renee Heath's religious views | date=19 November 2022 }}</ref>

In 2018, it was revealed that the [[National Party of Australia – NSW|NSW National party]] and its youth wing, the [[Young Nationals (Australia)|Young Nationals]] had been infiltrated by the [[Far-right politics|far right]] with more than 30 members being investigated for alleged links. Leader McCormack denounced the infiltration, and several suspected far rightists were expelled from the party and its youth wing.<ref>An abridged list of articles discussing Far right infiltration:
*{{cite web|title='These guys are crazy': Barnaby Joyce backs 'Nazi' expulsions after backtrack|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/nov/02/barnaby-joyce-sceptical-of-neo-nazi-infiltration-of-nsw-nationals|work=The Guardian|date=2 November 2018 |access-date=4 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104015515/https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/nov/02/barnaby-joyce-sceptical-of-neo-nazi-infiltration-of-nsw-nationals|archive-date=4 November 2018|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|title=Nationals clear man accused of leading alleged neo-Nazi branch stacking|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/oct/31/nationals-clear-man-accused-of-leading-alleged-neo-nazi-branch-stacking|work=The Guardian|date=31 October 2018 |access-date=4 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103013659/https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/oct/31/nationals-clear-man-accused-of-leading-alleged-neo-nazi-branch-stacking|archive-date=3 November 2018|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|last1=Hutchins|first1=Gareth|title=Far right extremists 'not welcome' in Nationals, leader says amid investigation|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/oct/29/far-right-extremists-not-welcome-in-nationals-leader-says-amid-investigation|work=The Guardian|date=29 October 2018 |access-date=4 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105033032/https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/oct/29/far-right-extremists-not-welcome-in-nationals-leader-says-amid-investigation|archive-date=5 November 2018|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|last1=Michael|first1=McGowen|title=NSW Young Nationals expel and suspend members over far-right links|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/oct/15/nsw-young-nationals-expel-and-suspend-members-over-far-right-links|work=The Guardian|date=15 October 2018 |access-date=4 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103011728/https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/oct/15/nsw-young-nationals-expel-and-suspend-members-over-far-right-links|archive-date=3 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Canada===
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
Although the term "entryism" was used little, if at all, opponents accused [[David Orchard]] and his supporters of attempting to win the leadership of the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative Party]] in the late 1990s and the early 2000s decade with the intention of dramatically changing its policies.

Orchard had made his name as a leading opponent of [[free trade]], which was perhaps the singular signature policy of the Progressive Conservative government of [[Brian Mulroney]] in the late 1980s and the early 1990s. While opponents pointed to the remarkable distance, Orchard and his supporters argued that they represented "traditional" Conservative values and the [[economic nationalism]] of the older [[Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942)|Conservative Party]] and the Progressive Conservative Party had espoused before Mulroney, namely under [[John Diefenbaker]].

Opponents of the 2003 merger between the Progressive Conservative Party and the [[Canadian Alliance]] also charged Alliance members with infiltration. It was widely speculated that most, if not all, of the approximately 25,000 Canadians who swelled the Progressive Conservative Party Party's membership before the merger vote were Alliance members, who likely voted in favour of the merger.

[[Liberals for Life]], an [[anti-abortion]] group allied with the [[Campaign Life Coalition]], was accused of infiltrating the [[Liberal Party of Canada]] in the late 1980s and the early 1990s.

Members of [[Socialist Action (Canada)|Socialist Action]], a small Trotskyist group, play a leading role in the [[New Democratic Party]] [[New Democratic Party Socialist Caucus|Socialist Caucus]], a small faction on the left wing of the [[social democracy|social democratic]] NDP, and advocate that their members join and engage with the NDP. That, however, does not fit with most definitions of entryism because of its continued existence apart and separate from the NDP, in addition to its work in it. Fightback, a rival Trotskyist organization, carries out a more classical form of entryism in the NDP, particularly in its youth wings, and models itself after the British [[Militant tendency]], which practiced entryism into the Labour Party and, at its peak, was the one of the most successful entryist organizations on record.

After the fall of the [[British Columbia Social Credit Party]], the [[British Columbia Liberal Party]] saw the shift by the joining of former Social Credit members. As a result, the new membership saw the party shift much more towards the [[Right-wing politics|right]] in [[fiscal policy]]. Thus, entryism led to a complete takeover of the original party by former Social Credit members. That, however, is not formal entryism since former Social Credit members did not operate their own organization within the Liberal Party.

===China===
{{See also|United Front (China)}}
During the [[Northern Expedition]] in China, the [[Chinese Communist Party]] joined the party of the [[Kuomintang|Nationalist Party of China (Kuomintang)]] for a time (1923–1927), creating the [[First United Front]], but one of the Communists' ideas behind doing so was the possibility of eventually gaining a majority in the Nationalist Party and shaping its policies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Leung|first=Edwin Pak-wah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=drHgAyJuO_IC|title=Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Civil War|date=2002-10-16|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6609-6|pages=88|language=en}}</ref> Eventually, the situation degraded, the Nationalists [[Shanghai massacre|expelled the Communists from their party]], and the [[Chinese Civil War]] began. The war was paused for a time (1936–1945) to allow for a [[Second United Front]] during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Chinese resistance to Japanese imperial rule]]. However, the civil war resumed again and remained active until 1950, after the Communists had won.

===Germany===
Similarly to this party, the GDR branch of the [[Communist Party of Germany/Marxists–Leninists]] was infiltrated by the [[Stasi]]. In some of the cells there were more [[Unofficial collaborator|IM]]s than real members.<ref>[http://www.demokratie-statt-diktatur.de/DSD/DE/Parteiengruendung/Dokumente/parteiengruendung_kpd-ml/parteiengruendung_kpd-ml_tabelle.html?nn=4755762 | ''Sachstandsbericht der MfS-Hauptabteilung XXII über die Situation im Frühjahr/Sommer 1980''] demokratie-statt-diktatur.deof the [[Stasi-Unterlagen-Behörde]]. Access on 12 April 2014.</ref>

===Netherlands===
The [[Marxist–Leninist Party of the Netherlands]] was a fake pro-[[China]] communist party in the [[Netherlands]] set up by the Dutch secret services, the [[General Intelligence and Security Service|BVD]], to develop contacts with the Chinese government for espionage purposes. It existed from 1968 to the early 1990s{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}}.

===New Zealand===
The country's four small communist parties, the [[Communist Party of New Zealand]] (CPNZ), [[Socialist Unity Party of New Zealand|Socialist Unity Party]] (SUP), Workers Communist League (WCL), and the [[Communist League|Socialist Action League]] (SAL), have tried to influence the [[New Zealand Labour Party|Labour Party]], the trade unions, and various popular issues, like the [[1981 South Africa rugby union tour of New Zealand and the United States|anti-Springbok tour protests]], [[Māori protest movement|Māori biculturalism]], and the [[New Zealand nuclear-free zone|anti-nuclear movement]]. During the [[ANZUS]] diplomatic crisis 1984 to 1985, which resulted from [[New Zealand]]'s nuclear ship ban, the pro-[[Moscow]] SUP tried to infiltrate anti-nuclear organisations, as part of a strategy of steering New Zealand's foreign policy away from its traditional ally, the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gustafson|first=Barry|editor1-first=Alexander|editor1-last=Trapeznik|editor2-first=Aaron|editor2-last=Fox|title=Lenin's Legacy Down Under|publisher=Otago University Press|year=2004|pages=29–30|chapter=Chapter 2: New Zealand in the Cold War World|isbn=1-877276-90-1}}</ref>

New Zealand's [[Christian politics in New Zealand|Christian Right]] also attempted to obtain electoral influence. During the [[1987 New Zealand general election|1987 general election]], several conservative Christian groups, including the [[Voice for Life|Society for the Protection of Unborn Children]] (SPUC), Women for Life and the [[Coalition of Concerned Citizens]], tried to infiltrate the [[New Zealand National Party|National Party]] by running conservative Christian individuals as candidates. The groups also attacked the Labour government's policies towards [[peace education]], [[sex education]], [[abortion]], Māori biculturalism, and the ANZUS alliance. Several CCC supporters contested the 1987 election as National candidates, including Rob Wheeler ([[Mount Albert (New Zealand electorate)|Mount Albert]]), Andrew Stanley ([[Onehunga (New Zealand electorate)|Onehunga]]), and Howard Martin ([[Papatoetoe (New Zealand electorate)|Papatoetoe]]). However, the efforts met little electoral success, and the Lange government was re-elected for a second term.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jesson|first1=Bruce|author-link1=Bruce Jesson|first2=Allanah|last2=Ryan|first3=Paul|last3=Spoonley|author-link3=Paul Spoonley|title=Revival of the Right: New Zealand Politics in the 1980s|edition=1st|publisher=Heinemann Reed|year=1988|pages=82–84|chapter=Chapter 4: Remoralising Politics|isbn=0-7900-0003-2}}</ref>

During the 1990s, another conservative tendency emerged within the National Party by the establishment of the informal Christian Voice in 1998. However, the group had faded by the mid-2000s, when several minor Christian political parties including former National MP [[Graeme Lee (politician)|Graeme Lee]]'s [[Christian Democrat Party (New Zealand)|Christian Democrat Party]], [[Peter Dunne]]'s [[United Future]], and [[Brian Tamaki]]'s [[Destiny New Zealand]] emerged to court the evangelical Christian vote.<ref>{{cite book|last=James|first=Colin|editor-first=Raymond|editor-last=Miller|title=New Zealand Government & Politics, Fifth Edition|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2010|pages=491|chapter=Chapter 7.3: National|isbn=9780195585094}}</ref> As a result of the attempts at taking over the party, National quietly centralised its candidate selection procedures.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/national-party/4|title=Party Principles - National Party|last1=James|first1=Colin|date=21 May 2012|encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand|access-date=5 January 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117072744/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/national-party/4|archive-date=17 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/national-party/5|title=Party composition and organisation - National Party |last1=James|first1=Colin|date=21 May 2012|encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand|access-date=5 January 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117072749/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/national-party/5|archive-date=17 November 2012}}</ref>

Despite the tensions with moral conservatives, National Party leader [[Don Brash]] still accepted covert assistance from the [[Exclusive Brethren#New Zealand|Exclusive Brethren]] during the [[2005 New Zealand general election|2005 general election]]s. The assistance included organizing a separate electoral canvassing and advertising campaign that attacked the incumbent Labour and [[Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand|Green]] [[Fifth Labour Government of New Zealand|coalition government]]. The strategy backfired and contributed to [[Prime Minister of New Zealand|Prime Minister]] [[Helen Clark]]'s second re-election.<ref>{{cite AV media|people=A. Barry, [[Nicky Hager]]|year=2008|title=The Hollow Men|url=http://www.nzonscreen.com/title/the-hollow-men-2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415232410/http://www.nzonscreen.com/title/the-hollow-men-2008|archive-date=2015-04-15|format=4 3/4 inch|publisher=Community Media Trust|location=Wellington|url-status=live}}</ref> The controversy arising from the Exclusive Brethren's canvassing on behalf of National, Brash's successor, Prime Minister [[John Key]], explicitly rejected any assistance from the Exclusive Brethren during the [[2008 New Zealand general election|2008 election]].<ref>Colin James, "National," p.491</ref>

===Portugal===
After the downfall of the centrist to centre-left [[Democratic Renewal Party (Portugal)|Democratic Renewal Party]] in 1990s it was taken over by far-right elements which transformed the party into the [[National Renovator Party]] soon after.

===United Kingdom===
{{see also|Militant in Liverpool}}

A long-lasting entry tactic was used by the [[Trotskyism|Trotskyist]] group [[Militant tendency]], whose initially small numbers of supporters worked within the mainstream [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] from the 1960s. By the early 1980s they still numbered only in the low thousands but had managed to gain a controlling influence of the [[Labour Party Young Socialists]] and [[Liverpool City Council]], however shortly thereafter Militant activists began to be expelled after an internal Labour ruling that their organisation breached the party's constitution. A remnant of the group now operates within the Labour Party as [[Socialist Appeal (UK, 1992)|Socialist Appeal]] but the majority then left to form the [[Socialist Party (England and Wales)]].

''[[The Guardian]]'' columnist [[George Monbiot]] claims that a group, influenced by the defunct [[Marxism|Marxist]] ''[[Living Marxism]]'' magazine, has pursued entryist tactics in British scientific and media organisations since the late 1990s.<ref>[[The Guardian]] comment, December 9, 2003. "Invasion of the entryists" by George Monbiot. Online at [https://www.theguardian.com/comment/story/0,3604,1102753,00.html] and {{cite web |title=Invasion of the Entryists |url=http://www.monbiot.com/archives/2003/12/09/invasion-of-the-entryists/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071118054527/http://www.monbiot.com/archives/2003/12/09/invasion-of-the-entryists/ |archive-date=2007-11-18 |access-date=2007-10-25}}, retrieved on October 25, 2007.</ref>

The [[2015 Labour Party leadership election (UK)|2015 Labour Party leadership election]] was the target of a campaign by ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' for Conservative sympathisers to join the Labour party (at a fee of £3) in order to vote for the [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] candidate [[Jeremy Corbyn]], with the view that he would render the party unelectable.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/labour/11741861/How-you-can-help-Jeremy-Corbyn-win-and-destroy-the-Labour-Party.html|title=How you can help Jeremy Corbyn win - and destroy the Labour Party|first=Telegraph Comment|last=Desk|date=15 July 2015|access-date=4 May 2018|via=www.telegraph.co.uk|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116171526/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/labour/11741861/How-you-can-help-Jeremy-Corbyn-win-and-destroy-the-Labour-Party.html|archive-date=16 November 2017}}</ref> That strategy was labelled 'entryism' by observers,{{which|date=June 2020}} though it is unclear that it qualifies under the commonly-understood definition, unlike the broader term 'subversion'.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/jul/15/daily-telegraph-labour-party-jeremy-corbyn|title=Daily Telegraph urges readers to 'doom' Labour by backing Jeremy Corbyn|first=Jamie|last=Grierson|date=15 July 2015|website=The Guardian|access-date=4 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504144401/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/jul/15/daily-telegraph-labour-party-jeremy-corbyn|archive-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> Likewise, the left-wing [[Momentum (organisation)|Momentum group]] has been accused of entryism and engaging in the Militant-style tactics, with movements made by prominent Labour MPs (current and suspended) to deselect MPs who did not support Corbyn.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/mar/18/secret-tape-reveals-momentum-plot-to-link-with-unite-seize-control-of-labour|title=Secret tape reveals Momentum plot to seize control of Labour|last1=Helm|first1=Toby|date=2017-03-18|work=The Observer|access-date=2019-07-17|last2=Hacillo|first2=Alex|language=en-GB|issn=0029-7712|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705094834/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/mar/18/secret-tape-reveals-momentum-plot-to-link-with-unite-seize-control-of-labour|archive-date=2019-07-05|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-45258341|title=Row over Labour MP's 'democracy roadshow'|date=2018-08-21|access-date=2019-07-17|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717122002/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-45258341|archive-date=2019-07-17|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the wake of the [[Brexit]] vote in 2016, some supporters of Leave feared that the government would negotiate a deal that would keep far too many ties between with the [[European Union]] and so members of the [[UK Independence Party|United Kingdom Independence Party]] (UKIP), which had struggled politically since Brexit, joined the [[Conservative Party (United Kingdom)|Conservative Party]], along with previously independent Leave supporters. The movement was especially pronounced in the constituencies of Conservative MPs who had supported Remain.<ref name="Guardian UKIP–Tory story">{{cite news|last=Jones|first=Owen|title=Tories courted the Ukippers: now they'll be consumed by them|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/aug/30/tories-ukip-britain-entryism|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=August 30, 2018|access-date=July 25, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725202234/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/aug/30/tories-ukip-britain-entryism|archive-date=July 25, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The group [[Leave.EU]] ran campaigns that urged its supporters to join the Conservatives to deselect MPs who did not support a [[Glossary of Brexit terms#Hard and soft Brexit|hard Brexit]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leave.eu/deselect-your-remainer-tory-mp/|title=Deselect your Remainer Conservative MP|date=2019-01-22|website=Leave.EU|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-07-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717121629/https://leave.eu/deselect-your-remainer-tory-mp/|archive-date=2019-07-17|url-status=live}}</ref> Those who joined the party during that period were credited with helping [[Boris Johnson]] win the leadership election (and thus become Prime Minister) after Prime Minister [[Theresa May]]'s resignation.<ref name="NYT UKIP-Tory article">{{cite news|last=Mueller|first=Benjamin|title=New Members Flood U.K.'s Conservatives, Yanking the Party Right|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/19/world/europe/brexit-conservative-party.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=July 19, 2019|access-date=July 25, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725010721/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/19/world/europe/brexit-conservative-party.html|archive-date=July 25, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

===United States===
{{see also|Crossover voting}}
Supporters of [[Fred Newman (philosopher)|Fred Newman]] and the [[New Alliance Party]] joined the Reform Party ''en masse'' and gained some level of control over the New York State affiliate of the Reform Party.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}}{{date missing}} Another United States politician, [[Lyndon LaRouche]], has attempted an entryist strategy in the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] since 1980, but with little success.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1986-06-17/local/me-11647_1_labor-party |title=Despite the Smell of Death, Tories Will Likely Hang on |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=17 June 1986 |access-date=2018-03-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017160554/http://articles.latimes.com/1986-06-17/local/me-11647_1_labor-party |archive-date=2015-10-17 }} {{cite news|title=Despite the Smell of Death, Tories Will Likely Hang On|first=WILLIAM|last=PFAFF|work=Los Angeles Times|location=Los Angeles, Calif.|date=June 17, 1986|page=5}}</ref> Many [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarians]] or libertarian-leaning politicians have run for office as [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]], and several (such as [[Ron Paul]], his son [[Rand Paul]], [[Mark Sanford]], [[Justin Amash]], [[Thomas Massie]], and [[Gary Johnson]]) have been successful, although some of them have subsequently left the Republican Party.

==Laws against entryism==
Some jurisdictions have passed laws to discourage entryism. In [[Elections in New York (state)|New York State elections]], changes in party affiliation by voters already registered are not formally processed until a week after that year's [[general election]] to prevent entryism in a [[primary election]] since they are open only to voters who are already enrolled in the party holding the primary.<ref name="NYS Elections Law § 5-304">{{cite web|title=New York Consolidated Laws, Election Law - ELN § 5-304.3 Enrollment; change of enrollment or new enrollment by previously registered voters|url=https://codes.findlaw.com/ny/election-law/eln-sect-5-304.html|publisher=State of New York|website=[[FindLaw|findlaw.com]]|date=December 1, 1985|access-date=August 7, 2019|quote=A change of enrollment received by the board of elections not later than the twenty-fifth day before the general election shall be deposited in a sealed enrollment box, which shall not be opened until the first Tuesday following such general election. Such change of enrollment shall be then removed and entered as provided in this article.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807230742/https://codes.findlaw.com/ny/election-law/eln-sect-5-304.html|archive-date=August 7, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The state's [[Wilson Pakula]] law, passed after [[American Labor Party]] candidates were entering and winning Democratic and Republican Party primaries in the late 1940s, also requires candidates who are not members of a particular political party to get formal permission from the relevant jurisdiction's party committees before they run in a primary election.<ref name="Wilson Pakula">{{cite web|title=New York Consolidated Laws, Election Law - ELN § 6-120. Designation and nomination; restrictions|url=https://codes.findlaw.com/ny/election-law/eln-sect-6-120.html|publisher=State of New York|website=[[findlaw.com]]|access-date=August 7, 2019|quote=The members of the party committee representing the political subdivision of the office for which a designation or nomination is to be made, unless the rules of the party provide for another committee, in which case the members of such other committee, and except as hereinafter in this subdivision provided with respect to certain offices in the city of New York, may, by a majority vote of those present at such meeting provided a quorum is present, authorize the designation or nomination of a person as candidate for any office who is not enrolled as a member of such party as provided in this section.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807230809/https://codes.findlaw.com/ny/election-law/eln-sect-6-120.html|archive-date=August 7, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Politics}}
*[[Fifth Column]]
*[[Salami tactics]]
*[[Long march through the institutions]]
*[[Communist front]]
*[[Turkish Communist Party (official)]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.marxist.net/openturn/historic/index.html "Problems of Entrism"] by [[Ted Grant]] with an introduction by [[Peter Taaffe]] and various writings by [[Leon Trotsky]] as published in a [[Militant tendency]] booklet.

[[Category:Deep politics]]
[[Category:Political terminology]]
[[Category:Trotskyism]]

Talk:Entryism

2023-01-24T13:36:43Z

Zumbo: /* Definition is useless */

{{WikiProject Politics |class=C |importance=Mid}}
{{WikiProject Socialism|class=c|importance=low}}

==Principles==
This concept of 'fast' and 'slow' entrism is mistaken. It's better to call them 'entrism of a sepcial type' [sui generis] and 'Entrism'.--[[User:DuncanBCS|DuncanBCS]] 09:43, 31 October 2005 (UTC)
----

I am surprised that the mergefrom tag has been cut from this page without discussion. I have restored it. Please use the talk page. --[[User:DuncanBCS|Duncan]] 21:27, 7 February 2006 (UTC)
----
This page could really use some references. --[[User:208.54.14.25|208.54.14.25]] 10:51, 24 July 2006 (UTC)randomme

Exactly, this site lack references and are quite biased, as it stands now I think it doesn't really portray entrism right. Furthermore it seems quite biased and only superficially touch upon Militant from what is obviously the authors point of view. As it stands now it can't be used as an accurate description. Also I think their lack more points on those parties open for groupings like for example Rifondazione Communista in Italy, the left party in Germany and their youth grouping Solid. Which in my oppinion shows how parties can function properly with organised groupings, but that's of course a political discussion that should be taken somewere else than Wikipedia. [[User:80.197.1.72|80.197.1.72]] 00:41, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

Another point. How can it be described as entrism when members of a political organisation participates in a peace movement? It seems the author has a somewhat strange notion as to what can be described entrism. [[User:80.197.1.72|80.197.1.72]] 00:44, 12 April 2007 (UTC)
:If entrism is used as a term to describe similar tactics within campaigns, then we need to reflect that. Entrism as Trotskyist tactic is rather different from the building of broad pluralist parties. In the case of most entrism, socialists are working to win over left-ward moving forces and split them away from the party's program. In the pluralist parties, not all currents are entrists: some are loyal. --[[User:DuncanBCS|Duncan]] 16:54, 13 April 2007 (UTC)

Duncan I have one small comment with your post, the use of the word loyal. This word is probably the most misused in political work. I agree that all groups working in a broad pluralist party should follow the programme of said party.
However the accusation of disloyalty will and have been used against people with politics that go maybe a bit beyound a programme. It's normally a accusation used by a beurocracy or people with those tendencies, generally because they see the organisation as a goal rather than the means to reach a goal - socialism. [[User:80.197.1.72|80.197.1.72]] 20:14, 21 April 2007 (UTC)

== Bias and factual inaccuracy ==

The article is biased from its very inception. The more serious and pertinent offence of [[infiltration]], of which those joining organisations are, from time to time, rightly or wrongly, accused, is dealt with only by a link to this article. It is arguably not the same thing, implying stronger connotations of secrecy and conspiracy. It is therefore rather like having an article on 'failing to return borrowed items' while lacking an article on [[theft]].
The statement 'Entryism is not an exclusively left-wing phenomenon,' in seeking to appear to introduce [[NPOV|balance]], does the precise opposite, implying, as it does, that entryism is ''largely'' a left-wing phenomenon (see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Militant_tendency#The_.27Kinnock_Principle.27]).
The article further states that 'In situations where the organisation being "entered" is hostile to entryism, the entryists may engage in a degree of subterfuge to hide the fact that they are, in fact, an organisation in their own right. In the case of the Militant tendency, this was done by claiming that the tendency was in fact simply a newspaper...'. In fact, the 'Militants' first sought to point out that it is perfectly normal to have organisations, or political factions, within the Labour Party, therefore that couldn't really be the leadership's genuine concern. The true bone of contention between Militant Tendency and the Labour Party leadership, as the above link testifies, turned out to be the issue of whether local Party activists earn the right, by virtue of their attendance etc., to override local Party democracy - an important, key issue of organisational conduct of which the world still remains largely oblivious. With the advent of the Internet and Wikipedia, hopefully this will now be rectified.

: The one instance given, 'Entryism is not an exclusively left-wing phenomenon,' does not warrant the tag that was attached to this article, in my opinion. It is arguable that this statement implies that it is ''largely'' a left wing phenomenon - although it passed me by - and it could be adjusted to take that implication into account. Right wing infiltration is certainly very real, as it was in the Labour Party.
:In relation to the Militant in the UK, in the Labour Party, don't forget that 'party democracy' at every level was defined in terms of the open votes of those attending the meetings, as there was no concept, before Kinnock, of the inactive layer having voting rights which they were being denied. Kinnock redefined those terms, but until then, it was considered very important and necessary that before people could vote on something, they should have access and participate in an informed discussion about it. This was sometimes considered to be the very kernel of the new socialist society - where every relevant decision could be openly discussed - to end the alienation of people having no more say than just an occasional tick on a ballot paper.
:So in terms of factual accuracy, the reason the world appear oblivious to the point you make is because it is not entirely factually, historically accurate.
:The Militant, you may know, argued that the biggest, most active parties were those of the left, while the smallest, most inactive parties were those of the right, for instance those in Liverpool under the Braddocks (see Michael Crick, who backs up the Militant on this, which actually is now widely accepted.)
:The introduction of the idea of postal votes to the homes of inactive members of trade unions was initially introduced by Thatcher, and the argument of the activists was that Thatcher was relying on the media to argue her point of view and bias the votes.
:As you know, socialists felt strongly that they were a very small voice and that unless they got their members to meetings, the membership had very little access to what they saw as the real facts, rather than what they considered the misinformation of the government and media.
:[[User:Andysoh|Andysoh]] 20:57, 17 June 2007 (UTC)

::You seem, perhaps deliberately, to misread what is set out above. The comment about entryism being 'not an exclusively left-wing phenomenon' is clearly ''not'' the only example given, when you read the whole paragraph - it is also pointed out that Militant's argument that it was 'just a newspaper,' the one detailed in the article, was much weaker than its claim to plausibly represent active local Party members. Militant clearly tried every argument possible to counter an irrational-sounding and poorly justified witch hunt, some clearly stronger than others. Your point about Militant merely restates what was said, rather than disproving it in the way you seek to imply.
::: Its possible that the phrase about the Militant could be improved to take acount of your points, but I think your tag is way over the top. [[User:Andysoh|Andysoh]] 00:05, 18 June 2007 (UTC)
::::It isn't just about Militant. The whole tenor of the article depicts a nefarious activity confined to largely frustrated sections of the left - this is the vocabulary of the witch hunt. The idea that entryism might be a tried and tested, successful strategy of those currently in power (see below) seems yet another bridge too far for the dreary denizens of Wikipedia.

== True meaning of entryism? ==

If 'entryism' is to have a meaning of its own, distinct from '[[infiltration]],' it is surely that of seeking ''entry'' into the corriders of power, influence and wealth in an unprincipled manner. This could involve '[[infiltration]],' but [[infiltration]] is surely not always [[entryism|entryist]] in this sense, nor indeed necessarily as unprincipled/unwelcome.

== Section on the special case of Entrism in the UK Labour Party ==

The previous discussion has reminded me to get on with the material I was working up for a section on the special case of '''Entrism in the UK Labour Party'''.

However, it got rather long, and I wondered if it is the sort of thing that would make an article on its own.

I would be greatful if the editors here would let me have their thoughts.

It can be viewed on my user page, and is still in need of some copy editing, particularly the last section, which is still being revised. [[User:Andysoh|Andysoh]] 07:12, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

:Sorry to rain on your parade, but to me the whole concept of 'entryism in the Labour Party' sounds unwholesome and self-righteous to me. I came to this article about a completely different issue - the fear of infiltration of an apolitical campaign by those hostile to it. When you start discussing political organisations, we all know where it's going - the persecution of the left, and the refusal to admit the obvious fact that many right wingers oppose and undermine their party's policies, almost always with impunity. Surely that is 'entryism?'

:: I think I get your basic point now, or at least one of them. You are saying that the "right wing" infiltrate, enter, or otherwise undermine and oppose their party's policies, or at least did in the past. Perhaps if you give some specific info it can go on the site. Perhaps you have in mind groups like the manifesto group in the Labour Party? If memory serves me correctly, most of them deserted to the SDP. Or more murky CIA influenced groups which pushed an Atlanticist pro-NATO outlook? I must admit, that the article I've done does not take account of this, although it does get a mention in the [[Militant tendency]] article. But perhaps the thing is framed too much in the light a "left infiltrates party" as opposed to "right wing captures leadership of social democratic party and leads it safely into pro-capitalist policies". It could probably be re-worked.
:: If I've got the tennor of your objections, I'll re-look at the material. Thanks
:: [[User:Andysoh|Andysoh]] 12:54, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

:::When the basic impulse to identify and root out 'impure elements' in an organisation is, in itself, arguably right wing, it is particularly hard to identify infiltrators of the right from a [[NPOV]]. However, the article does seem one-sided otherwise. Pointing to Conservatives who have lost positions owing to racist remarks seems a little weak; more pertinent, perhaps, is the broadly based perception that politicians generally, including supposed socialists, are 'in it for themselves,' in the sense of entryism into the corridors of power in exchange for abandoning, one by one, the very principles they claim to be upholding in the first place.

:::: That's right. I've been considering your points and found it difficult to formulate anything concrete. For instance, in relation to the putative article on 'entrism in UK Labour Party', the Labour Party was founded by the trade unions and there was always a right wing element at the top. I'll add mention of the manifesto group, but I have an idea I've already got the SDP in there, and their split from Labour, with a quote from ken livingstone, to make it clear I'm not making it up, and that it was a pretty mainstream viewpoint within the Labour Party. I also have the point already that the Militant didn't call for the expulsion of right wing groups, so this contrasts to the 'impulse to identify and drive out impure elements' as you put it. This hardly addresses your points, but we'll have to think in terms of concrete, referenced sentences in order to proceed any further wihtout getting knocked back.
:::: IT would be very relevent to find referenes to the atlanticists, CIA backed groups I'm pretty sure infiltrated the labour party with a view to pulling it to the right, but don't have the information to hand.

:::: The material I've worked up that's on my user page will probably form a separate article with a link to this one, I think, since it otherwise it might skew this article too much.

:::: But don't you agree therefore that the tag someone added to this article is a little over the top?
:::: [[User:Andysoh|Andysoh]] 18:39, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

:::::No. The fact is that the right have long 'pulled a fast one' by characterising unprincipled advancement as a left-wing phenomenon, when in fact it is definitively ''right''-wing. Despite your homepage claim to a working class outlook, you seem to let it down in overlooking this time-honoured, un-'PC' fact.

One of the requirements on wikipedia is to sign your posts. We can't make much progress on any issue unless we work as a community. --[[User:DuncanBCS|Duncan]] 09:25, 19 June 2007 (UTC)

: Hi Duncan, let me know if you think the material on Entrism in the Labour Party I've knocked up should go on its own page. That's fine by me, and this is probably going to be the consensus view.

:By the way, I think the tag was inappropriate because this article is about entrism, which is, as the article correctly says, "a political tactic by which an organisation encourages members to infiltrate another organisation in an attempt to gain recruits, or take over entirely."

:The unsigned correspondant objects that the article is not about "unprincipled advancement" by right wing elements, and on this basis added a tag. This was inappropriate.

:It is simply beyond the scope of the article, and the correspondant, instead of directing his/her energies at producing an article, or indeed edits to this article, about this perceived problem, attaches a tag to this article, requiring the article to be something that it is not. I advise that the correspondant knocks up some marterial - if its not already been done, around [http://www.bilderberg.org/bap.htm#Psyops The Psyops War] but beware problems of references.

:"The CIA works systematically to ensure that the socialist parties of all Western countries toe a line compatible with U.S. interests. In Britain in the 1950s, the CIA's manipulation of the right wing of the Labour Party swung the party away from its pledge to nationalisation (enshrined in the celebrated Clause IV), away from nuclear disarmament and back towards a commitment to NATO. This decisive intervention by the Agency could be said to have changed the course of modern British history....CDS achieved its objectives: the trade unions cracked under the pressure and the Labour Party returned to its support for NATO at the party conference in 1961. The Campaign for Democratic Socialism - with its CIA backing - was the most effective pressure group the Labour Party had ever seen. Its influence was out of all proportion to its original support among party members and its financial backers could justly claim to have changed the course of British politics. "

:Right-wing organisations on the whole (with exceptions) however have had little need to use the entrist tactics, and the influence of these groups is perhaps exaggerated, since there was a whole range of capitalist pressures on the leaderships of the Labour Party to toe the Atlanticist line. This is the reason why in practice it is difficult to find significant examples, as has been admitted. The rght wing were always a part of the leadership of the Labour Party, for instance.

:The objection appears to be that the article attempts to address the actually existing situation in an honest fashion. It is simply a fact that at certain points in its history, the Militant tendency had to tell the various Labour Party enquiries that it was just a newspaper.

: The Entrism in the UK Labour Party article attempts to put this in context. We may be able to add a line about the special case of the Labour Party and, whether it is added to this article or goes as a separate article, link to it.

: I've added a section on right wing infiltration in the Labour Party to my piece, and there is certainly more that could be added.

:[[User:Andysoh|Andysoh]] 11:52, 19 June 2007 (UTC)

::You say, 'Hi Duncan, let me know if you think the material on Entrism in the Labour Party I've knocked up should go on its own page. That's fine by me, and this is probably going to be the consensus view.' => Andy + Duncan = 'consensus'(!).
::You say, 'I think the tag was inappropriate because this article is about entrism, which is, as the article correctly says, "a political tactic by which an organisation encourages members to infiltrate another organisation in an attempt to gain recruits, or take over entirely."' Well I will leave an edit war over tags to smaller minds; the fact is that you are simply refuting any definition of 'entryism' other than your own (''right-wing one''). Apart from anything else, it impoverishes the English language, because 'entryism' means, to you, little more than 'infiltration, from a right-wing perspective' - which is exactly the same, presumably, as your definition of 'infiltration'(?).
::As for your allegations on the CIA, they are unsubstantiated, and therefore potentially fantasist and libellous against one of those categories unable to defend itself in court.
::Right-wing entryism is indeed hard to identify in a climate in which specific accusations of nefariousness are levelled conventionally at the left; but there is a general belief in them which you have no basis to refute.
::You continue to misrepresent Militant by senselessly rehearsing its weaker argument while glossing over its stronger one. This is hardly an attempt 'to address the actually existing situation in an honest fashion.' I can't find your 'piece about entryism in the Labour Party' (does one even wish to, in the circumstances?).

:Sorry, Duncan, every time I have a Wiki ID it gets blocked; usually by irate administrators (often, in point of fact, with German-looking IDs/names. Attempts to point this out result in accusations of being anti-German/anti-semitic - which I wasn't, prior to this experience).

::I think we need to wind this discussion down with you until you are able to register an ID and keep it. Unless you're able to work easily withing the rules of the community, then your time will be better spent elsewhere. If you comment on the supposed ethnicity of someone's user name, as if that somehow relates to their behavior, then I can see that people will call that racist. I suggest you stop doing that. --[[User:DuncanBCS|Duncan]] 15:01, 25 June 2007 (UTC)

==Religious entryism==

I removed "The [[Church of Scientology]] has also practiced entryism in taking over [[Alcoholics Anonymous]] meetings". While it is perfectly believable, this was unreferenced and despite a long search in news sources, blogs and elsewhere, I could not even find a corresponding rumour to match this statement. [[User:Fences and windows|Fences and windows]] ([[User talk:Fences and windows|talk]]) 00:24, 26 April 2008 (UTC)
Before adding this assertion back in, note that I searched for a long time in news sources, blogs and generally on the web and failed to find any evidence for this assertion. My motive might be questioned, but I certainly have no connection to either Scientology or AA; indeed, I am very critical of Scientology. Even though Scientologists infiltrating AA meetings sounds plausible, the statement is unverifiable, and needs a citation before being included. [[User:Fences and windows|Fences and windows]] ([[User talk:Fences and windows|talk]]) 22:00, 29 April 2008 (UTC)

==Entryism on national minorities==

I am adding some facts about entryism practiced by some states against national, cultural or linguistic minority groups. Although I had initially thought of reporting the cases of France and, more recently, Spain, I am reluctant to do so given the controversial nature of the issue, not least due to their appartenance to the EU and its implications under [[International Law]]. I would thus suggest that someone more familiar with the issue in other countries with overdeveloped intelligence services and tough stands on national minorities reports about this particular phenomenon.
--[[User:Laocoont|Laocoont]] ([[User talk:Laocoont|talk]]) 14:12, 6 December 2008 (UTC)

:If so, we should be careful to distinguish entryism from infiltration. Can you offer some links to sources describing the relevant cases? --[[User:Hro%C3%B0ulf|Hroðulf]] (or Hrothulf) ([[User talk:Hro%C3%B0ulf|Talk]]) 23:27, 6 December 2008 (UTC)

== Quote request: LaRouche ==

Someone requested a citation verification. Here goes:
*''In the United States the wild men (and women-no sexism here) tend to be on the right these days-survivalists, gun nuts, conspiracy theorists-but these have only recently taken up "entryism" and tried to take over local elements of the major party organizations, as the Lyndon H. LaRouche Jr. people have done in Illinois and California.''
**Despite the Smell of Death, Tories Will Likely Hang On; WILLIAM PFAFF. Los Angeles Times (pre-1997 Fulltext). Los Angeles, Calif.: Jun 17, 1986. pg. 5
There are other sources that discuss the effort to use LaRouche's [[National Democratic Policy Committee]] to gain legitimacy through, among other things, a misleading name. But this may be the only one that specifically uses the term "entryism".   [[User:Will Beback|Will Beback]]  [[User talk:Will Beback|talk]]  17:34, 24 August 2009 (UTC)
:This is not verification, since there's no source for the journalist's statement. And if there's only one reference in 25 years, then it's not notable. --[[User:DuncanBCS|Duncan]] ([[User talk:DuncanBCS|talk]]) 13:13, 27 August 2009 (UTC)

== BC Liberal Party ==

The Section on the BC Liberal Party being 'taken over by Social Credit Members' has no cites, and is debatable. many would argue that the Liberals invited the Socreds in, and the party is certainly not 'controlled by former socreds' though some are in influence, Liberal Leaders Gordon Campbell and Christy Clark were, to my knowledge, never So-Creds --[[Special:Contributions/24.87.81.186|24.87.81.186]] ([[User talk:24.87.81.186|talk]]) 15:59, 5 September 2013 (UTC)

== 'Inflating'? ==

I've changed 'inflating' to 'infiltrating' in the following: 'The National Farmers' Federation and Animals Australia have each been accused of inflating branches of RSPCA Australia ...'.
[[User:Meticulo|Meticulo]] ([[User talk:Meticulo|talk]]) 23:05, 7 April 2015 (UTC)

== Bernie Sanders in the USA ==

I would like to recommend that Bernie Sanders, a self-identified Democratic Socialist who was elected repeatedly as an independent from Vermont, but is now running for president as a Democrat, be added to this section. He has stated that he wants to pull the party in a more Progressive direction. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/173.73.61.238|173.73.61.238]] ([[User talk:173.73.61.238|talk]]) 19:46, 28 May 2015 (UTC) 

== potential examples from USA: [[Free State Project]] and [[Delaware]] [[Georgist]]s. ==

as per heading, would it make sense for the two above to be listed here? Certainly politically they don't align with the traditional "entryism" proposed by Troskyites, but they sorta met the definition in the intro. The second case was when a large number of Georgists moved to Delaware to try and implement the landtax idea. Around 1900 the constitution got changed by opponents who made the idea unworkable. [[Arden, Delaware]] is a a result of all that.

== Definition is useless ==

The section "Definition" doesn't define anything. It's just two very specific examples. They don't make any clearer what entryism is, and they're so confusing, I don't even really understand what the examples are about. I'm going to remove it. --[[User:Zumbo|Zumbo]] ([[User talk:Zumbo|talk]]) 13:36, 24 January 2023 (UTC)

Talk:Entryism

2023-01-24T13:36:16Z

Zumbo: /* Definition is useless */ new section

{{WikiProject Politics |class=C |importance=Mid}}
{{WikiProject Socialism|class=c|importance=low}}

==Principles==
This concept of 'fast' and 'slow' entrism is mistaken. It's better to call them 'entrism of a sepcial type' [sui generis] and 'Entrism'.--[[User:DuncanBCS|DuncanBCS]] 09:43, 31 October 2005 (UTC)
----

I am surprised that the mergefrom tag has been cut from this page without discussion. I have restored it. Please use the talk page. --[[User:DuncanBCS|Duncan]] 21:27, 7 February 2006 (UTC)
----
This page could really use some references. --[[User:208.54.14.25|208.54.14.25]] 10:51, 24 July 2006 (UTC)randomme

Exactly, this site lack references and are quite biased, as it stands now I think it doesn't really portray entrism right. Furthermore it seems quite biased and only superficially touch upon Militant from what is obviously the authors point of view. As it stands now it can't be used as an accurate description. Also I think their lack more points on those parties open for groupings like for example Rifondazione Communista in Italy, the left party in Germany and their youth grouping Solid. Which in my oppinion shows how parties can function properly with organised groupings, but that's of course a political discussion that should be taken somewere else than Wikipedia. [[User:80.197.1.72|80.197.1.72]] 00:41, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

Another point. How can it be described as entrism when members of a political organisation participates in a peace movement? It seems the author has a somewhat strange notion as to what can be described entrism. [[User:80.197.1.72|80.197.1.72]] 00:44, 12 April 2007 (UTC)
:If entrism is used as a term to describe similar tactics within campaigns, then we need to reflect that. Entrism as Trotskyist tactic is rather different from the building of broad pluralist parties. In the case of most entrism, socialists are working to win over left-ward moving forces and split them away from the party's program. In the pluralist parties, not all currents are entrists: some are loyal. --[[User:DuncanBCS|Duncan]] 16:54, 13 April 2007 (UTC)

Duncan I have one small comment with your post, the use of the word loyal. This word is probably the most misused in political work. I agree that all groups working in a broad pluralist party should follow the programme of said party.
However the accusation of disloyalty will and have been used against people with politics that go maybe a bit beyound a programme. It's normally a accusation used by a beurocracy or people with those tendencies, generally because they see the organisation as a goal rather than the means to reach a goal - socialism. [[User:80.197.1.72|80.197.1.72]] 20:14, 21 April 2007 (UTC)

== Bias and factual inaccuracy ==

The article is biased from its very inception. The more serious and pertinent offence of [[infiltration]], of which those joining organisations are, from time to time, rightly or wrongly, accused, is dealt with only by a link to this article. It is arguably not the same thing, implying stronger connotations of secrecy and conspiracy. It is therefore rather like having an article on 'failing to return borrowed items' while lacking an article on [[theft]].
The statement 'Entryism is not an exclusively left-wing phenomenon,' in seeking to appear to introduce [[NPOV|balance]], does the precise opposite, implying, as it does, that entryism is ''largely'' a left-wing phenomenon (see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Militant_tendency#The_.27Kinnock_Principle.27]).
The article further states that 'In situations where the organisation being "entered" is hostile to entryism, the entryists may engage in a degree of subterfuge to hide the fact that they are, in fact, an organisation in their own right. In the case of the Militant tendency, this was done by claiming that the tendency was in fact simply a newspaper...'. In fact, the 'Militants' first sought to point out that it is perfectly normal to have organisations, or political factions, within the Labour Party, therefore that couldn't really be the leadership's genuine concern. The true bone of contention between Militant Tendency and the Labour Party leadership, as the above link testifies, turned out to be the issue of whether local Party activists earn the right, by virtue of their attendance etc., to override local Party democracy - an important, key issue of organisational conduct of which the world still remains largely oblivious. With the advent of the Internet and Wikipedia, hopefully this will now be rectified.

: The one instance given, 'Entryism is not an exclusively left-wing phenomenon,' does not warrant the tag that was attached to this article, in my opinion. It is arguable that this statement implies that it is ''largely'' a left wing phenomenon - although it passed me by - and it could be adjusted to take that implication into account. Right wing infiltration is certainly very real, as it was in the Labour Party.
:In relation to the Militant in the UK, in the Labour Party, don't forget that 'party democracy' at every level was defined in terms of the open votes of those attending the meetings, as there was no concept, before Kinnock, of the inactive layer having voting rights which they were being denied. Kinnock redefined those terms, but until then, it was considered very important and necessary that before people could vote on something, they should have access and participate in an informed discussion about it. This was sometimes considered to be the very kernel of the new socialist society - where every relevant decision could be openly discussed - to end the alienation of people having no more say than just an occasional tick on a ballot paper.
:So in terms of factual accuracy, the reason the world appear oblivious to the point you make is because it is not entirely factually, historically accurate.
:The Militant, you may know, argued that the biggest, most active parties were those of the left, while the smallest, most inactive parties were those of the right, for instance those in Liverpool under the Braddocks (see Michael Crick, who backs up the Militant on this, which actually is now widely accepted.)
:The introduction of the idea of postal votes to the homes of inactive members of trade unions was initially introduced by Thatcher, and the argument of the activists was that Thatcher was relying on the media to argue her point of view and bias the votes.
:As you know, socialists felt strongly that they were a very small voice and that unless they got their members to meetings, the membership had very little access to what they saw as the real facts, rather than what they considered the misinformation of the government and media.
:[[User:Andysoh|Andysoh]] 20:57, 17 June 2007 (UTC)

::You seem, perhaps deliberately, to misread what is set out above. The comment about entryism being 'not an exclusively left-wing phenomenon' is clearly ''not'' the only example given, when you read the whole paragraph - it is also pointed out that Militant's argument that it was 'just a newspaper,' the one detailed in the article, was much weaker than its claim to plausibly represent active local Party members. Militant clearly tried every argument possible to counter an irrational-sounding and poorly justified witch hunt, some clearly stronger than others. Your point about Militant merely restates what was said, rather than disproving it in the way you seek to imply.
::: Its possible that the phrase about the Militant could be improved to take acount of your points, but I think your tag is way over the top. [[User:Andysoh|Andysoh]] 00:05, 18 June 2007 (UTC)
::::It isn't just about Militant. The whole tenor of the article depicts a nefarious activity confined to largely frustrated sections of the left - this is the vocabulary of the witch hunt. The idea that entryism might be a tried and tested, successful strategy of those currently in power (see below) seems yet another bridge too far for the dreary denizens of Wikipedia.

== True meaning of entryism? ==

If 'entryism' is to have a meaning of its own, distinct from '[[infiltration]],' it is surely that of seeking ''entry'' into the corriders of power, influence and wealth in an unprincipled manner. This could involve '[[infiltration]],' but [[infiltration]] is surely not always [[entryism|entryist]] in this sense, nor indeed necessarily as unprincipled/unwelcome.

== Section on the special case of Entrism in the UK Labour Party ==

The previous discussion has reminded me to get on with the material I was working up for a section on the special case of '''Entrism in the UK Labour Party'''.

However, it got rather long, and I wondered if it is the sort of thing that would make an article on its own.

I would be greatful if the editors here would let me have their thoughts.

It can be viewed on my user page, and is still in need of some copy editing, particularly the last section, which is still being revised. [[User:Andysoh|Andysoh]] 07:12, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

:Sorry to rain on your parade, but to me the whole concept of 'entryism in the Labour Party' sounds unwholesome and self-righteous to me. I came to this article about a completely different issue - the fear of infiltration of an apolitical campaign by those hostile to it. When you start discussing political organisations, we all know where it's going - the persecution of the left, and the refusal to admit the obvious fact that many right wingers oppose and undermine their party's policies, almost always with impunity. Surely that is 'entryism?'

:: I think I get your basic point now, or at least one of them. You are saying that the "right wing" infiltrate, enter, or otherwise undermine and oppose their party's policies, or at least did in the past. Perhaps if you give some specific info it can go on the site. Perhaps you have in mind groups like the manifesto group in the Labour Party? If memory serves me correctly, most of them deserted to the SDP. Or more murky CIA influenced groups which pushed an Atlanticist pro-NATO outlook? I must admit, that the article I've done does not take account of this, although it does get a mention in the [[Militant tendency]] article. But perhaps the thing is framed too much in the light a "left infiltrates party" as opposed to "right wing captures leadership of social democratic party and leads it safely into pro-capitalist policies". It could probably be re-worked.
:: If I've got the tennor of your objections, I'll re-look at the material. Thanks
:: [[User:Andysoh|Andysoh]] 12:54, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

:::When the basic impulse to identify and root out 'impure elements' in an organisation is, in itself, arguably right wing, it is particularly hard to identify infiltrators of the right from a [[NPOV]]. However, the article does seem one-sided otherwise. Pointing to Conservatives who have lost positions owing to racist remarks seems a little weak; more pertinent, perhaps, is the broadly based perception that politicians generally, including supposed socialists, are 'in it for themselves,' in the sense of entryism into the corridors of power in exchange for abandoning, one by one, the very principles they claim to be upholding in the first place.

:::: That's right. I've been considering your points and found it difficult to formulate anything concrete. For instance, in relation to the putative article on 'entrism in UK Labour Party', the Labour Party was founded by the trade unions and there was always a right wing element at the top. I'll add mention of the manifesto group, but I have an idea I've already got the SDP in there, and their split from Labour, with a quote from ken livingstone, to make it clear I'm not making it up, and that it was a pretty mainstream viewpoint within the Labour Party. I also have the point already that the Militant didn't call for the expulsion of right wing groups, so this contrasts to the 'impulse to identify and drive out impure elements' as you put it. This hardly addresses your points, but we'll have to think in terms of concrete, referenced sentences in order to proceed any further wihtout getting knocked back.
:::: IT would be very relevent to find referenes to the atlanticists, CIA backed groups I'm pretty sure infiltrated the labour party with a view to pulling it to the right, but don't have the information to hand.

:::: The material I've worked up that's on my user page will probably form a separate article with a link to this one, I think, since it otherwise it might skew this article too much.

:::: But don't you agree therefore that the tag someone added to this article is a little over the top?
:::: [[User:Andysoh|Andysoh]] 18:39, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

:::::No. The fact is that the right have long 'pulled a fast one' by characterising unprincipled advancement as a left-wing phenomenon, when in fact it is definitively ''right''-wing. Despite your homepage claim to a working class outlook, you seem to let it down in overlooking this time-honoured, un-'PC' fact.

One of the requirements on wikipedia is to sign your posts. We can't make much progress on any issue unless we work as a community. --[[User:DuncanBCS|Duncan]] 09:25, 19 June 2007 (UTC)

: Hi Duncan, let me know if you think the material on Entrism in the Labour Party I've knocked up should go on its own page. That's fine by me, and this is probably going to be the consensus view.

:By the way, I think the tag was inappropriate because this article is about entrism, which is, as the article correctly says, "a political tactic by which an organisation encourages members to infiltrate another organisation in an attempt to gain recruits, or take over entirely."

:The unsigned correspondant objects that the article is not about "unprincipled advancement" by right wing elements, and on this basis added a tag. This was inappropriate.

:It is simply beyond the scope of the article, and the correspondant, instead of directing his/her energies at producing an article, or indeed edits to this article, about this perceived problem, attaches a tag to this article, requiring the article to be something that it is not. I advise that the correspondant knocks up some marterial - if its not already been done, around [http://www.bilderberg.org/bap.htm#Psyops The Psyops War] but beware problems of references.

:"The CIA works systematically to ensure that the socialist parties of all Western countries toe a line compatible with U.S. interests. In Britain in the 1950s, the CIA's manipulation of the right wing of the Labour Party swung the party away from its pledge to nationalisation (enshrined in the celebrated Clause IV), away from nuclear disarmament and back towards a commitment to NATO. This decisive intervention by the Agency could be said to have changed the course of modern British history....CDS achieved its objectives: the trade unions cracked under the pressure and the Labour Party returned to its support for NATO at the party conference in 1961. The Campaign for Democratic Socialism - with its CIA backing - was the most effective pressure group the Labour Party had ever seen. Its influence was out of all proportion to its original support among party members and its financial backers could justly claim to have changed the course of British politics. "

:Right-wing organisations on the whole (with exceptions) however have had little need to use the entrist tactics, and the influence of these groups is perhaps exaggerated, since there was a whole range of capitalist pressures on the leaderships of the Labour Party to toe the Atlanticist line. This is the reason why in practice it is difficult to find significant examples, as has been admitted. The rght wing were always a part of the leadership of the Labour Party, for instance.

:The objection appears to be that the article attempts to address the actually existing situation in an honest fashion. It is simply a fact that at certain points in its history, the Militant tendency had to tell the various Labour Party enquiries that it was just a newspaper.

: The Entrism in the UK Labour Party article attempts to put this in context. We may be able to add a line about the special case of the Labour Party and, whether it is added to this article or goes as a separate article, link to it.

: I've added a section on right wing infiltration in the Labour Party to my piece, and there is certainly more that could be added.

:[[User:Andysoh|Andysoh]] 11:52, 19 June 2007 (UTC)

::You say, 'Hi Duncan, let me know if you think the material on Entrism in the Labour Party I've knocked up should go on its own page. That's fine by me, and this is probably going to be the consensus view.' => Andy + Duncan = 'consensus'(!).
::You say, 'I think the tag was inappropriate because this article is about entrism, which is, as the article correctly says, "a political tactic by which an organisation encourages members to infiltrate another organisation in an attempt to gain recruits, or take over entirely."' Well I will leave an edit war over tags to smaller minds; the fact is that you are simply refuting any definition of 'entryism' other than your own (''right-wing one''). Apart from anything else, it impoverishes the English language, because 'entryism' means, to you, little more than 'infiltration, from a right-wing perspective' - which is exactly the same, presumably, as your definition of 'infiltration'(?).
::As for your allegations on the CIA, they are unsubstantiated, and therefore potentially fantasist and libellous against one of those categories unable to defend itself in court.
::Right-wing entryism is indeed hard to identify in a climate in which specific accusations of nefariousness are levelled conventionally at the left; but there is a general belief in them which you have no basis to refute.
::You continue to misrepresent Militant by senselessly rehearsing its weaker argument while glossing over its stronger one. This is hardly an attempt 'to address the actually existing situation in an honest fashion.' I can't find your 'piece about entryism in the Labour Party' (does one even wish to, in the circumstances?).

:Sorry, Duncan, every time I have a Wiki ID it gets blocked; usually by irate administrators (often, in point of fact, with German-looking IDs/names. Attempts to point this out result in accusations of being anti-German/anti-semitic - which I wasn't, prior to this experience).

::I think we need to wind this discussion down with you until you are able to register an ID and keep it. Unless you're able to work easily withing the rules of the community, then your time will be better spent elsewhere. If you comment on the supposed ethnicity of someone's user name, as if that somehow relates to their behavior, then I can see that people will call that racist. I suggest you stop doing that. --[[User:DuncanBCS|Duncan]] 15:01, 25 June 2007 (UTC)

==Religious entryism==

I removed "The [[Church of Scientology]] has also practiced entryism in taking over [[Alcoholics Anonymous]] meetings". While it is perfectly believable, this was unreferenced and despite a long search in news sources, blogs and elsewhere, I could not even find a corresponding rumour to match this statement. [[User:Fences and windows|Fences and windows]] ([[User talk:Fences and windows|talk]]) 00:24, 26 April 2008 (UTC)
Before adding this assertion back in, note that I searched for a long time in news sources, blogs and generally on the web and failed to find any evidence for this assertion. My motive might be questioned, but I certainly have no connection to either Scientology or AA; indeed, I am very critical of Scientology. Even though Scientologists infiltrating AA meetings sounds plausible, the statement is unverifiable, and needs a citation before being included. [[User:Fences and windows|Fences and windows]] ([[User talk:Fences and windows|talk]]) 22:00, 29 April 2008 (UTC)

==Entryism on national minorities==

I am adding some facts about entryism practiced by some states against national, cultural or linguistic minority groups. Although I had initially thought of reporting the cases of France and, more recently, Spain, I am reluctant to do so given the controversial nature of the issue, not least due to their appartenance to the EU and its implications under [[International Law]]. I would thus suggest that someone more familiar with the issue in other countries with overdeveloped intelligence services and tough stands on national minorities reports about this particular phenomenon.
--[[User:Laocoont|Laocoont]] ([[User talk:Laocoont|talk]]) 14:12, 6 December 2008 (UTC)

:If so, we should be careful to distinguish entryism from infiltration. Can you offer some links to sources describing the relevant cases? --[[User:Hro%C3%B0ulf|Hroðulf]] (or Hrothulf) ([[User talk:Hro%C3%B0ulf|Talk]]) 23:27, 6 December 2008 (UTC)

== Quote request: LaRouche ==

Someone requested a citation verification. Here goes:
*''In the United States the wild men (and women-no sexism here) tend to be on the right these days-survivalists, gun nuts, conspiracy theorists-but these have only recently taken up "entryism" and tried to take over local elements of the major party organizations, as the Lyndon H. LaRouche Jr. people have done in Illinois and California.''
**Despite the Smell of Death, Tories Will Likely Hang On; WILLIAM PFAFF. Los Angeles Times (pre-1997 Fulltext). Los Angeles, Calif.: Jun 17, 1986. pg. 5
There are other sources that discuss the effort to use LaRouche's [[National Democratic Policy Committee]] to gain legitimacy through, among other things, a misleading name. But this may be the only one that specifically uses the term "entryism".   [[User:Will Beback|Will Beback]]  [[User talk:Will Beback|talk]]  17:34, 24 August 2009 (UTC)
:This is not verification, since there's no source for the journalist's statement. And if there's only one reference in 25 years, then it's not notable. --[[User:DuncanBCS|Duncan]] ([[User talk:DuncanBCS|talk]]) 13:13, 27 August 2009 (UTC)

== BC Liberal Party ==

The Section on the BC Liberal Party being 'taken over by Social Credit Members' has no cites, and is debatable. many would argue that the Liberals invited the Socreds in, and the party is certainly not 'controlled by former socreds' though some are in influence, Liberal Leaders Gordon Campbell and Christy Clark were, to my knowledge, never So-Creds --[[Special:Contributions/24.87.81.186|24.87.81.186]] ([[User talk:24.87.81.186|talk]]) 15:59, 5 September 2013 (UTC)

== 'Inflating'? ==

I've changed 'inflating' to 'infiltrating' in the following: 'The National Farmers' Federation and Animals Australia have each been accused of inflating branches of RSPCA Australia ...'.
[[User:Meticulo|Meticulo]] ([[User talk:Meticulo|talk]]) 23:05, 7 April 2015 (UTC)

== Bernie Sanders in the USA ==

I would like to recommend that Bernie Sanders, a self-identified Democratic Socialist who was elected repeatedly as an independent from Vermont, but is now running for president as a Democrat, be added to this section. He has stated that he wants to pull the party in a more Progressive direction. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/173.73.61.238|173.73.61.238]] ([[User talk:173.73.61.238|talk]]) 19:46, 28 May 2015 (UTC) 

== potential examples from USA: [[Free State Project]] and [[Delaware]] [[Georgist]]s. ==

as per heading, would it make sense for the two above to be listed here? Certainly politically they don't align with the traditional "entryism" proposed by Troskyites, but they sorta met the definition in the intro. The second case was when a large number of Georgists moved to Delaware to try and implement the landtax idea. Around 1900 the constitution got changed by opponents who made the idea unworkable. [[Arden, Delaware]] is a a result of all that.

== Definition is useless ==

The section "Definition" doesn't define anything. It's just two very specific examples. They don't make any clearer what entryism is, and they're so confusing, I don't even really understand what the examples are about. --[[User:Zumbo|Zumbo]] ([[User talk:Zumbo|talk]]) 13:36, 24 January 2023 (UTC)

Cheetos

2022-10-24T07:02:46Z

Zumbo: /* See also */ no article

{{short description|Brand of corn puff snack food}}
{{pp-pc1}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox brand
|name = Cheetos
|logo = Cheetos logo.svg
|logo_size = 200
|image = CheetosCrop.jpg
|caption =
|type = [[Cheese curl]], [[popcorn]]
|currentowner = [[PepsiCo]] (via [[Frito-Lay]])
|origin = United States
|discontinued =
|introduced = {{start date and age|1948}}
|markets = Worldwide
|previousowners = The Frito Company
|trademarkregistrations =
|website = {{url|https://www.cheetos.com/|cheetos.com}}
}}
'''Cheetos''' (formerly styled as '''Chee-tos''' until 1998) is a crunchy [[corn puff]] snack brand made by [[Frito-Lay]], a subsidiary of [[PepsiCo]]. [[Fritos]] creator [[Charles Elmer Doolin]] invented Cheetos in 1948, and began national distribution in the U.S. The initial success of Cheetos was a contributing factor to the merger between The Frito Company and H.W. Lay & Company in 1961 to form Frito-Lay. In 1965 Frito-Lay became a subsidiary of The Pepsi-Cola Company, forming PepsiCo, the current owner of the Cheetos brand.

In 2010, Cheetos was ranked as the top selling brand of [[cheese puffs]] in its primary market of the United States; worldwide the annual retail sales totaled approximately $4 billion. The original Crunchy Cheetos are still in production but the product line has since expanded to include 21 different types of Cheetos in [[North America]] alone. As Cheetos are sold in more than 36 countries, the flavor and composition is often varied to match regional taste and cultural preferences—such as Savory American Cream in [[China]], and Strawberry Cheetos in [[Japan]].<ref name="inventorspot">{{cite web|url=http://inventorspot.com/articles/strawberry_flavored_cheetos_sedu_10230|title=Strawberry Flavored Cheetos Seduce Sweet-Loving Snackers|publisher=inventorspot.com|access-date=2 December 2014}}</ref>

==History==
Cheetos were invented in 1948 by Fritos creator Charles Elmer Doolin, who cooked early test batches in the Frito Company's research and development kitchen in [[Dallas]], [[Texas]]. The cheese-flavored snack sold quickly, but Doolin did not have the production or distribution capacity to support a nationwide launch. This led Doolin to partner with potato chip businessman [[Herman Lay|Herman W. Lay]] for marketing and distribution, and Cheetos were introduced nationally in the U.S. in 1948, along with a potato product called Fritatos.<ref>"Corn, Potato Chip Packaging Big Business in San Antonio", Dallas Morning News, 22 May 1949, Section XVIII, page 8</ref> The success of Cheetos prompted Doolin and Lay to merge their two companies in 1961, forming Frito-Lay Inc.<ref name=earlyhist>{{cite news|last=Fernandez|first=Manny|title=Cheese Whatevers, City Has Them by the Handful|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/04/nyregion/04cheez.html|access-date=1 July 2011|newspaper= The New York Times |date=3 August 2010}}</ref> At the time, Cheetos was one of four large snack food brands produced by the company, which had annual revenues of $127 million.<ref name="highbeam">{{cite web|title=Frito-Lay, Inc. Company Profile for Students|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3427200107.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105061204/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3427200107.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 November 2012|publisher=HighBeam Research|access-date=20 December 2010|date=1 January 1999}}</ref> Frito-Lay merged with the Pepsi-Cola Company to form PepsiCo in 1965, prompting further distribution of Cheetos outside of North America.<ref name="comphistory">{{cite web|title=Frito-Lay History|url=http://www.fritolay.com/about-us/history.html|publisher=Frito-Lay North America, Inc.|access-date=20 December 2010}}</ref>

While Cheetos was the first snack food of its kind, competing products in the snack food category have since emerged—including [[Utz Quality Foods|Utz]] Cheese Curls, [[Herr's]] Cheese Curls and [[Wise Foods|Wise]] [[Cheez Doodles]], along with [[Planters]]' Cheese Puffs and Cheese Curls. Most of the competing cheese-flavored snacks are distributed in specific regions of the U.S., and as of 2010 Cheetos remains as the top-selling cheese puff in America.<ref name=earlyhist /><ref name=competing>{{cite journal|last=Saporito|first=Bill|author2=Sarah Smith|title=How Borden Milks Packaged Goods|journal= Fortune Magazine |date=21 December 1987|url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1987/12/21/69990/index.htm|access-date=1 July 2011}}</ref>

As of 2011, Cheetos are produced, marketed and distributed under three different PepsiCo operating divisions: [[PepsiCo#PepsiCo Americas Foods|PepsiCo Americas Foods]] (which includes [[Frito-Lay]] in the United States and [[Canada]],<ref name="busweek">{{cite web|title=PepsiCo, Inc. (PEP) Company Description|url=http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/snapshot/snapshot_article.asp?ticker=PEP:US|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130102064938/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/snapshot/snapshot_article.asp?ticker=PEP:US|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 January 2013|publisher=Businessweek|access-date=20 December 2010}}</ref> [[Sabritas]] in [[Mexico]]<ref name=sabritas>{{cite news|last=Savage |first=Mark |title=Circle of Fun |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=AZZQAAAAIBAJ&dq=sabritas%20cheetos&pg=4618%2C3594902|access-date=1 July 2011|newspaper=The Milwaukee Sentinel|date=14 February 1995}}</ref> and Latin Americas Foods in [[Brazil]], [[Colombia]], [[Argentina]], [[Venezuela]], and [[Peru]]<ref name="profile">{{cite web|title=PepsiCo Investors Corporate Profile|url=http://pepsico.com/Investors/Corporate-Profile.html|publisher=PepsiCo, Inc.|access-date=1 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712011724/http://www.pepsico.com/Investors/Corporate-Profile.html|archive-date=12 July 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>), [[PepsiCo#PepsiCo Europe|PepsiCo Europe]] and [[PepsiCo#PepsiCo Asia, Middle East & Africa|PepsiCo Asia, Middle East & Africa]].<ref name=pepannualrpt>{{cite web|title=2010 PepsiCo Annual Report|url=http://pepsico.com/annual10/downloads/PepsiCo_Annual_Report_2010_Full_Annual_Report.pdf|work=PepsiCo, Inc.|access-date=1 July 2011|date=25 December 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906155910/http://www.pepsico.com/annual10/downloads/PepsiCo_Annual_Report_2010_Full_Annual_Report.pdf|archive-date=6 September 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> PepsiCo also granted a license to the [[Strauss-Elite|Strauss-Elite company]] to distribute the Cheetos snack. In 2010, worldwide annual sales of Cheetos totaled approximately $4 billion, making it the 11th-largest PepsiCo brand.<ref name=pepannualrpt />

In 2021, [[PepsiCo]] and [[Indofood]] announced that Indofood CBP has officially purchased all of the shares owned by [[Frito-Lay|Fritolay Netherlands Holding B.V.]], an affiliate of [[PepsiCo]] at PT Indofood Fritolay Makmur (IFL, now PT Indofood Fortuna Makmur) worth IDR 494 billion, thus the production of [[Lay's]], Cheetos, and [[Doritos]] brand snacks in Indonesia will be stopped on 18 August 2021. In addition, PepsiCo and its affiliates has also agreed not to produce, package, sell, market or distribute snack products that compete with IFL products in Indonesia for a period of three years.<ref>{{cite news|last=Uly|first=Yohana Artha|date=2021-02-17|title=Sah Hubungan Berakhir, Indofood Borong Semua Saham Pepsi di Perusahaan Patungan Senilai Rp 494 Miliar|website=Kompas.com|publisher=Kompas Cyber Media|editor=Erlangga Djumena|url=https://money.kompas.com/read/2021/02/17/203700926/sah-hubungan-berakhir-indofood-borong-semua-saham-pepsi-di-perusahaan-patungan.|access-date=2021-02-22}}</ref> The Cheetos brand has since been renamed into new variants of Chiki (Twist, Puffs, and Net). Indonesia is the only Cheetos market that sells Roasted Corn flavor of Cheetos while Doritos would take on the new name Maxicorn.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cheetos, Doritos, and Lay’s to remain in Indonesia following rebranding: reports {{!}} Coconuts |url=https://flipboard.com/article/https%3A%2F%2Fcoconuts.co%2Fjakarta%2Ffood-drink%2Fcheetos-doritos-and-lays-to-remain-in-indonesia-following-rebranding-reports%2F |access-date=2022-04-20 |website=Flipboard |language=en}}</ref>

==Products and distribution==
The first Cheetos product was Crunchy Cheetos, invented in 1948 in [[San Antonio, Texas]]. Crunchy Cheetos remained the brand's sole product for 23 years until the introduction of Cheetos Puffs in 1971. The baked varieties, otherwise known as Baked Cheetos, became available beginning in 2004. As of 2010, there are 21 different variants of Cheetos snacks distributed in the United States.<ref name=cheetosflavorlist>{{cite web|title=Full List of Cheetos Products|url=http://www.fritolay.com/our-snacks/cheetos.html|publisher=Frito-Lay|access-date=12 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910152554/http://www.fritolay.com/our-snacks/cheetos.html|archive-date=10 September 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In addition to the original Crunchy Cheetos, Cheetos Puffs and Baked varieties are sold in alternate shape and flavor variations—including a spicy variety known as [[#Flamin' Hot Cheetos|Flamin' Hot Cheetos]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5394887 |title=Don't Miss: Flamin' Hot Cheetos |newspaper=NPR |publisher=NPR.com |date=9 May 2006 |access-date=2 December 2010|last1=Rudin |first1=Ken }}</ref>

Cheetos are among the snack varieties included in the Frito-Lay [[Munchies (snack mix)|Munchies]] snack mix.

With the introduction of [[Frito-Lay]]'s Natural line, Natural Cheetos were introduced in the mid-2000s, touting all-natural ingredients and real [[Wisconsin]] [[white cheddar]] cheese. They accompany other Frito-Lay products in the Natural line and compete in the market space occupied by other health-conscious snack foods, such as [[Pirate's Booty]]. The Natural brand was re-branded to Simply in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|title=PepsiCo Rebrands 'Natural' Products with 'Simply'|url=https://www.foxnews.com/food-drink/pepsico-rebrands-natural-products-with-simply|website=Fox News|access-date=27 February 2019|date=24 January 2014}}</ref>

Cheetos first entered [[Brazil]] in 1976,<ref name=brazil>{{cite web|title=Elma Chips Brands|url=http://www.pepsico.com.br/brands/brands-elma-chips.html|publisher=PepsiCo Brazil|access-date=12 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916062554/http://pepsico.com.br/brands/brands-elma-chips.html|archive-date=16 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> followed by other countries such as [[Australia]] during the 1980s.<ref name=cheetosaustr>{{cite web|title=Cheetos Australia|url=http://www.smiths.com.au/student/cheetos.htm|publisher=PepsiCo Australia & New Zealand|access-date=12 September 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917071354/http://www.smiths.com.au/student/cheetos.htm|archive-date=17 September 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 1994, Cheetos became the first American brand of snack food to be made and distributed in [[China]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/27/magazine/sunday-november-27-1994-chinese-cheetos.html|title=Chinese Cheetos |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=27 November 2006 |access-date=3 December 2010}}</ref> As the distribution of Cheetos expanded outside the U.S. to include more than 36 countries,<ref name=countriesfigure>{{cite web|title=Cheetos Mystery Colorz Snacks Taste Cheesy Like Cheetos|url=http://www.fritolay.com/about-us/press-release-20020107.html|publisher=Frito-Lay North America|access-date=13 September 2011|format=Press Release|date=7 January 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910195955/http://www.fritolay.com/about-us/press-release-20020107.html|archive-date=10 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> localized versions were produced to conform to regional tastes and cultural preferences.<ref name=dircomphist>{{cite book|title=International directory of company histories|year=2000|publisher=St. James Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-1-55862-391-0|url=http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/FritoLay-Company-Company-History.html|editor=Jay P. Pederson}}</ref>

Frito-Lay conducted extensive testing before settling on flavors for the Chinese market, with ranch dressing, North Sea crab, smoked octopus and caramel being passed up for two flavors: Savory American Cream and Zesty Japanese Steak.<ref name = "Research">{{cite book|last=Zikmund|first=William G.|title=Essentials of Marketing Research|year=2009|publisher=Cengage Learning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpz6YoS1_dAC&pg=PA15|author2=Barry B. Babin|access-date=16 November 2011|page=15|isbn=978-0324593754}}</ref> These flavors were produced as the result of focus group testing, in which the original Crunchy Cheetos did not test as well.<ref name = "Research"/><ref>{{cite news |title=Cheetos pull flavor switch for Chinese|agency=NY Times News Service |work=Lawrence Journal World |page=2A |date=2 September 1994|access-date=8 December 2010 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=1JYyAAAAIBAJ&pg=6507,177013&dq=cheetos+china&hl=en }}</ref> Strawberry Cheetos, a plain corn Cheeto coated in strawberry icing, were released in [[Japan]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://consumerist.com/2008/01/move-to-japan-so-you-can-eat-strawberry-cheetos.html|title=Move To Japan So You Can Eat Strawberry Cheetos |publisher=consumerist.com |date=28 January 2009|access-date=2 December 2010}}</ref> In 2013, a [[Pepsi]]-flavored Cheeto was introduced in Japan, and a [[Mountain Dew]]-flavored variety was available in 2014.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Pepsi-flavored Cheetos sell in Japan, but aren't ready for U.S. (yet)|date = 15 August 2013|url = https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2013/08/15/pepsi-flavored-cheetos-pepsico-cheetos-snack-foods-flavor-mashing/2661811/|last = Horovitz|first = Bruce|work = [[USA Today]]|access-date = 16 August 2013}}</ref> In India, Cheetos Whoosh are sold, made of ingredients such as [[whole grain]] and vegetables.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pepsicoindia.co.in/Brands/Foods/Cheetos.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217010634/http://pepsicoindia.co.in/Brands/Foods/Cheetos.aspx|title=Cheetos|archive-date=17 December 2010}}</ref> In Pakistan Cheetos are available in six different flavors: Bites: Vegetable, Stars: Cream N' Herb, Ocean Safari: Cheese, X & O: Spicy Twist, Red Flavoured Mast and Ketchup.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brandsynario.com/cheetos-pakistan-let-the-fun-begin-tvc-2015/|title=Cheetos Pakistan – Let The Fun Begin TVC 2015|website=brandsynario.com|date=20 October 2015}}</ref> Cheetos come in many different colors, the most popular being orange and red.

In 2015, Frito-Lay released a limited edition cinnamon sugar-flavored snack called Sweetos to U.S. markets. Sweetos were the first sweet snack that Cheetos had released in the United States in the brand's 67-year history.<ref>{{cite news|last=Horovitz|first=Bruce|title=Cheetos to roll out Sweetos snacks|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2015/01/21/cheetos-sweetos-snacks-snacking-frito-lay/22106331/|access-date=4 May 2015|newspaper=USA Today|date=21 January 2015}}</ref>

In the first week of 2020, [[Frito-Lay]] began distributing "Cheetos popcorn".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dallasnews.com/food/restaurant-news/2020/01/09/first-ever-flamin-hot-cheetos-popcorn-hits-store-shelves-in-texas/ |last=Blaskovich |first=Sarah |date=July 9, 2020 |title=First-ever Flamin' Hot Cheetos popcorn hits store shelves in Texas |work=[[The Dallas Morning News]] |access-date=January 10, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/cheetos-pops-into-the-new-year-with-launch-of-cheetos-popcorn-in-stores-nationwide-300984377.html?__source=newsletter%7Cmorningsquawk |date=January 9, 2020 |title=Cheetos Pops Into The New Year With Launch Of Cheetos Popcorn In Stores Nationwide |work=[[Cision]] |access-date=January 10, 2020}}</ref>

=== Flamin' Hot Cheetos ===
According to Frito-Lay records, Flamin' Hot Cheetos, a spicy version of the product, was developed at the company's headquarters in Texas starting in 1989, as part of a project led by Lynne Greenfeld, and introduced in test markets in the summer of 1990, alongside Flamin' Hot versions of Fritos and Lays.<ref name="lat-montanez">{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/business/story/2021-05-16/flamin-hot-cheetos-richard-montanez|title=The man who didn't invent Flamin' Hot Cheetos|author=Sam Dean|date=May 16, 2021|work=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> Becoming available nationwide in early 1992, ''[[The Washington Post]]'' would go on to call Flamin' Hot Cheetos "something of a cultural phenomenon",<ref>{{cite news |last1=Andrews |first1=Travis M |title=The Flamin' Hot Cheetos movie: How a Frito-Lay janitor created one of America's most popular snacks |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2018/02/23/the-flamin-hot-cheetos-movie-how-a-frito-lay-janitor-created-one-of-americas-most-popular-snacks/ |newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=19 September 2019}}</ref> with ''[[Newsweek]]'' noting that it "rejuvenated the brand" and would become a "central element in Cheetos marketing".<ref name="Newsweek flamin hot">{{cite web |last1=Whalen |first1=Andrew |title=THE TRUE STORY OF THE FLAMIN' HOT CHEETOS INVENTOR RICHARD MONTAÑEZ |url=https://www.newsweek.com/flamin-hot-cheeto-movie-true-story-creator-richard-montanez-1456377 |website=Newsweek |date=27 August 2019 |access-date=19 September 2019}}</ref>

Beginning in the late 2000s, [[Richard Montañez]], who had started his career at Frito-Lay as a plant janitor and later became a marketing director for the company, claimed that he had invented Flamin' Hot Cheetos in the early 1990s while still a janitor, observing that the brand did not have any products targeting [[Latinos]].<ref name="Hustlecheetos">{{cite web |last1=Crockett |first1=Zachary |title=How a janitor at Frito-Lay invented Flamin' Hot Cheetos |url=https://thehustle.co/hot-cheetos-inventor/ |website=The Hustle |date=29 November 2017 |access-date=19 September 2019}}</ref> Montañez claimed he had pitched his idea to CEO [[Roger Enrico]] as part of Enrico's initiative to empower employees to help the flagging company.<ref name="Hustlecheetos"/> In 2018, ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' reported that [[Searchlight Pictures|Fox Searchlight]] was developing a biopic about the origin story of Flamin' Hot Cheetos as told by Montañez.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kroll|first=Justin|date=February 22, 2018|title=Flamin' Hot Cheetos-Inspired Movie in Works From Fox Searchlight, DeVon Franklin (EXCLUSIVE)|url=https://variety.com/2018/film/news/flamin-hot-cheetos-movie-devon-franklin-fox-searchlight-1202707879/|url-status=live|access-date=March 29, 2021|website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180222231156/http://variety.com/2018/film/news/flamin-hot-cheetos-movie-devon-franklin-fox-searchlight-1202707879/ |archive-date=22 February 2018 }}</ref> The following year, [[Eva Longoria]] signed on to direct the film.<ref>{{Cite web|last=McNary|first=Dave|date=August 27, 2019|title=Eva Longoria to Direct Biopic About Flamin' Hot Cheetos Creator|url=https://variety.com/2019/film/news/flamin-hot-cheetos-movie-eva-longoria-1203314982/|url-status=live|access-date=March 29, 2021|website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827013338/https://variety.com/2019/film/news/flamin-hot-cheetos-movie-eva-longoria-1203314982/ |archive-date=27 August 2019 }}</ref>

In May 2021, the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' reported that Frito-Lay had begun an internal investigation in 2018 following a complaint by Greenfeld. The company, which had not previously contradicted Montañez's story publicly, said of the results of that investigation: "None of our records show that Richard [Montañez] was involved in any capacity in the Flamin' Hot test market ... we do not credit the creation of Flamin' Hot Cheetos or any Flamin' Hot products to him."<ref name="lat-montanez" /> Additional reporting by the ''Times'' indicated that Montañez's claims did not line up with other events in the product's release timeline, including newspaper articles announcing the test market release in 1990, and Enrico not joining Frito-Lay until later that year. However, the ''Times'' noted a 1993 ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' story indicating that Montañez ''was'' responsible for suggesting subsequent product ideas that built on the Flamin' Hot line, including Flamin' Hot Popcorn.<ref name="lat-montanez" />

Montañez has stood by his claims following the ''LA Times'' investigation, arguing that there was a lack of documentation due to his low-level job at the time, but adding that he was not aware of what might have been going on in other divisions of the company, and thus he did not have reason to dispute Greenfeld's accounts.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2021/film/news/richard-montanez-flamin-hot-cheetos-responds-1234974227/|title=Disputed Flamin' Hot Cheetos Inventor Responds to Frito-Lay's Claims: 'I Was Their Greatest Ambassador'|first=Ellise|last=Shaffer|work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|date=May 16, 2021|access-date=May 19, 2021}}</ref>

==Manufacturing==
{{Further|Cheese puffs}}
[[File:Fabryka PepsiCo w Tomaszowie Mazowieckim.jpg|thumb|Factory producing Cheetos in [[Tomaszów Mazowiecki]], Poland]]
Cheetos are manufactured by blending corn and water. The germ of the corn is removed to prevent spoiling; the germless corn is then ground into cornmeal. Because the cornmeal lacks the nutrients provided by the germs, it is enriched by adding nutrients in order to increase its nutritional value. (Enriched cornmeal is found in the following flavors: Crunchy,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fritolay.com/snacks/product-page/cheetos/cheetos-crunchy-cheese-flavored-snacks|title=CHEETOS® Crunchy Cheese Flavored Snacks|website=www.fritolay.com|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> Puffs,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fritolay.com/snacks/product-page/cheetos/cheetos-puffs-cheese-flavored-snacks|title=CHEETOS® Puffs Cheese Flavored Snacks|website=www.fritolay.com|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> Flamin' Hot Crunchy,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fritolay.com/snacks/product-page/cheetos/cheetos-crunchy-flamin-hot-cheese-flavored-snacks|title=CHEETOS® Crunchy FLAMIN' HOT® Cheese Flavored Snacks|website=www.fritolay.com|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2016/04/whats-inside-flamin-hot-cheetos/|title=What's Inside Flamin' Hot Cheetos? Probably Something Spicy|magazine=Wired|access-date=2 May 2018|last1=Tonn|first1=Shara}}</ref> Flamin' Hot Puffs,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fritolay.com/snacks/product-page/cheetos/cheetos-puffs-flamin-hot-cheese-flavored-snacks|title=CHEETOS® Puffs FLAMIN' HOT® Cheese Flavored Snacks|website=www.fritolay.com|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> Flamin' Hot Limon Crunchy,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fritolay.com/snacks/product-page/cheetos/cheetos-crunchy-flamin-hot-limon-cheese-flavored-snacks|title=CHEETOS® Crunchy FLAMIN' HOT® Limón Cheese Flavored Snacks|website=www.fritolay.com|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> XXTRA Flamin' Hot Crunchy,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fritolay.com/snacks/product-page/cheetos/cheetos-crunchy-xxtra-flamin-hot-cheese-flavored-snacks|title=CHEETOS® Crunchy XXTRA FLAMIN' HOT® Cheese Flavored Snacks|website=www.fritolay.com|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> Reduced Fat Flamin' Hot Puffs,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fritolay.com/snacks/product-page/cheetos/cheetos-puffs-flamin-hot-reduced-fat-cheese-flavored-snacks|title=CHEETOS® Puffs FLAMIN' HOT® Reduced Fat Cheese Flavored Snacks|website=www.fritolay.com|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> Reduced Fat Puffs,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fritolay.com/snacks/product-page/cheetos/cheetos-puffs-reduced-fat-cheese-flavored-snacks|title=CHEETOS® Puffs Reduced Fat Cheese Flavored Snacks|website=www.fritolay.com|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> and Cheddar Jalapeño Crunchy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fritolay.com/snacks/product-page/cheetos/cheetos-crunchy-cheddar-jalapeno-cheese-flavored-snacks|title=CHEETOS® Crunchy Cheddar Jalapeño Cheese Flavored Snacks|website=www.fritolay.com|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref>) The mixture is heated under pressure, and then extruded through a die. The texture of the snack is formed as a result of contact with hot air, causing steam in the mixture to expand and creating its characteristic texture. After oven-drying or frying, the product is then tumbled with the desired flavor components (the original Crunchy Cheetos are [[Frying|fried]]). The process takes approximately 19 minutes and each half hour an in-house lab team inspects and taste-tests each batch. At this point, the result of the inspection is determined by comparing each batch to product sent from Frito-Lay headquarters.<ref name=manufacturingwired>{{cite journal|last=Koerner|first=Brendan|title=Making Cheetos: It Ain't Easy Being Cheesy|journal=Wired Magazine|date=24 May 2010|volume=18|issue=6|url=https://www.wired.com/magazine/2010/05/process_cheetos|access-date=30 June 2011}}</ref> Other flavor and format variations such as Cheetos Puffs, Cheetos Paws, Cheetos Twists, Cheetos Balls, and Cheetos Whirls are all finished with a drying stage in large ovens.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smiths.com.au/student/cheetos.htm |title=Cheetos Cheese Snacks — Smith's Snackfood Company |publisher=Smiths.com.au |access-date=26 July 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917071354/http://www.smiths.com.au/student/cheetos.htm |archive-date=17 September 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> As of 2010, Frito-Lay has 14 fried-Cheetos plants in 11 states throughout the [[United States]].<ref name=manufacturingwired />

==Marketing==
{{Further|Chester Cheetah}}
The first Cheetos mascot was the animated Cheetos Mouse, which debuted in early 1971. The Cheetos Mouse spoke with an [[Upper class|upper-crust]] accent, and typically wore a [[Suit (clothing)|three piece suit]]. He used the slogans "Chee-tos. Cheese that goes crunch!" and several years later, "Hail Chee-sar!". The mouse was seen in television commercials and print ads for Cheetos, until the character was phased out around 1979.

The Cheetos brand is commonly recognized by association with its second and current [[mascot]], an [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] sly, smooth-voiced [[cartoon]] [[cheetah]] named [[Chester Cheetah]]. Chester first appeared in television commercials in 1986, known for concluding Cheetos advertisements with [[slogan]]s, which have evolved over time. He used both "The cheese that goes crunch!" and "It ain't easy bein' cheesy" as slogans from 1986 to 1997, and then "Dangerously cheesy" from 1997 onwards.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trademarkia.com/dangerously-cheesy-75226133.html|title=Apply for a Trademark. Search a Trademark|website=trademarkia.com}}</ref> In 2003, Chester was first rendered as a computer-generated character in the United States, while continuing to appear in a traditionally-animated form in some other countries where the brand is sold.<ref name=chestermascot>{{cite news|last=Stevenson|first=Seth|title=Chester's Got a Brand-New Bag|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2186601/|access-date=12 September 2011|newspaper=Slate|date=17 March 2008}}</ref>

Beginning in 2008, Cheetos advertising and promotion broadened in regards to age appeal, with a revised focus on an adult demographic. In this personification, Chester speaks with a [[Mid-Atlantic English|mid-Atlantic accent]] and encourages people to use their Cheetos in acts of revenge or to solve problems.<ref name=chestermascot /> In February 2009, Cheetos was the subject of its first [[Super Bowl advertising|Super Bowl commercial]]. In the {{US$|3{{nbsp}}million|link=yes}}, 30 second advertisement, a "loud, chatty woman" is talking on her mobile phone at a restaurant. Chester the Cheetah persuades another customer to toss Cheetos onto the ground, attracting a flock of birds to drive away the obnoxious loud-talking customer.<ref name=superbowl1>{{cite news|last=Wong|first=Emily|title=Cheetos Joins Super Bowl Ad Parade|url=http://www.adweek.com/news/advertising-branding/cheetos-joins-super-bowl-ad-parade-98205|access-date=12 September 2011|newspaper=AdWeek|date=29 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://adage.com/madisonandvine/article?article_id=134558|title=Frito-Lay Puts Cheetos Brand in Bloggers' Hands |publisher=adage.com |date=11 February 2009 |access-date=2 December 2010}}</ref> The scenario depicted in this commercial exemplifies the adult-oriented themes of [[subversion]] and revenge, which continue to be prevalent in Cheetos advertisements produced since 2008.<ref name=chestermascot />

In 2009, Frito-Lay invited popular blog [[Boing Boing]] to feature online ads for Cheetos. The blog contracted [[Johannes Grenzfurthner]] (of [[monochrom]]) to create an artistic campaign for the product.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Learmonth |first1=Michael |title=Frito-Lay Puts Cheetos Brand in Bloggers' Hands |url=https://adage.com/article/madisonvine-news/frito-lay-puts-cheetos-brand-bloggers-hands/134558/ |website=Ad Age |date=11 February 2009 |access-date=9 December 2018}}</ref>

On August 15, 2017, Frito-Lay announced the opening of its The Spotted Cheetah [[pop-up restaurant]] in New York, with dishes made with Cheetos with chef [[Anne Burrell]]. According to the ''Wall Street Journal'', the restaurant's reserve spots quickly sold out.<ref name=wsj-chetos>{{cite news |last=Passy |first=Charles |date=August 15, 2017 |title=You Can't Get a Table at Manhattan's Cheetos Restaurant - The Spotted Cheetah pop-up eatery sold out all its reservations in just six hours. |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/you-cant-get-a-table-at-manhattans-cheetos-restaurant-1502749930 | work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |location=New York City, New York, United States |access-date=August 17, 2017}}</ref>

==See also==

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Cheez Doodles]]
* [[Cheezies]]
* [[Kurkure]]
* [[List of brand name snack foods]]
* [[Mac n' Cheetos]]
* [[Pirate's Booty]]
* [[Barcel|Takis]]
* [[Twisties]]
* [[Wotsits]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{official website}}

{{Frito Lay}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Brand name snack foods]]
[[Category:Products introduced in 1948]]
[[Category:Frito-Lay brands]]
[[Category:The Smith's Snackfood Company brands]]

Richard Williams (tennis coach)

2022-09-05T08:22:48Z

Zumbo: Remove irrelevant remark.

{{Short description|American tennis coach (born 1942)}}
{{Other people|Richard Williams|Richard Williams (disambiguation)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox tennis biography
| image = Richard Williams at Acura Classic.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Williams at the 2007 [[Acura Classic]]
| fullname = Richard Dove Williams Jr.
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1942|2|14}}
| birth_place = [[Shreveport, Louisiana]], U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| CoachYears = 1994–present
| CoachPlayers = [[Venus Williams]], [[Serena Williams]]
| CoachSinglesTitles = 49(V)-73(S) (122 titles)
| CoachDoublesTitles = 21(S-V)-2(V)-5(S) (28 titles)
| CoachTournamentRecord=
 {{unbulleted list
| [[Grand Slam (tennis)#Career Golden Slam|Career Golden Slam – Singles]] (Serena)|7× [[Australian Open]] (Serena)|3× [[French Open]] (Serena)|12× [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] (Williams sisters)|8× [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] (Williams sisters)|2× [[Tennis at the Summer Olympics|Olympic Gold Medal]] (Williams sisters)|6× [[WTA Tour Championships]] (Williams sisters)|28× [[WTA Tier I tournaments|WTA Tier I]]/[[WTA Premier tournaments|Premier Mandatory/Premier 5]] (Williams sisters)|[[Grand Slam (tennis)#Career Golden Slam|Career Golden Slam – Doubles]] (Williams sisters)|4× [[Australian Open]] (Williams sisters)|2× [[French Open]] (Williams sisters)|5x [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] (Williams sisters)|2× [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] (Williams sisters)|3× [[Tennis at the Summer Olympics|Olympic Gold Medal]]|[[1999 Fed Cup|Fed Cup]] champions (Williams sisters)|2× [[Hopman Cup]] (Serena)
| [[Williams sisters|List of titles]]
}}
| CoachingRecords = {{plainlist|

* {{format link|Venus Williams#Records and achievements}}
* {{format link|Serena Williams#Other records and achievements}}}}

}}
'''Richard Dove Williams Jr.'''<ref name="Williams" /> (born February 14, 1942)<ref name="Edmondson">{{Cite book |last=Edmondson |first=Jacqueline |url=https://archive.org/details/venusserenawilli0000edmo/page/14 |title=Venus and Serena Williams: A Biography |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2005 |isbn=0-313-33165-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/venusserenawilli0000edmo/page/14 14]}}</ref> is a former American [[tennis]] coach and the father of tennis players [[Venus Williams]] and [[Serena Williams]].

== Early life ==
Williams was the oldest of five children<ref name="reveals tough">{{Cite news |last=Williams |first=Richard |date=April 20, 2014 |title=Richard Williams, father of Venus and Serena, reveals tough childhood that included disguising as a Klansman in 'Black and White: The Way I See It' |work=[[New York Daily News]] |url=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/venus-serena-williams-father-reveals-tough-childhood-black-white-article-1.1762359 |access-date=September 6, 2019}}</ref> and the only son of Julia Mae ({{nee}} Metcalf) and Richard Dove Williams of [[Shreveport, Louisiana]]. His younger sisters are Pat, Barbara, Penny, and Faye.<ref name="Williams">{{Cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkA5DwAAQBAJ&q=pat+barbara+penny+faye+williams&pg=PA22 |title=Black and White: The Way I See It |last2=Davis |first2=Bart |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2017 |isbn=9781476704210 |via=Google Books}}</ref> After graduating from high school he moved to [[Saginaw, Michigan]]<ref name="reveals tough" /> and then to California.<ref name="NYer">{{Cite magazine |last=Wiedeman |first=Reeves |date=June 2, 2014 |title=Tiger Dad: Child's Play |pages=24–25 |magazine=[[The New Yorker]]}}</ref>

== Tennis coaching ==

[[File:Serena Williams embraces Venus Williams as Father looks on.jpg|200px|thumbnail|left|Williams with his daughters shortly after Serena Williams' victory in the [[2012 Wimbledon Championships]]]]
Williams took tennis lessons from a man known as "Old Whiskey" and decided his future daughters would be tennis professionals after seeing [[Virginia Ruzici]] playing on television.<ref name="Edmondson" /><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Gregory |first=Sean |date=November 17, 2021 |title=What King Richard's Story of an Uncommon Dad Means for the Rest of Us |language=en |magazine=Time |url=https://time.com/6117655/king-richard-true-story-parenting/ |access-date=January 25, 2022}}</ref> Williams said that he wrote up an 85-page plan and started giving lessons to Venus and Serena when they were four and a half, taking them to practice on public tennis courts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=Gabrielle |date=July 6, 2000 |title=Paternal instinct |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/wimbledon2000/822368.stm |access-date=September 7, 2016 |website=BBC Sport}}</ref> Williams later added that he felt he took them too early and age six would have been more suitable.<ref name=NYer/> In 1995, Williams withdrew his daughters from a tennis academy and coached them himself.<ref>{{citation | title = Edmondson |year = 2005 | page = [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eKK771yLaHkC&pg=PA47&lpg=PA47&dq=%22richard+williams%22+coached+serena+1995&source=bl&ots=W9XMP7xy9z&sig=rElZyShLgmNHiJ-fwSc4Ts_wWfo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjWwp29r-jNAhXoJcAKHUl2DjcQ6AEIVzAM#v=onepage&q=%22richard%20williams%22%20coached%20serena%201995&f=false p. 47]}}</ref> Within a few years, they were winning grand slam tournaments.

[[Serena Williams|Serena]] won the [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] in 1999 and [[Venus Williams|Venus]] beat [[Lindsay Davenport]] to win the [[2000 Wimbledon]] title. After that victory, Richard shouted "[[Straight Outta Compton]]!", in reference to a song by [[N.W.A]] based in [[Compton, California]], the same area in Los Angeles where the family once resided.<ref name="stage">{{Cite news |last=Jago |first=Richard |date=July 4, 2009 |title=Richard Williams leaves Venus and Serena to take centre stage |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2009/jul/04/venus-serena-williams-wimbledon-womens-final |access-date=September 6, 2019}}</ref> He jumped over the NBC broadcasting booth, catching [[Chris Evert]] by surprise and performing a triumphant dance. Evert said that the broadcasters "thought the roof was coming down".<ref name = stage />

== Personal life ==

Williams has been married three times.

After moving to California he met Betty Johnson. They married in 1965 and had five children, three sons and two daughters: Sabrina, Richard III, Ronner, Reluss, and Reneeka, who were raised alongside Betty's other daughter, Katrina.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 10, 2020 |title=Serena and Venus' half-sister calls dad a 'sperm donor' who abandoned first family |url=https://pagesix.com/2020/01/10/serena-and-venus-half-sister-calls-dad-a-sperm-donor-who-abandoned-first-family/}}</ref><ref name="Edmondson" /> Williams and Johnson divorced in 1973.

In 1979, he met [[Oracene Price|Oracene "Brandy" Price]], who had three daughters from a previous relationship. They married in 1980 and had two daughters, [[Venus Williams|Venus]] (born June 17, 1980) and [[Serena Williams|Serena]] (born September 26, 1981). The family resided in [[Compton, California]]. Richard and Oracene divorced in 2002.

Richard then met grocery store owner Lakeisha Juanita Graham, and they married in 2010.<ref name="second wife">{{Cite news |last=Kleinberg |first=Eliot |date=June 15, 2017 |title=NEW: Father of Venus, Serena Williams seeks divorce from second wife |work=[[The Palm Beach Post]] |url=https://www.palmbeachpost.com/news/local/new-father-venus-serena-williams-seeks-divorce-from-second-wife/YslsBw624dv7nvm4vr5J8O/ |access-date=September 6, 2019}}</ref><ref name="NYer" /> They have a son.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cronin |first=Matt |date=October 24, 2012 |title=Williams Sisters Have New Little Brother |work=Tennis.com |url=http://www.tennis.com/pro-game/2012/10/williams-sisters-have-new-little-brother/39895/ |access-date=September 6, 2019}}</ref> They divorced in 2017.<ref name="interpret" /><ref name="second wife" />

Williams has a son, Chavoita, from a relationship outside his marriages.<ref name="interpret">{{Cite web |last=Magee |first=NY |date=December 19, 2018 |title=Serena And Venus Williams' Disabled Father Reportedly Needs Son To Interpret As He Battles Ex Wife |url=https://blackamericaweb.com/2018/12/19/serena-and-venus-williams-disabled-father-needs-son-to-interpret-as-he-battles-ex-wife |access-date=September 6, 2019 |website=blackamericaweb.com |agency=EURWeb.com}}</ref>

In July 2016, Williams suffered a stroke. At the time his then-wife, Lakeisha Williams, stated that his condition was stable.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 16, 2016 |title=Wife: Richard Williams had stroke, needs therapy |url=http://espn.go.com/tennis/story/_/id/17085682/richard-williams-hospital-suffering-stroke-wife-says |access-date=September 7, 2016 |website=ESPN.com}}</ref> In 2022, Williams was reported to have had two strokes.<ref name= interpret /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Clarey |first=Christopher |date=2022-03-28 |title=Will Smith Owned the Williams Sisters' Story Onscreen. Then He Stole Their Moment. |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/28/sports/tennis/oscars-will-smith-williams.html |access-date=2022-04-04 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
The biographical film, ''[[King Richard (film)|King Richard]]'', starring [[Will Smith]] as Richard Williams, was released on November 19, 2021 in theaters by [[Warner Bros. Pictures]] and streaming on [[HBO Max]].<ref name="WLM Tennis">{{Cite web |date=20 November 2021 |title=Before Richard Was King… |url=https://wlmtennis.com/before-richard-was-king/ |access-date=10 December 2021 |website=WLM Tennis}}</ref> The film was directed by [[Reinaldo Marcus Green]] and written by Zach Baylin. Venus and Serena served as executive producers.

Smith received critical acclaim for his performance and won numerous awards, including the 2022 [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=ABC.com |title=Will Smith Wins 2022 Oscar for Actor in a Leading Role in KING RICHARD - Oscars 2022 News |url=https://abc.com/shows/oscars/news/winners/oscars-2022-nominations-leading-actor |access-date=2022-03-28 |website=ABC.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama|Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture Drama]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Winners & Nominees Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture - Drama |url=https://www.goldenglobes.com/winners-nominees/best-performance-actor-motion-picture-drama |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=www.goldenglobes.com |language=en}}</ref> and the [[Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture|Screen Actor's Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role in a Motion Picture]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lewis |first1=Hilary |date=2022-02-28 |title=SAG Awards: Will Smith Pays Tribute to Venus and Serena Williams' Father in Best Actor Win |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/will-smith-wins-sag-awards-best-actor-1235100746/ |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=The Hollywood Reporter |language=en-US}}</ref> It was Smith's portrayal of Williams that indirectly led to the infamous [[Will Smith–Chris Rock slapping incident]] at the [[94th Academy Awards]].

== Books ==

* {{Cite book |last=With Bart Davis |title=Black and White: The Way I See It |publisher=Atria Books |year=2014 |isbn=978-1476704203 |location=New York}}<ref name="DN">{{Cite news |date=2014-04-20 |title=Richard Williams, father of Venus and Serena, reveals tough childhood that included disguising as Klansman in 'Black and White: The Way I See It |work=Daily News |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/venus-serena-williams-father-reveals-tough-childhood-black-white-article-1.1762359}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/tennis/news/2001/03/26/ericsson_open_ap/ SportsIllustrated.com, about the Indian Wells incident]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080325051722/http://www.sportsline.com/tennis/story/10725357 Women's tour CEO reacts to Richard Williams' remarks on racism]

{{Serena Williams}}
{{Venus Williams}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Williams, Richard}}
[[Category:1942 births]]
[[Category:African-American tennis coaches]]
[[Category:American tennis coaches]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Shreveport, Louisiana]]
[[Category:Tennis people from California]]
[[Category:Tennis people from Louisiana]]
[[Category:21st-century African-American people]]
[[Category:20th-century African-American sportspeople]]
[[Category:Williams family (tennis)]]

Cleopatra (disambiguation)

2022-07-15T07:08:53Z

Zumbo: What exactly is British or Swiss about the 1963 film?

{{Wiktionary|Cleopatra|Κλεοπάτρα}}

'''[[Cleopatra]]''' (69–30 BC) was the last active Ptolemaic ruler of Egypt before it became a Roman province.

'''Cleopatra''' may also refer to:
{{TOC right}}

== Given name ==
From the Greek name Κλεοπάτρα (Kleopatra) meaning "glory of the father", derived from κλέος (kleos) meaning "glory" combined with πατήρ (pater) meaning "father" (genitive πατρός).
* [[Cleopatra (given name)]], a list of people and fictional characters
* [[Cleopatra (Greek singer)]] (born 1963), represented Greece in the 1992 Eurovision Song Contest
* [[Cleopatra (Greek myth)]], a list of mythological figures

== Film ==
* [[Cleopatra (1912 film)|''Cleopatra'' (1912 film)]], silent film by Helen Gardner
* [[Cleopatra (1917 film)|''Cleopatra'' (1917 film)]], American film by J. Gordon Edwards
* [[Cleopatra (1928 film)|''Cleopatra'' (1928 film)]], short film
* [[Cleopatra (1934 film)|''Cleopatra'' (1934 film)]], American film by Cecil B. DeMille
* [[Cleopatra (1963 film)|''Cleopatra'' (1963 film)]], American film by Joseph L. Mankiewicz
* [[Cleopatra (1970 film)|''Cleopatra'' (1970 film)]], Japanese anime film
* [[Cleopatra (2003 film)|''Cleopatra'' (2003 film)]], Argentine film by Eduardo Mignogna
* [[Cleopatra (2005 film)|''Cleopatra'' (2005 film)]], South Indian Tamil film
* [[Cleopatra (2007 film)|''Cleopatra'' (2007 film)]], Brazilian film by Júlio Bressane
* [[Cleopatra (2013 film)|''Cleopatra'' (2013 film)]], South Indian Malayalam film

==Literature==
* [[Cleopatra (Rider Haggard novel)|''Cleopatra'' (Rider Haggard novel)]] (1889)
* [[Cleopatra (Gardner novel)|''Cleopatra'' (Gardner novel)]], a 1962 novel Jeffrey K. Gardner
* [[La Cleopatra (poem)|''La Cleopatra'' (poem)]], an epic poem by Girolamo Graziani
* the title character of ''[[Cleopatra in Space]]'', an American graphic novel series for children by Mike Maihack

==Music==
===Classical music===
* [[Cleopatra (Cimarosa)|''Cleopatra'' (Cimarosa)]], a 1789 opera seria by Domenico Cimarosa
* [[Cleopatra (Rossi)|''Cleopatra'' (Rossi)]], an 1876 opera by Lauro Rossi
* ''Cleopatra'', an opera by [[Johann Mattheson]]
* ''Cleopatra'', a composition by [[Luigi Mancinelli]]
* ''Cleopatra'', a symphonic poem by [[George Whitefield Chadwick]]

===Popular music===
* [[Cleopatra Records]], an American record label
* [[Cleopatra (group)]], a British girl group

====Albums====
* [[Cleopatra (album)|''Cleopatra'' (album)]], a 2016 album by The Lumineers
* [[Cleopatra (1963 soundtrack)|''Cleopatra'' (1963 soundtrack)]], a soundtrack by Alex North
* ''Cleopatra'', a 2004 album by [[Isabel Bayrakdarian]]
* ''Handel: Cleopatra'', a 2011 album by [[Natalie Dessay]]

====Songs====
* [[Cleopatra (Frankie Avalon song)|"Cleopatra" (Frankie Avalon song)]] (1963)
* [[Cleopatra (Jerome Kern song)|"Cleopatra" (Jerome Kern song)]] (1917)
* [[Cleopatra (Samira Efendi song)|"Cleopatra" (Samira Efendi song)]], Azerbaijan's 2020 Eurovision song submission.
* [[Cleopatra (The Lumineers song)|"Cleopatra" (The Lumineers song)]] (2016)
* [[Cleopatra (Weezer song)|"Cleopatra" (Weezer song)]] (2014)
* "Cleopatra (I've Got to Get You Off My Mind)", a song by [[The Tennors]]
* "Cleopatra", a song by Adam and the Ants from their 1979 album ''[[Dirk Wears White Sox]]''
* "Cleopatra", a song by [[Nico Fidenco]]
* "Cleopatra", a song by [[David Vendetta]]

==Paintings==
* [[Cleopatra (Artemisia Gentileschi, Ferrara)|''Cleopatra'' (Artemisia Gentileschi, Ferrara)]], by Artemisia Gentileschi, c. 1620
* [[Cleopatra (Artemisia Gentileschi, Milan)|''Cleopatra'' (Artemisia Gentileschi, Milan)]], by Artemisia Gentileschi, 1613 or 1621–1622
* [[Cleopatra (Artemisia Gentileschi, Rome)|''Cleopatra'' (Artemisia Gentileschi, Rome)]], by Artemisia Gentileschi, c. 1633-5

==Places==
* [[Cleopatra (neighborhood)]], a neighborhood of Alexandria, Egypt
* [[Cleopatra, Kentucky]], United States, an unincorporated community
* [[Cleopatra, Missouri]], United States, an unincorporated community
* [[Cleopatra (crater)]], an impact crater on Venus

==Plants and animals==
* [[Cleopatra (horse)]], an American racehorse
* [[Cleopatra (gastropod)|''Cleopatra'' (gastropod)]], a genus of freshwater snails
* ''[[Gonepteryx cleopatra]]'' or cleopatra, a species of butterfly
* ''[[Neoguillauminia cleopatra]]'', a species of tree from New Caledonia

==Ships ==
* {{HMS|Cleopatra}}, various Royal Navy ships
* {{ship||Cleopatra|1839}}, an East India Company paddle frigate built in 1839 and sunk by a tropical cyclone in 1847
* [[Cleopatra (cylinder ship)|''Cleopatra'' (cylinder ship)]], a vessel constructed to convey Cleopatra's Needle from Alexandria to London in 1877
* {{SS|Mohegan}}, originally named ''Cleopatra'', a mixed passenger liner and animal carrier which sank in 1898
* {{SS|United Victory}}, a World War II Victory cargo ship renamed ''Cleopatra'' in 1956

== Television ==
* [[Cleopatra (miniseries)|''Cleopatra'' (miniseries)]], a 1999 American miniseries produced by Hallmark Entertainment
* ''[[Cleopatra 2525]]'', an American science fiction television series
* ''[[The Cleopatras]]'', a 1983 British series
* ''[[Cleopatra in Space (TV series)|Cleopatra in Space]]'', an animated television series from [[DreamWorks Animation Television]]

==Other uses==
* [[Cleopatra (cigarette)]], an Egyptian brand

== See also ==
* [[Foxxy Cleopatra]], a character in ''Austin Powers in Goldmember''
* [[Cleopatra Algemene Studentenvereniging Groningen]], a student association in Groningen, the Netherlands
* [[Cleopatra's Needle]], a pair of Egyptian obelisks
* [[Kleopatra (disambiguation)]]
* [[Cleo (disambiguation)]]

{{disambiguation|geo|ship}}

Hannibal Rising

2022-07-08T07:19:07Z

Zumbo: Websites no longer exist.

{{Short description|2006 novel by Thomas Harris}}
{{About|the novel|the film|Hannibal Rising (film)}}
{{Infobox book 
| name = Hannibal Rising
| image = Hannibalrisingcover.jpg
| caption = First edition cover
| author = [[Thomas Harris]]
| cover_artist =
| country = United States
| language = English
| series = [[Hannibal Lecter (franchise)|Hannibal Lecter]]
| genre = [[Thriller (genre)|Thriller]], [[Horror (genre)|horror]], [[psychological thriller]]
| publisher = [[Delacorte Press]]
| release_date = 5 December 2006
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]])
| pages = 323
| isbn = 0-385-33941-0
| oclc = 82287375
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =[[Red Dragon (novel)|Red Dragon]]
}}

'''''Hannibal Rising''''' is a psychological horror [[novel]] by American author [[Thomas Harris]], published in 2006. It is a [[prequel]] to his three previous books featuring his most famous character, the [[cannibal]]istic [[serial killer]] [[Hannibal Lecter|Dr. Hannibal Lecter]]. The novel was released with an initial printing of at least 1.5 million copies<ref name="CNN">{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/SHOWBIZ/books/09/19/books.hanniballecter.ap/index.html |title=New Hannibal Lecter novel due in December |access-date=September 19, 2006 |date=September 19, 2006|work=[[CNN]] |agency=[[Associated Press]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060920233820/http://www.cnn.com/2006/SHOWBIZ/books/09/19/books.hanniballecter.ap/index.html  |archive-date=September 20, 2006}}</ref> and met with a mixed critical response. [[Audiobook]] versions have also been released, with Harris reading the text. The novel was adapted (by Harris himself) into a [[Hannibal Rising (film)|film of the same name]] in 2007, directed by [[Peter Webber]]. Producer [[Dino De Laurentiis]] implied around the time of the novel's release that he had coerced Harris into writing it under threat of losing control over the Hannibal Lecter character, accounting for the perceived diminished quality from Harris' previous books.<ref name="Entertainment Weekly">{{cite web |first=Daniel|last=Fierman|url=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20012076,00.html |title=Lecter Loses His Bite |access-date=August 9, 2014|date=February 16, 2007|work=[[Entertainment Weekly]]}}</ref>

== Plot==
Opening in [[Lithuania]] during 1941, Hannibal Lecter is eight years old and living in a castle with his parents and sister, Mischa. With the castle located near the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|eastern front]] of [[World War II]], the Lecter family escapes to their lodge to elude the advancing [[Nazi Germany|German]] troops. With the castle abandoned, it is soon raided by Germans and [[Hiwi (volunteer)|civilians aiding them]], their hidden art collection being among the stolen loot. Three years later, an advancing [[Soviet Army|Soviet]] tank stops at the Lecter family's lodge looking for water, only to be bombed by a German [[Junkers Ju 87|Stuka]], the explosion killing all but the children. Surviving in the lodge, Hannibal and Mischa are captured when six deserters appear: Vladis Grutas, Zigmas Milko, Bronys Grentz, Enrikas Dortlich, Petras Kolnas and Kazys Porvik. Storming and looting the lodge, they lock the Lecters in the barn. Running low on supplies, the soldiers soon take Mischa; realizing they intend to [[cannibalism|cannibalize]] her, Hannibal tries to stop them, only to have his arm broken before he blacks out.

Hannibal is later spotted by a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] tank crew, wearing shackles and rendered [[muteness|mute]]. Returned to Lecter Castle, now a Soviet orphanage, Hannibal is found to be irreparably [[psychological trauma|traumatized]] by the ordeal. Removed from the orphanage by his uncle Robert Lecter, Hannibal goes to live with him in [[France]] with his aunt, Lady Murasaki. Visiting a marketplace with his aunt, Lecter assaults butcher Paul Momund when he insults Murasaki. Count Lecter, learning of the slight against his wife, violently confronts the butcher and collapses and subsequently dies from a heart attack. Losing most of the Count's estate to [[death duties]], Lecter and Murasaki move across France, and Lecter flourishes as a medical student, assisting by preparing cadavers for lessons.

Locating Momund the butcher, Lecter murders him for his actions, eviscerating and beheading him before eating his cheeks. Suspected by Inspector Popil, Lecter escapes suspicion when Murasaki falsifies evidence, suggesting Momund's death was political. Using [[sodium thiopental]] to recall the lodge, Lecter remembers Mischa's murder and her killer's faces, and that the lodge was shelled; the building burning and soldiers fleeing, Lecter was freed by Porvik, who was then crushed by falling debris. Working with Popil to recover his family's stolen art, Lecter attends a recovered art exhibition with Murasaki, and speaks with one of Grutas' men selling the art. Afraid he will uncover their identities, Grutas sends Dortlich to murder him.

Returning to the dilapidated lodge, Lecter searches the ruins and finds a bag of buried loot, which also contains the hidden dogtags of his captors. Attacked by Dortlich, Lecter strikes him with his shovel, and ties him to a tree stump. Noosed to a horse, Dortlich confirms Grentz relocated to Canada, and that Kolnas owns a restaurant in [[Fontainebleau]]; despite his pleas, Lecter uses the horse to tear off Dortlich's head. Returning to France, Lecter is kissed by Murasaki, who insists that he promise to stop killing and to co-operate with Popil; Lecter responds that he already promised revenge for Mischa, and leaves. Lecter continues his studies only to be stalked during his night-shift by Milko. Outwitting Milko and drugging him, Lecter interrogates him for information on Grutas, before drowning him in an embalming tank and incinerating his remains.

Eating at Kolnas' restaurant, Lecter notices his daughter is wearing Mischa's stolen bracelet. Entering Grutas' property, Hannibal sets an improvised bomb and confronts him as he bathes, only to be interrupted by Grutas' guards. As Lecter is about to be killed, his bomb detonates and cuts the power, allowing him to wound the guards and escape in the chaos. Returning to Murasaki's home, Lecter receives a call from Grutas, who threatens to kill her unless he surrenders; overhearing [[Ortolan bunting|ortolans]] singing in the background of the phone call, Lecter breaks into Kolnas' home, and then heads to his restaurant. Lecter shows he took Mischa's bracelet from his daughter and, in exchange for information, offers to spare Kolnas and free his family. Giving up the location of Grutas' houseboat, Kolnas then realizes Lecter was lying about holding his family. Attacked by Kolnas, Lecter fatally stabs him through the head with a [[tantō]].

Finding and reaching the boat, Lecter sneaks aboard but is wounded by the captain. Killing the guards and captain, Lecter rushes to save Murasaki, only to be shot in the back by Grutas, who boasts while molesting a bound Murasaki. Lecter removes his tantō, dimpled by Grutas' bullet, and uses it to cut both Grutas' Achilles tendons. With Grutas disarmed, Murasaki begs Lecter spare him for Popil, only for Grutas to mock him. Taunting that Lecter drank broth made from Mischa, he suggests Lecter kills only to continue lying to himself; enraged, Lecter carves several "M"s into Grutas, fatally wounding him. Horrified by Lecter, Murasaki declares there's nothing human left inside him to love, and dives overboard. Detonating the houseboat with an improvised explosive, Lecter flees the scene.

Arrested by Popil, Lecter is soon freed when popular support for his dispatch of [[war crimes|war criminals]] combines with a lack of hard evidence. Lecter meets with Murasaki, and they say their goodbyes and part. Offered a residency at [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]], Lecter heads overseas to North America, stopping briefly to visit bar-owner Grentz in [[Quebec]], Canada.

== Development ==
The February 22, 2007 issue of ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'' features a quote that suggests that the only reason Thomas Harris wrote the story was out of the fear that a Lecter prequel/origin story would inevitably be written without his involvement. ''Hannibal Rising'' film producer [[Dino De Laurentiis]] said "I say to Thomas, 'If you don't do [the prequel], I will do it with someone else... I don't want to lose this [[media franchise|franchise]]. And the audience wants it...' He said, 'No. I'm sorry.' And I said, 'I ''will'' do it with somebody else.' And then he said, 'Let me think about it. I will come up with an idea.'"<ref name="Entertainment Weekly"/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://imdb.com/title/tt0367959 ''Hannibal Rising''] at [[IMDb]]
* [http://www.metacritic.com/movie/hannibal-rising''Hannibal Rising'' Movie Reviews] at [[Metacritic]]
* [http://www.myspace.com/hannibalrisingbook Official ''Hannibal Rising'' MySpace site]

{{Hannibal}}

[[Category:Hannibal Lecter novels]]
[[Category:2006 American novels]]
[[Category:Fiction set in 1941]]
[[Category:American thriller novels]]
[[Category:Johns Hopkins Hospital in fiction]]
[[Category:American novels adapted into films]]
[[Category:Prequel novels]]
[[Category:Novels about orphans]]
[[Category:Novels about serial killers]]
[[Category:Novels about psychopathy]]
[[Category:Novels set in the 1940s]]
[[Category:Novels set in France]]
[[Category:Novels set in Lithuania]]
[[Category:Novels set in the Stalin era]]
[[Category:Novels set during World War II]]
[[Category:Novels about Nazi hunters]]
[[Category:Novels about Nazi fugitives]]

Hannibal Rising

2022-07-08T07:18:22Z

Zumbo: Website no longer exists

{{Short description|2006 novel by Thomas Harris}}
{{About|the novel|the film|Hannibal Rising (film)}}
{{Infobox book 
| name = Hannibal Rising
| image = Hannibalrisingcover.jpg
| caption = First edition cover
| author = [[Thomas Harris]]
| cover_artist =
| country = United States
| language = English
| series = [[Hannibal Lecter (franchise)|Hannibal Lecter]]
| genre = [[Thriller (genre)|Thriller]], [[Horror (genre)|horror]], [[psychological thriller]]
| publisher = [[Delacorte Press]]
| release_date = 5 December 2006
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]])
| pages = 323
| isbn = 0-385-33941-0
| oclc = 82287375
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =[[Red Dragon (novel)|Red Dragon]]
}}

'''''Hannibal Rising''''' is a psychological horror [[novel]] by American author [[Thomas Harris]], published in 2006. It is a [[prequel]] to his three previous books featuring his most famous character, the [[cannibal]]istic [[serial killer]] [[Hannibal Lecter|Dr. Hannibal Lecter]]. The novel was released with an initial printing of at least 1.5 million copies<ref name="CNN">{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/SHOWBIZ/books/09/19/books.hanniballecter.ap/index.html |title=New Hannibal Lecter novel due in December |access-date=September 19, 2006 |date=September 19, 2006|work=[[CNN]] |agency=[[Associated Press]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060920233820/http://www.cnn.com/2006/SHOWBIZ/books/09/19/books.hanniballecter.ap/index.html  |archive-date=September 20, 2006}}</ref> and met with a mixed critical response. [[Audiobook]] versions have also been released, with Harris reading the text. The novel was adapted (by Harris himself) into a [[Hannibal Rising (film)|film of the same name]] in 2007, directed by [[Peter Webber]]. Producer [[Dino De Laurentiis]] implied around the time of the novel's release that he had coerced Harris into writing it under threat of losing control over the Hannibal Lecter character, accounting for the perceived diminished quality from Harris' previous books.<ref name="Entertainment Weekly">{{cite web |first=Daniel|last=Fierman|url=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20012076,00.html |title=Lecter Loses His Bite |access-date=August 9, 2014|date=February 16, 2007|work=[[Entertainment Weekly]]}}</ref>

== Plot==
Opening in [[Lithuania]] during 1941, Hannibal Lecter is eight years old and living in a castle with his parents and sister, Mischa. With the castle located near the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|eastern front]] of [[World War II]], the Lecter family escapes to their lodge to elude the advancing [[Nazi Germany|German]] troops. With the castle abandoned, it is soon raided by Germans and [[Hiwi (volunteer)|civilians aiding them]], their hidden art collection being among the stolen loot. Three years later, an advancing [[Soviet Army|Soviet]] tank stops at the Lecter family's lodge looking for water, only to be bombed by a German [[Junkers Ju 87|Stuka]], the explosion killing all but the children. Surviving in the lodge, Hannibal and Mischa are captured when six deserters appear: Vladis Grutas, Zigmas Milko, Bronys Grentz, Enrikas Dortlich, Petras Kolnas and Kazys Porvik. Storming and looting the lodge, they lock the Lecters in the barn. Running low on supplies, the soldiers soon take Mischa; realizing they intend to [[cannibalism|cannibalize]] her, Hannibal tries to stop them, only to have his arm broken before he blacks out.

Hannibal is later spotted by a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] tank crew, wearing shackles and rendered [[muteness|mute]]. Returned to Lecter Castle, now a Soviet orphanage, Hannibal is found to be irreparably [[psychological trauma|traumatized]] by the ordeal. Removed from the orphanage by his uncle Robert Lecter, Hannibal goes to live with him in [[France]] with his aunt, Lady Murasaki. Visiting a marketplace with his aunt, Lecter assaults butcher Paul Momund when he insults Murasaki. Count Lecter, learning of the slight against his wife, violently confronts the butcher and collapses and subsequently dies from a heart attack. Losing most of the Count's estate to [[death duties]], Lecter and Murasaki move across France, and Lecter flourishes as a medical student, assisting by preparing cadavers for lessons.

Locating Momund the butcher, Lecter murders him for his actions, eviscerating and beheading him before eating his cheeks. Suspected by Inspector Popil, Lecter escapes suspicion when Murasaki falsifies evidence, suggesting Momund's death was political. Using [[sodium thiopental]] to recall the lodge, Lecter remembers Mischa's murder and her killer's faces, and that the lodge was shelled; the building burning and soldiers fleeing, Lecter was freed by Porvik, who was then crushed by falling debris. Working with Popil to recover his family's stolen art, Lecter attends a recovered art exhibition with Murasaki, and speaks with one of Grutas' men selling the art. Afraid he will uncover their identities, Grutas sends Dortlich to murder him.

Returning to the dilapidated lodge, Lecter searches the ruins and finds a bag of buried loot, which also contains the hidden dogtags of his captors. Attacked by Dortlich, Lecter strikes him with his shovel, and ties him to a tree stump. Noosed to a horse, Dortlich confirms Grentz relocated to Canada, and that Kolnas owns a restaurant in [[Fontainebleau]]; despite his pleas, Lecter uses the horse to tear off Dortlich's head. Returning to France, Lecter is kissed by Murasaki, who insists that he promise to stop killing and to co-operate with Popil; Lecter responds that he already promised revenge for Mischa, and leaves. Lecter continues his studies only to be stalked during his night-shift by Milko. Outwitting Milko and drugging him, Lecter interrogates him for information on Grutas, before drowning him in an embalming tank and incinerating his remains.

Eating at Kolnas' restaurant, Lecter notices his daughter is wearing Mischa's stolen bracelet. Entering Grutas' property, Hannibal sets an improvised bomb and confronts him as he bathes, only to be interrupted by Grutas' guards. As Lecter is about to be killed, his bomb detonates and cuts the power, allowing him to wound the guards and escape in the chaos. Returning to Murasaki's home, Lecter receives a call from Grutas, who threatens to kill her unless he surrenders; overhearing [[Ortolan bunting|ortolans]] singing in the background of the phone call, Lecter breaks into Kolnas' home, and then heads to his restaurant. Lecter shows he took Mischa's bracelet from his daughter and, in exchange for information, offers to spare Kolnas and free his family. Giving up the location of Grutas' houseboat, Kolnas then realizes Lecter was lying about holding his family. Attacked by Kolnas, Lecter fatally stabs him through the head with a [[tantō]].

Finding and reaching the boat, Lecter sneaks aboard but is wounded by the captain. Killing the guards and captain, Lecter rushes to save Murasaki, only to be shot in the back by Grutas, who boasts while molesting a bound Murasaki. Lecter removes his tantō, dimpled by Grutas' bullet, and uses it to cut both Grutas' Achilles tendons. With Grutas disarmed, Murasaki begs Lecter spare him for Popil, only for Grutas to mock him. Taunting that Lecter drank broth made from Mischa, he suggests Lecter kills only to continue lying to himself; enraged, Lecter carves several "M"s into Grutas, fatally wounding him. Horrified by Lecter, Murasaki declares there's nothing human left inside him to love, and dives overboard. Detonating the houseboat with an improvised explosive, Lecter flees the scene.

Arrested by Popil, Lecter is soon freed when popular support for his dispatch of [[war crimes|war criminals]] combines with a lack of hard evidence. Lecter meets with Murasaki, and they say their goodbyes and part. Offered a residency at [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]], Lecter heads overseas to North America, stopping briefly to visit bar-owner Grentz in [[Quebec]], Canada.

== Development ==
The February 22, 2007 issue of ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'' features a quote that suggests that the only reason Thomas Harris wrote the story was out of the fear that a Lecter prequel/origin story would inevitably be written without his involvement. ''Hannibal Rising'' film producer [[Dino De Laurentiis]] said "I say to Thomas, 'If you don't do [the prequel], I will do it with someone else... I don't want to lose this [[media franchise|franchise]]. And the audience wants it...' He said, 'No. I'm sorry.' And I said, 'I ''will'' do it with somebody else.' And then he said, 'Let me think about it. I will come up with an idea.'"<ref name="Entertainment Weekly"/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://imdb.com/title/tt0367959 ''Hannibal Rising''] at [[IMDb]]
* [http://www.ddlc.net Official Dino De Laurentiis Company website]
* [http://www.hannibalrising.co.uk Official ''Hannibal Rising'' website]
* [http://www.metacritic.com/movie/hannibal-rising''Hannibal Rising'' Movie Reviews] at [[Metacritic]]
* [http://www.myspace.com/hannibalrisingbook Official ''Hannibal Rising'' MySpace site]

{{Hannibal}}

[[Category:Hannibal Lecter novels]]
[[Category:2006 American novels]]
[[Category:Fiction set in 1941]]
[[Category:American thriller novels]]
[[Category:Johns Hopkins Hospital in fiction]]
[[Category:American novels adapted into films]]
[[Category:Prequel novels]]
[[Category:Novels about orphans]]
[[Category:Novels about serial killers]]
[[Category:Novels about psychopathy]]
[[Category:Novels set in the 1940s]]
[[Category:Novels set in France]]
[[Category:Novels set in Lithuania]]
[[Category:Novels set in the Stalin era]]
[[Category:Novels set during World War II]]
[[Category:Novels about Nazi hunters]]
[[Category:Novels about Nazi fugitives]]

Hepburn (surname)

2022-06-07T14:53:42Z

Zumbo: Big Pooh is not named Hepburn

{{Other uses|Hepburn (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox name
|name = Hepburn
|image =
|caption =
|pronunciation = {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɛ|p|ˌ|b|ɜːr|n}}
|gender =
|feminine =
|language = English
|languageorigin =
|derivation = from a placename in Northumberland
|meaning = "high place beside the water"
|cognate =
|family =
|seealso =
}}
'''Hepburn''' is a family name of the [[Anglo-Scottish border]], that is associated with a variety of famous personages, [[eponym]]s, places, and things. Although commonly a [[Scotland|Scottish]] name, its origins lie to the south of the border in the north of [[England]]. Specifically, the name is thought to have derived from [[Hepburn, Northumberland|Hepburn]] or [[Hebron, Northumberland|Hebron]] in [[Northumberland]] or [[Hebburn]] in [[Tyne and Wear]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Parkin|first=Harry |title=Hepburn|date=2021-08-19|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198868255.001.0001/acref-9780198868255-e-18259|work=Concise Oxford Dictionary of Family Names in Britain|editor-last=Parkin|editor-first=Harry|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198868255.001.0001/acref-9780198868255-e-18259|isbn=978-0-19-886825-5|access-date=2022-02-09}}</ref> The origins of the name are suggested to be the same as that of Hebborne from the [[Old English language|Old English]] words ''heah'' ("high") and ''byrgen'' ("burial mound"). Alternatively it could mean something along the lines of "high place beside the water", as the word ''burn'' is a still widely used in [[Northumbrian English|Northumbrian]] and [[Scots language|Scots]] for ''stream''.

Next to [[Chillingham Castle]] there remains a [[Bastle house|bastle tower]] where the family originated. This was the seat of a line of the family until the eighteenth century when that branch died out, having left only a female heir. However, it is as the [[Earl of Bothwell|Earls of Bothwell]] that the Hepburn family are perhaps best remembered. This branch of the family originated in [[Lothian]] when a Hepburn was granted land having saved the [[Earl of March]] from a horse that had lost control. This family first became the Lords of [[Hailes Castle|Hailes]] before being granted the [[Earldom]] of [[Bothwell]].

There were also Hepburns of Waughton, thought by some to have branched off from the Hailes line, thought by others to predate it. Another line was the Hepburns of Beanston, and yet another was the Hepburns of [[Athelstaneford]]. All of these families were prominent in various ways at various junctures of Scottish history, but all were primarily located around the [[East Lothian]] area.

==Scottish nobles==
* [[Patrick Hepburn, 1st Lord of Hailes]] (died 1483)
* [[Adam Hepburn, Master of Hailes]] (died 1479), son of Patrick, 1st Lord of Hailes
* [[Patrick Hepburn, 1st Earl of Bothwell]] (died 1508), son of Adam, Master of Hailes
* [[Adam Hepburn of Craggis]] (died 1513), son of Adam, Master of Hailes
* [[George Hepburn (bishop)]] (died 1513), son of Adam, Master of Hailes
* [[Adam Hepburn, 2nd Earl of Bothwell]] (died 1513), son of Patrick, 1st Earl of Bothwell
* [[Patrick Hepburn, 3rd Earl of Bothwell]] (1512–1556), son of Adam, 2nd Earl of Bothwell
* [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell]] (c. 1534–1578), son of Patrick, 3rd Earl of Bothwell, and husband of Mary, Queen of Scots
* [[Francis Stewart Hepburn, 5th Earl of Bothwell]] (before 1563–1612), nephew of James, 4th Earl of Bothwell

==Politics==
* [[A. Barton Hepburn]] (1846–1922), American banker and politician
* [[Bernard Rickart Hepburn]] (1876–1939), member of the Canadian House of Commons
* [[James de Congalton Hepburn]] ([[floruit|fl.]] 1940s), Speaker of the Ontario (Canada) Legislature
* [[Jamie Hepburn]] (born 1979), member of the Scottish Parliament
* [[Mitchell Hepburn]] (1896–1953), Premier of Ontario, Canada
* [[Patrick Buchan-Hepburn]] (1901–1974), Scottish politician
* [[Robert Rickart Hepburn]] Member of Parliament for Kincardineshire 1768–1774
* [[Stephen Hepburn]] (born 1959), English Member of Parliament
* [[William Peters Hepburn]] (1833–1916), American congressman for Iowa, author of the [[Hepburn Act]] of 1906

==Academia==
* [[Alexa Hepburn]], English social psychologists
* [[Andrew Dousa Hepburn]] (1830–1921), president of Miami University and Davidson College
* [[Charles A. Hepburn]] (born 1891–1971), Scottish businessman and philanthropist
* [[Ian Hepburn]] (1902{{ndash}}74), British schoolmaster, botanist, ecologist and author
* [[James Hepburn (ornithologist)|James Hepburn]] (1811–1869), British ornithologist
* [[James Bonaventure Hepburn]] (1573–1620), Scottish Catholic scholar
* [[James Curtis Hepburn]] (1815–1911), American linguist, devised a romanization system for Japanese

==Arts and entertainment==
* [[Katharine Hepburn]] (1907–2003), American actress
* [[Audrey Hepburn]] (nee Ruston) (1929–1993), Belgian-born British actress
* [[Barton Hepburn]] (1906–1955), American actor
* [[Dee Hepburn]] (born 1961), Scottish actress
* [[Alex Hepburn]] (born 1986), British singer

==Sports==
* [[Craig Hepburn]] (born 1969), Bahamian long-jumper
* [[Doug Hepburn]] (1926–2000), Canadian weightlifter
* [[James Hepburn (golfer)|James Hepburn]] (born 1876), Scottish-American professional golfer
* [[Michael Hepburn]] (born 1991), Australian track and road cyclist
* [[Ralph Hepburn]] (1896–1948), American motorcycle and racecar driver
* [[Ross Hepburn]] (born 1972), Scottish curler

==Military==
* [[Allan Hepburn]] (1896–1975), Australian World War I flying ace
* [[Arthur Japy Hepburn]] (1877–1964), US Navy Admiral
* [[Sir John Hepburn]] (c. 1598–1636), Scottish soldier, fought for Sweden and France

==Trade Unions==
* [[Thomas Hepburn]] (c. 1795–1864), English miner and union founder

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/families/hepburns.htm The Hepburn Family]
* [http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/htol/hepburn2.html Clan Hepburn]
* [http://www.hepburnofdonegal.com Hepburns of Donegal (county of Ireland)]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hepburn (Surname)}}
[[Category:Surnames]]
[[Category:English-language surnames]]
[[Category:Scottish surnames]]
[[Category:Surnames of Lowland Scottish origin]]
[[Category:Northumbria]]

Big Pooh

2022-06-07T14:52:50Z

Zumbo: remove unnecessary link

{{Short description|American rapper from North Carolina}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Big Pooh
| image = Big Pooh 2.jpg
| caption = Jones performing in Atlanta, Georgia in March 2008
| birth_name = Thomas Louis Jones III
| alias = Rapper Big Pooh
| birth_place = [[Fairfax County, Virginia]], U.S.
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1980|02|12}}
| origin = [[Raleigh-Durham, North Carolina]], U.S.
| death_date =
| instrument =
| genre = [[Hip hop music|Hip hop]]
| occupation = Rapper
| years_active = 1998–present
| label = {{hlist|6 Hole|[[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]]| For Members Only|[[Mello Music Group|Mello Music]]}}
| associated_acts = {{hlist|[[Little Brother (band)|Little Brother]]|[[Apollo Brown]]| [[Chaundon]]| [[Lute (rapper)|Lute]]| [[Nottz]]}}
| website =
}}
'''Thomas Louis Jones III''' (born February 12, 1980), better known by his stage name '''Big Pooh''' (or '''Rapper Big Pooh'''), is an American [[rapper]], who, along with fellow rap artist [[Phonte]], is a member of the acclaimed [[North Carolina]] [[hip hop]] group [[Little Brother (band)|Little Brother]]. In addition to numerous records and EP's by Little Brother, Pooh released a solo album in 2005 entitled ''[[Sleepers (album)|Sleepers]]'' to positive critical reception.<ref>[http://www.prefixmag.com/reviews/cds/R/Rapper-Big-Pooh/Sleepers/1314/ Prefixmag.com Review]</ref> Furthermore, he has been guest featured on numerous tracks by other artists. Big Pooh also appreciates basketball and has served as a guest writer on a basketball blog.<ref>Jones, Thomas "Pooh". [http://www.slamonline.com/online/nba/2010/03/my-informal-introduction/comment-page-1/#comment-1117190 My Informal Introduction: Meet Rapper Big Pooh: Musician, wordsmith, basketball fan. Now, SLAM’s newest blogger.] ''Slam Online.'' 16 March 2010.</ref>

==Biography==
Being inspired to pursue Hip-Hop by lyricists such as [[Nasir Jones]] and [[Ice Cube]], Big Pooh first got his break by Beni B of ABB Records.<ref>https://twitter.com/rapperbigpooh/status/1261808450193031168?s=21 {{Bare URL inline|date=November 2021}}</ref> He had been pursued by most of the major labels for about a year. He ended up signing to Atlantic "because the independent label we were signed to, ABB felt Atlantic was the best route for them as well as us". His deal with Atlantic ended in 07.<ref>[http://handsonhiphop.com/5/post/2013/06/rapper-big-pooh-interview.html handsonhiphop Interview]</ref>

In January 2007, in response to the departure of Little Brother member, co-founder and main producer [[9th wonder|9th Wonder]], Pooh stated in an interview that "there are no hard feelings and no beef", adding that "this is just a decision that had to be made so all three of us could move forward and continue to provide the world with dope music."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hiphopgame.com/news.php3?id=1510 |title=Brian Kaiser Interview |access-date=2007-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090402125042/http://www.hiphopgame.com/news.php3?id=1510 |archive-date=2009-04-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2007, Rapper Big Pooh appeared on the Little Brother download-only [[mixtape]] entitled ''And Justus for All'', which was released free on the internet February 13, 2007, mixed by DJ Mick Boogie.

In 2009, he released a new interim "street" album, ''The Delightful Bars'', with four slightly different versions of the album available, including one [[iTunes]] exclusive "Candy Apple" edition which contains 13 tracks, each featuring different artwork showing a nude model sprinkled with candy.<ref name="Tullis">Tullis, Eric (2009) "[http://www.indyweek.com/gyrobase/Content?oid=oid%3A366721 Rapper Big Pooh's The Delightful Bars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323210746/http://www.indyweek.com/gyrobase/Content?oid=oid%3A366721 |date=2014-03-23 }}", ''[[Independent Weekly]]'', 8 April 2009</ref><ref name="Lee">Lee, Frazia (2009) "[http://metrospirit.com/index.php?cat=1993101070394080&ShowArticle_ID=11010804094625681 Big Pooh ''Delightful Bars (North American Pie Version)''] {{Dead link|date=June 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}" (review), ''[[Metro Spirit]]'', Issue #20.37 :: 04/08/2009 - 04/14/2009</ref><ref name="Abdusalaam">AbduSalaam, Ismael (2009) "[http://allhiphop.com/stories/news/archive/2009/03/19/21193102.aspx Little Brother’s Big Pooh Preps New Solo Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422080811/http://www.allhiphop.com/stories/news/archive/2009/03/19/21193102.aspx |date=2009-04-22 }}", Allhiphop.com, 19 March 2009</ref> The video for the album's lead single, "The Comeback," features a kitchen scene with Pooh surrounded by women preparing ingredients, baking and packaging "Delightful Bars" candy bars.<ref name="Tullis" />

In early 2010, Rapper Big Pooh released ''The Purple Tape'' for free download. This mixtape features Rapper Big Pooh rhyming over Detroit producer Black Milk's instrumentals from a collection released years ago using Prince samples, hence the "Purple" reference. This is also a reference to Raekwon's [[Only Built 4 Cuban Linx]] album that was released as a purple cassette tape, garnering the name The Purple Tape.

In January 2014, Rapper Big Pooh signed a two-album deal with independent label Mello Music Group- the record label that's also home to [[Oddisee]] and [[Kenn Starr (rapper)|Kenn Starr]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Kyles|first=Yohance|title=Rapper Big Pooh Signs New Deal With Mello Music Group|url=http://allhiphop.com/2014/01/31/rapper-big-pooh-signs-new-deal-with-mello-music-group/|work=article|date=31 January 2014|publisher=allhiphop.com|access-date=2014-01-31}}</ref> The first release will be an album produced entirely by [[Virginia]] producer [[Nottz]], while the second project will be an EP produced by the label's production roster.<ref>{{cite web|last=Baker|first=Soren|title=Big Pooh Signs With Mello Music Group & Set To Release Project With Nottz|url=http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.27297/title.big-pooh-signs-with-mello-music-group-set-to-release-project-with-nottz|work=article|date=30 January 2014|publisher=hiphopdx.com|access-date=2014-01-31}}</ref>

In the 3rd quarter of 2014 Rapper Big Pooh started an NBA podcast with co host's Drew Hepburn and Vince Poe. The podcast is titled "Pooh on Sports NBA Podcast". Rapper Big Pooh had previously had a podcast and sports blog similarly titled "Pooh on Sports". The podcast was announced via his Twitter account in September 2014. The duo is planning a global release of the show on January 1, 2015 following the New Year and what many consider the "true" beginning of the NBA season. The show runs 1 hour in length and features as many as 8 segments per show. The show has caught the eye of many notable names both in the hip hop industry as well as in professional basketball, notably J.E. Skeets formerly of [[The Basketball Jones]] and currently of The [[NBA TV]] Show [[The Basketball Jones#The Starters|The Starters]]. It is rumored now that the show will feature both interviews and guest host spots from some of the biggest names in Hip Hop. The show is also rumored to have been recently picked up by a large internet radio station.

Rapper Big Pooh graduated from [[South Lakes High School]] in [[Reston, Virginia]] in 1998.<ref name="slhs">{{cite web|title=South Lakes High School|url=http://www.publicschoolreview.com/school_ov/school_id/84533|publisher=Public School Review|access-date=May 29, 2010}}</ref>

==Discography==

=== Albums ===
* ''[[Sleepers (album)|Sleepers]]'' (2005)
* ''[[The Delightful Bars]]'' (2009)
* ''Fat Boy Fresh Vol. 1: For Members Only'' (2011)
* ''Dirty Pretty Things'' (2011)
* ''Fat Boy Fresh Vol. 2: Est. 1980'' (2012)
* ''Fat Boy Fresh Vol. 3: Happy Birthday, Thomas'' (2013)
* ''Fat Boy Fresh Vol. 3.5'' (2013)
* ''Trouble In the Neighborhood'' (2014) with Roc C<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.2dopeboyz.com/2014/02/22/rapper-big-pooh-roc-c-discuss-toruble-in-the-neighborhood/ |title=Rapper Big Pooh & Roc C Discuss Upcoming Collaborative Album |publisher=2dopeboyz.com |date=2014-02-22 |access-date=2014-02-22}}</ref>
* ''Words Paint Pictures'' (2015) with [[Apollo Brown]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.xxlmag.com/rap-music/new-music/2015/02/premiere-rapper-big-pooh-stop-interview/ |title=Premiere: Rapper Big Pooh Announces New EP And First Single "Stop" |publisher=xxlmag.com |date=2015-02-03 |access-date=2015-02-06}}</ref>
* ''Home Sweet Home'' (2015) with [[Nottz]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hiphopdx.com/news/id.35586/title.rapper-big-pooh-nottz-home-sweet-home-release-date-cover-art-tracklist|title=Rapper Big Pooh & Nottz "Home Sweet Home" Release Date, Cover Art & Tracklist|date=22 September 2015|publisher=HipHopDX|access-date=22 September 2015}}</ref>
* ''Everything 4 Sale'' (2016)
* ''RPM'' (2018)

=== Mixtapes ===
* ''Rapper's Delight'' (2008)
* ''The Purple Tape'' (2010)

=== With Little Brother ===
{{main|Little Brother discography}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Big Pooh}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110707170348/http://artofrhyme.com/Interviews/AORInterviews.php?id=50 Interview with ArtofRhyme.com]
* [http://www.cream.cz/?rozhovor=little-brother-another-album-with-9tha&preview=1 Cream Magazine interview]

{{Little Brother}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Big Pooh}}
[[Category:African-American male rappers]]
[[Category:American male rappers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1980 births]]
[[Category:People from Reston, Virginia]]
[[Category:Southern hip hop musicians]]
[[Category:Rappers from Virginia]]
[[Category:Mello Music Group artists]]
[[Category:21st-century American rappers]]
[[Category:21st-century American male musicians]]
[[Category:21st-century African-American musicians]]
[[Category:20th-century African-American people]]

Y chromosome

2022-05-25T10:15:51Z

Zumbo: grammar

{{Short description|Chromosome in mammals that determines sex}}
{{Infobox chromosome
| name = Human Y chromosome
| image = Human male karyotpe high resolution - Y chromosome cropped.png
| caption = Human Y chromosome (after [[G banding|G-banding]])
| image2 = Human male karyotpe high resolution - Chromosome Y.png
| caption2 = Y chromosome in human male [[karyogram]]
| length_bp = 57,227,415 bp ([[GRCh38]])<ref name="National Center for Biotechnology Information i2017">{{cite web | title=Human Genome Assembly GRCh38 - Genome Reference Consortium | website=National Center for Biotechnology Information | date=2013-12-24 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/grc/human/data?asm=GRCh38 | language=en | access-date=2017-03-04}}</ref>
| genes = 63 ([[Consensus CDS Project|CCDS]])<ref name="CCDS"/>
| type = [[Allosome]]
| centromere_position = [[Centromere#Acrocentric|Acrocentric]]<ref name="StrachanRead2010">{{cite book| first1 = Tom | last1 = Strachan | first2 = Andrew | last2 = Read | name-list-style = vanc |title=Human Molecular Genetics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSwWBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45|date=2 April 2010|publisher=Garland Science|isbn=978-1-136-84407-2|page=45}}</ref> (10.4 Mbp<ref name="850bphs">Genome Decoration Page, NCBI. [http://ftp.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub/gdp/ideogram_9606_GCF_000001305.14_850_V1 Ideogram data for Homo sapience (850 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3)]. Last update 2014-06-03. Retrieved 2017-04-26.</ref>)
| chr = Y
| ensembl_id = Y
| entrez_id = Y
| ncbi_id = Y
| ucsc_id = Y
| refseq_id = NC_000024
| genbank_id = CM000686
}}
The '''Y chromosome''' is one of two sex [[chromosome]]s ([[allosome]]s) in [[theria]]n [[mammal]]s, including [[human]]s, and many other animals. The other is the [[X chromosome]]. Y is normally the [[Sex chromosome#Sex determination|sex-determining]] chromosome in many [[species]], since it is the presence or absence of Y that determines the male or female [[sex]] of [[offspring]] produced in [[sexual reproduction]]. In mammals, the Y chromosome contains the [[gene]] [[SRY]], which triggers male development. The [[DNA]] in the human Y chromosome is composed of about 59 million [[base pairs]].<ref name="Chromosome Y">{{cite web |url = http://www.ensembl.org/Homo_sapiens/mapview?chr=Y |title = Ensembl Human MapView release 43 |date = February 2014 |access-date = 2007-04-14}}</ref> The Y chromosome is passed only from father to son. With a 30% difference between humans and chimpanzees, the Y chromosome is one of the fastest-evolving parts of the [[human genome]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas | name-list-style = vanc |title=Male Chromosome May Evolve Fastest |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/14/science/14gene.html |newspaper=New York Times |date=January 13, 2010}}</ref> The human Y chromosome carries an estimated 100-200 genes, with between 45 and 73 of these being protein-coding. All single-copy Y-linked genes are [[hemizygous]] (present on only one chromosome) except in cases of [[aneuploidy]] such as [[XYY syndrome]] or [[XXYY syndrome]].

== Overview ==

===Discovery===
The Y chromosome was identified as a sex-determining chromosome by [[Nettie Stevens]] at [[Bryn Mawr College]] in 1905 during a study of the [[mealworm]] ''Tenebrio molitor''. [[Edmund Beecher Wilson]] independently discovered the same mechanisms the same year, working with [[hemiptera]]. Stevens proposed that chromosomes always existed in pairs and that the smaller chromosome (now labelled "Y") was the pair of the X chromosome discovered in 1890 by [[Hermann Henking]]. She realized that the previous idea of [[Clarence Erwin McClung]], that the X chromosome determines sex, was wrong and that [[Sex-determination system|sex determination]] is, in fact, due to the presence or absence of the Y chromosome. In the early 1920s [[Theophilus Painter]] determined that X and Y chromosomes determined sex in humans (and other mammals).<ref>Glass, Bentley (1990) ''[http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/painter-theophilus-shickel.pdf Theophilus Shickel Painter 1889—1969: A Biographical Memoir]'', National Academy of Sciences, Washington DC. Retrieved 24 Jan 2022.</ref>

The chromosome was given the name "Y" simply to follow on from Henking's "X" alphabetically.<ref>David Bainbridge, ''The X in Sex: How the X Chromosome Controls Our Lives'', pages 3-5, 13, [[Harvard University Press]], 2003 {{ISBN|0674016211}}.</ref><ref>James Schwartz, ''In Pursuit of the Gene: From Darwin to DNA'', pages 170-172, [[Harvard University Press]], 2009 {{ISBN|0674034910}}</ref> The idea that the Y chromosome was named after its similarity in appearance to the letter "Y" is mistaken. All chromosomes normally appear as an amorphous blob under the microscope and only take on a well-defined shape during [[mitosis]]. This shape is vaguely X-shaped for all chromosomes. It is entirely coincidental that the Y chromosome, during [[mitosis]], has two very short branches which can look merged under the microscope and appear as the descender of a Y-shape.<ref>David Bainbridge, ''The X in Sex: How the X Chromosome Controls Our Lives'', pages 65-66, [[Harvard University Press]], 2003 {{ISBN|0674016211}}</ref>

===Variations===
{{See also|Androgen insensitivity syndrome|Intersex}}
Most [[theria]]n mammals have only one pair of sex chromosomes in each cell. Males have one Y chromosome and one [[X chromosome]], while females have two X chromosomes. In mammals, the Y chromosome contains a gene, [[SRY]], which triggers embryonic development as a male. The Y chromosomes of humans and other mammals also contain other genes needed for normal sperm production.

There are exceptions, however. Among humans, some men have two Xs and a Y ("XXY", see [[Klinefelter syndrome]]), or one X and two Ys (see [[XYY syndrome]]), and [[triple X syndrome|some women have three Xs]] or a single X instead of a double X ("X0", see [[Turner syndrome]]). There are other exceptions in which [[SRY]] is damaged (leading to an [[Swyer syndrome|XY female]]), or copied to the X (leading to an [[XX male]]).

== Origins and evolution ==

===Before Y chromosome===
Many [[ectotherm]]ic [[vertebrates]] have no sex chromosomes. If they have different sexes, sex is determined environmentally rather than genetically. For some of them, especially [[reptile]]s, sex depends on the incubation temperature. Some vertebrates are [[hermaphrodites]], although other than a very few [[ray-finned fish]], they are [[hermaphrodite#Sequential hermaphrodites|sequential]] (the same organism produces male or female gametes, but never both, at different points in its life), rather than [[hermaphrodite#Simultaneous hermaphrodites|simultaneous]] (the same organism producing both male and female gametes at the same time).

===Origin===
The X and Y chromosomes are thought to have evolved from a pair of identical chromosomes,<ref name="muller">{{cite journal | vauthors = Muller HJ |title=A gene for the fourth chromosome of Drosophila |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=325–336 |year=1914 |doi=10.1002/jez.1400170303|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1426868 }}</ref><ref name="lahn">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lahn BT, Page DC | title = Four evolutionary strata on the human X chromosome | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5441 | pages = 964–7 | date = October 1999 | pmid = 10542153 | doi = 10.1126/science.286.5441.964 }}</ref> termed [[autosome]]s, when an ancestral animal developed an allelic variation, a so-called "sex locus" – simply possessing this [[allele]] caused the organism to be male.<ref name="Graves, J.A.M 2006" /> The chromosome with this allele became the Y chromosome, while the other member of the pair became the X chromosome. Over time, genes that were beneficial for males and harmful to (or had no effect on) females either developed on the Y chromosome or were acquired through the process of [[chromosomal translocation|translocation]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Graves JA, Koina E, Sankovic N | title = How the gene content of human sex chromosomes evolved | journal = Current Opinion in Genetics & Development | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 219–24 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16650758 | doi = 10.1016/j.gde.2006.04.007 }}</ref>

Until recently, the X and Y chromosomes were thought to have diverged around 300 million years ago.<ref name="Y-chromosome evolution: emerging in">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bachtrog D | title = Y-chromosome evolution: emerging insights into processes of Y-chromosome degeneration | journal = Nature Reviews. Genetics | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 113–24 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23329112 | pmc = 4120474 | doi = 10.1038/nrg3366 }}</ref> However, research published in 2010,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2010/01/human_male_still_a_work_in_pro.html |title=Human Male: Still A Work in Progress |work=NPR |date=January 13, 2010 |first=Jon |last=Hamilton | name-list-style = vanc }}</ref> and particularly research published in 2008 documenting the sequencing of the [[platypus]] genome,<ref name="Warren" /> has suggested that the XY sex-determination system would not have been present more than 166 million years ago, at the split of the [[monotreme]]s from other mammals.<ref name="Veyrunes" /> This re-estimation of the age of the [[theria]]n XY system is based on the finding that sequences that are on the X chromosomes of [[marsupials]] and [[eutherian]] mammals are present on the autosomes of platypus and birds.<ref name="Veyrunes" /> The older estimate was based on erroneous reports that the platypus X chromosomes contained these sequences.<ref name="Grützner" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Watson JM, Riggs A, Graves JA | title = Gene mapping studies confirm the homology between the platypus X and echidna X1 chromosomes and identify a conserved ancestral monotreme X chromosome | journal = Chromosoma | volume = 101 | issue = 10 | pages = 596–601 | date = October 1992 | pmid = 1424984 | doi = 10.1007/BF00360536 | s2cid = 26978106 }}</ref>

===Recombination inhibition===
[[Genetic recombination|Recombination]] between the X and Y chromosomes proved harmful—it resulted in males without necessary genes formerly found on the Y chromosome, and females with unnecessary or even harmful genes previously only found on the Y chromosome. As a result, genes beneficial to males accumulated near the sex-determining genes, and recombination in this region was suppressed in order to preserve this male specific region.<ref name="Graves, J.A.M 2006" /> Over time, the Y chromosome changed in such a way as to inhibit the areas around the sex determining genes from recombining at all with the X chromosome. As a result of this process, 95% of the human Y chromosome is unable to recombine. Only the tips of the Y and X chromosomes recombine. The tips of the Y chromosome that could recombine with the X chromosome are referred to as the [[pseudoautosomal region]]. The rest of the Y chromosome is passed on to the next generation intact, allowing for its use in tracking [[human evolution]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

===Degeneration===
By one estimate, the human Y chromosome has lost 1,393 of its 1,438 original genes over the course of its existence, and [[Extrapolation|linear extrapolation]] of this 1,393-gene loss over 300 million years gives a rate of genetic loss of 4.6 genes per million years.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Graves JA | title = The degenerate Y chromosome--can conversion save it? | journal = Reproduction, Fertility, and Development | volume = 16 | issue = 5 | pages = 527–34 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15367368 | doi = 10.1071/RD03096 }}</ref> Continued loss of genes at the rate of 4.6 genes per million years would result in a Y chromosome with no functional genes – that is the Y chromosome would lose complete function – within the next 10 million years, or half that time with the current age estimate of 160 million years.<ref name="Graves, J.A.M 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Goto H, Peng L, Makova KD | title = Evolution of X-degenerate Y chromosome genes in greater apes: conservation of gene content in human and gorilla, but not chimpanzee | journal = Journal of Molecular Evolution | volume = 68 | issue = 2 | pages = 134–44 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19142680 | doi = 10.1007/s00239-008-9189-y | bibcode = 2009JMolE..68..134G | s2cid = 24010421 }}</ref> [[Comparative genomics|Comparative genomic]] analysis reveals that many mammalian species are experiencing a similar loss of function in their heterozygous sex chromosome. Degeneration may simply be the fate of all non-recombining sex chromosomes, due to three common evolutionary forces: high [[mutation rate]], inefficient [[Selection (biology)|selection]], and [[genetic drift]].<ref name="Graves, J.A.M 2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Graves JA | title = Sex chromosome specialization and degeneration in mammals | journal = Cell | volume = 124 | issue = 5 | pages = 901–14 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16530039 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2006.02.024 | s2cid = 8379688 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

However, comparisons of the human and [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]] Y chromosomes (first published in 2005) show that the human Y chromosome has not lost any genes since the divergence of humans and chimpanzees between 6–7 million years ago,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hughes JF, Skaletsky H, Pyntikova T, Minx PJ, Graves T, Rozen S, Wilson RK, Page DC | display-authors = 6 | title = Conservation of Y-linked genes during human evolution revealed by comparative sequencing in chimpanzee | journal = Nature | volume = 437 | issue = 7055 | pages = 100–3 | date = September 2005 | pmid = 16136134 | doi = 10.1038/nature04101 | bibcode = 2005Natur.437..100H | s2cid = 4418662 }}</ref> and a scientific report in 2012 stated that only one gene had been lost since humans diverged from the [[rhesus macaque]] 25 million years ago.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hsu |first=Christine | name-list-style = vanc |title=Biologists Debunk the 'Rotting' Y Chromosome Theory, Men Will Still Exist |url=http://www.medicaldaily.com/news/20120222/9163/y-chromosome-chromosome-theory-men-extinct-monkey-x-chromosome-biology.htm |publisher=Medical Daily }}</ref> These facts provide direct evidence that the [[linear extrapolation]] model is flawed and suggest that the current human Y chromosome is either no longer shrinking or is shrinking at a much slower rate than the 4.6 genes per million years estimated by the linear extrapolation model.

====High mutation rate====
The human Y chromosome is particularly exposed to high mutation rates due to the environment in which it is housed. The Y chromosome is passed exclusively through [[sperm]], which undergo multiple [[cell division]]s during [[gametogenesis]]. Each cellular division provides further opportunity to accumulate base pair mutations. Additionally, sperm are stored in the highly oxidative environment of the [[testis]], which encourages further mutation. These two conditions combined put the Y chromosome at a greater opportunity of mutation than the rest of the genome.<ref name="Graves, J.A.M 2006"/> The increased mutation opportunity for the Y chromosome is reported by Graves as a factor 4.8.<ref name="Graves, J.A.M 2006" /> However, her original reference obtains this number for the relative mutation rates in male and female germ lines for the lineage leading to humans.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lindblad-Toh K, Wade CM, Mikkelsen TS, Karlsson EK, Jaffe DB, Kamal M, Clamp M, Chang JL, Kulbokas EJ, Zody MC, Mauceli E, Xie X, Breen M, Wayne RK, Ostrander EA, Ponting CP, Galibert F, Smith DR, DeJong PJ, Kirkness E, Alvarez P, Biagi T, Brockman W, Butler J, Chin CW, Cook A, Cuff J, Daly MJ, DeCaprio D, Gnerre S, Grabherr M, Kellis M, Kleber M, Bardeleben C, Goodstadt L, Heger A, Hitte C, Kim L, Koepfli KP, Parker HG, Pollinger JP, Searle SM, Sutter NB, Thomas R, Webber C, Baldwin J, Abebe A, Abouelleil A, Aftuck L, Ait-Zahra M, Aldredge T, Allen N, An P, Anderson S, Antoine C, Arachchi H, Aslam A, Ayotte L, Bachantsang P, Barry A, Bayul T, Benamara M, Berlin A, Bessette D, Blitshteyn B, Bloom T, Blye J, Boguslavskiy L, Bonnet C, Boukhgalter B, Brown A, Cahill P, Calixte N, Camarata J, Cheshatsang Y, Chu J, Citroen M, Collymore A, Cooke P, Dawoe T, Daza R, Decktor K, DeGray S, Dhargay N, Dooley K, Dooley K, Dorje P, Dorjee K, Dorris L, Duffey N, Dupes A, Egbiremolen O, Elong R, Falk J, Farina A, Faro S, Ferguson D, Ferreira P, Fisher S, FitzGerald M, Foley K, Foley C, Franke A, Friedrich D, Gage D, Garber M, Gearin G, Giannoukos G, Goode T, Goyette A, Graham J, Grandbois E, Gyaltsen K, Hafez N, Hagopian D, Hagos B, Hall J, Healy C, Hegarty R, Honan T, Horn A, Houde N, Hughes L, Hunnicutt L, Husby M, Jester B, Jones C, Kamat A, Kanga B, Kells C, Khazanovich D, Kieu AC, Kisner P, Kumar M, Lance K, Landers T, Lara M, Lee W, Leger JP, Lennon N, Leuper L, LeVine S, Liu J, Liu X, Lokyitsang Y, Lokyitsang T, Lui A, Macdonald J, Major J, Marabella R, Maru K, Matthews C, McDonough S, Mehta T, Meldrim J, Melnikov A, Meneus L, Mihalev A, Mihova T, Miller K, Mittelman R, Mlenga V, Mulrain L, Munson G, Navidi A, Naylor J, Nguyen T, Nguyen N, Nguyen C, Nguyen T, Nicol R, Norbu N, Norbu C, Novod N, Nyima T, Olandt P, O'Neill B, O'Neill K, Osman S, Oyono L, Patti C, Perrin D, Phunkhang P, Pierre F, Priest M, Rachupka A, Raghuraman S, Rameau R, Ray V, Raymond C, Rege F, Rise C, Rogers J, Rogov P, Sahalie J, Settipalli S, Sharpe T, Shea T, Sheehan M, Sherpa N, Shi J, Shih D, Sloan J, Smith C, Sparrow T, Stalker J, Stange-Thomann N, Stavropoulos S, Stone C, Stone S, Sykes S, Tchuinga P, Tenzing P, Tesfaye S, Thoulutsang D, Thoulutsang Y, Topham K, Topping I, Tsamla T, Vassiliev H, Venkataraman V, Vo A, Wangchuk T, Wangdi T, Weiand M, Wilkinson J, Wilson A, Yadav S, Yang S, Yang X, Young G, Yu Q, Zainoun J, Zembek L, Zimmer A, Lander ES | display-authors = 6 | title = Genome sequence, comparative analysis and haplotype structure of the domestic dog | journal = Nature | volume = 438 | issue = 7069 | pages = 803–19 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16341006 | doi = 10.1038/nature04338 | bibcode = 2005Natur.438..803L | doi-access = free }}</ref>

The observation that the Y chromosome experiences little [[meiosis|meiotic]] [[homologous recombination|recombination]] and has an accelerated rate of [[mutation]] and degradative change compared to the rest of the [[genome]] suggests an evolutionary explanation for the adaptive function of [[meiosis]] with respect to the main body of genetic information. Brandeis<ref name="pmid28913952">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brandeis M | title = New-age ideas about age-old sex: separating meiosis from mating could solve a century-old conundrum | journal = Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society | volume = 93 | issue = 2 | pages = 801–810 | date = May 2018 | pmid = 28913952 | doi = 10.1111/brv.12367 | s2cid = 4764175 }}</ref> proposed that the basic function of meiosis (particularly meiotic recombination) is the conservation of the integrity of the genome, a proposal consistent with the idea that meiosis is an adaptation for [[DNA repair|repairing DNA damage]].<ref name="pmid3324702">{{cite book | vauthors = Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE | chapter = The molecular basis of the evolution of sex | volume = 24 | pages = 323–70 | date = 1987 | pmid = 3324702 | doi = 10.1016/S0065-2660(08)60012-7 | isbn = 9780120176243 | series = Advances in Genetics | title = Molecular Genetics of Development }}</ref>

====Inefficient selection====
Without the ability to recombine during [[meiosis]], the Y chromosome is unable to expose individual [[allele]]s to natural selection. Deleterious alleles are allowed to "hitchhike" with beneficial neighbors, thus propagating maladapted alleles into the next generation. Conversely, advantageous alleles may be selected against if they are surrounded by harmful alleles (background selection). Due to this inability to sort through its gene content, the Y chromosome is particularly prone to the accumulation of [[Noncoding DNA|"junk" DNA]]. Massive accumulations of retrotransposable elements are scattered throughout the Y.<ref name="Graves, J.A.M 2006"/> The random insertion of DNA segments often disrupts encoded gene sequences and renders them nonfunctional. However, the Y chromosome has no way of weeding out these "jumping genes". Without the ability to isolate alleles, selection cannot effectively act upon them.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

A clear, quantitative indication of this inefficiency is the [[entropy rate]] of the Y chromosome. Whereas all other chromosomes in the [[human genome]] have entropy rates of 1.5–1.9 bits per nucleotide (compared to the theoretical maximum of exactly 2 for no redundancy), the Y chromosome's entropy rate is only 0.84.<ref name="Liu">{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu Z, Venkatesh SS, Maley CC | title = Sequence space coverage, entropy of genomes and the potential to detect non-human DNA in human samples | journal = BMC Genomics | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 509 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18973670 | pmc = 2628393 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2164-9-509 }} Fig. 6, using the [[Lempel-Ziv]] estimators of entropy rate.</ref> This means the Y chromosome has a much lower information content relative to its overall length; it is more redundant.

====Genetic drift====
Even if a well adapted Y chromosome manages to maintain genetic activity by avoiding mutation accumulation, there is no guarantee it will be passed down to the next generation. The population size of the Y chromosome is inherently limited to 1/4 that of autosomes: diploid organisms contain two copies of autosomal chromosomes while only half the population contains 1 Y chromosome. Thus, genetic drift is an exceptionally strong force acting upon the Y chromosome. Through sheer random assortment, an adult male may never pass on his Y chromosome if he only has female offspring. Thus, although a male may have a well adapted Y chromosome free of excessive mutation, it may never make it into the next gene pool.<ref name="Graves, J.A.M 2006"/> The repeat random loss of well-adapted Y chromosomes, coupled with the tendency of the Y chromosome to evolve to have more deleterious mutations rather than less for reasons described above, contributes to the species-wide degeneration of Y chromosomes through [[Muller's ratchet]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Charlesworth B, Charlesworth D | title = The degeneration of Y chromosomes | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 355 | issue = 1403 | pages = 1563–72 | date = November 2000 | pmid = 11127901 | pmc = 1692900 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2000.0717 }}</ref>

=== Gene conversion ===
As it has been already mentioned, the Y chromosome is unable to recombine during [[meiosis]] like the other human chromosomes; however, in 2003, researchers from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] discovered a process which may slow down the process of degradation.
They found that human Y chromosome is able to "recombine" with itself, using [[palindrome]] [[base pair]] sequences.<ref name="rozen">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rozen S, Skaletsky H, Marszalek JD, Minx PJ, Cordum HS, Waterston RH, Wilson RK, Page DC | display-authors = 6 | title = Abundant gene conversion between arms of palindromes in human and ape Y chromosomes | journal = Nature | volume = 423 | issue = 6942 | pages = 873–6 | date = June 2003 | pmid = 12815433 | doi = 10.1038/nature01723 | bibcode = 2003Natur.423..873R | s2cid = 4323263 }}</ref> Such a "recombination" is called [[gene conversion]].

In the case of the Y chromosomes, the [[palindrome]]s are not [[noncoding DNA]]; these strings of bases contain functioning genes important for male fertility. Most of the sequence pairs are greater than 99.97% identical. The extensive use of gene conversion may play a role in the ability of the Y chromosome to edit out genetic mistakes and maintain the integrity of the relatively few genes it carries. In other words, since the Y chromosome is single, it has duplicates of its genes on itself instead of having a second, homologous, chromosome. When errors occur, it can use other parts of itself as a template to correct them.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

Findings were confirmed by comparing similar regions of the Y chromosome in humans to the Y chromosomes of [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]]s, [[bonobo]]s and [[gorilla]]s. The comparison demonstrated that the same phenomenon of gene conversion appeared to be at work more than 5 million years ago, when humans and the non-human primates diverged from each other.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

=== Future evolution ===

According to some theories, in the terminal stages of the degeneration of the Y chromosome, other chromosomes increasingly take over genes and functions formerly associated with it and finally, within the framework of this theory, finally, the Y chromosome disappears entirely, and a new sex-determining system arises.<ref name="Graves, J.A.M 2006" />{{POV statement|date=September 2016}}{{synthesis inline|date=September 2016}} Several species of [[rodent]] in the sister families [[Muridae]] and [[Cricetidae]] have reached these stages,<ref name="Marchal 2003">{{cite journal | vauthors = Marchal JA, Acosta MJ, Bullejos M, Díaz de la Guardia R, Sánchez A | title = Sex chromosomes, sex determination, and sex-linked sequences in Microtidae | journal = Cytogenetic and Genome Research | volume = 101 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 266–73 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14684993 | doi = 10.1159/000074347 | s2cid = 10526522 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilson MA, Makova KD | title = Genomic analyses of sex chromosome evolution | journal = Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 333–54 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19630566 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-genom-082908-150105 }}</ref> in the following ways:
*The [[Transcaucasian mole vole]], ''Ellobius lutescens'', the [[Zaisan mole vole]], ''Ellobius tancrei'', and the Japanese spinous country rats ''[[Tokudaia osimensis]]'' and ''[[Tokudaia tokunoshimensis]]'', have lost the Y chromosome and [[SRY]] entirely.<ref name="Graves, J.A.M 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Just W, Baumstark A, Süss A, Graphodatsky A, Rens W, Schäfer N, Bakloushinskaya I, Hameister H, Vogel W | display-authors = 6 | title = Ellobius lutescens: sex determination and sex chromosome | journal = Sexual Development | volume = 1 | issue = 4 | pages = 211–21 | year = 2007 | pmid = 18391532 | doi = 10.1159/000104771 | s2cid = 25939138 }}</ref><ref name="Arakawa et al. 2002">{{cite journal | vauthors = Arakawa Y, Nishida-Umehara C, Matsuda Y, Sutou S, Suzuki H | title = X-chromosomal localization of mammalian Y-linked genes in two XO species of the Ryukyu spiny rat | journal = Cytogenetic and Genome Research | volume = 99 | issue = 1–4 | pages = 303–9 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12900579 | doi = 10.1159/000071608 | s2cid = 39633026 }}</ref> ''[[Tokudaia]]'' spp. have relocated some other genes ancestrally present on the Y chromosome to the X chromosome.<ref name="Arakawa et al. 2002" /> Both sexes of ''Tokudaia'' spp. and ''Ellobius lutescens'' have an XO genotype ([[Turner syndrome]]),<ref name="Arakawa et al. 2002"/> whereas all ''Ellobius tancrei'' possess an XX genotype.<ref name="Graves, J.A.M 2006" /> The new sex-determining system(s) for these rodents remains unclear.
*The [[wood lemming]] ''Myopus schisticolor'', the [[Arctic lemming]], ''Dicrostonyx torquatus'', and multiple species in the grass mouse genus ''[[Akodon]]'' have evolved fertile females who possess the genotype generally coding for males, XY, in addition to the ancestral XX female, through a variety of modifications to the X and Y chromosomes.<ref name="Marchal 2003" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoekstra HE, Edwards SV | title = Multiple origins of XY female mice (genus Akodon): phylogenetic and chromosomal evidence | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 267 | issue = 1455 | pages = 1825–31 | date = September 2000 | pmid = 11052532 | pmc = 1690748 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2000.1217 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ortiz MI, Pinna-Senn E, Dalmasso G, Lisanti JA |year=2009 |title=Chromosomal aspects and inheritance of the XY female condition in ''Akodon azarae'' (Rodentia, Sigmodontinae) |journal=Mammalian Biology |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=125–129 |doi=10.1016/j.mambio.2008.03.001 }}</ref>
*In the [[creeping vole]], ''Microtus oregoni'', the females, with just one X chromosome each, produce X gametes only, and the males, XY, produce Y gametes, or gametes devoid of any sex chromosome, through [[nondisjunction]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Charlesworth B, Dempsey ND | title = A model of the evolution of the unusual sex chromosome system of Microtus oregoni | journal = Heredity | volume = 86 | issue = Pt 4 | pages = 387–94 | date = April 2001 | pmid = 11520338 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2540.2001.00803.x | s2cid = 34489270 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Outside of the rodents, the [[Hairy-fronted muntjac|black muntjac]], ''Muntiacus crinifrons'', evolved new X and Y chromosomes through fusions of the ancestral sex chromosomes and [[autosome]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhou Q, Wang J, Huang L, Nie W, Wang J, Liu Y, Zhao X, Yang F, Wang W | display-authors = 6 | title = Neo-sex chromosomes in the black muntjac recapitulate incipient evolution of mammalian sex chromosomes | journal = Genome Biology | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = R98 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18554412 | pmc = 2481430 | doi = 10.1186/gb-2008-9-6-r98 }}</ref>

Modern data cast doubt on this hypothesis.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bachtrog|first=Doris|date=2013|title=Y chromosome evolution: emerging insights into processes of Y chromosome degeneration|journal=Nature Reviews. Genetics|volume=14|issue=2|pages=113–124|doi=10.1038/nrg3366|issn=1471-0056|pmc=4120474|pmid=23329112}}</ref> This conclusion was reached by scientists who studied the Y chromosomes of rhesus monkeys. When genomically comparing the Y chromosome of rhesus monkeys and humans, scientists found very few differences, given that humans and rhesus monkeys diverged 30 million years ago.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Hughes|first1=Jennifer F.|last2=Skaletsky|first2=Helen|last3=Page|first3=David C.|date=2012|title=Sequencing of rhesus macaque Y chromosome clarifies origins and evolution of the DAZ (Deleted in AZoospermia) genes|journal=BioEssays|volume=34|issue=12|pages=1035–1044|doi=10.1002/bies.201200066|issn=1521-1878|pmc=3581811|pmid=23055411}}</ref>

Some organisms have lost the Y chromosome. For example, most species of Nematodes. However, in order for the complete elimination of Y to occur, it was necessary to develop an alternative way of determining sex (for example, by determining sex by the ratio of the X chromosome to autosomes), and any genes necessary for male function had to be moved to other chromosomes.<ref name=":1" /> In the meantime, modern data demonstrate the complex mechanisms of Y chromosome evolution and the fact that the disappearance of the Y chromosome is not guaranteed.

===1:1 sex ratio===
[[Fisher's principle]] outlines why almost all species using [[sexual reproduction]] have a [[sex ratio]] of 1:1. [[W. D. Hamilton]] gave the following basic explanation in his 1967 paper on "Extraordinary sex ratios",<ref name=Hamilton67>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hamilton WD | title = Extraordinary sex ratios. A sex-ratio theory for sex linkage and inbreeding has new implications in cytogenetics and entomology | journal = Science | volume = 156 | issue = 3774 | pages = 477–88 | date = April 1967 | pmid = 6021675 | doi = 10.1126/science.156.3774.477 | bibcode = 1967Sci...156..477H }}</ref> given the condition that males and females cost equal amounts to produce:

:# Suppose male births are less common than female.
:# A newborn male then has better mating prospects than a newborn female, and therefore can expect to have more offspring.
:# Therefore, parents genetically disposed to produce males tend to have more than average numbers of grandchildren born to them.
:# Therefore, the genes for male-producing tendencies spread, and male births become more common.
:# As the 1:1 sex ratio is approached, the advantage associated with producing males dies away.
:# The same reasoning holds if females are substituted for males throughout. Therefore, 1:1 is the equilibrium ratio.

==Non-therian Y chromosome==
Many groups of organisms in addition to therian mammals have Y chromosomes, but these Y chromosomes do not share common ancestry with therian Y chromosomes. Such groups include monotremes, ''[[Drosophila]]'', some other insects, some fish, some reptiles, and some plants. In ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'', the Y chromosome does not trigger male development. Instead, sex is determined by the number of X chromosomes. The ''D. melanogaster'' Y chromosome does contain genes necessary for male fertility. So XXY ''D. melanogaster'' are female, and ''D. melanogaster'' with a single X (X0), are male but sterile. There are some species of Drosophila in which X0 males are both viable and fertile.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}}

===ZW chromosomes===
Other organisms have mirror image sex chromosomes: where the homogeneous sex is the male, said to have two Z chromosomes, and the female is the heterogeneous sex, and said to have a Z chromosome and a [[ZW sex-determination system|W chromosome]]. For example, female birds, snakes, and butterflies have ZW sex chromosomes, and males have ZZ sex chromosomes.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

===Non-inverted Y chromosome===
There are some species, such as the [[Japanese rice fish]], in which the XY system is still developing and cross over between the X and Y is still possible. Because the male specific region is very small and contains no essential genes, it is even possible to artificially induce XX males and YY females to no ill effect.<ref name=Schartl>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schartl M | title = A comparative view on sex determination in medaka | journal = Mechanisms of Development | volume = 121 | issue = 7–8 | pages = 639–45 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15210173 | doi = 10.1016/j.mod.2004.03.001 | s2cid = 17401686 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===Multiple XY pairs===
Monotremes possess four or five ([[platypus]]) pairs of XY sex chromosomes, each pair consisting of sex chromosomes with homologous regions. The chromosomes of neighboring pairs are partially homologous, such that a chain is formed during [[mitosis]].<ref name="Grützner">{{cite journal | vauthors = Grützner F, Rens W, Tsend-Ayush E, El-Mogharbel N, O'Brien PC, Jones RC, Ferguson-Smith MA, Marshall Graves JA | display-authors = 6 | title = In the platypus a meiotic chain of ten sex chromosomes shares genes with the bird Z and mammal X chromosomes | journal = Nature | volume = 432 | issue = 7019 | pages = 913–7 | date = December 2004 | pmid = 15502814 | doi = 10.1038/nature03021 | bibcode = 2004Natur.432..913G | s2cid = 4379897 }}</ref> The first X chromosome in the chain is also partially homologous with the last Y chromosome, indicating that profound rearrangements, some adding new pieces from autosomes, have occurred in history.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cortez D, Marin R, Toledo-Flores D, Froidevaux L, Liechti A, Waters PD, Grützner F, Kaessmann H | display-authors = 6 | title = Origins and functional evolution of Y chromosomes across mammals | journal = Nature | volume = 508 | issue = 7497 | pages = 488–93 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24759410 | doi = 10.1038/nature13151 | bibcode = 2014Natur.508..488C | s2cid = 4462870 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Deakin JE, Graves JA, Rens W | title = The evolution of marsupial and monotreme chromosomes | journal = Cytogenetic and Genome Research | volume = 137 | issue = 2–4 | pages = 113–29 | date = 2012 | pmid = 22777195 | doi = 10.1159/000339433 | doi-access = free }}</ref>{{rp|at=fig. 5}}

Platypus sex chromosomes have strong sequence similarity with the avian [[ZW sex-determination system|Z chromosome]], (indicating close [[Sequence homology|homology]]),<ref name="Warren">{{cite journal | vauthors = Warren WC, Hillier LW, Marshall Graves JA, Birney E, Ponting CP, Grützner F, Belov K, Miller W, Clarke L, Chinwalla AT, Yang SP, Heger A, Locke DP, Miethke P, Waters PD, Veyrunes F, Fulton L, Fulton B, Graves T, Wallis J, Puente XS, López-Otín C, Ordóñez GR, Eichler EE, Chen L, Cheng Z, Deakin JE, Alsop A, Thompson K, Kirby P, Papenfuss AT, Wakefield MJ, Olender T, Lancet D, Huttley GA, Smit AF, Pask A, Temple-Smith P, Batzer MA, Walker JA, Konkel MK, Harris RS, Whittington CM, Wong ES, Gemmell NJ, Buschiazzo E, Vargas Jentzsch IM, Merkel A, Schmitz J, Zemann A, Churakov G, Kriegs JO, Brosius J, Murchison EP, Sachidanandam R, Smith C, Hannon GJ, Tsend-Ayush E, McMillan D, Attenborough R, Rens W, Ferguson-Smith M, Lefèvre CM, Sharp JA, Nicholas KR, Ray DA, Kube M, Reinhardt R, Pringle TH, Taylor J, Jones RC, Nixon B, Dacheux JL, Niwa H, Sekita Y, Huang X, Stark A, Kheradpour P, Kellis M, Flicek P, Chen Y, Webber C, Hardison R, Nelson J, Hallsworth-Pepin K, Delehaunty K, Markovic C, Minx P, Feng Y, Kremitzki C, Mitreva M, Glasscock J, Wylie T, Wohldmann P, Thiru P, Nhan MN, Pohl CS, Smith SM, Hou S, Nefedov M, de Jong PJ, Renfree MB, Mardis ER, Wilson RK | display-authors = 6 | title = Genome analysis of the platypus reveals unique signatures of evolution | journal = Nature | volume = 453 | issue = 7192 | pages = 175–83 | date = May 2008 | pmid = 18464734 | pmc = 2803040 | doi = 10.1038/nature06936 | bibcode = 2008Natur.453..175W }}</ref> and the SRY gene so central to sex-determination in most other mammals is apparently not involved in platypus sex-determination.<ref name="Veyrunes">{{cite journal | vauthors = Veyrunes F, Waters PD, Miethke P, Rens W, McMillan D, Alsop AE, Grützner F, Deakin JE, Whittington CM, Schatzkamer K, Kremitzki CL, Graves T, Ferguson-Smith MA, Warren W, Marshall Graves JA | display-authors = 6 | title = Bird-like sex chromosomes of platypus imply recent origin of mammal sex chromosomes | journal = Genome Research | volume = 18 | issue = 6 | pages = 965–73 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18463302 | pmc = 2413164 | doi = 10.1101/gr.7101908 }}</ref>

==Human Y chromosome==
{{cleanup section|reason=Too many subsections. Article might benefit from moving h3 subsections into h2 sections, if we can somehow reconcile the gap between all therians and humans. "Origins and evolution" section has a human focus, but the discussion does include all therians.|talksection=Move page to "Human Y Chromosome"|date=October 2021}}
In humans, the Y chromosome spans about 58 million [[base pair]]s (the building blocks of [[DNA]]) and represents almost 2% of the total DNA in a male [[cell (biology)|cell]].<ref>[http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/chromosome=Y National Library of Medicine's Genetic Home Reference]</ref> The human Y chromosome contains over 200 genes, at least 72 of which code for proteins.<ref name="Chromosome Y"/> Traits that are inherited via the Y chromosome are called [[Y linkage|Y-linked]] traits, or holandric traits (from [[Ancient Greek]] ὅλος ''hólos'', "whole" + ἀνδρός ''andrós'', "male").<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/holandric|title=Definition of holandric {{!}} Dictionary.com|website=www.dictionary.com|language=en|access-date=2020-01-21}}</ref>

Men can lose the Y chromosome in a subset of cells, which is called the mosaic loss of chromosome Y (LOY). This [[Postzygotic mutation|post-zygotic]] mutation is strongly associated with age, affecting about 15% of men 70 years of age. Smoking is another important risk factor for LOY.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Forsberg LA | title = Loss of chromosome Y (LOY) in blood cells is associated with increased risk for disease and mortality in aging men | journal = Human Genetics | volume = 136 | issue = 5 | pages = 657–663 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28424864 | pmc = 5418310 | doi = 10.1007/s00439-017-1799-2 }}</ref> It has been found that men with a higher percentage of [[haematopoiesis|hematopoietic]] [[stem cells]] in blood lacking the Y chromosome (and perhaps a higher percentage of other cells lacking it) have a higher risk of certain [[cancer]]s and have a shorter life expectancy. Men with LOY (which was defined as no Y in at least 18% of their hematopoietic cells) have been found to die 5.5 years earlier on average than others. This has been interpreted as a sign that the Y chromosome plays a role going beyond sex determination and reproduction<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Forsberg LA, Rasi C, Malmqvist N, Davies H, Pasupulati S, Pakalapati G, Sandgren J, Diaz de Ståhl T, Zaghlool A, Giedraitis V, Lannfelt L, Score J, Cross NC, Absher D, Janson ET, Lindgren CM, Morris AP, Ingelsson E, Lind L, Dumanski JP | display-authors = 6 | title = Mosaic loss of chromosome Y in peripheral blood is associated with shorter survival and higher risk of cancer | journal = Nature Genetics | volume = 46 | issue = 6 | pages = 624–8 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24777449 | pmc = 5536222 | doi = 10.1038/ng.2966 }}</ref> (although the loss of Y may be an effect rather than a cause). Male smokers have between 1.5 and 2 times the risk of non-respiratory cancers as female smokers.<ref>{{cite journal| first = Andy | last = Coghlan | name-list-style = vanc |title=Y men are more likely to get cancer than women|journal=New Scientist|date=13 December 2014|page=17|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22429995.800-y-men-are-more-likely-to-get-cancer-than-women.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dumanski JP, Rasi C, Lönn M, Davies H, Ingelsson M, Giedraitis V, Lannfelt L, Magnusson PK, Lindgren CM, Morris AP, Cesarini D, Johannesson M, Tiensuu Janson E, Lind L, Pedersen NL, Ingelsson E, Forsberg LA | display-authors = 6 | title = Mutagenesis. Smoking is associated with mosaic loss of chromosome Y | journal = Science | volume = 347 | issue = 6217 | pages = 81–3 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 25477213 | pmc = 4356728 | doi = 10.1126/science.1262092 | bibcode = 2015Sci...347...81D }}</ref>

=== Structure ===
{{missing information|NRY/MSY structure - How there's a huge chunk of [[heterochromatin]] in q, nomenclature of the palindromes and [[amplicon]]s, TTTY transcripts, etc. Best if we add a figure that mashes together the tops of Colaco 2018 Fig 1 and PMID 12815422 fig 3.|date=October 2021}}

====Cytogenetic band====
{{multiple image
| header = G-banding ideograms of human Y chromosome
| total_width = 330
| image1 = Human chromosome Y ideogram vertical.svg
| width1 = 216
| height1= 1125
| caption1 = G-banding ideogram of human Y chromosome in resolution 850 bphs. Band length in this diagram is proportional to base-pair length. This type of ideogram is generally used in genome browsers (e.g. [[Ensembl]], [[UCSC Genome Browser]]).
| image2 = Human chromosome Y - 400 550 850 bphs.png
| width2 = 1003
| height2= 2801
| caption2 = G-banding patterns of human Y chromosome in three different resolutions (400,<ref name="400bphs">Genome Decoration Page, NCBI. [http://ftp.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub/gdp/ideogram_9606_GCF_000001305.14_400_V1 Ideogram data for Homo sapience (400 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3)]. Last update 2014-03-04. Retrieved 2017-04-26.</ref> 550<ref name="550bphs">Genome Decoration Page, NCBI. [http://ftp.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub/gdp/ideogram_9606_GCF_000001305.14_550_V1 Ideogram data for Homo sapience (550 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3)]. Last update 2015-08-11. Retrieved 2017-04-26.</ref> and 850<ref name="850bphs" />). Band length in this diagram is based on the ideograms from ISCN (2013).<ref name="Nomenclature2013">{{cite book|author=International Standing Committee on Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature|title=ISCN 2013: An International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGCLrh0DIwEC|year=2013|publisher=Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers|isbn=978-3-318-02253-7}}</ref> This type of ideogram represents actual relative band length observed under a microscope at the different moments during the [[Mitosis|mitotic process]].<ref name="SethakulvichaiManitpornsut2012">{{cite book| vauthors = Sethakulvichai W, Manitpornsut S, Wiboonrat M, Lilakiatsakun W, Assawamakin A, Tongsima S |title=2012 Ninth International Conference on Computer Science and Software Engineering (JCSSE)|chapter=Estimation of band level resolutions of human chromosome images|year=2012|pages=276–282|journal=In Computer Science and Software Engineering (JCSSE), 2012 International Joint Conference on|doi=10.1109/JCSSE.2012.6261965|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261304470|isbn=978-1-4673-1921-8|s2cid=16666470}}</ref>
}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"
|+ [[G banding|G-band]]s of human Y chromosome in resolution 850 bphs<ref name="850bphs"/>
! Chr.
! Arm<ref>"'''p'''": Short arm; "'''q'''": Long arm.</ref>
! Band<ref>For cytogenetic banding nomenclature, see article [[Locus (genetics)|locus]].</ref>
! ISCN start<ref name="ISCN">These values (ISCN start/stop) are based on the length of bands/ideograms from the ISCN book, An International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013). [[Arbitrary unit]].</ref>
! ISCN stop<ref name="ISCN"/>
! Basepair start
! Basepair stop
! Stain<ref>'''gpos''': Region which is positively stained by [[G banding]], generally [[GC-content|AT-rich]] and gene poor; '''gneg''': Region which is negatively stained by G banding, generally [[GC-content|CG-rich]] and gene rich; '''acen''' [[Centromere]]. '''var''': Variable region; '''stalk''': Stalk.</ref>
! Density
|-
| Y || p
|style="text-align:left"| 11.32 || 0 || 149 || {{val|1|fmt=commas}} || {{val|300000|fmt=commas}}
| style="background:white"| gneg ||
|-
| Y || p
|style="text-align:left"| 11.31 || 149 || 298 || {{val|300001|fmt=commas}} || {{val|600000|fmt=commas}}
|style="background:#979797"| gpos || 50
|-
| Y || p
|style="text-align:left"| 11.2 || 298 || 1043 || {{val|600001|fmt=commas}} || {{val|10300000|fmt=commas}}
| style="background:white"| gneg ||
|-
| Y || p
|style="text-align:left"| 11.1 || 1043 || 1117 || {{val|10300001|fmt=commas}} || {{val|10400000|fmt=commas}}
|style="background:#6e7f8f; color:white;"| acen ||
|-
| Y || q
|style="text-align:left"| 11.1 || 1117 || 1266 || {{val|10400001|fmt=commas}} || {{val|10600000|fmt=commas}}
|style="background:#6e7f8f; color:white;"| acen ||
|-
| Y || q
|style="text-align:left"| 11.21 || 1266 || 1397 || {{val|10600001|fmt=commas}} || {{val|12400000|fmt=commas}}
| style="background:white"| gneg ||
|-
| Y || q
|style="text-align:left"| 11.221 || 1397 || 1713 || {{val|12400001|fmt=commas}} || {{val|17100000|fmt=commas}}
|style="background:#979797"| gpos || 50
|-
| Y || q
|style="text-align:left"| 11.222 || 1713 || 1881 || {{val|17100001|fmt=commas}} || {{val|19600000|fmt=commas}}
| style="background:white"| gneg ||
|-
| Y || q
|style="text-align:left"| 11.223 || 1881 || 2160 || {{val|19600001|fmt=commas}} || {{val|23800000|fmt=commas}}
|style="background:#979797"| gpos || 50
|-
| Y || q
|style="text-align:left"| 11.23 || 2160 || 2346 || {{val|23800001|fmt=commas}} || {{val|26600000|fmt=commas}}
| style="background:white"| gneg ||
|-
| Y || q
|style="text-align:left"| 12 || 2346 || 3650 || {{val|26600001|fmt=commas}} || {{val|57227415|fmt=commas}}
|style="background:#e0e0e0"| gvar ||
|}

====Non-combining region of Y (NRY)====
{{Further|Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup}}
The human Y chromosome is normally unable to recombine with the X chromosome, except for small pieces of [[pseudoautosomal region]]s (PARs) at the [[telomere]]s (which comprise about 5% of the chromosome's length). These regions are relics of ancient [[Homology (biology)|homology]] between the X and Y chromosomes. The bulk of the Y chromosome, which does not recombine, is called the "NRY", or non-recombining region of the Y chromosome.<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/04/080401184955.htm ''Science Daily'']'', Apr. 3, 2008.''</ref> [[Single-nucleotide polymorphism]]s (SNPs) in this region are used to trace direct paternal ancestral lines.

More specifically, PAR1 is at 0.1–2.7 Mb. PAR2 is at 56.9–57.2 Mb. The non-recombing region (NRY) or male-specific region (MSY) sits between.

==== Sequence classes ====

===Genes===
==== Number of genes ====
The following are some of the gene count estimates of human Y chromosome. Because researchers use different approaches to [[genome annotation]] their predictions of the [[number of genes]] on each chromosome varies (for technical details, see [[gene prediction]]). Among various projects, the collaborative consensus coding sequence project ([[Consensus CDS Project|CCDS]]) takes an extremely conservative strategy. So CCDS's gene number prediction represents a lower bound on the total number of human protein-coding genes.<ref name="pmid20441615">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pertea M, Salzberg SL | title = Between a chicken and a grape: estimating the number of human genes | journal = Genome Biology | volume = 11 | issue = 5 | pages = 206 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20441615 | pmc = 2898077 | doi = 10.1186/gb-2010-11-5-206 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"
|-
! Estimated by
! [[Protein-coding genes]]
! [[Non-coding RNA|Non-coding RNA gene]]s
! [[Pseudogene]]s
! Source
! Release date
|-
| [[Consensus CDS Project|CCDS]] || 63 || — || —
|style="text-align:center"| <ref name="CCDS">{{cite web | title= Homo sapiens Y chromosome genes | work = CCDS Release 20 for Homo sapiens | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene?term=Y%5BChr%5D%20AND%20%22Homo%20sapiens%22%5BOrganism%5D%20AND%20%28%22has%20ccds%22%5BProperties%5D%20AND%20alive%5Bprop%5D%29&cmd=DetailsSearch |date=2016-09-08 | access-date=2017-05-28}}</ref>
| 2016-09-08
|-
| [[HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee|HGNC]]|| 45 || 55 || 381
|style="text-align:center"| <ref name="HGNC20170512">{{cite web | title=Statistics & Downloads for chromosome Y | website=HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee | url=https://www.genenames.org/cgi-bin/statistics?c=Y |date=2017-05-12 | access-date=2017-05-19}}</ref>
| 2017-05-12
|-
| [[Ensembl genome database project|Ensembl]] || 63 || 109 || 392
|style="text-align:center"| <ref name="Ensembl Release 88">{{cite web | title=Chromosome Y: Chromosome summary - Homo sapiens | website= Ensembl Release 88 | url=http://mar2017.archive.ensembl.org/Homo_sapiens/Location/Chromosome?r=Y |date=2017-03-29 | access-date=2017-05-19}}</ref>
| 2017-03-29
|-
| [[UniProt]] || 47 || — || —
|style="text-align:center"| <ref name="UniProt">{{cite web | title=Human chromosome Y: entries, gene names and cross-references to MIM | website= UniProt | url=https://www.uniprot.org/docs/humchry.txt |date=2018-02-28 | access-date=2018-03-16}}</ref>
| 2018-02-28
|-
| [[National Center for Biotechnology Information|NCBI]] || 73 || 122 || 400
|style="text-align:center"| <ref name="NCBI coding">{{cite web | title= Homo sapiens Y chromosome coding genes | date=2017-05-19 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene?term=Y%5BCHR%5D%20AND%20%22Homo%20sapiens%22%5BOrganism%5D%20AND%20%28%22genetype%20protein%20coding%22%5BProperties%5D%20AND%20alive%5Bprop%5D%29&cmd=DetailsSearch | access-date=2017-05-20 | work = National Center for Biotechnology Information Gene Database }}</ref><ref name="NCBI noncoding">{{cite web | title = Homo sapiens Y chromosome non-coding genes | date=2017-05-19 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene?term=Y%5BCHR%5D%20AND%20%22Homo%20sapiens%22%5BOrganism%5D%20AND%20%28%28%22genetype%20miscrna%22%5BProperties%5D%20OR%20%22genetype%20ncrna%22%5BProperties%5D%20OR%20%22genetype%20rrna%22%5BProperties%5D%20OR%20%22genetype%20trna%22%5BProperties%5D%20OR%20%22genetype%20scrna%22%5BProperties%5D%20OR%20%22genetype%20snrna%22%5BProperties%5D%20OR%20%22genetype%20snorna%22%5BProperties%5D%29%20NOT%20%22genetype%20protein%20coding%22%5BProperties%5D%20AND%20alive%5Bprop%5D%29&cmd=DetailsSearch | access-date=2017-05-20}}</ref><ref name="NCBI pseudo">{{cite web | title= Homo sapiens Y chromosome non-coding pseudo genes | date=2017-05-19 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene?term=Y%5BCHR%5D%20AND%20%22Homo%20sapiens%22%5BOrganism%5D%20AND%20%28%22genetype%20pseudo%22%5BProperties%5D%20AND%20alive%5Bprop%5D%29&cmd=DetailsSearch | access-date=2017-05-20}}</ref>
| 2017-05-19
|}

==== Gene list ====
{{Category see also|Genes on human chromosome Y}}
In general, the human Y chromosome is extremely gene poor—it is one of the largest [[Gene Deserts|gene deserts]] in the human genome. Disregarding [[Pseudoautosomal region|pseudoautosomal]] genes, genes encoded on the human Y chromosome include:

{|class=wikitable
|+Genes on the non-recombining portion of the Y chromosome<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Colaco |first1=Stacy |last2=Modi |first2=Deepak |title=Genetics of the human Y chromosome and its association with male infertility |journal=Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology |date=17 February 2018 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=14 |doi=10.1186/s12958-018-0330-5 |pmid=29454353 |pmc=5816366 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
!Name
![[X chromosome|X]] [[paralog]]
!Note
|-
|[[SRY]] || [[SOX3]] || Sex-determining region. This is the short p arm [Yp].
|-
|[[ZFY]] || [[ZFX]] || [[Zinc finger]].
|-
|[[RPS4Y1]] || [[RPS4X]] || Ribosomal protein S4.
|-
|[[AMELY]] || [[AMELX]] || [[Amelogenin]].
|-
|[[TBL1Y]] || [[TBL1X]] ||
|-
|[[PCDH11Y]] || [[PDCH11X]] || X-transposed region (XTR) from Xq21, one of two genes. Once dubbed "PAR3"<ref name="Veerappa 2013 285–293">{{cite journal | vauthors = Veerappa AM, Padakannaya P, Ramachandra NB | title = Copy number variation-based polymorphism in a new pseudoautosomal region 3 (PAR3) of a human X-chromosome-transposed region (XTR) in the Y chromosome | journal = Functional & Integrative Genomics | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 285–93 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23708688 | doi = 10.1007/s10142-013-0323-6 | s2cid = 13443194 }}</ref> but later refuted.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Raudsepp T, Chowdhary BP | title = The Eutherian Pseudoautosomal Region | journal = Cytogenetic and Genome Research | volume = 147 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 81–94 | date = 6 January 2016 | pmid = 26730606 | doi = 10.1159/000443157 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
|-
|[[TGIF2LY]] || [[TGIF2LX]] || The other X-transposed gene.
|-
|[[TSPY1]], [[TSPY2]] || [[TSPX]] || Testis-specific protein.
|-
|[[AZF1|AZFa]] || (none) || Not a gene. First part of the AZF region on arm q. Contains the four following genes. X counterparts escape inactivation.
|-
|[[USP9Y]] || [[USP9X]] || Ubiquitin protease.
|-
|[[DDX3Y]] || [[DDX3X]] || Helicase.
|-
|[[UTY (gene)|UTY]] || [[UTX (gene)|UTX]] || Histone demethylase.
|-
|[[TB4Y]] || [[TB4X]] ||
|-
|AZFb || (none) || Second AZF region on arm q. Prone to NAHR [non-allelic homologous recombination] with AZFc. Overlaps with AZFc. Contains three single-copy gene regions and repeats.
|-
|[[CYorf15]] || [[CXorf15]] ||
|-
|[[RPS4Y2]] || [[RPS4X]] || Another copy of ribosomal protein S4.
|-
|[[EIF1AY]] || [[EIF4AX]] ||
|-
|[[KDM5D]] || [[KDM5C]] ||
|-
|[[XKRY]] || [[XK (protein)]]|| Found in the "yellow" [[amplicon]].
|-
|[[HSFY1]], [[HSFY2]] || [[HSFX1]], [[HSFX2]] || Found in the "blue" amplicon.
|-
|[[Polycystin-related Y protein|PRY]], [[PRY2]] || || Found in the "blue" amplicon. Identified by similarity to [[PTPN13]] (Chr. 4).
|-
|[[RBMY1A1]] || [[RBMY]] || Large number of copies. Part of an [[RBM gene family]] of RNA recognition motif (RRM) proteins.
|-
|AZFc || (none) || Final (distal) part of the AZF. Multiple palindromes.
|-
|[[DAZ1]], [[DAZ2]], [[DAZ3]], [[DAZ4]] || || RRM genes in two palindromic clusters. [[BOLL]] and [[DAZLA]] are autosomal homologs.
|-
|[[CDY1]], [[CDY2]] || || CDY1 is actually two identical copies. CDY2 is two closely related copies in palindrome P5. Probably derived from autosomal [[CDYL]].
|-
|[[VCY1]], [[VCY2]] || [[VCX1]] through 3 || Three copies of VCX2 (BPY2). Part of the [[VCX/VCY]] family. The two copies of BPY1 are instead in Yq11.221/AZFa.
|-
|}

===Y-chromosome-linked diseases===
Diseases linked to the Y chromosome typically involve an [[aneuploidy]], an atypical number of chromosomes.

==== Y chromosome microdeletion ====
[[Y chromosome microdeletion]] (YCM) is a family of genetic disorders caused by missing genes in the Y chromosome. Many affected men exhibit no symptoms and lead normal lives. However, YCM is also known to be present in a significant number of men with reduced fertility or reduced sperm count.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

==== Defective Y chromosome ====
This results in the person presenting a female [[phenotype]] (i.e., is born with female-like genitalia) even though that person possesses an XY [[karyotype]]. The lack of the second X results in infertility. In other words, viewed from the opposite direction, the person goes through [[defeminization]] but fails to complete [[Virilization|masculinization]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

The cause can be seen as an incomplete Y chromosome: the usual karyotype in these cases is 45X, plus a fragment of Y. This usually results in defective testicular development, such that the infant may or may not have fully formed male genitalia internally or externally. The full range of ambiguity of structure may occur, especially if [[Mosaic (genetics)|mosaicism]] is present. When the Y fragment is minimal and nonfunctional, the child is usually a girl with the features of [[Turner syndrome]] or [[mixed gonadal dysgenesis]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

==== XXY ====
{{main|Klinefelter syndrome}}

Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY) is not an [[aneuploidy]] of the Y chromosome, but a condition of having an extra X chromosome, which usually results in defective postnatal testicular function. The mechanism is not fully understood; it does not seem to be due to direct interference by the extra X with expression of Y genes.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

==== XYY ====
{{main|XYY syndrome}}

47, XYY syndrome (simply known as XYY syndrome) is caused by the presence of a single extra copy of the Y chromosome in each of a male's cells. 47, XYY males have one X chromosome and two Y chromosomes, for a total of 47 chromosomes per cell. Researchers have found that an extra copy of the Y chromosome is associated with increased stature and an increased incidence of learning problems in some boys and men, but the effects are variable, often minimal, and the vast majority do not know their karyotype.<ref name="1950- 2007">{{Cite book|title=Thompson & Thompson genetics in medicine.|author=Nussbaum, Robert L.|date=2007|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|others=McInnes, Roderick R., Willard, Huntington F., Hamosh, Ada., Thompson, Margaret W. (Margaret Wilson), 1920-|isbn=978-1416030805|edition= 7th.|location=Philadelphia|oclc=72774424}}</ref>

In 1965 and 1966 [[Patricia Jacobs]] and colleagues published a chromosome survey of 315 male patients at
[[Scotland]]'s only special security hospital for the [[developmental disability|developmentally disabled]],
finding a higher than expected number of patients to have an extra Y chromosome.<ref name="jacobs-1965">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jacobs PA, Brunton M, Melville MM, Brittain RP, McClemont WF | title = Aggressive behavior, mental sub-normality and the XYY male | journal = Nature | volume = 208 | issue = 5017 | pages = 1351–2 | date = December 1965 | pmid = 5870205 | doi = 10.1038/2081351a0 | bibcode = 1965Natur.208.1351J | s2cid = 4145850 }}</ref> The authors of this study wondered "whether an extra Y chromosome predisposes its carriers to unusually aggressive behaviour", and this conjecture "framed the next fifteen years of research on the human Y chromosome".<ref name="richardson-sex-itself">{{cite book|last1=Richardson|first1=Sarah S. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Sex Itself: The Search for Male & Female in the Human Genome|date=2013|publisher=U. of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-08468-8|page=84}}</ref>

Through studies over the next decade, this conjecture was shown to be incorrect: the elevated crime rate of XYY males is due to lower median intelligence and not increased aggression,<ref name="witkin-1976">{{cite journal | vauthors = Witkin HA, Mednick SA, Schulsinger F, Bakkestrom E, Christiansen KO, Goodenough DR, Hirschhorn K, Lundsteen C, Owen DR, Philip J, Rubin DB, Stocking M | display-authors = 6 | title = Criminality in XYY and XXY men | journal = Science | volume = 193 | issue = 4253 | pages = 547–55 | date = August 1976 | pmid = 959813 | doi = 10.1126/science.959813 | bibcode = 1976Sci...193..547W }}</ref> and increased height was the only characteristic that could be reliably associated with XYY males.<ref name="witkin-1977">{{cite journal | last1 = Witkin | first1 = Herman A. | last2 = Goodenough | first2 = Donald R. | last3 = Hirschhorn | first3 = Kurt | name-list-style = vanc |date=1977 |title=XYY Men: Are They Criminally Aggressive? |journal=The Sciences |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=10–13 |doi=10.1002/j.2326-1951.1977.tb01570.x| pmid = 11662398 }}</ref> The "criminal karyotype" concept is therefore inaccurate.<ref name="1950- 2007"/>

====Rare====
The following Y-chromosome-linked diseases are rare, but notable because of their elucidating of the nature of the Y chromosome.

=====More than two Y chromosomes=====
Greater degrees of Y chromosome polysomy (having more than one extra copy of the Y chromosome in every cell, e.g., XYYY) are considerably more rare. The extra genetic material in these cases can lead to skeletal abnormalities, dental abnormalities, decreased IQ, delayed development, and respiratory issues, but the severity features of these conditions are variable.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abedi|first1=Maryam|last2=Salmaninejad|first2=Arash|last3=Sakhinia|first3=Ebrahim|date=2017-12-07|title=Rare 48, XYYY syndrome: case report and review of the literature|journal=Clinical Case Reports|volume=6|issue=1|pages=179–184|doi=10.1002/ccr3.1311|issn=2050-0904|pmc=5771943|pmid=29375860}}</ref>

=====XX male syndrome=====
[[XX male syndrome]] occurs when there has been a [[Genetic recombination|recombination]] in the formation of the male [[gamete]]s, causing the [[SRY]] portion of the Y chromosome to move to the X chromosome. When such an X chromosome contributes to the child, the development will lead to a male, because of the SRY gene.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

=== Genetic genealogy ===
{{Main|Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-chromosomal Adam}}

In human [[genetic genealogy]] (the application of [[genetics]] to [[Genealogy|traditional genealogy]]), use of the information contained in the Y chromosome is of particular interest because, unlike other chromosomes, the Y chromosome is passed exclusively from father to son, on the patrilineal line. [[Mitochondrial DNA]], maternally inherited to both sons and daughters, is used in an analogous way to trace the matrilineal line.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

===Brain function===
Research is currently investigating whether male-pattern neural development is a direct consequence of Y-chromosome-related gene expression or an indirect result of Y-chromosome-related [[androgenic hormone]] production.<ref name="Kopsida 2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kopsida E, Stergiakouli E, Lynn PM, Wilkinson LS, Davies W | title = The Role of the Y Chromosome in Brain Function | journal = Open Neuroendocrinology Journal | volume = 2 | pages = 20–30 | year = 2009 | pmid = 20396406 | pmc = 2854822 | doi = 10.2174/1876528900902010020 | url = http://www.benthamscience.com/open/toneuroej/articles/V002/20TONEUROEJ.pdf }}</ref>

===Microchimerism===
The presence of male chromosomes in fetal cells in the blood circulation of women was discovered in 1974.<ref name="SchroederEtAl1974">{{cite journal|vauthors = Schröder J, Thlikainen A, de la Chapelle A|title=Fetal leukocytes in the maternal circulation after delivery: Cytological aspects|journal=Transplantation|volume=17|issue=4|year=1974|pages=346–354|issn=0041-1337|doi=10.1097/00007890-197404000-00003|pmid=4823382|s2cid=35983351}}</ref>

In 1996, it was found that male fetal progenitor cells could persist postpartum in the maternal blood stream for as long as 27 years.<ref name="BianchiEtAl1996">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bianchi DW, Zickwolf GK, Weil GJ, Sylvester S, DeMaria MA | title = Male fetal progenitor cells persist in maternal blood for as long as 27 years postpartum | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 93 | issue = 2 | pages = 705–8 | date = January 1996 | pmid = 8570620 | pmc = 40117 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.93.2.705 | bibcode = 1996PNAS...93..705B | doi-access = free }}</ref>

A 2004 study at the [[Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center]], Seattle, investigated the origin of male chromosomes found in the peripheral blood of women who had not had male progeny. A total of 120 subjects (women who had never had sons) were investigated, and it was found that 21% of them had male DNA. The subjects were categorised into four groups based on their case histories:<ref name="YanEtAl2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Yan Z, Lambert NC, Guthrie KA, Porter AJ, Loubiere LS, Madeleine MM, Stevens AM, Hermes HM, Nelson JL | display-authors = 6 | title = Male microchimerism in women without sons: quantitative assessment and correlation with pregnancy history | journal = The American Journal of Medicine | volume = 118 | issue = 8 | pages = 899–906 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16084184 | doi = 10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.03.037 | url = http://www.amjmed.com/article/S0002-9343(05)00270-6/fulltext | format = full text }}</ref>
* Group A (8%) had had only female progeny.
* Patients in Group B (22%) had a history of one or more miscarriages.
* Patients Group C (57%) had their pregnancies medically terminated.
* Group D (10%) had never been pregnant before.

The study noted that 10% of the women had never been pregnant before, raising the question of where the Y chromosomes in their blood could have come from. The study suggests that possible reasons for occurrence of male chromosome microchimerism could be one of the following:<ref name="YanEtAl2004"/>
* miscarriages,
* pregnancies,
* vanished male twin,
* possibly from sexual intercourse.

A 2012 study at the same institute has detected cells with the Y chromosome in multiple areas of the brains of deceased women.<ref name="ChanEtAl2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chan WF, Gurnot C, Montine TJ, Sonnen JA, Guthrie KA, Nelson JL | title = Male microchimerism in the human female brain | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7 | issue = 9 | pages = e45592 | date = 26 September 2012 | pmid = 23049819 | pmc = 3458919 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0045592 | bibcode = 2012PLoSO...745592C | doi-access = free }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Genealogical DNA test]]
* [[Genetic genealogy]]
* [[Haplodiploid sex-determination system]]
* [[Human Y chromosome DNA haplogroups]]
* [[List of Y-STR markers]]
* [[Muller's ratchet]]
* [[Single nucleotide polymorphism]]
* [[Y-STR|Y chromosome Short Tandem Repeat (STR)]]
* [[Y linkage]]
* [[Y-chromosomal Aaron]]
* [[Y-chromosomal Adam]]
* [[Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world]]
{{-}}
== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Y chromosomes}}
* [http://www.cambridgedna.com/genealogy-dna-genetic-genealogy.php Genetic Genealogy: About the use of mtDNA and Y chromosome analysis in ancestry testing]
* [http://www.ensembl.org/Homo_sapiens/mapview?chr=Y Ensembl genome browser]
*http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mapview/maps.cgi?taxid=9606&chr=Y
* [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/faq/snps.shtml Human Genome Project Information]—Human Chromosome Y Launchpad
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050207052351/http://wi.mit.edu/news/ontopic/ychromosome.html On Topic: Y Chromosome]—From the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research
* [http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/ychromosome/index.html Nature]—focus on the Y chromosome
* [http://www.genome.gov/11007628 National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)]—Use of Novel Mechanism Preserves Y chromosome Genes
* [http://www.ysearch.org/ Ysearch.org – Public Y-DNA database]
* [http://ycc.biosci.arizona.edu/ Y chromosome Consortium (YCC)]
* [https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2010/01/human_male_still_a_work_in_pro.html NPR's Human Male: Still A Work In Progress]

{{Chromosomes}}
{{Chromosome genetics}}
{{Sex (biology)}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Y Chromosome}}
[[Category:Andrology]]
[[Category:Chromosomes]]
[[Category:Chromosomes (human)|Chromosome Y]]
[[Category:Genes on human chromosome Y| ]]
[[Category:Male]]
[[Category:Sex-determination systems]]
[[Category:Sexual dimorphism]]

Thai curry

2022-03-04T12:23:25Z

Zumbo: Fix intro

{{short description|Dishes in Thai cuisine made with curry paste}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Thai curry
| image = Red roast duck curry.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = A bowl of {{transl|th|kaeng phet pet yang}}, roast duck in red curry
| alternate_name =
| country = [[Thailand]]
| region =
| creator =
| course =
| type = [[Curry]]
| served =
| main_ingredient = [[Curry paste]], [[coconut milk]] or water, [[meat]], [[seafood]], [[vegetable]]s or [[fruit]], [[herb]]s
| variations =
| calories =
| other =
}}

'''Thai curry''' or '''kaeng''' ({{lang-th|แกง}}, {{IPA-th|kɛ̄ːŋ|pron}}) is a dish in [[Thai cuisine]] made from [[Thai curry paste|curry paste]], [[coconut milk]] or water, meat, seafood, vegetables or fruit, and herbs. Curries in Thailand mainly differ from the curries in [[Indian cuisine]] in their use of ingredients such as herbs and aromatic leaves over a mix of spices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.pe.ca/Arts/Entertainment/2012-01-25/article-2873962/Thai-curries-rich-in-flavour/1|title=Thai curries rich in flavour}}</ref>

==Definition==
[[File:Vatch kaeng phet.jpg|thumb|Some of the fresh ingredients for red curry paste]]
The first Thai dictionary from 1873 [[Common era|CE]] (2416 in the [[Thai lunar calendar|Thai Buddhist calendar]]) defines ''kaeng'' as a watery dish to be eaten with rice and utilizing [[shrimp paste]], onions or shallots, [[chili pepper|chillies]], and garlic as essential ingredients.<ref name="thaicooking.nationmultimedia.com">{{cite web|url=http://thaicooking.nationmultimedia.com/?p=1382|title=Thai cooking, food thai, Thai menu, pad thai recipe}}</ref> Coconut milk is not included in this definition and many Thai curries, such as {{transl|th|[[kaeng som]]}} and {{transl|th|[[kaeng pa]]}}, do not feature it. Curries in [[Lanna]] (northern Thai) cuisine, with only a few exceptions, do not use coconut milk due to coconut palms not growing well, if at all, in the climate of the [[Thai highlands]]. The [[Piquance|spiciness]] of Thai curries depends on the amount and kind of chilli used in the making of the paste. Even within one type of curry the spiciness can differ widely.

The word "curry" figures in the [[Thai language]] as ''"kari"'' ({{lang-th|กะหรี่}}), and refers to dishes using either an Indian-style [[curry powder]], known as ''phong kari'' in Thailand, or to the dish called ''kaeng kari'', an Indian-influenced curry that is made with spices that are common to Indian dishes but less often used in these proportions in Thai cuisine. ''Kung phat phong kari'' (prawns fried with egg and curry powder) is an example of a dish using the Indian style curry powder.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thaifoodmaster.com/recipes/main_dish_recipes/42|title=Stir Fried Prawns with Curry Powder and Eggs Recipe |work=Thaifoodmaster}}</ref>

Although {{transl|th|"kaeng"}} is also defined as being of "watery" substance, the thickness of the sauce can vary considerably from [[broth]]-like to that of a thick [[stew]], and it can even be a completely dry dish. Representatives of dry curries, dishes which are (stir-)fried with a curry paste, are {{transl|th|[[phat phrik khing]]}} and {{transl|th|khua khling}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eatingthaifood.com/2011/12/food-photo-flavor-packed-thai-dry-curry-kua-kling/|title=Food Photo: Flavor Packed Thai Dry Curry (Kua Kling)|author=Mark Wiens|work=Thai Street Food, Restaurants, and Recipes - Eating Thai Food}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://spacesandspices-dorrie.blogspot.com/2011/11/khua-kling-ein-trockenes-thai-curry-dry.html|title=Spaces and Spices|date=24 November 2011}}</ref> {{transl|th|Kaeng som}} and {{transl|th|keang pa}} are representatives of the more broth-like curries. {{transl|th|Matsaman}} and {{transl|th|kaeng khua}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/food/features/275198/dishes-the-march-of-time-passed-by|title=Bangkok Post : The world windows to Thailand}}</ref> resemble stews. {{transl|th|[[Ho mok pla]]}} (a [[steamed curry|steamed]] fish curry), {{transl|th|kaeng kradang}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.cmu.ac.th/ntic/en_lannafood/detail_lannafood.php?id_food=21|title=Kaeng kradang (jelly pork curry) - Lanna Food - Northern Thai Information Center, Chiang Mai University Library}}</ref> (curry [[aspic]] from northern Thailand) and noodle dishes such as {{transl|th|[[khanom chin]] [[nam ngiao]]}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.cmu.ac.th/ntic/en_lannafood/detail_lannafood.php?id_food=71|title=Lanna Food - Northern Thai Information Center, Chiang Mai University Library}}</ref> are also seen as Thai curry dishes as they all use curry pastes in their preparation.

The dish called {{transl|th|kaeng chuet}} is an exception to the rule that a {{transl|th|kaeng}} should contain chillies, garlic, onions and shrimp paste. It is a clear Chinese style meat and/or vegetable broth with mixed vegetables and often also minced pork, [[tofu]] and [[Cellophane noodles|glass noodles]]. The name translates as "bland curry" but it is seen as being a ''tom'', a soup, and it is therefore also often called ''tom chuet''.<ref name="thaicooking.nationmultimedia.com"/>

Curries are eaten in combination with rice, the long-grained [[jasmine rice]] in [[central Thailand|central]] and [[southern Thailand]] and [[glutinous rice|sticky rice]] in [[northern Thailand|northern]] and [[Isan|northeastern Thailand]], and with noodles such as {{transl|th|[[khanom chin]]}} (fermented rice noodles). Certain curries can also be eaten with ''roti'', the Thai version of the Indian-style fried [[flatbread|flat bread]] from [[Malaysia]] called {{transl|th|[[roti canai]]}}.

{{transl|th|Khao kaeng}} or {{transl|th|khao rat kaeng}}, meaning "curry-on-rice", is a traditional type of [[fast food]] restaurant in Thailand which specialises in ready-made curries, and often several other dishes as well, served with rice. Their popularity in [[Bangkok]] as a place for a quick lunchtime meal is in decline.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmultimedia.com/home/MCDANG-Hungry-for-Thai-noodles-49424.html|title=MCDANG: Hungry for Thai noodles|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618035934/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/home/MCDANG-Hungry-for-Thai-noodles-49424.html|archive-date=2013-06-18}}</ref>

==Typical ingredients==
[[File:Green curry ingredients.jpg|thumb|Ingredients for green curry]]
[[File:HAT YAI MARKET 2.jpg|thumb|Different types of Thai curry pastes for sale at a market in [[Hat Yai]], in southern Thailand]]

===Curry paste===
Thai curries are always made with a [[curry paste]]. Common ingredients used in many Thai curry pastes are:
*[[Shrimp paste]]
*[[Chili pepper|Chillies]]; depending on the curry these can be dried or fresh, red or green
*[[Onion]]s or [[shallot]]s
*[[Garlic]]
*[[Lemongrass]]
*[[Galangal]]
*[[Coriander]] (cilantro) root

Depending on the type of curry, additional ingredients for the paste can include spices such as [[turmeric]], [[Black pepper|pepper]], coriander seeds, [[cardamom]] pods, and [[cumin]], or other ingredients such as boiled fermented fish,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.cmu.ac.th/ntic/en_lannafood/detail_lannafood.php?id_food=48|title=Kaeng marum - Lanna Food - Northern Thai Information Center, Chiang Mai University Library}}</ref> and [[Boesenbergia rotunda|fingerroot]].
Ingredients are traditionally ground together with a [[mortar and pestle]], though increasingly with an electric [[food processor]]. With many curries, the paste is first stir-fried in [[cooking oil]] before other components are added in to the dish. This allows certain flavours in the spices and other ingredients in the paste to develop that cannot be released at the lower temperature of boiling water.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/thaimonkfishandokrac_83780|title=BBC - Food - Recipes : Thai monkfish and okra curry|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111212012429/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/thaimonkfishandokrac_83780|archive-date=2011-12-12}}</ref>

Both ''khrueang kaeng'' ({{lit|''kaeng'' ingredients}}) and ''[[nam phrik]] kaeng'' ({{lit|''kaeng'' chilli paste}}) are used to describe "curry paste" in Thailand. The latter is sometimes even shortened to only ''phrik kaeng'' ({{lit|''kaeng'' chilli}}).

Thai curry pastes can be made at home from the bare ingredients, bought freshly made at markets in Thailand, or they can be had packaged at shops and supermarkets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shesimmers.com/2010/06/easy-thai-green-curry-recipe-interview.html|title=Easy Thai Green Curry, an Interview with Kasma Loha-unchit}}</ref>

===Main ingredients===
Most Thai curries are made with meat, fish or [[shellfish]] as their main ingredient. Vegetables and fruit, but also certain tree leaves such as from the ''[[Acacia pennata]]'' (''cha-om'') and the ''[[Ficus virens]]'' (''phak lueat''), and flowers such as those of the ''[[Sesbania grandiflora]]'' (''dok khae'')<ref>{{cite news|last=Sukphisit|first=Suthon|date=15 January 2012|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/life/social-and-lifestyle/275198/dishes-the-march-of-time-passed-by|title=Dishes the march of time passed by|newspaper=[[Bangkok Post]]}}</ref> and [[banana]] (''hua pli''),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.cmu.ac.th/ntic/en_lannafood/detail_lannafood.php?id_food=26|title=Kaeng pli (banana flower) - Lanna Food - Northern Thai Information Center, Chiang Mai University Library}}</ref> can be added. Curries that contain mainly vegetables are, for example, ''kaeng liang'' (mixed vegetables)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shesimmers.com/2011/08/spicy-thai-mixed-vegetable-soup-kaeng.html|title=Thai Spicy Mixed Vegetable Soup - Kaeng Liang (แกงเลียง) - SheSimmers|author=Leela|date=16 August 2011}}</ref> and ''kaeng nomai'' ([[bamboo shoot]]s).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.cmu.ac.th/ntic/en_lannafood/detail_lannafood.php?id_food=54|title=Kaeng nomai (bamboo shoots) - Lanna Food - Northern Thai Information Center, Chiang Mai University Library}}</ref> Ingredients were dictated by regional and seasonal availability: both [[Domestic pigs|pork]] and [[chicken]] (possibly first domesticated from wild [[Gallus gallus|jungle fowl]] in what is now Thailand)<ref name=oneMatriarch>{{citation|title=One subspecies of the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus gallus) suffices as the matriarchic ancestor of all domestic breeds |first1=A |last1=Fumihito |first2=T |last2=Miyake|first3=S |last3=Sumi|first4=M |last4=Takada |first5=S |last5=Ohno|first6=N |last6=Kondo|journal=PNAS |date=December 20, 1994 |volume=91 |number=26 |pages=12505–12509 |doi=10.1073/pnas.91.26.12505|pmc=45467 |pmid=7809067|bibcode=1994PNAS...9112505F |doi-access=free }}</ref> are easily available, and so are many varieties of fish, and shellfish, both fresh water species from the many rivers, lakes and rice paddies, as well as salt water species from the [[Andaman Sea]] and the [[Gulf of Thailand]]. Other traditional ingredients in Thai curries include [[frog]]s, [[snake]]s, [[snail]]s, [[bird|wild birds]] and [[Game (food)|game]] such as [[Sambar (deer)|Sambar deer]] and [[wild boar]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art175700.asp|title=Thai Jungle Curry Paste|access-date=1 July 2017}}</ref> Commonly used vegetables in curries are [[Thai eggplant]] (''makhuea pro''), [[Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis|yardlong beans]] (''thua fak yao''), and different types of [[Squash (plant)|squash]] and [[pumpkin]]s (''fak'').

===Additional ingredients===
Fresh [[kaffir lime]] leaves (''bai makrut''), [[fingerroot]] (''krachai''), or fresh herbs such as [[Thai basil]] (''horapa'') are often added to Thai curries. Kaffir lime leaves and ''krachai'' are often cooked along with the other ingredients but fresh herbs such as Thai basil are nearly always added at the last moment to preserve the full taste and serve as a contrasting note to the flavours of a curry. [[Fish sauce]] is not only used when cooking the curry as a flavouring and for its salty taste, but it is usually also available at the table as a [[condiment]], mixed together with sliced green [[bird's-eye chilli]]es for those that prefer their curries more salty and spicy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shesimmers.com/2010/02/nampla-prik-ubiquitous-thai-table-sauce.html|title=Nam Pla Prik น้ำปลาพริก - The Ubiquitous Thai Table Sauce|date=16 February 2010}}</ref> Sugar (traditionally [[palm sugar]]) is used with curries that need to be sweetened. Besides lime juice, [[tamarind]] juice can also see use in sour curries as the souring agent such as in ''kaeng som''. To achieve the most fragrance from the ingredients in a curry paste, the curry paste is often first fried together with vegetable oil or coconut oil that has separated from the [[coconut cream]], before adding in the other ingredients.

==Popular Thai curries==
[[File:แกงรัญจวน บ้านยาหอม.jpg|thumb|''[[Kaeng Ranjuan]]'']]
*{{transl|th|Kaeng kari}} ({{lit|{{-"}}curry" curry}}, it is known as "[[yellow curry]]" in the West)
*{{transl|th|[[Kaeng khae]]}}, a curry of northern Thai cuisine
*{{transl|th|Kaeng khiao wan}} ({{lit|green sweet curry}}, it is known as "[[green curry]]" in the West)
*{{transl|th|[[Kaeng pa]]}} ({{lit|jungle curry}}, in addition to the curry paste, it uses whatever is available in nature)
*{{transl|th|Kaeng phet}} ({{lit|[[Piquance|spicy]] curry}}, it is known as "[[red curry]]" in the West)
*{{transl|th|[[Kaeng som]]}} ({{lit|orange curry}}, every region has its own variety)
*{{transl|th|[[Massaman curry|Kaeng matsaman]]}} ({{lit|Muslim curry}}; the name {{transl|th|matsaman}} is supposedly derived from "[[mosalman]]", an [[Archaism|archaic]] word for "Muslim")<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shesimmers.com/2010/07/massaman-curry-recipe.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-05-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511222718/http://www.shesimmers.com/2010/07/massaman-curry-recipe.html |archive-date=2012-05-11 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldplatter.com/viewbeyondthefood.php?id=5|title=Worldplatter|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130209212920/http://www.worldplatter.com/viewbeyondthefood.php?id=5|archive-date=2013-02-09}}</ref>
*''[[Kaeng Ranjuan]]'' (a leftover food with spicy, sour, sweet, and salty beef curry seasoned with no more than fermented shrimp paste chili sauce.)
*{{transl|th|[[Khao soi]]}} (a [[Burmese cuisine|Burmese]]-influenced curry [[noodle soup]] from northern Thailand)
*{{transl|th|[[Phanaeng curry|Phanaeng]]}} (the name possibly refers to the [[Malaysia]]n island state of [[Penang]]; this is a creamy and generally mild curry)
*{{transl|th|[[Phat phrik khing]]}} ({{lit|stir-fried chilli ginger}}, this Thai curry actually does not contain [[ginger]])

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Curry paste fried with coco cream.JPG|''Phanaeng'' paste is fried together with [[coconut cream]]
File:Kaeng phak lueat.JPG|''Kaeng phak lueat'', a northern Thai curry with ficus leaves
File:Thai style Otah.JPG|''Ho mok pla'', steamed fish curry
File:Khua kling.JPG|''Khua kling'', an extremely spicy, dry fried curry from southern Thailand
File:2014 1204 Khao Soi in Chiang Mai.jpg|''Khao soi'', a curry [[noodle soup]] from northern Thailand
File:Kaeng kradang.jpg|''Kaeng kradang'', a pork curry [[aspic]]
File:Tom jued tahoo.jpg|''Kaeng chuet'', the curry that isn't curry, but actually a soup.
File:Kaeng tai pla34.JPG|''[[Kaeng tai pla]]'', made from fermented fish entrails
File:Thai Seafood Curry.jpg|A seafood curry in the United States inspired by the flavors of Thai cuisine
File:แกงฮังเล ที่ หลู้ลำ.jpg|''[[Kaeng hang le]]'', a northern Thai curry with Burmese influences
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Food}}
* [[List of Thai dishes#Curries|Curries]] in [[List of Thai dishes]]''
* ''[[Kroeung]]''

==Sources and references==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=57LYKwAACAAJ&dq=inauthor:%22Vatcharin+Bhumichitr%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=hkewT5biDo6Y1AXr6vS3CQ&ved=0CF0Q6AEwBw Vatcharin Bhumichitr: The Big Book of Thai Curries]

==External links==
{{commonscat inline}}
* [http://www.templeofthai.com/cooking/about_thai_curry.php Templeofthai.com: About Thai curry]
* [http://highheelgourmet.com/2013/03/23/curry_paste_/ highheelgourmet.com: Thai curry paste and ingredients that don't belong in them]

{{Cuisine of Thailand}}

[[Category:Thai curries| ]]
[[Category:Food paste]]

Summer (disambiguation)

2022-01-26T12:12:32Z

Zumbo: See Summer (given name)

{{Wiktionary|summer}}
'''[[Summer]]''' is one of the four seasons.

'''Summer''' or '''The Summer''' may also refer to:

{{TOC right}}
==Film==
* [[Summer (1930 film)|''Summer'' (1930 film)]], an animated cartoon by Ub Iwerks
* [[Summer (1976 film)|''Summer'' (1976 film)]], an Estonian-Russian film by Arvo Kruusement
* [[Summer (1986 film)|''Summer'' (1986 film)]] or ''The Green Ray'', a film by Eric Rohmer
* [[Summer (2008 film)|''Summer'' (2008 film)]], an independent UK film by Kenny Glenaan
* [[Summer (2011 film)|''Summer'' (2011 film)]], a Chilean film by José Luis Torres Leiva
* [[Summer (2018 film)|''Summer'' (2018 film)]], a Russian film

==Literature==
* [[Summer (Wharton novel)|''Summer'' (Wharton novel)]], a 1917 novel by Edith Wharton
* ''Summer'', a 2020 novel by [[Ali Smith]]
* ''Summer'' (''L'Été''), a 1954 essay by [[Albert Camus]]

==Music==
===Albums===
* [[Summer (George Winston album)|''Summer'' (George Winston album)]], 2008
* [[Summer (Harisu album)|''Summer'' (Harisu album)]], 2006
* [[Summer (Summer Watson album)|''Summer'' (Summer Watson album)]], 2003
* ''Summer'', by [[Zhou Xun]], 2003

===EPs===
* [[Summer (Boyfriend EP)|''Summer'' (Boyfriend EP)]], 2017
* [[Summer (Cassadee Pope EP)|''Summer'' (Cassadee Pope EP)]], 2016
* [[Summer (Jon Foreman EP)|''Summer'' (Jon Foreman EP)]], 2008
* [[Summer (Subtle EP)|''Summer'' (Subtle EP)]], 2001
* [[Summer (Tohoshinki EP)|''Summer'' (Tohoshinki EP)]], 2007
* [[Summer EP (Hawk Nelson EP)|''Summer EP'' (Hawk Nelson EP)]], 2009
* [[Summer EP (Sherwood EP)|''Summer EP'' (Sherwood EP)]], 2006
* ''[[Sum(me:r)]]'', a 2019 EP by Pentagon
* [[The Summer (EP)|''The Summer'' (EP)]], a 2009 EP by Never Shout Never

===Songs===
* [[Summer (Mogwai composition)|"Summer" (Mogwai composition)]], 1997
* [[Summer (Calvin Harris song)|"Summer" (Calvin Harris song)]], 2014
* [[Summer (Cassadee Pope song)|"Summer" (Cassadee Pope song)]], 2016
* [[Summer (Dragon song)|"Summer" (Dragon song)]], 1989
* [[Summer (Shy Child song)|"Summer" (Shy Child song)]], 2007
* [[Summer (War song)|"Summer" (War song)]], 1976
* [[The Summer (ATB song)|"The Summer" (ATB song)]], 2000
* [[The Summer (Josh Pyke song)|"The Summer" (Josh Pyke song)]], 2009
* "[[Summer (The First Time)]]", by Bobby Goldsboro, 1973
* "Summer" ("L'estate"), the second concerto in Vivaldi's ''[[The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)|The Four Seasons]]''
* "Summer", by Alien Ant Farm from ''[[Anthology (Alien Ant Farm album)|Anthology]]''
* "Summer", by Beatsteaks from ''[[Living Targets]]''
* "Summer", by Brockhampton from ''[[Saturation II]]''
* "Summer", by the Carters from ''[[Everything Is Love]]'', 2018
* "Summer", by Charlotte Hatherley from ''[[Grey Will Fade]]''
* "Summer", by Dido from ''[[Safe Trip Home]]''
* "Summer", by Fireworks from ''[[Gospel (Fireworks album)|Gospel]]''
* "Summer", by Imagine Dragons from ''[[Smoke + Mirrors]]''
* "Summer", by Joe Hisaishi from the soundtrack of ''[[Kikujiro]]''
* "Summer", by Marsheaux from ''[[Lumineux Noir]]''
* "Summer", by Marshmello from ''[[Joytime]]''
* "Summer", by Moby from ''[[Play: The B Sides]]''
* "Summer", by Modest Mouse from ''[[The Fruit That Ate Itself]]''
* "Summer", by [[Modestep]]
* "Summer", by [[Parah Dice]], 2019
* "Summer", by Smashing Pumpkins from the single "[[Perfect (The Smashing Pumpkins song)|Perfect]]"
* "Summer", by Sum 41 from ''[[Half Hour of Power]]'' and ''[[All Killer No Filler]]''
* "Summer!", by [[twlv]], Superbee, Uneducated Kid, and Yuzion

==Paintings==
* [[Summer (Claus)|''Summer'' (Claus)]], an 1893 painting by Emile Claus
* [[Summer (Goya)|''Summer'' (Goya)]], a 1786–87 painting by Francisco de Goya
* ''Summer'', a 1572 painting by [[Giuseppe Arcimboldo]]

==Video games==
* [[Summer (visual novel)|''_Summer'' (visual novel)]], by Hooksoft (2005)
* "Summer", a story arc in the visual novel ''[[Air (visual novel)|Air]]'' (2000)

==Companies==
* [[The Summer Company]], an American theatre company based in Pittsburgh
* [[Virgil C. Summer Nuclear Generating Station]], a facility in South Carolina, USA

==People==
* [[Summer (given name)]], an English feminine first name, including a list of people with the name
* [[Summer (surname)]], a family name, including a list of people with the name

* [[Summer XO]] (born 1982), American singer and visual artist known as Summer before 2013
* [[Summer Smith]], a main character in ''Rick and Morty''

==Other uses==
* [[Adder (electronics)]] or summer, a circuit that sums numbers
* [[Bressummer]] or summer, a beam used in building construction
* [[Season of Summer (liturgy)]], a period in the East Syriac liturgical year

== See also ==
* {{Lookfrom|Summer}}
* [[:Category:Summer]]
* [[Sommer]] (means 'summer' in some Germanic languages), a surname
* [[Sumer]], an ancient civilisation in Mesopotamia
* [[Summerland (disambiguation)]]
* [[Summers (disambiguation)]]
* [[Summertime (disambiguation)]]
* [[Sumner (disambiguation)]]

{{disambiguation}}

Palladium

2022-01-20T15:57:23Z

Zumbo: Link to the correct Pallas

{{short description|chemical element with atomic number 46}}
{{About|the chemical element}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox palladium}}
'''Palladium''' is a [[chemical element]] with the [[Symbol (chemistry)|symbol]] '''Pd''' and [[atomic number]] 46. It is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal discovered in 1803 by the English chemist [[William Hyde Wollaston]]. He named it after the [[2 Pallas|asteroid Pallas]], which was itself named after the [[epithet]] of the Greek goddess [[Athena]], acquired by her when she slew [[Pallas (daughter of Triton)|Pallas]]. Palladium, [[platinum]], [[rhodium]], [[ruthenium]], [[iridium]] and [[osmium]] form a group of elements referred to as the [[platinum group]] metals (PGMs). They have similar chemical properties, but palladium has the lowest melting point and is the least dense of them.

More than half the supply of palladium and its [[Congener (chemistry)|congener]] platinum is used in [[catalytic converter]]s, which convert as much as 90% of the harmful gases in automobile exhaust ([[hydrocarbon]]s, [[carbon monoxide]], and [[nitrogen dioxide]]) into harmless substances ([[nitrogen]], [[carbon dioxide]] and [[water vapor]]). Palladium is also used in electronics, [[dentistry]], [[medicine]], [[hydrogen purification]], chemical applications, [[Groundwater remediation|groundwater treatment]], and jewelry. Palladium is a key component of [[fuel cell]]s, which react hydrogen with oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water.

[[Ore]] [[Deposit (geology)|deposits]] of palladium and other PGMs are rare. The most extensive deposits have been found in the norite belt of the [[Bushveld Igneous Complex]] covering the [[Transvaal Basin]] in South Africa, the [[Stillwater igneous complex|Stillwater Complex]] in [[Montana]], United States; the [[Sudbury Basin]] and [[Thunder Bay District]] of [[Ontario]], Canada, and the [[Norilsk|Norilsk Complex]] in Russia. [[Recycling]] is also a source, mostly from scrapped catalytic converters. The numerous applications and limited supply sources result in considerable [[Palladium as an investment|investment]] interest.

==Characteristics==
Palladium belongs to [[group 10 element|group 10]] in the periodic table, but the configuration in the outermost electrons is in accordance with [[Hund's rule]]. Electrons in the 5[[Atomic orbital|''s'' orbital]]{{clarify|date=August 2019|reason=When does the electron "migrate" from the orbital empty in the ground state?}} migrate to fill the 4[[Atomic orbital|''d'' orbitals]], as it is more energetically favorable to have a completely filled 4d10 shell instead of the 5s2 4d8 configuration.{{clarify|date=August 2019}}

{| class="wikitable floatleft" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"
|-
![[Atomic number|Z]] !! [[Chemical element|Element]] !! [[Electron shell|No. of electrons/shell]]
|-
| 28 || [[nickel]] || 2, 8, 16, 2 (or 2, 8, 17, 1)
|-
| 46 || palladium || 2, 8, 18, 18, 0
|-
| 78 || [[platinum]] || 2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1
|-
| 110 || [[darmstadtium]] || 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 16, 2 (predicted)
|}
This 5s0 configuration, unique in [[period 5 element|period 5]], makes palladium the heaviest element having only ''one'' incomplete [[electron shell]], with all shells above it empty.

Palladium has the appearance of a soft silver-white metal that resembles platinum. It is the least dense and has the lowest [[melting point]] of the platinum group metals. It is soft and [[Ductility|ductile]] when [[Annealing (metallurgy)|annealed]] and is greatly increased in strength and hardness when cold-worked. Palladium dissolves slowly in concentrated [[nitric acid]], in hot, concentrated [[sulfuric acid]], and when finely ground, in [[hydrochloric acid]].<ref name="CRC">{{cite book|author=Hammond, C. R.|chapter=The Elements|title=Handbook of Chemistry and Physics|edition=81st|publisher=CRC press|isbn=978-0-8493-0485-9|date=2004|chapter-url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/crchandbookofche81lide}}</ref> It dissolves readily at room temperature in [[aqua regia]].

Palladium does not react with [[oxygen]] at standard temperature (and thus does not tarnish in [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]). Palladium heated to 800 °C will produce a layer of palladium(II) oxide (PdO). It may slowly develop a slight brownish coloration over time, likely due to the formation of a surface layer of its monoxide.

Palladium films with defects produced by alpha particle bombardment at low temperature exhibit superconductivity having ''T''c=3.2 K.<ref>B. Strizker, Phys. Rev. Lett., 42, 1769 (1979).</ref>

===Isotopes===
{{Main|Isotopes of palladium}}
Naturally occurring palladium is composed of seven [[isotope]]s, six of which are stable. The most stable [[radioisotope]]s are [[Palladium-107|107Pd]] with a [[half-life]] of 6.5 million years (found in nature), [[Pd-103|103Pd]] with 17 days, and 100Pd with 3.63 days. Eighteen other radioisotopes have been characterized with [[atomic weight]]s ranging from 90.94948(64) [[atomic mass unit|u]] (91Pd) to 122.93426(64) u (123Pd).<ref>{{cite web|access-date=12 November 2009|url=http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/Compositions/index.html|title= Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for Palladium (NIST)|date=2009-08-23}}</ref> These have half-lives of less than thirty minutes, except 101Pd (half-life: 8.47 hours), 109Pd (half-life: 13.7 hours), and 112Pd (half-life: 21 hours).<ref name="NUBASE">{{NUBASE 2003}}</ref>

For isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than that of the most abundant stable isotope, 106Pd, the primary [[decay mode]] is [[electron capture]] with the primary [[decay product]] being rhodium. The primary mode of decay for those isotopes of Pd with atomic mass greater than 106 is [[beta decay]] with the primary product of this decay being [[silver]].<ref name="NUBASE" />

[[Radiogenic]] 107Ag is a decay product of 107Pd and was first discovered in 1978<ref>{{cite journal|title=Evidence for the existence of 107Pd in the early solar system|journal= Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series A|first3=R.|date=1978|volume=359|last3=Hutchison|pages=1079–1082|doi=10.1098/rsta.2001.0893|first1=W. R.|last1=Kelly|first2=G. J.|last2=Gounelle|issue=1787|bibcode = 2001RSPTA.359.1991R |s2cid= 120355895|url= https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/0c51f18aa45f4174ce4d7c5d2fb525e6d1c84e9c}}</ref> in the [[Santa Clara, Durango|Santa Clara]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mexicogemstones.com/pdf/MexicoMeteorites.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060506085632/http://www.mexicogemstones.com/pdf/MexicoMeteorites.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2006-05-06|title=Mexico's Meteorites|work=mexicogemstones.com}}</ref> meteorite of 1976. The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a [[nucleosynthetic]] event. 107Pd versus Ag correlations observed in bodies, which have been melted since accretion of the [[Solar System]], must reflect the presence of short-lived nuclides in the early Solar System.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The isotopic composition of Ag in meteorites and the presence of 107Pd in protoplanets| journal =Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta|date=1990|volume=54|issue=6|pages=1729–1743|doi=10.1016/0016-7037(90)90404-9|first1=J. H.|last1 = Chen|first2=G. J.|last2=Wasserburg|bibcode = 1990GeCoA..54.1729C }}</ref>

==Compounds==
{{Category see also|Palladium compounds}}
Palladium compounds primarily exist in the 0 and +2 oxidation state. Other less common states are also recognized. Generally the compounds of palladium are more similar to those of platinum than those of any other element.
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Alpha-palladium(II)-chloride-xtal-3D-balls.png|Structure of ''α''-PdCl2
File:Pd6Cl12-from-xtal-1996-CM-3D-ellipsoids.png|<center>Structure of ''β''-PdCl2</center>
</gallery>

===Palladium(II)===
[[Palladium(II) chloride]] is the principal starting material for other palladium compounds. It arises by the reaction of palladium with chlorine. It is used to prepare heterogeneous palladium catalysts such as palladium on barium sulfate, palladium on carbon, and palladium chloride on carbon.<ref>{{OrgSynth|title = Palladium Catalysts|author = Mozingo, Ralph |collvol = 3|collvolpages = 685|year = 1955|prep = cv3p0685}}</ref> Solutions of PdCl2 in nitric acid react with [[acetic acid]] to give [[palladium(II) acetate]], also a versatile reagent. PdCl2 reacts with ligands (L) to give square planar complexes of the type PdCl2L2. One example of such complexes is the [[benzonitrile]] derivative PdX2(PhCN)2.<ref>{{cite book|title =Bis(Benzonitrile)Dichloro Complexes of Palladium and Platinum|pages =60–63|volume= 28|doi =10.1002/9780470132593.ch13|date=1990|first1=Gordon K.|last1=Anderson|first2=Minren|last2=Lin|last3=Sen|first3= Ayusman|last4 =Gretz|first4=Efi|series =Inorganic Syntheses|isbn =978-0-470-13259-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1134/S1070328408110110 |title=Palladium complexes based on optically active terpene derivatives of ethylenediamine |journal=Russian Journal of Coordination Chemistry |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=855–857 |year=2008 |last1=Zalevskaya |first1=O. A |last2=Vorob'eva |first2=E. G |last3=Dvornikova |first3=I. A |last4=Kuchin |first4=A. V |s2cid=95529734 |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7f9e8701ad51ea4fea95f9b6dc10f63137d69b9b }}</ref>
: PdCl2 + 2 L → PdCl2L2 (L = [[Phenyl cyanide|PhCN]], [[Triphenylphosphine|PPh3]], [[Ammonia|NH3]], etc)
The complex [[bis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(II) dichloride]] is a useful catalyst.<ref>{{OrgSynth|title = Palladium-catalyzed reaction of 1-alkenylboronates with vinylic halides: (1Z,3E)-1-Phenyl-1,3-octadiene|collvol = 8|collvolpages = 532|author = Miyaura, Norio|author2 = Suzuki, Akira|name-list-style=amp|year = 1993|prep = cv8p0532}}</ref>

[[File:Pd(OAc)2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Palladium(II) acetate]]]]
[[File:Platinum-palladium ore, Stillwater mine MT.JPG|thumb|Platinum-palladium ore from the Stillwater mine in the Beartooth Mountains, Montana, USA]]
[[File:Sulfidic serpentintite (platinum-palladium ore) Johns-Manville Reef, Stillwater Complex.jpg|thumb|Sulfidic serpentintite (platinum-palladium ore) from the Stillwater mine in Montana]]

===Palladium(0)===
Palladium forms a range of zerovalent complexes with the formula PdL4, PdL3 and PdL2. For example, reduction of a mixture of PdCl2(PPh3)2 and PPh3 gives [[tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0)]]:<ref>{{cite book|journal = [[Inorg. Synth.]]|volume = 13|pages = 121–124|title = 23. Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0)|first1 = D. R.|last1 = Coulson|doi = 10.1002/9780470132449.ch23|date = 1972|last2 = Satek|first2 = L. C.|last3 = Grim|first3 = S. O.|series = Inorganic Syntheses|isbn = 978-0-470-13244-9}}</ref>
:2 PdCl2(PPh3)2 + 4 PPh3 + 5 [[Hydrazine|N2H4]] → 2 Pd(PPh3)4 + N2 + 4 N2H5+Cl−

Another major palladium(0) complex, [[tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0)]] (Pd2(dba)3), is prepared by reducing [[sodium tetrachloropalladate]] in the presence of [[dibenzylideneacetone]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1039/C29700001065 |title=A novel palladium(0) complex; bis(dibenzylideneacetone)palladium(0) |journal=Journal of the Chemical Society D: Chemical Communications |issue=17 |pages=1065 |year=1970 |last1=Takahashi |first1=Y |last2=Ito |first2=Ts |last3=Sakai |first3=S |last4=Ishii |first4=Y }}</ref>

Palladium(0), as well as palladium(II), are catalysts in [[palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions|coupling reactions]], as has been recognized by the 2010 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] to [[Richard F. Heck]], [[Ei-ichi Negishi]], and [[Akira Suzuki (chemist)|Akira Suzuki]]. Such reactions are widely practiced for the synthesis of fine chemicals. Prominent coupling reactions include the [[Heck reaction|Heck]], [[Suzuki reaction|Suzuki]], [[Sonogashira coupling]], [[Stille reaction]]s, and the [[Kumada coupling]]. [[Palladium(II) acetate]], [[tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0)]] (Pd(PPh3)4, and [[tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0)]] (Pd2(dba)3) serve either as catalysts or precatalysts.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WLb962AKlSEC&pg=PA392|chapter = Application to Organic Synthesis |page = 392|title = The Organometallic Chemistry of the Transition Metals|first = Robert H.|last = Crabtree|publisher = John Wiley and Sons|date = 2009|isbn = 978-0-470-25762-3}}</ref>

===Other oxidation states===
Although Pd(IV) compounds are comparatively rare, one example is [[sodium hexachloropalladate(IV)]], Na2[PdCl6]. A few [[compounds of palladium(III)]] are also known.<ref>{{Cite book|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-17429-2_6 |pmid=21461129 |pmc=3066514 |chapter=Palladium(III) in Synthesis and Catalysis |title=Higher Oxidation State Organopalladium and Platinum Chemistry |volume=35 |pages=129–156 |series=Topics in Organometallic Chemistry |year=2011 |last1=Powers |first1=David C |last2=Ritter |first2=Tobias |isbn=978-3-642-17428-5 }}</ref> Palladium(VI) was claimed in 2002,<ref name="pmid11786638">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1067027 |pmid=11786638 |title=Synthesis and Structure of Formally Hexavalent Palladium Complexes |journal=Science |volume=295 |issue=5553 |pages=308–310 |year=2002 |last1=Chen |first1=W |last2=Shimada |first2=S |last3=Tanaka |first3=M |bibcode=2002Sci...295..308C |s2cid=45249108 }}</ref><ref name="pmid11786632">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1067921 |pmid=11786632 |title=CHEMISTRY: A New Oxidation State for Pd? |journal=Science |volume=295 |issue=5553 |pages=288–289 |year=2002 |last1=Crabtree |first1=R. H |s2cid=94579227 }}</ref> but subsequently disproven.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=19750645 |year=2002 |last1=Aullón |first1=G |title=Hexakis(silyl)palladium(VI) or palladium(II with eta2-disilane ligands? |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English |volume=41 |issue=11 |pages=1956–9 |last2=Lledós |first2=A |last3=Alvarez |first3=S |doi=10.1002/1521-3773(20020603)41:11<1956::AID-ANIE1956>3.0.CO;2-# }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=19750644 |year=2002 |last1=Sherer |first1=E. C |title=Electronic structure and bonding in hexacoordinate silyl-palladium complexes |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English |volume=41 |issue=11 |pages=1953–6 |last2=Kinsinger |first2=C. R |last3=Kormos |first3=B. L |last4=Thompson |first4=J. D |last5=Cramer |first5=C. J |doi=10.1002/1521-3773(20020603)41:11<1953::AID-ANIE1953>3.0.CO;2-H |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Mixed valence palladium complexes exist, e.g. Pd4(CO)4(OAc)4Pd(acac)2 forms an infinite Pd chain structure, with alternatively interconnected Pd4(CO)4(OAc)4 and Pd(acac)2 units.<ref name="pmid25319757">{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/anie.201408461 |pmid=25319757 |title=A Motif for Infinite Metal Atom Wires |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition |volume=53 |issue=51 |pages=14087–14091 |year=2014 |last1=Yin |first1=Xi |last2=Warren |first2=Steven A |last3=Pan |first3=Yung-Tin |last4=Tsao |first4=Kai-Chieh |last5=Gray |first5=Danielle L |last6=Bertke |first6=Jeffery |last7=Yang |first7=Hong }}</ref>

When alloyed with a more [[Electronegativity|electropositive]] element, Palladium can acquire a negative charge. Such compounds are known as palladides, such as [[gallium palladide]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Armbrüster | first=Marc | title=Intermetallic compounds in catalysis – a versatile class of materials meets interesting challenges | journal=Science and Technology of Advanced Materials | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=21 | issue=1 | date=2020-01-31 | issn=1468-6996 | doi=10.1080/14686996.2020.1758544 | pages=303–322| pmid=33628119 | pmc=7889166 | bibcode=2020STAdM..21..303A }}</ref> Palladides with the [[stoichiometry]] RPd3 exist where R is [[Scandium]], [[Yttrium]], or any of the [[lanthanides]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Wang | first1=Qiaoming | last2=Collins | first2=Gary S. | title=Nuclear quadrupole interactions of 111In/Cd solute atoms in a series of rare-earth palladium alloys | journal=Hyperfine Interactions | volume=221 | issue=1–3 | year=2013 | issn=0304-3843 | doi=10.1007/s10751-012-0686-4 | pages=85–98|arxiv=1209.3822| bibcode=2013HyInt.221...85W | s2cid=98580013 }}</ref>

==Occurrence==
[[File:2005palladium (mined).PNG|thumb|upright=1.6|Palladium output in 2005]]
As overall mine production of palladium reached 208,000 kilograms in 2016, [[Russia]] was the top producer with 82,000 kilograms, followed by South Africa, Canada and the U.S.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/|title=USGS Minerals Information: Mineral Commodity Summaries|website=minerals.usgs.gov|language=en|access-date=2018-01-29}}</ref> Russia's company [[Norilsk Nickel]] ranks first among the largest palladium producers globally, accounting for 39% of the world's production.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nornickel.com/news-and-media/press-releases-and-news/norilsk-nickel-group-announces-preliminary-consolidated-production-results-for-4-th-quarter-and-full-2016-and-production-outlook-for-2017/?sphrase_id=316142|title="Norilsk Nickel" Group announces preliminary consolidated production results for 4 th quarter and full 2016, and production outl|website=Nornickel|language=en-US|access-date=2018-01-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629183059/https://www.nornickel.com/news-and-media/press-releases-and-news/norilsk-nickel-group-announces-preliminary-consolidated-production-results-for-4-th-quarter-and-full-2016-and-production-outlook-for-2017/?sphrase_id=316142|archive-date=29 June 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> 

Palladium can be found as a free metal alloyed with gold and other platinum-group metals in [[placer mining|placer]] deposits of the [[Ural Mountains]], [[Australia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[North America|North]] and [[South America]]. For the production of palladium, these deposits play only a minor role. The most important commercial sources are [[nickel]]-[[copper]] deposits found in the [[Sudbury Basin]], [[Ontario]], and the [[Norilsk|Norilsk–Talnakh]] deposits in [[Siberia]]. The other large deposit is the [[Merensky Reef]] [[platinum group]] metals deposit within the [[Bushveld Igneous Complex]] [[South Africa]]. The [[Stillwater igneous complex]] of [[Montana]] and the Roby zone ore body of the [[Lac des Îles igneous complex]] of Ontario are the two other sources of palladium in Canada and the United States.<ref name="USGS07CS" /><ref name="USGS07YB">{{cite web|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/platinum/myb1-2007-plati.pdf|title=Platinum-Group Metals|date=January 2007|work=Mineral Yearbook 2007|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref> Palladium is found in the rare minerals [[cooperite (mineral)|cooperite]]<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Mineralogical Magazine|date=1994|volume=58|issue= 2|pages=223–234|title=Compositional variation of cooperite, braggite, and vysotskite from the Bushveld Complex|first1=Sabine M. C.| last1 =Verryn|first2=Roland K. W.|last2=Merkle|doi=10.1180/minmag.1994.058.391.05|bibcode=1994MinM...58..223V|citeseerx=10.1.1.610.640}}</ref> and [[polarite]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Genkin|first1 = A. D.|last2 = Evstigneeva|first2 = T. L.|date = 1986|title = Associations of platinum- group minerals of the Norilsk copper-nickel sulfide ores|journal = Economic Geology|volume = 81|pages = 1203–1212|doi = 10.2113/gsecongeo.81.5.1203|issue = 5}}</ref> Many more Pd minerals are known, but all of them are very rare.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mindat.org/|title=Mindat.org - Mines, Minerals and More|website=www.mindat.org}}</ref>

Palladium is also produced in [[nuclear fission]] reactors and can be extracted from [[spent nuclear fuel]] (see [[synthesis of precious metals]]), though this source for palladium is not used. None of the existing [[nuclear reprocessing]] facilities are equipped to extract palladium from the [[high-level radioactive waste]].<ref>{{cite journal|title = Recovery of Value Fission Platinoids from Spent Nuclear Fuel. Part I PART I: General Considerations and Basic Chemistry|url =http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/pdf/pmr-v47-i2-074-087.pdf| first1 =Zdenek|last1 =Kolarik|first2 =Edouard V.|last2 =Renard| journal = Platinum Metals Review|volume = 47|issue = 2|date = 2003|pages = 74–87}}</ref> A complication for the recovery of Palladium in spent fuel is the presence of {{chem|107|Pd}} a slightly radioactive [[long-lived fission product]]. Depending on end use, the radioactivity contributed by the {{chem|107|Pd}} might make the recovered Palladium unusable without a costly step of [[isotope separation]].

==Applications==
[[File:Aufgeschnittener Metall Katalysator für ein Auto.jpg|thumb|Cross section of a [[Catalytic converter|metal-core catalytic converter]]]]
[[File:25 rubles palladium 1989 Ivan III.jpg|thumb|The Soviet 25-rouble commemorative [[palladium coin]] is a rare example of the monetary usage of palladium.]]
The largest use of palladium today is in catalytic converters.<ref name="unctad" /> Palladium is also used in jewelry, [[dentistry]],<ref name="unctad" /><ref>{{cite journal|journal = Platinum Metals Review|title = Palladium in Restorative Dentistry: Superior Physical Properties make Palladium an Ideal Dental Metal|first= Roy|last = Rushforth|volume = 48|issue = 1|date = 2004|url = http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/article/48/1/30-31/}}</ref> [[watch]] making, blood sugar test strips, aircraft [[spark plug]]s, [[surgical instrument]]s, and [[electrical contact]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title = Jewelry-making through history: an encyclopedia|first = Rayner W.|last = Hesse|publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group|date = 2007|page = 146|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DIWEi5Hg93gC&pg=PA146|chapter = palladium|isbn = 978-0-313-33507-5}}</ref> Palladium is also used to make professional [[transverse flute|transverse (concert or classical) flutes]].<ref>{{cite book|title = The flute book: a complete guide for students and performers|first = Nancy|last = Toff|publisher = Oxford University Press|date = 1996|page =20 |isbn = 978-0-19-510502-5 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pCSanDD4CtsC&pg=PA20}}</ref> As a commodity, palladium [[bullion]] has [[ISO currency code]]s of XPD and 964. Palladium is one of only four metals to have such codes, the others being [[gold]], [[silver]] and platinum.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2neeMTPKtEMC&pg=PA34|chapter = Precious Metals|page =34|title = Foreign exchange: a practical guide to the FX markets|isbn = 978-0-471-73203-7|author = Weithers, Timothy Martin|date = 2006}}</ref> Because it [[Adsorption|adsorbs]] hydrogen, palladium was a key component of the controversial [[cold fusion]] experiments of the late 1980s.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Fleischmann | first = M |author2=Pons S |author3=Hawkins M | author-link = Martin Fleischmann | title = Electrochemically induced nuclear fusion of deuterium | journal = [[J. Electroanal. Chem.]] | year = 1989 | volume = 261 | pages = 301 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0728(89)80006-3 | issue = 2}}</ref>

===Catalysis===
When it is finely divided, as with [[palladium on carbon]], palladium forms a versatile [[catalyst]]; it speeds [[Heterogeneous catalysis|heterogeneous]] catalytic processes like [[hydrogenation]], [[dehydrogenation]], and [[cracking (chemistry)|petroleum cracking]]. Palladium is also essential to the [[Lindlar catalyst]], also called Lindlar's Palladium.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mTHQB7MkUFsC&pg=PA270|title=Organic chemistry|author1=Brown, William Henry|author2=Foote, Christopher S | author2-link = Christopher Spencer Foote |author3=Iverson, Brent L|date=2009|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|isbn=978-0-495-38857-9|page=270|chapter=Catalytic reduction}}</ref> A large number of [[carbon–carbon bond]]ing reactions in [[organic chemistry]] are facilitated by palladium compound catalysts. For example:

* [[Heck reaction]]
* [[Suzuki coupling]]
* [[Tsuji–Trost reaction|Tsuji-Trost reactions]]
* [[Wacker process]]
* [[Negishi coupling|Negishi reaction]]
* [[Stille coupling]]
* [[Sonogashira coupling]]

(See [[#Compounds|palladium compounds]] and [[palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions]].)

When dispersed on conductive materials, palladium is an excellent electrocatalyst for oxidation of primary alcohols in alkaline media.<ref>{{cite book|page=90|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RDT0OUdlj0MC&pg=PA90| title=Palladium reagents and catalysts: new perspectives for the 21st century| first = Jiro |last = Tsuji |publisher= John Wiley and Sons|date = 2004|isbn =978-0-470-85032-9}}</ref> Palladium is also a versatile metal for [[homogeneous catalysis]], used in combination with a broad variety of [[ligand]]s for highly selective chemical transformations.

In 2010 the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] was awarded "for palladium-catalyzed cross couplings in organic synthesis" to [[Richard F. Heck]], [[Ei-ichi Negishi]] and [[Akira Suzuki (chemist)|Akira Suzuki]]. A 2008 study showed that palladium is an effective catalyst for [[carbon-fluorine bonds]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal = [[Chemical & Engineering News]]|volume = 86|issue = 35|date = 2008|title = Palladium's Hidden Talent|pages = 53–56|first =Carmen|last = Drahl|doi =10.1021/cen-v086n035.p053}}</ref>
[[File:Kumada Catalytic Cycle.png|thumb|upright=1.8|Catalytic cycle for Kumada cross coupling reaction, which is widely used in the synthesis of fine chemicals.]]

Palladium catalysis is primarily employed in organic chemistry and industrial applications, although its use is growing as a tool for [[synthetic biology]]; in 2017, effective ''in vivo'' catalytic activity of palladium [[nanoparticles]] was demonstrated in mammals to treat disease.<ref name="pmid28699627">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ncomms15906 |pmid=28699627 |pmc=5510178 |title=Nano-palladium is a cellular catalyst for in vivo chemistry |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=8 |pages=15906 |year=2017 |last1=Miller |first1=Miles A |last2=Askevold |first2=Bjorn |last3=Mikula |first3=Hannes |last4=Kohler |first4=Rainer H |last5=Pirovich |first5=David |last6=Weissleder |first6=Ralph |bibcode=2017NatCo...815906M }}</ref>

===Electronics===
The first greatest application of palladium in electronics is in [[multi-layer ceramic capacitor]]s<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.ttiinc.com/object/ME_Zogbi_20030203.html|title = Shifting Supply and Demand for Palladium in MLCCs|first = Dennis|last = Zogbi|date = 3 February 2003|publisher = TTI, Inc.}}</ref> in which palladium (and palladium-silver alloy) is used for electrodes.<ref name="unctad" /> Palladium (sometimes alloyed with nickel) is or can be used for component and connector plating in consumer electronics<ref>{{cite book|author=Mroczkowski, Robert S. |title=Electronic connector handbook: theory and applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGkw8YR-uXsC&pg=SA3-PA30|date=1998|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|isbn=978-0-07-041401-3|pages=3–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Harper, Charles A. |title=Passive electronic component handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtlKBAcFBQAC&pg=PA580|date=1997|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|isbn=978-0-07-026698-8|pages=580–}}</ref> and in soldering materials. The electronic sector consumed {{convert|1.07|e6ozt|t|abbr=off}} of palladium in 2006, according to a [[Johnson Matthey]] report.<ref name="matthey">{{cite web|date = 2007|publisher = [[Johnson Matthey]]|title = Platinum 2007|url = http://www.platinum.matthey.com/uploaded_files/2007/07_palladium.pdf |first = David|last = Jollie|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216100834/http://www.platinum.matthey.com/uploaded_files/2007/07_palladium.pdf |archive-date=2008-02-16}}</ref>

===Technology===
Hydrogen easily diffuses through heated palladium,<ref name="CRC" /> and [[membrane reactor]]s with Pd membranes are used in the production of high purity hydrogen.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Shu|first1 = J.|last2 = Grandjean|first2 = B. P. A.|last3 = Neste|first3 = A. Van|last4 = Kaliaguine|first4 = S.|title = Catalytic palladium-based membrane reactors: A review|journal = The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering|volume = 69|pages = 1036|date = 1991|doi = 10.1002/cjce.5450690503|issue = 5}}</ref> Palladium is used in [[palladium-hydrogen electrode]]s in electrochemical studies. [[Palladium(II) chloride]] readily catalyzes carbon monoxide gas to carbon dioxide and is useful in [[carbon monoxide detector]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Allen|first1 = T. H.|last2 = Root|first2 = W. S.|title = An improved palladium chloride method for the determination of carbon monoxide in blood|url = http://www.jbc.org/content/216/1/319.short|journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry|volume = 216|issue = 1|pages = 319–323|date = 1955|doi = 10.1016/S0021-9258(19)52308-0|pmid = 13252031|doi-access = free}}</ref>

===Hydrogen storage===
{{Main|Palladium hydride}}
Palladium readily [[Adsorption|adsorbs]] hydrogen at room temperatures, forming [[palladium hydride]] PdHx with x less than 1.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/BF02667685|title=The H-Pd (hydrogen-palladium) System|date=1994|last1=Manchester|first1=F. D.|last2=San-Martin|first2=A.|last3=Pitre|first3=J. M.|journal=Journal of Phase Equilibria|volume=15|pages=62–83|s2cid=95343702|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/9cf571e4ad50dab8e4eb6ad34d0bb51e289858e6}}</ref> While this property is common to many transition metals, palladium has a uniquely high absorption capacity and does not lose its ductility until x approaches 1.<ref name="gr">{{Greenwood&Earnshaw|pages=1150–151}}</ref> This property has been investigated in designing an efficient, inexpensive, and safe hydrogen fuel storage medium, though palladium itself is currently prohibitively expensive for this purpose.<ref name="grochala">{{cite journal |last1=Grochala |first1=Wojciech |last2=Edwards |first2=Peter P. |title=Thermal Decomposition of the Non-Interstitial Hydrides for the Storage and Production of Hydrogen |journal=Chemical Reviews |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=1283–316 |year=2004 |pmid=15008624 |doi=10.1021/cr030691s }}</ref> The content of hydrogen in palladium can be linked to [[magnetic susceptibility]], which decreases with the increase of hydrogen and becomes zero for PdH0.62. At any higher ratio, the [[solid solution]] becomes [[diamagnetic]].<ref>Mott, N. F. and Jones, H. (1958) ''The Theory of Properties of metals and alloys''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-486-60456-X}}. p. 200</ref>

===Dentistry===
Palladium is used in small amounts (about 0.5%) in some alloys of [[dental amalgam]] to decrease corrosion and increase the [[Lustre (mineralogy)#Metallic lustre|metallic lustre]] of the final restoration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Colon |first1=Pierre |last2=Pradelle-Plasse |first2=Nelly |last3=Galland |first3=Jacques |title=Evaluation of the long-term corrosion behavior of dental amalgams: influence of palladium addition and particle morphology |journal=Dental Materials |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=232–9 |year=2003 |pmid=12628436 |doi=10.1016/S0109-5641(02)00035-0 }}</ref>

===Jewelry===
Palladium has been used as a [[precious metal]] in jewelry since 1939 as an alternative to platinum in the alloys called "[[Colored gold#White gold|white gold]]", where the naturally white color of palladium does not require [[Plating#Rhodium plating|rhodium plating]]. Palladium is much less dense than platinum. Similar to gold, palladium can be beaten into [[Metal leaf|leaf]] as thin as 100 nm ({{frac|1|250,000}} in).<ref name="CRC" /> Unlike platinum, palladium may discolor at temperatures above {{convert|400|C|F}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Dinesh C. |last=Gupta|author2=Langer, Paul H. |author3=ASTM Committee F-1 on Electronics|title=Emerging semiconductor technology: a symposium|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u-a9LvarW-8C&pg=PA273|date=1987|publisher=ASTM International|isbn=978-0-8031-0459-4|pages=273–}}</ref> due to oxidation, making it more brittle and thus less suitable for use in jewelry; to prevent this, palladium intended for jewelry is heated under controlled conditions.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}

Prior to 2004, the principal use of palladium in jewelry was the manufacture of white gold. Palladium is one of the three most popular alloying metals in white gold ([[nickel]] and silver can also be used).<ref name="unctad">{{cite web|publisher = [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]]|url = http://www.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/palladium/uses.htm|title = Palladium|access-date =5 February 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061206003556/http://www.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/palladium/uses.htm |archive-date = 6 December 2006}}</ref> Palladium-gold is more expensive than nickel-gold, but seldom causes allergic reactions (though certain cross-allergies with nickel may occur).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hindsen |first1=M. |last2=Spiren |first2=A. |last3=Bruze |first3=M. |title=Cross-reactivity between nickel and palladium demonstrated by systemic administration of nickel |journal=Contact Dermatitis |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=2–8 |year=2005 |pmid=15982224 |doi=10.1111/j.0105-1873.2005.00577.x |s2cid=20927683 }}</ref>

When platinum became a strategic resource during World War II, many jewelry bands were made out of palladium. Palladium was little used in jewelry because of the technical difficulty of [[Casting (metalworking)|casting]]. With the casting problem resolved{{citation needed|reason=when, how,source|date=January 2019}} the use of palladium in jewelry increased, originally because platinum increased in price while the price of palladium decreased.<ref name="wsj">{{cite news|last = Holmes |first = E.|title = Palladium, Platinum's Cheaper Sister, Makes a Bid for Love|publisher = [[Wall Street Journal]] (Eastern edition)|date = 13 February 2007|pages = B.1}}</ref> In early 2004, when gold and platinum prices rose steeply, China began fabricating volumes of palladium jewelry, consuming 37 [[tonne]]s in 2005. Subsequent changes in the relative price of platinum lowered demand for palladium to 17.4 tonnes in 2009.<ref name="USGS09YB">{{cite web|publisher= [[United States Geological Survey]]|date=January 2007|title=Platinum-Group Metals|work=Mineral Yearbook 2009|url= http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/platinum/myb1-2009-plati.pdf}}</ref><ref name="USGS06YB">{{cite web|publisher= [[United States Geological Survey]]|date=January 2007|title=Platinum-Group Metals|work=Mineral Yearbook 2006|url= http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/platinum/myb1-2006-plati.pdf}}</ref> Demand for palladium as a catalyst has increased the price of palladium to about 50% higher than that of platinum in January 2019.<ref name="JMM">{{cite web |date=2019 | title=Johnson Matthey Base Prices |url=http://www.platinum.matthey.com/prices/price-tables |access-date=7 January 2019 }}</ref>

In January 2010, [[hallmark]]s for palladium were introduced by assay offices in the United Kingdom, and hallmarking became mandatory for all jewelry advertising pure or alloyed palladium. Articles can be marked as 500, 950, or 999 parts of palladium per thousand of the alloy.


[[Fountain pen]] [[nib (pen)|nibs]] made from [[gold]] are sometimes plated with palladium when a silver (rather than gold) appearance is desired. [[Sheaffer]] has used palladium plating for decades, either as an accent on otherwise gold nibs or covering the gold completely.

Palladium is also used by the luxury brand Hermes as one of the metals plating the hardware on their handbags, most famous of which being the highly sought after Birkin.

===Photography===
In the [[platinotype]] printing process, photographers make fine-art black-and-white prints using platinum or palladium salts. Often used with platinum, palladium provides an alternative to silver.<ref>{{cite journal|first = Mike|last = Ware|title = Book Review of : Photography in Platinum and Palladium|journal = Platinum Metals Review|volume = 49|issue = 4|pages = 190–195|date = 2005|doi = 10.1595/147106705X70291|doi-access = free}}</ref>



==Effects on health==
===Toxicity===
{{Chembox
| container_only = yes
|Section7={{Chembox Hazards
| ExternalSDS =
| GHSPictograms = {{GHS07}}
| GHSSignalWord = Warning
| HPhrases = {{H-phrases|317|}}
| PPhrases = {{P-phrases|261|273|280|302+352|321|333+313|363|501}}<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/MSDS/MSDS/DisplayMSDSPage.do?country=US&language=en&productNumber=373192&brand=ALDRICH&PageToGoToURL=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sigmaaldrich.com%2Fcatalog%2Fproduct%2Faldrich%2F373192%3Flang%3Den | title=Msds - 373192}}</ref>
| NFPA-H = 0
| NFPA-F = 0
| NFPA-R = 0
| NFPA-S =
| NFPA_ref =
}}
}}
Palladium is a metal with low toxicity as conventionally measured (e.g. [[Median lethal dose|LD50]]). Recent research on the mechanism of palladium toxicity suggests high toxicity if measured on a longer timeframe and at the cellular level in the liver and kidney.<ref>Hosseini et al, Metallomics, 2016,8, 252-259; DOI 10.1039/C5MT00249D</ref> Mitochondria appear to have a key role in palladium toxicity via mitochondrial membrane potential collapse and depletion of the cellular glutathione (GSH) level. Until that recent work, it had been thought that palladium was poorly absorbed by the [[human body]] when [[ingested]]. Plants such as the [[water hyacinth]] are killed by low levels of palladium salts, but most other plants tolerate it, although tests show that, at levels above 0.0003%, growth is affected. High doses of palladium could be poisonous; tests on [[rodents]] suggest it may be [[carcinogenic]], though until the recent research cited above, no clear evidence indicated that the element harms humans.<ref>{{cite book|first = John|last = Emsley|title = Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements|publisher = Oxford University Press|isbn = 978-0-19-960563-7|pages = 384, 387|date = 2011}}</ref>

===Precautions===
Like other [[platinum-group metal]]s, bulk Pd is quite inert. Although [[contact dermatitis]] has been reported, data on the effects are limited. It has been shown that people with an allergic reaction to palladium also react to nickel, making it advisable to avoid the use of dental alloys containing palladium on those so allergic.<ref name="Kiel">{{cite journal|last1 = Kielhorn|first1 = Janet|last2 = Melber|first2 = Christine|last3 = Keller|first3 = Detlef|last4 = Mangelsdorf|first4 = Inge|title = Palladium – A review of exposure and effects to human health|journal = International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health|volume = 205|issue = 6|pages = 417–32|date = 2002|pmid = 12455264|doi = 10.1078/1438-4639-00180}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|pages = 549–563|chapter = Health Risk Potential of Palladium|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OnNZqylS_Z8C&pg=PA549|title = Palladium emissions in the environment: analytical methods, environmental assessment and health effects|first1 = Fathi|last1 =Zereini|first2 = Friedrich|last2 = Alt|publisher = Springer Science & Business|date = 2006|isbn = 978-3-540-29219-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Wataha|first1 = J. C.|last2 = Hanks|first2 = C. T.|title = Biological effects of palladium and risk of using palladium in dental casting alloys|journal = Journal of Oral Rehabilitation|volume = 23|issue = 5|pages = 309–20|date = 1996|pmid = 8736443|doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2842.1996.tb00858.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Aberer|first1 = Werner|last2 = Holub|first2 = Henriette|last3 = Strohal|first3 = Robert|last4 = Slavicek|first4 = Rudolf|title = Palladium in dental alloys – the dermatologists' responsibility to warn?|journal = Contact Dermatitis|volume = 28|issue = 3|pages = 163–5|date = 1993|pmid = 8462294|doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0536.1993.tb03379.x|s2cid = 43020912}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Wataha|first1 = John C.|last2 = Shor|first2 = Kavita|title = Palladium alloys for biomedical devices|journal = Expert Review of Medical Devices|volume = 7|issue = 4|pages = 489–501|date = 2010|pmid = 20583886|doi = 10.1586/erd.10.25|s2cid = 41325428}}</ref>

Some palladium is emitted with the exhaust gases of cars with [[catalytic converter]]s. Between 4 and 108 ng/km of palladium particulate is released by such cars, while the total uptake from food is estimated to be less than 2 µg per person a day. The second possible source of palladium is dental restoration, from which the uptake of palladium is estimated to be less than 15 µg per person per day. People working with palladium or its compounds might have a considerably greater uptake. For soluble compounds such as [[palladium chloride]], 99% is eliminated from the body within 3 days.<ref name="Kiel" />

The [[median lethal dose]] (LD50) of soluble palladium compounds in mice is 200 mg/kg for [[oral administration|oral]] and 5 mg/kg for [[intravenous administration]].<ref name="Kiel" />

==History==
[[File:Wollaston William Hyde Jackson color.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[William Hyde Wollaston]]]]
William Hyde Wollaston noted the [[discovery of the chemical elements|discovery]] of a new noble metal in July 1802 in his lab book and named it palladium in August of the same year. Wollaston purified a quantity of the material and offered it, without naming the discoverer, in a small shop in [[Soho]] in April 1803. After harsh criticism from [[Richard Chenevix (chemist)|Richard Chenevix]] that palladium is an alloy of platinum and mercury, Wollaston anonymously offered a reward of £20 for 20 grains of synthetic palladium ''alloy''.<ref name="contr">{{cite journal|doi = 10.1080/00033797800200431|title = The Wollaston/Chenevix controversy over the elemental nature of palladium: A curious episode in the history of chemistry|date = 1978|last1 = Usselman|first1 = Melvyn|journal = Annals of Science|volume = 35|issue = 6|pages = 551–579}}</ref> Chenevix received the [[Copley Medal]] in 1803 after he published his experiments on palladium. Wollaston published the discovery of [[rhodium]] in 1804 and mentions some of his work on palladium.<ref name="Disco">{{cite journal|journal=Platinum Metals Review|url=http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/dynamic/article/view/47-4-175-183|title=Rhodium and Palladium – Events Surrounding Its Discovery|author=Griffith, W. P.|volume=47|issue=4|date=2003|pages=175–183|access-date=24 March 2005|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6HrP6vKEt?url=http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/article/47/4/175-183/|archive-date=4 July 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= On a New Metal, Found in Crude Platina |first=W. H. |last=Wollaston |author-link=William Hyde Wollaston |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London]] |volume=94 |date=1804 |pages=419–430 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1804.0019| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7AZGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA419|doi-access=free }}</ref> He disclosed that he was the discoverer of palladium in a publication in 1805.<ref name="contr" /><ref>{{cite journal|title = On the Discovery of Palladium; With Observations on Other Substances Found with Platina|first = W. H.|last = Wollaston|author-link = William Hyde Wollaston|journal = [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London]]|volume = 95|date = 1805|pages = 316–330|doi = 10.1098/rstl.1805.0024|doi-access = free}}</ref>

It was named by Wollaston in 1802 after the asteroid [[2 Pallas]], which had been discovered two months earlier.<ref name="CRC" /> Wollaston found palladium in crude platinum ore from [[South America]] by dissolving the ore in [[aqua regia]], neutralizing the solution with [[sodium hydroxide]], and precipitating platinum as [[ammonium chloroplatinate]] with [[ammonium chloride]]. He added [[mercuric cyanide]] to form the compound [[palladium(II) cyanide]], which was heated to extract palladium metal.<ref name="Disco" />

[[Palladium chloride]] was at one time prescribed as a [[tuberculosis]] treatment at the rate of 0.065 g per day (approximately one milligram per kilogram of body weight). This treatment had many negative [[Adverse effect (medicine)|side-effects]], and was later replaced by more effective drugs.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Art of Meeting Palladium Specifications in Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients Produced by Pd-Catalyzed Reactions|first=Christine E. |last=Garrett|author2=Prasad, Kapa|journal= Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis|volume=346 |issue=8 |date=2004 |pages=889–900 |doi=10.1002/adsc.200404071}}</ref>

Most palladium is used for [[catalytic converter]]s in the automobile industry.<ref name="Kiel" /> In the run up to year 2000, the Russian supply of palladium to the global market was repeatedly delayed and disrupted; for political reasons, the export quota was not granted on time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lbma.org.uk/assets/5d_Williamson_lbmaconf2003.pdf|title=Russian PGM Stocks|last=Williamson|first=Alan|work=The LBMA Precious Metals Conference 2003|publisher=The London Bullion Market Association|access-date=2 October 2010|archive-date=21 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021171646/http://www.lbma.org.uk/assets/5d_Williamson_lbmaconf2003.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The ensuing market panic drove the price to an all-time high of {{convert|1340|$/ozt|$/g|lk=on}} in January 2001.<ref name="chart-all">{{cite web |url=http://www.infomine.com/investment/metal-prices/palladium/all/ |title=Historical Palladium Prices and Price Chart |access-date=2015-01-27 |publisher=InvestmentMine}}</ref> Around that time, the [[Ford Motor Company]], fearing that automobile production would be disrupted by a palladium shortage, stockpiled the metal. When prices fell in early 2001, Ford lost nearly [[United States dollar|US$]]1 billion.<ref>{{cite news|date=16 January 2002|title=Ford fears first loss in a decade|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1763406.stm|access-date=19 September 2008}}</ref>

World demand for palladium increased from 100 tons in 1990 to nearly 300 tons in 2000. The global production of palladium from mines was 222 [[tonne]]s in 2006 according to the [[United States Geological Survey]].<ref name="USGS07CS">{{cite web|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/platinum/platimcs07.pdf|title=Platinum-Group Metals|date=January 2007|work=Mineral Commodity Summaries|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref> Many were concerned about a steady supply of palladium in the wake of Russia's [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexation of Crimea]], partly as sanctions could hamper Russian palladium exports; any restrictions on Russian palladium exports could have exacerbated what was already expected to be a large palladium deficit in 2014.<ref>{{cite web |author=Nat Rudarakanchana |date=2014-03-27 |title=Palladium Fund Launches in South Africa, As Russian Supply Fears Warm Prices |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/palladium-fund-launches-south-africa-russian-supply-fears-warm-prices-1563708|website=International Business Times}}</ref> Those concerns pushed palladium prices to their highest level since 2001.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2014/08/20/palladium-prices-russia-conflict-pushes-price-for-commodity-higher.html|title=The other commodity that's leaping on Ukraine war|last=Rosenfeld|first=Everett|date=2014-08-20|work=CNBC|access-date=2018-01-29}}</ref> In September 2014 they soared above the $900 per ounce mark. In 2016 however palladium cost around $614 per ounce as Russia managed to maintain stable supplies.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2017-08-30/palladium-rally-is-about-more-than-just-autos|title=Palladium Rally Is About More Than Just Autos|date=2017-08-30|work=Bloomberg.com|access-date=2018-01-29|language=en}}</ref> In January 2019 palladium [[Futures contract|futures]] climbed past $1,344 per ounce for the first time on record, mainly due to the strong demand from the automotive industry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oilprice.com/Metals/Commodities/Dont-Expect-Palladium-Prices-to-Plunge.html|title=Don't Expect Palladium Prices To Plunge {{!}} OilPrice.com|website=OilPrice.com|language=en|access-date=2018-01-29}}</ref> Palladium reached {{convert|2024.64|$/ozt|$/g}} on 6 January 2020, passing $2,000 per troy ounce the first time.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-global-precious/gold-soars-as-middle-east-tensions-brew-perfect-storm-idUSKBN1Z50D9|title=Gold soars as Middle East tensions brew perfect storm {{!}} Reuters|newspaper=Reuters|language=en|access-date=2020-01-06|date=6 January 2020}}</ref>

==Palladium as investment==
Global palladium sales were 8.84 million ounces in 2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/418218/global-palladium-supply/|title=Total palladium supply worldwide 2017 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2018-10-15}}</ref> of which 86% was used in the manufacturing of automotive catalytic converters, followed by industrial, jewelry, and investment usages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/254543/global-palladium-demand-by-sector/|title=Global palladium demand distribution by application 2016 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2018-10-15}}</ref> Palladium is a [[chemical element]] first discovered in 1803, and since the 1980s, its major commercial application has been in the automotive industry.<ref name="elementinvesting">{{cite web|url=http://www.elementinvesting.com/investing_in_lithium.htm|title=How to Invest in Palladium|publisher=elementinvesting.com|access-date=2015-04-28}}</ref> More than 75% of global platinum and 40% of palladium are mined in [[South Africa]]. Russia's mining company, [[Norilsk Nickel]], produces another 44% of palladium, with US and Canada-based mines producing most of the rest.

The price for palladium reached an all-time high of $2,981.40 per ounce on May 3, 2021<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kitco.com/charts/historicalpalladium.html|title=Historical Palladium Charts and Data - London Fix}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl?cost1=1100&year1=200101&year2=201807|title=CPI Inflation Calculator|website=data.bls.gov|access-date=2018-08-13}}</ref> driven mainly on speculation of the [[catalytic converter]] demand from the [[automobile industry]]. Palladium is traded in the [[spot market]] with the code "XPD". When settled in USD, the code is "XPDUSD". A later surplus of the metal was caused by the [[Russian government]] selling stockpiles from the [[Soviet Era]], at a rate of about 1.6 to 2 million ounces a year. The amount and status of this stockpile are a [[Classified information|state secret]].

===Palladium producers===
*[[Norilsk Nickel]] ({{MICEX-RTS|GMKN}}, {{lse|MNOD}}), palladium powder and ingots.
*[[North American Palladium]] ({{nyse|PAL}}), Canada's largest producer of palladium operating the [[Lac des Îles igneous complex|Lac des Iles palladium mine]] near [[Thunder Bay, Ontario]].
*[[Stillwater Mining]] ({{nyse|SWC}}), a major North American palladium miner in Montana.<ref name="elementinvesting" />

=== Exchange-traded products ===
WisdomTree Physical Palladium ({{lse2|PHPD}}) is backed by allocated palladium [[bullion]] and was the world's first palladium [[Exchange-traded fund|ETF]]. It is listed on the [[London Stock Exchange]] as PHPD,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.londonstockexchange.com/exchange/prices-and-news/stocks/summary/company-summary.html?fourWayKey=JE00B1VS3002JEUSDETCS|title=ETFS METAL PAL ETP price (PHPD) |publisher=London Stock Exchange}}</ref> [[Xetra (trading system)|Xetra Trading System]], [[Euronext]] and [[Borsa Italiana|Milan]]. ETFS Physical Palladium Shares ({{nyse2|PALL}}) is an ETF traded on the [[New York Stock Exchange]].

=== Bullion coins and bars ===
{{see also|Palladium coin}}
A traditional way of investing in palladium is buying bullion coins and bars made of palladium. Available palladium coins include the [[Canadian Palladium Maple Leaf]], the [[Chinese panda coins|Chinese Panda]], and the [[American Palladium Eagle]]. The [[liquidity]] of direct palladium bullion investment is poorer than that of [[gold]] and [[silver]] because there is low circulation of palladium coins.{{Citation needed|date=August 2007}}

== See also ==
* [[2000s commodities boom]]
* [[Bullion]]
* [[Bullion coin]]
* [[Inflation hedge]]
* [[Pseudo palladium]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Palladium}}
{{Wiktionary|palladium}}
* [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/046.htm Palladium] at ''[[The Periodic Table of Videos]]'' (University of Nottingham)
* [http://www.kitco.com/charts/livepalladium.html Current and Historical Palladium Price]
* [http://www.twst.com/tt/info/info1677.htm Special Market Report on Palladium and Precious Metals]
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Palladium (chemistry) |display=Palladium |volume=20 |pages=636–637|short=x}}
{{clear}}

{{Periodic table (navbox)}}
{{Palladium compounds}}
{{Jewellery}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Palladium| ]]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Noble metals]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[Category:Precious metals]]
[[Category:Native element minerals]]
[[Category:Chemical elements with face-centered cubic structure]]

EFT

2022-01-20T15:24:56Z

Zumbo: Exchange-traded fund is ETF, not EFT

{{Wiktionary|eft}}

An '''eft''' is the terrestrial juvenile phase of a [[newt]].

'''EFT''', '''EfT''', or '''eft''' also may refer to:

* [[École Française de Téhéran]], a French international school in Tehran, Iran
* [[Ecosystem Functional Type]]
* [[Effective field theory]]
* Electrical Fast Transient, see [[Transient (oscillation)]]
* [[Electronic funds transfer]]
* [[Emotionally focused therapy]]
* [[Emotional Freedom Techniques]]
* ''[[Escape from Tarkov]]''
* [[Evangelical Fellowship of Thailand]]
* [[Ewing family of tumors]]
* [[Exploration Flight Test-1]] (5 December 2014), for the NASA Constellation/Ares/SLS Program ''Orion Crew Vehicle''
* [[Monroe Municipal Airport]] (FAA id: EFT), in Wisconsin, United States

==See also==
{{canned search|eft}}
*{{in title|plural=yes}}
*{{lookfrom|EFT}}
*{{lookfrom|Eft}}
*[[EFTS (disambiguation)]]

{{disambiguation}}

Nimbus Sans

2021-12-08T13:26:17Z

Zumbo: Undid revision 1058631899 by 72.129.225.94 (talk)

{{Infobox font
| name = Nimbus Sans
| image = Nimbus Sans Specimen.svg
| style = [[Sans-serif]]
| classifications = [[Sans-serif#Neo-grotesque|Neo-grotesque]]
| based_on = [[Helvetica]]
| variations = URW Heisei Gothic
| releasedate = 1999
| creator = URW Studio
| foundry = [[URW++]]
}}
'''Nimbus Sans''' is a [[sans-serif]] [[typeface]] created by [[URW++]], based on [[Helvetica]].

==Nimbus Sans==
It is a version using URW++ font source. The family supports Western Europe, East Europe, Turkish, Baltic, and Romanian languages.

Some of the fonts have history predating Helvetica's first release. For example, Nimbus Sans bold condensed, Nimbus Sans bold condensed (D) were dated 1940; Nimbus Sans Black Condensed, Nimbus Sans Black Condensed (D) were dated 1946{{Citation needed|date=April 2019}}.

The font names ending with (D) have slightly lighter font weights and tighter spacing.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Weight !! condensed !! medium !! extended
|-
|Black||roman||roman, italic||roman
|-
|Bold||roman||roman, italic||roman
|-
|Regular||roman||roman, italic||roman
|-
|Light||-||roman, italic||roman
|-
!colspan=4|(D) fonts
|-
!Weight !! condensed !! medium !! extended
|-
|Black||roman, italic||roman, italic||roman, outline
|-
|Bold||roman, italic||roman, italic, outline||roman
|-
|Regular||roman, italic||roman, italic||roman
|-
|Light||roman, italic||roman, italic||roman
|-
|Ultra Light||-||roman||-
|}

===Nimbus Sans Poster===
It is a version of Nimbus Sans with even tighter spacing than the Nimbus Sans (D) fonts. Other changes include alternate designs for currency symbols.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Weight !! condensed !! medium
|-
|Black||roman, italic||roman, italic
|-
|Bold||roman, italic||roman, italic
|-
|Regular||roman, italic||roman, italic
|-
|Light||roman, italic||roman, italic
|-
|Ultra Light||-||roman
|}

===Nimbus Sans Diagonal===
It is a version with more right lean than Nimbus Sans italic fonts. The family currently only includes 1 font, in Black weight in medium width.

===Nimbus Sans Mono===
It is a monospaced variant of Nimbus Sans. The family currently only includes 1 font, in Regular weight in medium width.

===Nimbus Sans Global===
It is a family supporting Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, CJK ideographic, Japanese kana, Korean Hangul syllables, Thai characters. The family includes 5 fonts in 1 (medium) width, with 4 proportional and 1 monospaced fonts. The proportional fonts are in 4 weights (bold, medium, regular, light), while the monospace font is in medium weight.

==Nimbus Sans L==
Nimbus Sans L is a version of Nimbus Sans using Adobe font sources. It was designed in 1987. The family includes 17 fonts in 5 weights and 2 widths, with Nimbus Sans L Extra Black only available in condensed roman format.

A subset of Nimbus Sans L, which includes regular and bold weight fonts in all widths and styles, were released under the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] and [[Aladdin Free Public License|AFPL]] in Type 1 format in 1996<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.geocrawler.com/archives/3/378/1996/5/0/2064811/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021023155414/http://www.geocrawler.com/archives/3/378/1996/5/0/2064811/ |title=Finally! Good-quality free (GPL) basic-35 PostScript Type 1 fonts. |archive-date=2002-10-23 |access-date=2010-05-06}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.tug.org/fonts/deutsch-urw.txt |title=Finally! Good-quality free (GPL) basic-35 PostScript Type 1 fonts. |format=TXT |access-date=2010-05-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tug.org/fonts/ |title=Fonts and TeX |date=2009-12-19 |access-date=2010-05-06}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb29-1/tb91ludwichowski-fonts.pdf |title=Five years after: Report on international TEX font projects |year=2007 |access-date=2010-05-06}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://mirror.cs.wisc.edu/pub/mirrors/ghost/aladdin/fonts/ghostscript-fonts-std-4.0.tar.gz |title=ghostscript-fonts-std-4.0.tar.gz - GhostScript 4.0 standard fonts - AFPL license |format=TAR.GZ |date=1996-06-28 |access-date=2010-05-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424032316/http://mirror.cs.wisc.edu/pub/mirrors/ghost/aladdin/fonts/ghostscript-fonts-std-4.0.tar.gz |archive-date=2011-04-24 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://mirror.cs.wisc.edu/pub/mirrors/ghost/aladdin/fonts/ghostscript-fonts-std-6.0.tar.gz |format=TAR.GZ |title=ghostscript-fonts-std-6.0.tar.gz - GhostScript 6.0 standard fonts - GPL license |date=1999-12-22 |access-date=2010-05-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424032253/http://mirror.cs.wisc.edu/pub/mirrors/ghost/aladdin/fonts/ghostscript-fonts-std-6.0.tar.gz |archive-date=2011-04-24 }}</ref> and [[LaTeX Project Public License|LPPL]] in 2009,<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.tug.org/fonts/lppl-urw.txt |title=URW++ making original 35 fonts available under LPPL |access-date=2010-05-06}}</ref> and is one of several freely licensed fonts offered by [[URW++]].

Although the characters are not exactly the same, Nimbus Sans L has metrics almost identical to Helvetica and [[Arial]]. Nimbus Sans L is one of the [[Ghostscript]] fonts, a set of free alternatives to the 35 [[PostScript fonts#Core Font Set|basic PostScript fonts]] (which include Helvetica).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ghostscript.com/doc/current/Fonts.htm |title=Fonts and font facilities supplied with Ghostscript |access-date=2010-04-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sabi.co.uk/Notes/linuxFonts.html |title=Linux fonts (mostly X11) |date=2009-08-15 |access-date=2010-04-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://code.google.com/p/ghostscript/source/browse/#svn/trunk/urw-fonts |title=Ghostscript SVN - URW fonts |access-date=2010-04-21}}</ref><ref name="URW font ttf conversions">{{cite web|title=URW font ttf conversions|url=http://svn.ghostscript.com/ghostscript/trunk/ghostpdl/urwfonts/|website=Ghostscript|access-date=22 September 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919095317/http://svn.ghostscript.com/ghostscript/trunk/ghostpdl/urwfonts/|archive-date=19 September 2015}}</ref>

It is a standard typeface in many [[Linux]] distributions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://packages.debian.org/sid/gsfonts |title=Debian package - gsfonts |access-date=2010-04-21}}</ref> It was used as default font in OpenOffice.org Calc and Impress in some Linux distributions (e.g. Ubuntu - up to version 8.10; since Ubuntu 9.04 the default font was changed to [[Liberation Sans]]).

===Ghostscript version===
It was extended to include Cyrillic support by Valek Filippov.

==Nimbus Sans Novus==
It is a version Linotype's Stempel Studio source, based on Neue Helvetica, but without the extended fonts.

The font names ending with (D) have tighter letter spacing.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Weight !! condensed !! medium
|-
|Ultra||roman, italic||-
|-
|Black||roman, italic||roman, italic
|-
|Heavy||roman, italic||roman, italic
|-
|Bold||roman, italic||roman, italic, outline
|-
|Semi Bold||roman, italic||roman, italic
|-
|Medium||roman, italic||roman, italic
|-
|Regular||roman, italic||roman, italic
|-
|Light||roman, italic||roman, italic
|-
|Ultra Light||roman, italic||roman, italic
|-
!colspan=4|(D) fonts
|-
!Weight !! condensed !! medium
|-
|Ultra||roman||-
|-
|Black||roman||roman, outline
|-
|Heavy||roman||roman
|-
|Bold||roman||roman
|-
|Semi Bold||roman||roman
|-
|Medium||roman||roman
|-
|Regular||roman||roman
|-
|Light||roman||roman
|-
|Ultra Light||roman||roman
|}

==See also==
*[[Nimbus Roman No9 L]]
*[[Nimbus Mono L]]
*[[Free software Unicode typefaces]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

===Nimbus Sans===
*URW pages:
: [https://www.urwpp.de/en/shop/?fontshop=datei:show_font_details;fontnummer:n019003t; Nimbus Sans Family],
: [http://www.urwpp.de/en/shop/?fontshop=datei:show_font_details;fontnummer:n019003g; Nimbus Sans Global]
*[http://www.myfonts.com/fonts/urw/nimbus-sans/ Nimbus Sans on MyFonts]
*[http://git.ghostscript.com/?p=urw-core35-fonts.git URW fonts sources on Ghostscript] (Type 1, OTF and TTF fonts)

===Nimbus Sans L===
*URW pages: [http://www.urwpp.de/en/shop/?fontshop=datei:show_font_details;fontnummer:n019003l; Nimbus Sans L]
*[http://github.com/ArtifexSoftware/urw-base35-fonts/releases URW fonts releases]
*[http://www.ghostscript.com/doc/current/Fonts.htm Fonts and font facilities supplied with Ghostscript] (Type 1)

===Nimbus Sans Novus===
*URW pages: [https://www.urwpp.de/en/shop/?fontshop=datei:show_font_details;fontnummer:n023013t; Nimbus Sans Novus]

{{free and open-source typography}}

[[Category:Neo-grotesque sans-serif typefaces]]
[[Category:Open-source typefaces]]
[[Category:Typefaces and fonts introduced in 1999]]

Serif

2021-12-08T13:25:33Z

Zumbo: Undid revision 1058631452 by 72.129.225.94 (talk)

{{short description|Small line or stroke attached to the end of a larger stroke in a letter or symbol}}
{{About|the font characteristic|the software company|Serif Europe|other uses|Serif (disambiguation)}}
{| style="float: right; margin: 0 1em 1em; border: solid 1px black;"
| [[File:Serif and sans-serif 01.svg]]
| Sans-serif font
|-
| [[File:Serif and sans-serif 02.svg]]
| Serif font
|-
| [[File:Serif and sans-serif 03.svg]]
| Serif font (red serifs)
|}

In [[typography]], a '''serif''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɛr|ᵻ|f}}) is a small line or stroke regularly attached to the end of a larger stroke in a letter or symbol within a particular [[font]] or family of fonts. A [[typeface]] or "font family" making use of serifs is called a '''serif typeface''' (or '''serifed typeface'''), and a typeface that does not include them is [[sans-serif]]. Some typography sources refer to sans-serif typefaces as "grotesque" (in [[German language|German]], {{lang|de|grotesk}}) or "Gothic",<ref>{{cite web|last=Phinney|first=Thomas|title=Sans Serif: Gothic and Grotesque|url=http://www.graphic-design.com/typography/design/sans-serif-gothic-and-grotesque|publisher=Showker|website=TA. Showker Graphic Arts & Design|access-date=1 February 2013}}</ref> and serif typefaces as "[[Roman type|roman]]".

==Origins and etymology==
Serifs originated from the first official Greek writings on stone and in [[Latin alphabet]] with [[Roman square capitals|inscriptional lettering]]—words carved into stone in Roman [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]]. The explanation proposed by Father [[Edward Catich]] in his 1968 book ''The Origin of the Serif'' is now broadly but not universally accepted: the Roman letter outlines were first painted onto stone, and the stone carvers followed the brush marks, which flared at stroke ends and corners, creating serifs. Another theory is that serifs were devised to neaten the ends of lines as they were chiselled into stone.<ref name=Samara>{{cite book|last=Samara|first=Timothy|title=Typography workbook: a real-world guide to using type in graphic design|year=2004|publisher=Rockport Publishers|isbn=978-1-59253-081-6|page=240|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=denl7KWyM4EC&pg=PA21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Goldberg|first=Rob|title=Digital Typography: Practical Advice for Getting the Type You Want When You Want It|year=2000|publisher=Windsor Professional Information|isbn=978-1-893190-05-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/digitaltypograph0000gold/page/264 264]|url=https://archive.org/details/digitaltypograph0000gold |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Linotype Bulletin|date=January–February 1921|page=265|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4bnAAAAMAAJ&q=serif+chisel&pg=PA266-IA7|access-date=26 October 2011}}</ref>

The origin of the word 'serif' is obscure, but apparently is almost as recent as the type style. The book ''The British Standard of the Capital Letters contained in the Roman Alphabet, forming a complete code of systematic rules for a mathematical construction and accurate formation of the same'' (1813) by [[William Hollins]], defined 'surripses', usually pronounced "surriphs", as "projections which appear at the tops and bottoms of some letters, the O and Q excepted, at the beginning or end, and sometimes at each, of all". The standard also proposed that 'surripsis' may be a Greek word derived from {{lang|grc|σῠν-}} ({{transl|grc|'syn-'}}, "together") and {{lang|grc|ῥῖψῐς}} ({{transl|grc|'rhîpsis'}}, "projection").

In 1827, Greek scholar [[Julian Hibbert]] printed with his own experimental [[uncial]] Greek types, remarking that the types of [[Giambattista Bodoni]]'s ''Callimachus'' were "ornamented (or rather disfigured) by additions of what [he] believe[s] type-founders call syrifs or cerefs". The printer [[Thomas Curson Hansard]] referred to them as "ceriphs" in 1825.<ref name="Typographia, an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art of Printing">{{cite book|last1=Hansard|first1=Thomas Curson|title=Typographia, an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art of Printing|date=1825|page=[https://archive.org/details/typographiaanhi01hansgoog/page/n432 370]|url=https://archive.org/details/typographiaanhi01hansgoog|access-date=12 August 2015}}</ref> The oldest citations in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (''OED'') are 1830 for 'serif' and 1841 for 'sans serif'. The ''OED'' speculates that 'serif' was a [[back-formation]] from 'sanserif'.

''[[Webster's Third New International Dictionary]]'' traces 'serif' to the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] noun {{lang|nl|schreef}}, meaning "line, stroke of the pen", related to the verb {{lang|nl|schrappen}}, "to delete, strike through" ({{lang|nl|'schreef'}} now also means "serif" in Dutch). Yet, {{lang|nl|schreef}} is the past tense of {{lang|nl|schrijven}} (to write). The relation between {{lang|nl|schreef}} and {{lang|nl|schrappen}} is documented by Van Veen and Van der Sijs.<ref>''Etymologisch Woordenboek'' (Van Dale, 1997).</ref> In her book {{lang|nl|Chronologisch Woordenboek}},<ref>(Veen, 2001).</ref> Van der Sijs lists words by first known publication in the language area that is the Netherlands today:
* {{lang|nl|schrijven}}, 1100;
* {{lang|nl|schreef}}, 1350;
* {{lang|nl|schrappen}}, 1406 (i.e. {{lang|nl|schreef}} is from {{lang|nl|schrijven}} (to write), not from {{lang|nl|schrappen}} (to scratch, eliminate by strike-through)).

The ''OED''{{'}}s earliest citation for "grotesque" in this sense is 1875, giving 'stone-letter' as a [[synonym]]. It would seem to mean "out of the ordinary" in this usage, as in art 'grotesque' usually means "elaborately decorated". Other synonyms include "Doric" and "Gothic", commonly used for [[Japanese Gothic typeface]]s.<ref name="A Neo-Grotesque Heritage">{{cite web|last1=Berry|first1=John|title=A Neo-Grotesque Heritage|url=http://acumin.typekit.com/history/|publisher=Adobe Systems|access-date=15 October 2015}}</ref>

==Classification==
Serif fonts can be broadly classified into one of four subgroups: old style, transitional, Didone and slab serif, in order of first appearance.

==={{anchor|"Old Style"}}Old-style===
[[File:Garamond sample.svg|thumb|Adobe [[Garamond]], an example of an old-style serif.{{efn|Note that this image includes 'Th' [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]], common in Adobe typefaces but not found in the 16th century.}}]]

Old-style typefaces date back to 1465, shortly after [[Johannes Gutenberg]]'s adoption of the [[movable type]] [[printing press]]. Early printers in Italy created types that broke with Gutenberg's [[blackletter]] printing, creating upright and later [[italic type|italic]] styles inspired by [[Renaissance]] calligraphy.<ref name="The first roman fonts" /><ref name="Venetian origins of roman type">{{cite web|last1=Olocco|first1=Riccardo|title=The Venetian origins of roman type|url=https://articles.c-a-s-t.com/the-venetian-origins-of-roman-type-a856eb3f0cb|website=Medium|publisher=C-A-S-T|access-date=27 January 2018}}</ref> Old-style serif fonts have remained popular for setting body text because of their organic appearance and excellent readability on rough book paper. The increasing interest in early printing during the late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a return to the designs of Renaissance printers and type-founders, many of whose names and designs are still used today.<ref name="Garamond, Griffo and Others: The Price of Celebrity">{{cite journal|last1=Mosley|first1=James|title=Garamond, Griffo and Others: The Price of Celebrity|journal=Bibiologia|date=2006|url=http://www.libraweb.net/articoli.php?chiave=200608401&rivista=84|access-date=3 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="Coles Top Ten">{{cite web|last1=Coles|first1=Stephen|title=Top Ten Typefaces Used by Book Design Winners|url=http://fontfeed.com/archives/top-ten-typefaces-used-by-book-design-winners/|website=FontFeed (archived)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120228035307/http://fontfeed.com/archives/top-ten-typefaces-used-by-book-design-winners/|access-date=2 July 2015|archive-date=2012-02-28}}</ref><ref name="Old-Face Types in the Victorian Age">{{cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=A.F.|author-link1=Alfred F. Johnson|title=Old-Face Types in the Victorian Age|journal=Monotype Recorder|date=1931|volume=30|issue=242|pages=5–15|url=http://www.metaltype.co.uk/downloads/mr/mr_30_242.pdf|access-date=14 October 2016}}</ref>

Old-style type is characterized by a lack of large differences between thick and thin lines (low line contrast) and generally, but less often, by a diagonal stress (the thinnest parts of letters are at an angle rather than at the top and bottom). An old-style font normally has a left-inclining curve axis with weight stress at about 8 and 2 o'clock; serifs are almost always bracketed (they have curves connecting the serif to the stroke); head serifs are often angled.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fonts.com/FavoriteFonts/OldStyleSerif.htm|title=Old Style Serif|postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref>

Old-style faces evolved over time, showing increasing abstraction from what would now be considered handwriting and blackletter characteristics, and often increased delicacy or contrast as printing technique improved.<ref name="Venetian origins of roman type" /><ref name="Unusual fifteenth-century fonts: part 1">{{cite web|last1=Boardley|first1=John|title=Unusual fifteenth-century fonts: part 1|url=http://ilovetypography.com/2014/02/08/unusual-fifteenth-century-fonts/|website=i love typography|date=7 February 2014|access-date=22 September 2017}}</ref><ref name="Unusual fifteenth-century fonts: part 2">{{cite web|last1=Boardley|first1=John|title=Unusual fifteenth-century fonts: part 2|url=http://ilovetypography.com/2015/07/01/unusual-fifteenth-century-fonts-part2/|website=i love typography|date=July 2015|access-date=22 September 2017}}</ref> Old-style faces have often sub-divided into 'Venetian' (or '[[Vox-ATypI classification#Humanist|humanist]]') and '[[Vox-ATypI classification#Garalde|Garalde]]' (or 'Aldine'), a division made on the [[Vox-ATypI classification]] system.<ref name="Type anatomy: Family Classifications of Type">{{cite web|title=Type anatomy: Family Classifications of Type|url=http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/type_basics/type_families.htm|website=SFCC Graphic Design department|publisher=Spokane Falls Community College|access-date=14 August 2015}}</ref> Nonetheless, some have argued that the difference is excessively abstract, hard to spot except to specialists and implies a clearer separation between styles than originally appeared.<ref name="Dixon 2002">{{Citation |last=Dixon |first=Catherine |title=Typeface classification |publisher=Friends of St Bride |contribution=Twentieth Century Graphic Communication: Technology, Society and Culture |year=2002 |url=http://www.stbride.org/friends/conference/twentiethcenturygraphiccommunication/TypefaceClassification.html}}</ref>{{efn|Specifically, Manutius's type, the first type now classified as "Garalde", was not so different from other typefaces around at the time.<ref name="The first roman fonts" /> However, the waves of "Garalde" faces coming out of France from the 1530s onwards did tend to cleanly displace earlier typefaces, and became an international standard.<ref name="Stanley Morison's Aldine Hypothesis Revisited">{{cite journal|last1=Amert|first1=Kay|title=Stanley Morison's Aldine Hypothesis Revisited|journal=Design Issues|date=April 2008|volume=24|issue=2|pages=53–71|doi=10.1162/desi.2008.24.2.53|s2cid=57566512}}</ref><ref name="The Aldine Press: catalogue of the Ahmanson-Murphy collection of books by or relating to the press in the Library of the University of California, Los Angeles: incorporating works recorded elsewhere.">{{cite book|title=The Aldine Press: catalogue of the Ahmanson-Murphy collection of books by or relating to the press in the Library of the University of California, Los Angeles : incorporating works recorded elsewhere.|date=2001|publisher=Univ. of California Press|location=Berkeley [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-520-22993-8|pages=22–25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wfiFtIkbNsEC&pg=PA22|quote=[On the Aldine Press in Venice changing over to types from France]: the press followed precedent; popular in France, [these] types rapidly spread over western Europe.}}</ref>}} Modern typefaces such as [[Arno (typeface)|Arno]] and [[Trinité (typeface)|Trinité]] may fuse both styles.<ref name="Arno Pro specimen">{{cite book|last1=Twardoch, Slimbach, Sousa, Slye|title=Arno Pro|date=2007|publisher=Adobe Systems|location=San Jose|url=http://wwwimages.adobe.com/content/dam/Adobe/en/products/type/pdfs/ArnoPro.pdf|access-date=14 August 2015}}</ref>

Early "humanist" roman types were introduced in Italy. Modelled on the script of the period, they tend to feature an "e" in which the cross stroke is angled, not horizontal; an "M" with two-way serifs; and often a relatively dark colour on the page.<ref name="The first roman fonts" /><ref name="Venetian origins of roman type" /> In modern times, that of [[Nicolas Jenson]] has been the most admired, with many revivals.<ref name="Olocco Jenson">{{cite web|last1=Olocco|first1=Riccardo|title=Nicolas Jenson and the success of his roman type|url=https://articles.c-a-s-t.com/nicolas-jenson-and-the-success-of-his-roman-type-9f0afeba4103|website=Medium|publisher=C-A-S-T|access-date=21 September 2017}}</ref><ref name="The first roman fonts">{{cite web|last1=Boardley|first1=John|title=The first roman fonts|url=http://ilovetypography.com/2016/04/18/the-first-roman-fonts/|website=ilovetypography|access-date=21 September 2017}}</ref> Garaldes, which tend to feature a level cross-stroke on the "e", descend from an influential 1495 font cut by engraver [[Francesco Griffo]] for printer [[Aldus Manutius]], which became the inspiration for many typefaces cut in France from the 1530s onwards.<ref name="palaeotypography" /><ref name="A View of Early Typography up to about 1600">{{cite book|last1=Carter|first1=Harry|title=A View of Early Typography up to about 1600|date=1969|publisher=Hyphen Press|location=London|isbn=0-907259-21-9|pages=72–4|edition=Second edition (2002)|quote=''De Aetna'' was decisive in shaping the printers' alphabet. The small letters are very well made to conform with the genuinely antique capitals by emphasis on long straight strokes and fine serifs and to harmonise in curvature with them. The strokes are thinner than those of Jenson and his school...the letters look narrower than Jenson's, but are in fact a little wider because the short ones are bigger, and the effect of narrowness makes the face suitable for octavo pages...this Roman of Aldus is distinguishable from other faces of the time by the level cross-stroke in 'e' and the absence of top serifs from the insides of the vertical strokes of 'M', following the model of Feliciano. We have come to regard his small 'e' as an improvement on previous practice.}}</ref> Often lighter on the page and made in larger sizes than had been used for roman type before, French Garalde faces rapidly spread throughout Europe from the 1530s to become an international standard.<ref name="Stanley Morison's Aldine Hypothesis Revisited" /><ref name="palaeotypography">{{cite book|last1=Vervliet|first1=Hendrik D.L.|author-link=H. D. L. Vervliet|title=The palaeotypography of the French Renaissance. Selected papers on sixteenth-century typefaces. 2 vols.|date=2008|publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV|location=Leiden|pages=90–91, etc.|quote=[On Robert Estienne's typefaces of the 1530s]: Its outstanding design became standard for Roman type in the two centuries to follow...From the 1540s onwards French Romans and Italics had begun to infiltrate, probably by way of Lyons, the typography of the neighbouring countries. In Italy, major printers replaced the older, noble but worn Italian characters and their imitations from Basle.|isbn=978-90-04-16982-1}}</ref><ref name="Aldine: the intellectuals begin their assault on font design">{{cite web|last1=Bergsland|first1=David|title=Aldine: the intellectuals begin their assault on font design|url=http://www.bergsland.org/2012/08/book-production/typography/aldine-the-intellectuals-begin-their-assault-on-font-design/|website=The Skilled Workman|access-date=14 August 2015}}</ref>

Also during this period, [[italic type]] evolved from a quite separate genre of type, intended for informal uses such as poetry, into taking a secondary role for emphasis. Italics moved from being conceived as separate designs and proportions to being able to be fitted into the same line as roman type with a design complementary to it.<ref name="i love typography">{{cite web|last1=Boardley|first1=John|title=Brief notes on the first italic|url=http://ilovetypography.com/2014/11/25/notes-first-italic/|website=i love typography|access-date=21 September 2017}}</ref><ref name="Vervliet2008 Aldine Italic">{{cite book|first=Hendrik D. L.|last=Vervliet|title=The Palaeotypography of the French Renaissance: Selected Papers on Sixteenth-century Typefaces|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6sidSDlif48C&pg=PA287|year=2008|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-16982-1|pages=287–289}}</ref><ref name="Lane JPHS">{{cite journal|last1=Lane|first1=John|author-link=John A. Lane|title=The Types of Nicholas Kis|journal=Journal of the Printing Historical Society|date=1983|pages=47–75|quote=[[Miklós Tótfalusi Kis|Kis's]] Amsterdam specimen of c. 1688 is an important example of the increasing tendency to regard a range of roman and italic types as a coherent family, and this may well have been a conscious innovation. But italics were romanised to a greater degree in many earlier handwritten examples and occasional earlier types, and Jean Jannon displayed a full range of matching roman and italic of his own cutting in his 1621 specimen...[In appendix] [György] Haiman notes that this trend is foreshadowed in the specimens of Guyot in the mid-sixteenth century and Berner in 1592.}}</ref>{{efn|Early italics were intended to exist on their own on the page, and so often had very long ascenders and descenders, especially the "chancery italics" of printers such as Arrighi.<ref name="Vervliet2008">{{cite book|first=Hendrik D. L.|last=Vervliet|title=The Palaeotypography of the French Renaissance: Selected Papers on Sixteenth-century Typefaces|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6sidSDlif48C&pg=PA287|year=2008|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-16982-1|pages=287–319}}</ref> [[Jan van Krimpen]]'s Cancelleresca Bastarda typeface, intended to complement his serif family Romulus, was nonetheless cast on a larger body to allow it to have an appropriately expansive feel.}}

A new genre of serif type developed around the 17th century in the Netherlands and Germany that came to be called the "Dutch taste" ({{lang|fr|"goût Hollandois"}} in [[French language|French]]).<ref name="Dutch Taste Johnson" /> It was a tendency towards denser, more solid typefaces, often with a high [[x-height]] (tall lower-case letters) and a sharp contrast between thick and thin strokes, perhaps influenced by blackletter faces.<ref name="Printing Types vol 2">{{cite book|last1=Updike|first1=Daniel Berkeley|title=Printing Types: Their History, Forms and Uses: Volume 2|date=1922|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/printingtypesthe02updi/page/6 6]–7|url=https://archive.org/details/printingtypesthe02updi|access-date=18 December 2015|chapter=Chapter 15: Types of the Netherlands, 1500-1800}}</ref><ref name="typo-history-1">{{cite web|url=https://typofonderie.com/gazette/post/type-history-1/|work=Typofonderie Gazette|title=Type History 1|access-date=23 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="Dutch Taste Johnson">{{cite journal|last=Johnson|first=A. F.|author-link=Alfred F. Johnson|title=The 'Goût Hollandois'|journal=The Library|date=1939|volume=s4-XX|issue=2|pages=180–196|doi=10.1093/library/s4-XX.2.180}}</ref><ref name="Type and its Uses, 1455-1830">{{cite web|last1=Mosley|first1=James|title=Type and its Uses, 1455-1830|url=http://www.ies.sas.ac.uk/sites/default/files/files/LRBS/Outline%20of%20Course_Type%26itsUses2013_2.pdf|publisher=[[Institute of English Studies]]|access-date=7 October 2016|quote=Although types on the 'Aldine' model were widely used in the 17th and 18th centuries, a new variant that was often slightly more condensed in its proportions, and darker and larger on its body, became sufficiently widespread, at least in Northern Europe, to be worth defining as a distinct style and examining separately. Adopting a term used by Fournier le jeune, the style is sometimes called the 'Dutch taste', and sometimes, especially in Germany, 'baroque'. Some names associated with the style are those of Van den Keere, Granjon, Briot, Van Dijck, Kis (maker of the so-called 'Janson' types), and [[William Caslon|Caslon]].|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009181144/http://www.ies.sas.ac.uk/sites/default/files/files/LRBS/Outline%20of%20Course_Type%26itsUses2013_2.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2016}}</ref><ref name="The Briot project. Part I">{{cite web |last1=de Jong |first1=Feike |last2=Lane |first2=John A. |title=The Briot project. Part I |url=https://pampatype.com/blog/the-briot-project |website=PampaType |publisher=TYPO, republished by PampaType |access-date=10 June 2018}}</ref>

Examples of contemporary Garalde old-style typefaces are [[Bembo]], [[Garamond]], [[Galliard (typeface)|Galliard]], [[Granjon]], [[Goudy Old Style]], [[Minion (typeface)|Minion]], [[Palatino]], Renard, [[Sabon]], and [[FF Scala|Scala]]. Contemporary typefaces with Venetian old style characteristics include [[Cloister (typeface)|Cloister]], [[Adobe Jenson]], the [[Golden Type]], [[Hightower Text]], [[Centaur (typeface)|Centaur]], Goudy's Italian Old Style and [[Berkeley Old Style]] and ITC Legacy. Several of these blend in Garalde influences to fit modern expectations, especially placing single-sided serifs on the "M"; Cloister is an exception.<ref name="Searching for Morris Fuller Benton">{{cite web|last1=Shen|first1=Juliet|title=Searching for Morris Fuller Benton|url=http://typeculture.com/academic-resource/articles-essays/searching-for-morris-fuller-benton/|website=Type Culture|access-date=11 April 2017}}</ref> Artists in the "Dutch taste" style include [[Hendrik van den Keere]], Nicolaas Briot, [[Christoffel van Dijck]], [[Miklós Tótfalusi Kis]] and the [[Janson]] and [[Ehrhardt (typeface)|Ehrhardt]] types based on his work and [[Caslon]], especially the larger sizes.<ref name="Type and its Uses, 1455-1830" />

===Transitional===
[[Image:Times New Roman sample.svg|thumb|[[Times New Roman]], a modern example of a transitional serif design.]]
Transitional, or baroque, serif typefaces first became common around the mid-18th century until the start of the 19th.<ref name="Shaw2017">{{cite book|author=Paul Shaw|title=Revival Type: Digital Typefaces Inspired by the Past|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n7e0DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85|date=18 April 2017|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-21929-6|pages=85–98}}</ref> They are in between "old style" and "modern" fonts, thus the name "transitional". Differences between thick and thin lines are more pronounced than they are in old style, but less dramatic than they are in the Didone fonts that followed. Stress is more likely to be vertical, and often the "R" has a curled tail. The ends of many strokes are marked not by blunt or angled serifs but by [[ball terminal]]s. Transitional faces often have an italic 'h' that opens outwards at bottom right.<ref name="Type Designs of the Past and Present, Part 3">{{cite journal|last1=Morison|first1=Stanley|title=Type Designs of the Past and Present, Part 3|journal=PM|date=1937|pages=17–81|url=http://magazines.iaddb.org/issue/PM/1937-11-01/edition/4-3/page/19|access-date=4 June 2017}}</ref> Because the genre bridges styles, it is difficult to define where the genre starts and ends. Many of the most popular transitional designs are later creations in the same style.

Fonts from the original period of transitional typefaces include early on the {{lang|fr|"[[romain du roi]]"}} in France, then the work of [[Pierre Simon Fournier]] in France, [[Joan Michaël Fleischman|Fleischman]] and [[Jacques François Rosart|Rosart]] in the Low Countries,<ref name="Middendorp2004 Fleischman">{{cite book|author=Jan Middendorp|title=Dutch Type|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sR9g5xPPJVQC&pg=PA27|year=2004|publisher=010 Publishers|isbn=978-90-6450-460-0|pages=27–29}}</ref> [[Eudald Pradell|Pradell]] in Spain and [[John Baskerville]] and [[Bulmer (typeface)|Bulmer]] in England.<ref name="Eighteenth Century Spanish Type Design">{{cite journal|last1=Corbeto|first1=A.|title=Eighteenth Century Spanish Type Design|journal=The Library|date=25 September 2009|volume=10|issue=3|pages=272–297|doi=10.1093/library/10.3.272|s2cid=161371751}}</ref><ref name="Unger 2001">{{cite journal|last1=Unger|first1=Gerard|title=The types of François-Ambroise Didot and Pierre-Louis Vafflard. A further investigation into the origins of the Didones|journal=Quaerendo|date=1 January 2001|volume=31|issue=3|pages=165–191|doi=10.1163/157006901X00047}}</ref> Among more recent designs, [[Times New Roman]] (1932), [[Perpetua (typeface)|Perpetua]], [[Plantin (typeface)|Plantin]], [[Mrs. Eaves]], [[Freight (typeface)|Freight Text]], and the earlier [[Modernised Old Style (typeface)|"modernised old styles"]] have been described as transitional in design.{{efn|Monotype executive [[Stanley Morison]], who commissioned Times New Roman, noted that he hoped that it "has the merit of not looking as if it had been designed by somebody in particular".<ref name="The history of the Times New Roman typeface">{{cite web|last1=Alas|first1=Joel|title=The history of the Times New Roman typeface|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a2fa033e-7ca1-11de-a7bf-00144feabdc0.html|website=Financial Times|access-date=16 January 2016}}</ref>}}

Later 18th-century transitional typefaces in Britain begin to show influences of Didone typefaces from Europe, described below, and the two genres blur, especially in type intended for body text; [[Bell MT|Bell]] is an example of this.<ref name="The Evolution of the Modern-Face Roman">{{cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=Alfred F.|author-link1=Alfred F. Johnson|title=The Evolution of the Modern-Face Roman|journal=The Library|date=1930|volume=s4-XI|issue=3|pages=353–377|doi=10.1093/library/s4-XI.3.353}}</ref><ref name="Transitional Faces">{{cite book|last1=Johnston|first1=Alastair|title=Transitional Faces: The Lives & Work of Richard Austin, type-cutter, and Richard Turner Austin, wood-engraver|date=2014|publisher=Poltroon Press|location=Berkeley|url=http://www.poltroonpress.com/book/transitional-faces-the-lives-work-of-richard-austin-type-cutter-and-richard-turner-austin-wood-engraver/|isbn=978-0918395320|access-date=8 February 2017}}</ref>{{efn|It should be realised that "Transitional" is a somewhat nebulous classification, almost always including Baskerville and other typefaces around this period but also sometimes including 19th and 20th-century reimaginations of old-style faces, such as [[Bookman Old Style|Bookman]] and [[Plantin (typeface)|Plantin]], and sometimes some of the later "old-style" faces such as the work of Caslon and his imitators. In addition, of course Baskerville and others of this period would not have seen their work as "transitional" but as an end in itself. Eliason (2015) provides a leading modern critique and assessment of the classification, but even in 1930 A.F. Johnson called the term "vague and unsatisfactory."<ref name="The Evolution of the Modern-Face Roman"/><ref name="“Transitional” Typefaces: The History of a Typefounding Classification">{{cite journal|last1=Eliason|first1=Craig|title="Transitional" Typefaces: The History of a Typefounding Classification|journal=Design Issues|date=October 2015|volume=31|issue=4|pages=30–43|doi=10.1162/DESI_a_00349|s2cid=57569313}}</ref>}}

===Didone===
{{Main|Didone (typography)}}
[[Image:Bodoni sample.svg|thumb|right|[[Bodoni]], an example of a modern serif]]
Didone, or modern, serif typefaces, which first emerged in the late 18th century, are characterized by extreme contrast between thick and thin lines.{{efn|Additional subgenres of Didone type include "fat faces" (ultra-bold designs for posters) and "Scotch Modern" designs (used in the English-speaking world for book and newspaper printing).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Shinn|first1=Nick|title=Modern Suite|url=http://shinntype.com/wp-content/uploads/files/pdf/Scotch_Modern.pdf|publisher=Shinntype|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref> }} These typefaces have a vertical stress and thin serifs with a constant width, with minimal bracketing (constant width). Serifs tend to be very thin, and vertical lines very heavy. Didone fonts are often considered to be less readable than transitional or old-style serif typefaces. Period examples include [[Bodoni]], [[Didot (typeface)|Didot]], and [[Walbaum (typeface)|Walbaum]]. [[Computer Modern]] is a popular contemporary example. The very popular [[Century type family|Century]] is a softened version of the same basic design, with reduced contrast.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Shaw|first1=Paul|title=Overlooked Typefaces|url=http://www.printmag.com/imprint/overlooked-typefaces/|website=Print magazine|access-date=2 July 2015}}</ref> Didone typefaces achieved dominance of printing in the early 19th-century printing before declining in popularity in the second half of the century and especially in the 20th as new designs and revivals of old-style faces emerged.<ref name="Ovink I">{{cite journal|last1=Ovink|first1=G.W.|title=Nineteenth-century reactions against the didone type model - I|journal=Quaerendo|date=1971|volume=1|issue=2|pages=18–31|doi=10.1163/157006971x00301}}</ref><ref name="Ovink II">{{cite journal|last1=Ovink|first1=G.W.|title=Nineteenth-century reactions against the didone type model - II|journal=Quaerendo|date=1971|volume=1|issue=4|pages=282–301|doi=10.1163/157006971x00239}}</ref><ref name="Ovink III">{{cite journal|last1=Ovink|first1=G.W.|title=Nineteenth-century reactions against the didone type model-III|journal=Quaerendo|date=1 January 1972|volume=2|issue=2|pages=122–128|doi=10.1163/157006972X00229}}</ref>

In print, Didone fonts are often used on high-gloss [[Coated paper|magazine paper]] for magazines such as ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', where the paper retains the detail of their high contrast well, and for whose [[Corporate identity|image]] a crisp, "European" design of type may be considered appropriate.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Frazier|first1=J.L.|title=Type Lore|date=1925|location=Chicago|page=[https://archive.org/details/typelorepopularf00fraz/page/14 14]|url=https://archive.org/details/typelorepopularf00fraz|access-date=24 August 2015}}</ref><ref name="HFJ Didot introduction">{{cite web|title=HFJ Didot introduction|url=http://www.typography.com/fonts/didot/overview/|publisher=Hoefler & Frere-Jones|access-date=10 August 2015}}</ref> They are used more often for general-purpose body text, such as book printing, in Europe.<ref name="HFJ Didot introduction"/><ref name="HFJ Didot">{{cite web|title=HFJ Didot|url=http://www.typography.com/fonts/didot/features/|publisher=Hoefler & Frere-Jones|access-date=10 August 2015}}</ref> They remain popular in the printing of Greek, as the Didot family were among the first to establish a printing press in newly independent Greece.<ref name="A primer on Greek type design">{{cite web|last1=Leonidas|first1=Gerry|title=A primer on Greek type design|url=http://leonidas.org/text-archive/|publisher=Gerry Leonidas/University of Reading|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="GFS Didot">{{cite web|title=GFS Didot|url=http://www.greekfontsociety.gr/pages/en_typefaces19th.html|publisher=Greek Font Society|access-date=10 August 2015}}</ref> The period of Didone types' greatest popularity coincided with the rapid spread of printed [[poster]]s and commercial [[ephemera]] and the arrival of [[bold type]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eskilson|first1=Stephen J.|title=Graphic design : a new history|date=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|isbn=9780300120110|page=[https://archive.org/details/graphicdesignnew00eski/page/25 25]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/graphicdesignnew00eski/page/25}}</ref><ref name="Affichen-Schriften">{{cite web |last1=Pané-Farré |first1=Pierre |title=Affichen-Schriften |url=https://forgotten-shapes.com/affichen-schriften?article=affichen-schriften |publisher=Forgotten-Shapes |access-date=10 June 2018}}</ref> As a result, many Didone typefaces are among the earliest designed for [[Typeface#Display type|"display"]] use, with an ultra-bold "[[fat face]]" style becoming a common sub-genre.<ref name="Fat Faces: Their History, Forms and Use">{{cite book|last1=Johnson|first1=Alfred F.|author-link1=Alfred F. Johnson|title=Selected Essays on Books and Printing|date=1970|pages=409–415|chapter=Fat Faces: Their History, Forms and Use}}</ref><ref name="Fat faces Phinney">{{cite web|last1=Phinney|first1=Thomas|title=Fat faces|url=http://graphic-design.com/typography/design/decorative-display-typestyles|publisher=Graphic Design and Publishing Centre|access-date=10 August 2015}}</ref><ref name="The Story of Our Friend, the Fat Face">{{cite web|last1=Kennard|first1=Jennifer|title=The Story of Our Friend, the Fat Face|url=http://fontsinuse.com/uses/5578/the-story-of-our-friend-the-fat-face|website=Fonts in Use|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref>

===Slab serif===
{{Main|Slab serif}}
[[Image:Rockwell sample.svg|thumb|right|Rockwell, an example of a more geometric slab serif]]
[[Image:Clarendon sample.svg|thumb|right|Clarendon, an example of a less geometric slab serif]]
Slab serif typefaces date to about 1817.{{efn|Early slab-serif types were given a variety of names for branding purposes, such as 'Egyptian', 'Italian', 'Ionic', 'Doric', 'French-Clarendon' and 'Antique', which generally have little or no connection to their actual history. Nonetheless, the names have persisted in use.}}<ref name="Three chapters in the development of clarendon/ionic typefaces">{{cite journal|last1=Miklavčič |first1=Mitja |title=Three chapters in the development of clarendon/ionic typefaces |journal=MA Thesis (University of Reading) |date=2006 |url=http://www.typefacedesign.org/resources/essay/MitjaMiclavcic_essay_scr.pdf |access-date=14 August 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125001608/http://www.typefacedesign.org/resources/essay/MitjaMiclavcic_essay_scr.pdf |archive-date=November 25, 2011 }}</ref> Originally intended as attention-grabbing designs for posters, they have very thick serifs, which tend to be as thick as the vertical lines themselves. Slab serif fonts vary considerably: some such as [[Rockwell (typeface)|Rockwell]] have a geometric design with minimal variation in stroke width—they are sometimes described as sans-serif fonts with added serifs. Others such as those of the [[Clarendon (typeface)|"Clarendon"]] model have a structure more like most other serif fonts, though with larger and more obvious serifs.<ref name="Sentinel: historical background">{{cite web|title=Sentinel: historical background|url=http://www.typography.com/fonts/sentinel/history/|publisher=Hoefler & Frere-Jones|access-date=15 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="Know your type: Clarendon">{{cite web|last1=Challand|first1=Skylar|title=Know your type: Clarendon|url=http://idsgn.org/posts/know-your-type-clarendon/|publisher=IDSGN|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref> These designs may have bracketed serifs that increase width along their length.

Because of the clear, bold nature of the large serifs, slab serif designs are often used for posters and in small print. Many [[Monospace font#Monospaced typefaces|monospace fonts]], on which all characters occupy the same amount of horizontal space as in a [[typewriter]], are slab-serif designs. While not always purely slab-serif designs, many fonts intended for newspaper use have large slab-like serifs for clearer reading on poor-quality paper. Many early slab-serif types, being intended for posters, only come in [[boldface|bold]] styles with the key differentiation being width, and often have no lower-case letters at all.

Examples of slab-serif typefaces include [[Clarendon (typeface)|Clarendon]], [[Rockwell (typeface)|Rockwell]], [[Archer (typeface)|Archer]], [[Courier (typeface)|Courier]], [[Excelsior (typeface)|Excelsior]], [[Thesis (typeface)|TheSerif]], and [[Zilla Slab]]. [[FF Meta|FF Meta Serif]] and [[Guardian Egyptian]] are examples of newspaper and small print-oriented typefaces with some slab-serif characteristics, often most visible in the bold weights. In the late 20th century, the term "humanist slab-serif" has been applied to typefaces such as [[Chaparral (typeface)|Chaparral]], Caecilia and Tisa, with strong serifs but an outline structure with some influence of old-style serif typefaces.<ref name="Phinney Chaparral">{{cite web |last1=Phinney |first1=Thomas |title=Most Overlooked: Chaparral |url=https://blog.typekit.com/2005/11/07/most_overlooked_1/ |website=Typekit Blog |publisher=Adobe Systems |access-date=7 March 2019}}</ref><ref name="LuptonArt2014">{{cite book|author-link=Ellen Lupton|first=Ellen|last=Lupton|title=Type on Screen: A Critical Guide for Designers, Writers, Developers, and Students|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gswEBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT16|date=12 August 2014|publisher=Princeton Architectural Press|isbn=978-1-61689-346-0|page=16}}</ref><ref name="Bringhurst Caecilia">{{cite book |last1=Bringhurst |first1=Robert |author-link=Robert Bringhurst |title=The Elements of Typographic Style |title-link=The Elements of Typographic Style |year=2002 |publisher=Hartley & Marks |isbn=9780881791327 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780881791327/page/218 218, 330] |edition=2nd }}</ref>
{{clear}}

===Other styles===
During the 19th century, genres of serif type besides conventional body text faces proliferated.<ref name="Nineteenth-century Ornamented Typefaces">{{cite book|last1=Gray|first1=Nicolete|title=Nineteenth-century Ornamented Typefaces|date=1976}}</ref><ref name="Thinking with Type 23">{{cite book|last1=Lupton|first1=Ellen|title=Thinking with Type|date=15 April 2014|isbn=9781616890452|page=23}}</ref> These included "Tuscan" faces, with ornamental, decorative ends to the strokes rather than serifs, and "Latin" or "wedge-serif" faces, with pointed serifs, which were particularly popular in France and other parts of Europe including for signage applications such as business cards or shop fronts.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Frutiger|first1=Adrian|title=Typefaces – the complete works|date=8 May 2014|isbn=9783038212607|pages=26–35}}</ref>

Well-known typefaces in the "Latin" style include [[Wide Latin]], [[Copperplate Gothic]], [[Johnston (typeface)#Johnston Delf Smith|Johnston Delf Smith]] and the more restrained [[Meridien (typeface)|Méridien]].

==Readability and legibility==

Serifed fonts are widely used for [[body text]] because they are considered easier to read than [[sans-serif]] fonts in print.<ref>''Merriam-Webster's Manual for Writers and Editors'', (Springfield, 1998) p. 329.</ref> However, scientific study on this topic has been inconclusive. Colin Wheildon, who conducted scientific studies from 1982 to 1990, found that sans serif fonts created various difficulties for readers that impaired their comprehension.<ref>{{cite book|title= Type and Layout: How Typography and Design Can Get your Message Across – Or Get in the Way|last= Wheildon|first= Colin|year= 1995|publisher= Strathmoor Press|location= Berkeley|isbn= 0-9624891-5-8|pages= [https://archive.org/details/typelayouthowtyp0000whei/page/57 57, 59–60]|url= https://archive.org/details/typelayouthowtyp0000whei/page/57}}</ref> According to Kathleen Tinkel, studies suggest that "most sans serif typefaces may be slightly less legible than most serif faces, but ... the difference can be offset by careful setting".<ref>Kathleen Tinkel, "Taking it in: What makes type easy to read", [https://www.adobe.com/products/adobemag/archive/pdfs/9603fekt.pdf adobe.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019140934/http://www.adobe.com/products/adobemag/archive/pdfs/9603fekt.pdf |date=2012-10-19 }} Accessed 28 December 2010. p. 3.</ref>

[[Sans-serif]] are considered to be [[Legibility|legible]] on computer screens. According to Alex Poole,<ref name="alexpoole">Literature Review ''Which Are More Legible: Serif or Sans Serif Typefaces?'' [http://www.alexpoole.info/academic/literaturereview.html alexpoole.info] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306051141/http://www.alexpoole.info/academic/literaturereview.html |date=2010-03-06 }}.</ref> "we should accept that most reasonably designed typefaces in mainstream use will be equally legible". A study suggested that serif fonts are more legible on a screen but are not generally preferred to sans serif fonts.<ref name="bernardliaomills">Effects of Font Type on the Legibility ''The Effects of Font Type and Size on the Legibility and Reading Time of Online Text by Older Adults''. [http://psychology.wichita.edu/mbernard/articles/elderly.pdf psychology.wichita.edu].</ref> Another study indicated that comprehension times for individual words are slightly faster when written in a sans serif font versus a serif font.<ref name="morettatay">Moret-Tatay, C., & Perea, M. (2011). Do serifs provide an advantage in the recognition of written words? ''Journal of Cognitive Psychology 23, 5, 619-24.''. [http://www.valencia.edu/mperea/serif_JCP.pdf valencia.edu].</ref>

When size of an individual glyph is 9-20 pixels, proportional serifs and some lines of most glyphs of common vector fonts are smaller than individual pixels. [[Font hinting|Hinting]], [[spatial anti-aliasing]], and [[subpixel rendering]] allow to render distinguishable serifs even in this case, but their proportions and appearance are off and thickness is close to many lines of the main glyph, strongly altering appearance of the glyph. Consequently, it is sometimes advised to use sans-serif fonts for content meant to be displayed on screens, as they scale better for low resolutions. Indeed, most web pages employ sans-serif type.<ref>''The Principles of Beautiful Web Design'', (2007) p. 113.</ref> Recent introduction of desktop displays with 300+ dpi resolution might eventually make this recommendation obsolete.

As serifs originated in inscription, they are generally not used in handwriting. A common exception is the [[block letters|printed]] [[capital letters|capital]] [[I]], where the addition of serifs distinguishes the character from [[lowercase]] [[L]]. The printed capital [[J]] and the [[numeral system|numeral]] [[1 (number)|1]] are also often handwritten with serifs.

==Gallery==
Below are some images of serif letterforms across history:
<gallery>
Jenson006.jpg|The roman type of [[Nicolas Jenson]]
De Aetna 1495.jpg|''De Aetna'', printed by [[Aldus Manutius]]
Houghton TypTS 515.52.370 - Alphabetum Graecum.jpg|Title page printed by Robert Estienne
Michael Praetorius Missodia Sionia (1611).jpg|1611 book, with [[Fleuron (typography)|arabesque]] ornament border
Romain du roi sample (1702).png|The ''[[Romain du roi]]'', the first "transitional" typeface
Ehrhardt specimen.png|Condensed, high x-height types in the "Dutch taste" style, c. 1720
Publii Virgilii Maronis Bucolica, Georgica, et Æneis by John Baskerville 1757.jpg|Title page by [[John Baskerville]], 1757
Type sample, Pierre Simon Fournier, Manuel Typographique 1766.png|Alphabet by [[Pierre-Simon Fournier]] in his ''Manuel typographique'', 1760s
Fleischman Paragon roman & italic.jpg|Transitional type by [[Joan Michaël Fleischman]] of Amsterdam, 1768
Feria Sexta.jpg|Modern-face types by the [[Amoretti Brothers]], 1797
Code civil des Français (Firmin-Didot).jpg|Didone type in a book printed by the company of Firmin Didot, 1804
Manuale-Tipografico1.jpg|Bodoni's posthumous ''Manuale Tipografico'', 1818
Caslon inline Great Primer Columbia specimen.jpg|Inline modern face
Austin Foundry 1838 12 Lines Ornamented, No. 4.jpg|Display type with pattern inside
Redford & Robins - poster - Google Art Project.jpg|"Fat face" ultra-bold Didone type
Fann Street Foundry Clarendon image with text for emphasis.jpg|The original Clarendon typeface
Boston Type Foundry Clarendon.jpg|Display-size slab-serifs
Miller & Richard Old Style Type Specimen (15399996818).jpg|Miller and Richard's [[Modernised Old Style (typeface)|Modernised Old Style]], a reimagination of pre-Didone typefaces
Kelmscott Press Typefaces.jpg|William Morris's [[Golden Type]] in the style of Jenson and other typefaces of his Kelmscott Press
ATF 1923 Garamond specimen page 22.jpg|[[American Type Founders|ATF]]'s "Garamond" type, an example of historicist printing
Sir Harry Johnston memorial plaque.JPG|Memorial plaque by [[Eric Gill]], c. 1920s
</gallery>

==East Asian analogues==
{{Main|Ming (typeface)}}
[[File:Ming serif.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|From left to right: a serif typeface with serifs in red, a serif typeface, and a sans-serif typeface]]

In the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] writing systems, there are common type styles based on the [[regular script]] for [[Chinese characters]] akin to serif and sans serif fonts in the West. In Mainland China, the most popular category of serifed-like typefaces for body text is called [[Songti|Song]] ({{lang|zh|宋体}}, {{transl|zh|Songti}}); in Japan, the most popular serif style is called {{nihongo||明朝|Minchō}}; and in Taiwan and Hong Kong, it is called {{transl|zh|Ming}} ({{lang|zh|明體}}, {{transl|zh|Mingti}}). The names of these lettering styles come from the [[Song dynasty|Song]] and [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] dynasties, when [[block printing]] flourished in China. Because the [[wood grain]] on printing blocks ran horizontally, it was fairly easy to carve horizontal lines with the grain. However, carving vertical or slanted patterns was difficult because those patterns intersect with the grain and break easily. This resulted in a typeface that has thin horizontal strokes and thick vertical strokes{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}. In accordance with Chinese calligraphy ([[kaiti]] style in particular), where each horizontal stroke is ended with a dipping motion of the brush, the ending of horizontal strokes are also thickened{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}. These design forces resulted in the current Song typeface characterized by thick vertical strokes contrasted with thin horizontal strokes, triangular ornaments at the end of single horizontal strokes, and overall geometrical regularity.

In Japanese typography, the equivalent of serifs on [[kanji]] and [[kana]] characters are called {{transl|ja|uroko}}—"fish scales". In Chinese, the serifs are called either {{transl|zh|youjiaoti}} ({{lang|zh|有脚体}}, lit. "forms with legs") or {{transl|zh|youchenxianti}} ({{lang|zh|有衬线体}}, lit. "forms with ornamental lines").

The other common East Asian style of type is called black ({{lang|zh|¥黑体/體}}, {{transl|zh|Heiti}}) in Chinese and {{nihongo|[[Japanese gothic typeface|Gothic]]|ゴシック体|Goshikku-tai}} in Japanese. This group is characterized by lines of even thickness for each stroke, the equivalent of "sans serif". This style, first introduced on newspaper headlines, is commonly used on headings, websites, signs and billboards.

==See also==
{{Wiktionary}}

* [[Homoglyph]]
* [[Ming (typeface)]], a similar style in Asian typefaces
*: The analogs of serifs, known as {{lang|ja|[[wikt:鱗|鱗]]}}, literally "fish scales", in Japanese.
* [[San Serriffe]], an elaborate typographic joke
* [[Serif typefaces]], a list of Serif typefaces

===Lists of serif typefaces===
* [[:Category:Old style serif typefaces|Old-style]]
* [[:Category:Transitional serif typefaces|Transitional]]
* [[:Category:Modern serif typefaces|Didone]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* [[Robert Bringhurst]], ''[[The Elements of Typographic Style]],'' version 4.0 (Vancouver, BC, Canada: [[Hartley & Marks]] Publishers, 2012), {{ISBN|0-88179-211-X}}.
* [[Harry Carter (typographer)|Harry Carter]], ''A View of Early Typography: Up to about 1600'' (London: Hyphen Press, 2002).
* Father [[Edward Catich]], ''The Origin of the Serif: Brush Writing and Roman Letters'', 2nd ed., edited by Mary W. Gilroy (Davenport, Iowa: Catich Gallery, St. Ambrose University, 1991), {{ISBN|9780962974021|}}.
* [[Nicolete Gray]], ''Nineteenth Century Ornamented Typefaces'', 2nd ed. (Faber, 1976), {{ISBN|9780571102174|}}.
* [[Alfred F. Johnson]], ''Type Designs: Their History and Development'' (Grafton, 1959).
* Stan Knight, ''Historical Types: From Gutenberg to Ashendene'' (Oak Knoll Press, 2012), {{ISBN |9781584562986|}}.
* [[Ellen Lupton]], ''[http://issuu.com/papress/docs/thinking_with_type?mode=embed&layout=http%3A%2F%2Fskin.issuu.com%2Fv%2Fcolor%2Flayout.xml&backgroundColor=FFFFFF&showFlipBtn=true&pageNumber=6 Thinking with Type: A Critical Guide for Designers, Writers, Editors, & Students]'', 2nd ed. (New York: [[Princeton Architectural Press]], 2010), {{ISBN|9781568989693|}}, <www.thinkingwithtype.com>.
* Indra Kupferschmid, "[http://kupferschrift.de/cms/2016/01/type-classification-texts/ Some Type Genres Explained]," Type, kupferschrift.de (2016-01-15).
* Stanley Morison, ''A Tally of Types'', edited by Brooke Crutchley et al., 2nd ed. (London: Cambridge University Press, 1973), {{ISBN |978-0-521-09786-4}}. (on revivals of historical typefaces created by the British company Monotype)
* ———, “Type Designs of the Past and Present,” was serialized in 4 parts in 1937 in ''PM Magazine'' (the last 2 are available online):
** “Part 1,” ''PM Magazine'', 4, 1 (1937-09);
** “Part 2,” ''PM Magazine'', 4, 2 (1937-12);
** “[http://magazines.iaddb.org/issue/PM/1937-11-01/edition/4-3/page/19 Part 3],” ''PM Magazine'', 4, 3 (1937-11): 17–32;
** “[http://magazines.iaddb.org/issue/PM/1937-12-01/edition/4-4/page/63 Part 4],” ''PM Magazine'', 4, 4 (1937-12): 61–81.
* Sébastien Morlighem, ''Robert Thorne and the Introduction of the 'modern' fat face'', 2020, Poem, and [https://vimeo.com/516485231 presentation]
* James Mosley, ''Ornamented types: twenty-three alphabets from the foundry of Louis John Poucheé'', I.M. Imprimit, 1993
* Paul Shaw, ''Revival Type: Digital Typefaces Inspired by the Past'' (Brighton: Quid Publishing, 2017), {{ISBN|978-0-300-21929-6|}}.
* Walter Tracy, ''Letters of Credit: A View of Type Design'', 2nd ed. (David R. Godine, 2003), {{ISBN|9781567922400|}}.
* [[Daniel Berkeley Updike]], ''Printing Types, their History, Forms, and Use: A Study in Survivals'', 2 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1922), [[iarchive:printingtypesthe01updi|volume 1]] and [[iarchive:printingtypesthe02updi|volume 2]]—now outdated and known for a strong, [http://typefoundry.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/elzevir-letter.html not always accurate] dislike of Dutch and modern-face printing, but extremely comprehensive in scope.
* [[Hendrik Désiré Louis Vervliet|H. D. L. Vervliet]], ''The Palaeotypography of the French Renaissance: Selected Papers on Sixteenth-Century Typefaces'', 2 vols., Library of the Written Word series, No. 6, The Handpress World subseries, No. 4 (Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2008-11-27), {{ISBN|978-90-04-16982-1|}}.
* ———, ''Sixteenth Century Printing Types of the Low Countries'', Annotated catalogue (Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, 1968-01-01), {{ISBN|978-90-6194-859-9}}.
* ———, ''French Renaissance Printing Types: A Conspectus'' (Oak Knoll Press, 2010).
* ———, ''Liber librorum: 5000 ans d'art du livre'' (Arcade, 1972).
** Translation: Fernand Baudin, ''The Book Through Five Thousand Years: A Survey'', edited by Hendrik D. L. Vervliet (London: Phaidon, 1972).
* James Mosley's reading lists: [https://web.archive.org/web/20161009181144/http://www.ies.sas.ac.uk/sites/default/files/files/LRBS/Outline%20of%20Course_Type%26itsUses2013_2.pdf "Type and its Uses, 1455–1830"], [http://rarebookschool.org/2008/reading/typography/t55/ 1830-2000]

{{Typography terms}}

[[Category:Serif typefaces| ]]
[[Category:Typography]]

Pyrrhic victory

2021-11-02T14:13:55Z

Zumbo: Undid revision 1053197090 by 8.9.80.65 (talk)

{{short description|Victory at a cost tantamount to defeat}}
[[File:The pyrrhic victory of the Mulligan guards in Maine LCCN2011661828.jpg|thumb|right|400px|[[James G. Blaine]] finally gained the [[1884 Republican National Convention|1884 Republican nomination for US president]] on his third attempt: "Another victory like this and our money's gone!"]]
A '''Pyrrhic victory''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Pyrrhic victory.ogg|ˈ|p|ɪr|ɪ|k|}} {{respell|PIRR|ik}}) is a victory that inflicts such a devastating toll on the victor that it is tantamount to defeat. A Pyrrhic victory takes a heavy toll that negates any true sense of achievement or damages long-term progress.

The phrase originates from a quote from [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]], whose triumph against the Romans in the [[Battle of Asculum]] in 279 BC destroyed much of his forces, forcing the end of his campaign.

==Etymology==

''Pyrrhic victory'' is named after King [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]], whose army suffered irreplaceable casualties in defeating the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] at the [[Battle of Heraclea]] in 280 BC and the [[Battle of Asculum]] in 279 BC, during the [[Pyrrhic War]]. After the latter battle, [[Plutarch]] relates in a report by [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus|Dionysius]]:

{{quote|The armies separated; and, it is said, Pyrrhus replied to one that gave him joy of his victory that ''one other such victory would utterly undo him''. For he had lost a great part of the forces he brought with him, and almost all his particular friends and principal commanders; there were no others there to make recruits, and he found the confederates in Italy backward. On the other hand, as from a fountain continually flowing out of the city, the Roman camp was quickly and plentifully filled up with fresh men, not at all abating in courage for the loss they sustained, but even from their very anger gaining new force and resolution to go on with the war.|Plutarch, [[Parallel Lives|Life of Pyrrhus]]<ref>[[Plutarch]] (trans. John Dryden) ''[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/pyrrhus.html Pyrrhus]'', hosted on [http://classics.mit.edu The Internet Classics Archive]</ref>}}

In both Epirote victories, the Romans suffered greater casualties but they had a much larger pool of replacements, so the casualties had less impact on the Roman war effort than the losses of King Pyrrhus.

The report is often quoted as
{{quote|text={{lang|la|Ne ego si iterum eodem modo vicero, sine ullo milite Epirum revertar.}} 
If I achieve such a victory again, I shall return to Epirus without any soldier.|source=[[Paulus Orosius|Orosius]]<ref>[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/orosius/orosius4.shtml#1 Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri]'', IV, 1.15.</ref>}}
or
{{quote|text=If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined.|source=
Plutarch<ref name=Plutarch>{{cite book | author = Plutarch | author-link = Plutarch | title = Parallel Lives | chapter = The Life of Pyrrhus | page = 21.8 | chapter-url = https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/pyrrhus*.html | access-date = January 26, 2017 | volume = IX | edition = 1920 | publisher = Loeb Classical Library}}</ref>}}

The term entered the English vernacular due to popular misconceptions of the magnitude of Pyrrhus's losses: beginning before the 1800s, Latin history teaching books said that Pyrrhus suffered losses in the tens of thousands.<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tklHMwEACAAJ | title = The Study of History Rendered Easy, by a Plan Founded on Experience | first1 = Ann | last1 = Fletcher | first2 = S. | last2 = Dutton | first3 = H.F. | last3 = Dutton | publisher = University of St. Andrews | year = 1798}}</ref>{{original research inline|date=June 2019}}

==Examples==
===War===



This list comprises examples of battles that ended in a Pyrrhic victory. It is not intended to be complete but to illustrate the concept.

[[File:Johann Peter Krafft 005.jpg|thumbnail|right|[[Last stand]] and final charge from the fortress of [[Szigetvár]] (painting by [[Johann Peter Krafft]], 1825)|alt=Men waving sabers on horseback charge across a bridge, surrounded by figures struggling in hand-to-hand combat]]
[[File:Aircraft_prepare_to_launch_from_Japanese_carrier_Shōkaku_during_Battle_of_the_Santa_Cruz_Islands,_26_October_1942_(80-G-176150).jpg|thumb|right|Japanese aircraft prepare to take off from ''[[Japanese aircraft carrier Shōkaku|Shōkaku]]'' during the [[Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands]]|alt=Aircraft lined up on the deck of an aircraft carrier]]
[[File:Croatian War 1991 Vukovar street.jpg|right|thumb|The ruined streets of [[Vukovar]] ten days after its surrender|alt=A street of ruined buildings with rubble strewn across the road. A red tractor and other vehicles are visible parked in the background]]
* [[Battle of Asculum]] (279 BC),<ref name=Plutarch/> [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] and Italian allies against the [[Roman Empire|Romans]]: the Romans, though suffering twice as many casualties, could easily replenish their ranks. Pyrrhus lost most of his commanders and a great part of the forces he had brought to Italy, and he withdrew to Sicily.
* [[Battle of Avarayr]] (451),<ref name="Hewsen">{{cite web|last1=Hewsen|first1=Robert H.|author-link1=Robert H. Hewsen|title=AVARAYR|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avarayr-a-village-in-armenia-in-the-principality-of-artaz-southeast-of-the-iranian-town-of-maku|website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|date=August 17, 2011|quote=So spirited was the Armenian defense, however, that the Persians suffered enormous losses as well. Their victory was pyrrhic and the king, faced with troubles elsewhere, was forced, at least for the time being, to allow the Armenians to worship as they chose.}}</ref><ref name="Pattie">{{cite book|author=Susan Paul Pattie|title=Faith in History: Armenians Rebuilding Community |publisher= Smithsonian Institution Press |year= 1997 |page= 40 |isbn = 1560986298|quote=The Armenian defeat in the Battle of Avarayr in 451 proved a pyrrhic victory for the Persians. Though the Armenians lost their commander, Vartan Mamikonian, and most of their soldiers, Persian losses throughout battles in the 4th to 6th century were proportionately heavy, close to 350,000, and Armenia was allowed to remain Christian.}}</ref> [[Vardan Mamikonian]] and Christian Armenian rebels against the Sassanid Empire: the Persians were victorious but the battle proved to be a strategic victory for Armenians, as Avarayr paved the way to the [[Nvarsak Treaty]] (484 AD), which assured Armenian autonomy and religious freedom.
* [[Siege of Szigetvár]] (1566),<ref>{{Cite book | editor-last=Kohn| editor-first=George C. | title=Dictionary of Wars | edition = Third | publisher=Infobase Publishing | year=2006 | language= en | isbn=978-0-8160-6577-6 | page = 47}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1=Lázár | first1=István | last2 = Tezla | first2 = Albert | title = An Illustrated History of Hungary | publisher=Corvina Books | location = Budapest | edition = 6th | year=1999 | language = en | isbn=978-963-13-4887-3 | page = 70}}</ref> [[Ottoman–Habsburg wars]]: although the Ottomans won the siege, it can be seen as a Pyrrhic victory because of the heavy Ottoman casualties, the death of Sultan Suleiman, and the resulting delay to the Ottoman push for Vienna that year which suspended Ottoman expansion in Europe.
* [[Siege of Ostend]] (1601–04),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Motley, John Lothrop |title=Motley's Dutch Nation: Being the Rise of the Dutch Republic (1555-1584) |date=1908 |publisher=Harper & brothers |location=University of Wisconsin |page=[https://archive.org/details/motleysdutchnati00motluoft/page/754 754] |url=https://archive.org/details/motleysdutchnati00motluoft |quote=For three years Ostend had occupied the entire Spanish army exhausting entirely the resources of Spain while leaving the Dutch free to increase their wealth and power by trade and commerce. It had paid to defend Ostend|author1-link=John Lothrop Motley }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cortés|first1=Manuel Lomas|title=La expulsión de los moriscos del Reino de Aragón: política y administración de una deportación (1609–1611)|date=2008|publisher=Centro de Estudios Mudéjares|page=38|isbn=9788496053311|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GukpAQAAMAAJ |quote=la pirrica victoria en el sitio de Ostende}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Maland|first=David|title=Europe at war 1600–1650|date=1980|publisher=Rowman and Littlefield|isbn=9780847662135|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zD5dDwAAQBAJ|quote= it was in many ways a Pyrrhic victory, because Maurice in 1604 led his troops against Sluys. What began as a diversionary raid to lure Spain from Ostend developed into a properly conducted siege and since neither side would take risk of interfering with the others siege works the fall of Ostend was balanced by the fall of Sluys - which it could be argued was more useful to the United Provinces.}}</ref> [[Eighty Years' War (1566–1609)|Eighty Years' War]]: for three years the Spanish attempted to capture this port from Dutch and English defenders, even as the Dutch expanded their territory further east – including [[Siege of Sluis (1604)|capturing the port of Sluis]] to replace Ostend before surrendering. The vast cost and casualties of the siege were compounded by Spain's subsequent campaign to recapture the Dutch gains, which achieved little, and by 1607 Spain was bankrupt. The resultant [[Twelve Years' Truce]] effectively made the Dutch Republic an independent state.
* [[Battle of Malplaquet]] (1709),<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Wars of Louis XIV: 1667–1714 |last=Lynn |first=John A. |author-link=John A. Lynn |year=1999 |publisher=Longman |location=London |isbn=0-582-05629-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/warsoflouisxiv1600lynn/page/334 334] |quote="Marlborough's triumph proved to be a Pyrrhic victory" |url=https://archive.org/details/warsoflouisxiv1600lynn/page/334 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | first=Hans | last = Delbrück | translator-first = Walter J. | translator-last = Renfroe | title = History of the Art of War, Volume IV: The Dawn of Modern Warfare | publisher = Praeger | location = Eastport, Conn. | isbn = 0-8032-6586-7 | year = 1985 | page = 370 | quote = Malplaquet was what has been termed with the age-old expression a "Pyrrhic victory”...}}</ref><ref>In a letter to Louis XIV, the French general [[Claude Louis Hector de Villars|Villars]] wrote: "Si Dieu nous fait la grâce de perdre encore une pareille bataille, Votre Majesté peut compter que tous ses ennemis seront détruits." ["If God gives us the grace of losing such a battle again, Your Majesty may expect that all his enemies will be destroyed."]; [[Louis-Pierre Anquetil|Anquetil, Louis-Pierre]], ''Histoire de France depuis les Gaulois jusqu'à la mort de Louis XVI'' (1819), Paris: Chez Janet et Cotelle, p. 241.</ref> [[War of the Spanish Succession]]: the battle was an Allied victory because Marlborough's army kept possession of the battlefield, but it had suffered double the French casualties and could not pursue. The French army withdrew in good order and relatively intact, and it remained a potent threat to further Allied operations.
*[[Battle of Gangwana]] (1741) fought between 1000 strong [[Rathore]] cavalry of [[Jodhpur State|Jodhpur]] and combined armies of [[Mughal empire]], and [[Jaipur state|Jaipur]] Numbering 100,000 with hundreds of cannons and artillery at [[Gangwana]] the Jaipur emerged victorious but with heavy losses of 12,000 and thousands other wounded<ref>Fall Of The Mughal Empire - Vol. I (4th ed.), volume 1, pp. 175-176</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DLQeSBLpUwsC|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DLQeSBLpUwsC/page/n161 154]|quote=Battle of Gangwana 1741.|title=Rajasthan Through the Ages|date=2008-01-01|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=9788176258418|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Battle of Bunker Hill]] (1775),<ref>{{Cite book|last=Clinton|first=Henry|title=The American Rebellion: Sir Henry Clinton's Narrative of His Campaigns, 1775–1782 |editor=Willcox, William B. |publisher=Yale University Press | year=1954 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H2AsAAAAMAAJ | oclc=1305132 | quote = A few more such victories would have shortly put an end to British dominion in America.}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | title = Battle of Bunker Hill | url = https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Bunker-Hill | access-date = January 25, 2016 | date = December 8, 2016 | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | quote = Although the British eventually won the battle, it was a Pyrrhic victory that lent considerable encouragement to the revolutionary cause.}}</ref> [[American Revolutionary War]]: after mounting three assaults on the colonial forces, the British won control of the [[Siege of Boston|Boston peninsula]] in the early stages of the war, but the engagement cost them many more casualties than the Americans had incurred (including a large number of officers) and led them to adopt more cautious methods, which helped American rebel forces; the political repercussions increased colonial support for independence.
* [[Battle of Guilford Court House]] (1781),<ref>[[British Whig Party]] leader and war critic [[Charles James Fox]] said, "Another such victory would ruin the British Army!". Baker, Thomas E. ''Another Such Victory'', Eastern Acorn Press, 1981, {{ISBN|0-915992-06-X}}.</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url = http://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/battle-of-guilford-courthouse/ | title = Battle of Guilford Courthouse | first = Nick | last = McGrath | encyclopedia = George Washington’s Mount Vernon: Digital Encyclopedia | publisher = Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association | access-date = January 26, 2017 | quote = In three hours, Cornwallis's army took possession of the field, but it was a Pyrrhic victory... Cornwallis could not afford the casualties his army sustained, and withdrew to Wilmington. By doing so, Cornwallis ceded control of the countryside to the Continentals.}}</ref> [[American Revolutionary War]]: in this short battle, the British force defeated a superior American army; the British lost a considerable number of men and their drive to conquer the southern colonies changed course.
* [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] (1863),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history.com/news/history-lists/5-famous-pyrrhic-victories |title=5 Famous Pyrrhic Victories |author=Evan Andrews |date=1 September 2015 |website=History |publisher=A&E Television Networks, LLC |access-date=17 July 2016}}</ref> [[American Civil War]]: [[General Robert E. Lee]] split his army in the face of Hooker's larger Union force; the audacious strategy allowed the Confederate army to win the day against a numerically superior foe. However, 20% of Lee's army was injured or killed, including General [[Stonewall Jackson]], and his losses were difficult to replace. Lee's weakened army went on the offensive, but less than two months later was defeated and forced to retreat after the [[Battle of Gettysburg]].
* [[Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands]] (1942),<ref>{{cite book | last = Levine | first = Alan J. | year = 1995 | title = The Pacific War: Japan Versus the Allies | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MuyizRQAjt4C | access-date = January 26, 2017 | location = Westport, Connecticut | publisher = Praeger | isbn = 0-275-95102-2 | page = 104 | quote = This battle of the Santa Cruz Islands was clearly a Japanese victory; the sole Japanese victory in a carrier battle during the war. But it was a Pyrrhic victory, which the Japanese were in no condition to exploit. The damage to their carriers was serious, and their plane losses very heavy. Moreover, the land-based air force at Rabaul was exhausted; many of its best pilots were dead. In late October, the Japanese air effort fell off steeply. Because of its heavy losses and inadequate pilot training program, the Japanese naval air force had already slipped into a qualitative decline from which it never recovered.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Pike | first = Francis | author-link = Francis Pike | year = 2015 | chapter = Guadalcanal: Henderson Field and the Santa Cruz Islands (September 1942 - January 1943) | title = Hirohito's War: The Pacific War, 1941-1945 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SfTQDAAAQBAJ | access-date = January 26, 2017 | location = London | publisher = Bloomsbury Publishing Plc | isbn = 978-1-4725-9670-3 | page = 509 | quote = Vice-Admiral Nagumo, who was transferred to shore duty after the battle, reported to the Combined Fleet with greater than usual insight and honesty, "This battle was a tactical win, but a shattering strategic loss for Japan. Considering the great superiority of our enemy's industrial capacity, we must win every battle overwhelmingly to win this war. This last one, although a victory, unfortunately, was not an overwhelming victory." Naval victories are usually counted in ships lost but given the destruction of the cream of the Japanese Navy’s aircrews, it could even be argued that, in the case of the ''Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands'', the Japanese came off worst. Reporting several weeks after the battle, Nimitz too correctly calibrated the result of the battle: "This battle cost us the lives of many gallant men, many planes and two ships that could ill be spared... We nevertheless turned back the Japanese again in their offensive to regain ''Guadalcanal'' and shattered their carrier air strength on the eve on the critical days of mid-November. It was indeed a pyrrhic victory."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Toll | first = Ian W. | author-link = Ian W. Toll | year = 2015 | title = The Conquering Tide: War in the Pacific Islands, 1942-1944 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4OlwBgAAQBAJ | access-date = January 26, 2017 | series = Pacific War Trilogy | volume = II | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | isbn = 978-0393080643 | quote = As at Coral Sea, the contest would go into the books as a tactical victory for the Japanese but a strategic victory for the Americans... The Japanese press reported another triumph, and the rank and file cheered another fantastic victory. But the senior commanders of the navy privately acknowledged that the result had been, at best, a pyrrhic victory.}}</ref> [[World War II]], [[Solomon Islands Campaign]]: Japanese and Allied naval forces met during the struggle for [[Guadalcanal Campaign|Guadalcanal]] and nearby islands. After an exchange of carrier air attacks, U.S. surface ships retreated with one carrier sunk and another severely damaged. The Japanese carrier forces achieved a tactical victory, as none of their ships were sunk, but the heavy loss of irreplaceable veteran aircrews was to the strategic advantage of the Allies.
* [[Battle of Chosin Reservoir]] (1950),<ref>{{citation | last = Xu | first = Yan (徐焰) | year = 1990 | language = zh | title =第一次较量：抗美援朝战争的历史回顾与反思 | trans-title = First Confrontation: Reviews and Reflections on the History of War to Resist America and Aid Korea | page = 59 | publisher = Chinese Radio and Television Publishing House | location = Beijing | isbn = 978-7-5043-0542-8 }}</ref><ref>{{citation | first = Patrick C. | last = Roe | title = The Dragon Strikes: China and the Korean War, June-December 1950 | page = 412 | publisher = Presidio | location = Novato, California | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-89141-703-3 }}</ref> [[Korean War]]: the Chinese army attempted to encircle and destroy the UN forces but in a 17-day battle in freezing weather, the UN forces inflicted crippling losses on the Chinese while making a fighting withdrawal. The Chinese occupied northeast Korea but they did not recover until the spring, and the UN maintained a foothold in Korea.
* [[Battle of Vukovar]] (1991),<ref>{{cite book|last=Woodward|first=Susan L.|author-link=Susan L. Woodward|title=Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War |url=https://archive.org/details/balkantragedycha00wood|url-access=registration|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=1995|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-0-8157-9513-1 | page = [https://archive.org/details/balkantragedycha00wood/page/258 258]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Central Intelligence Agency Office of Russian and European Analysis|title=Balkan Battlegrounds: A Military History of the Yugoslav Conflict, 1990–1995: Volume 1|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|year=2000|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-0-16-066472-4 | page = 99}}</ref> [[Croatian War of Independence]]: the [[Yugoslav People's Army]] (JNA) laid [[siege]] to the city of Vukovar, held by the [[Croatian National Guard]] and civilian volunteers. After 87 days, the ruined city fell to the JNA. Although the city was besieged from all sides, it exhausted the Yugoslav army and Serbian paramilitaries that had about twenty times more soldiers and complete armoured and artillery superiority, and they had twice as many losses. It was a turning point in the Croatian War of Independence.

===Politics, sports and law===

The term is used as an [[analogy]] in business, politics and sport to describe struggles that end up ruining the victor. [[Theologian]] [[Reinhold Niebuhr]] commented on the necessity of coercion in preserving the course of [[justice]] by warning,

{{quote|Moral reason must learn how to make coercion its ally without running the risk of a Pyrrhic victory in which the ally exploits and negates the triumph.|Karl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr<ref>[[Reinhold Niebuhr|Niebuhr, Reinhold]] ''[[Moral Man and Immoral Society]]'', published by Scribner, 1932 and 1960, reprinted by Westminster John Knox Press, 2002, {{ISBN|0-664-22474-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-664-22474-5}} p. 238.</ref>}}

In ''[[Beauharnais v. Illinois]]'', a 1952 [[U.S. Supreme Court]] decision involving a charge proscribing group [[defamation|libel]], Associate Justice [[Hugo Black|Black]] alluded to Pyrrhus in his [[Dissenting opinion|dissent]],

{{quote|If minority groups hail this holding as their victory, they might consider the possible relevancy of this ancient remark: "Another such victory and I am undone".|Hugo Black<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Beauharnais v. Illinois |vol=343 |opinion=250 |court=U.S. |date=1952 |url=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=343&invol=250 }}</ref>}}

==See also==
{{Wiktionary|Pyrrhic victory}}
{{Div col}}
* [[Attrition warfare]]
* [[Cadmean victory]]
* [[Cassandra (metaphor)]]
* [[John Henryism]]
* [[Last stand]]
* [[List of military disasters]]
* [[Moral victory]]
* [[Parthian shot]]
* [[Spite (sentiment)|Spite victory]]
* [[Strategic victory]]
* [[Suicide attack]]
* [[Tactical victory]]
* [[Winner's curse]]
* [[Zugzwang]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pyrrhic Victory}}
[[Category:Attrition warfare]]
[[Category:Military terminology]]
[[Category:Military strategy]]
[[Category:Metaphors referring to war and violence]]
[[Category:Victory]]
[[Category:Pyrrhic War]]

Rio Carnival

2021-10-26T07:28:43Z

Zumbo: Remove unsourced speculation

{{short description|Carnival in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox holiday
|holiday_name = Rio Carnival
|nickname = "The biggest show on Earth"({{lang-pt|O maior show da Terra}})
|image = File:Desfile Portela 2014 (906185).jpg
|caption = A float at Rio Carnival, 2014
|celebrations = Parades, parties, open-air performances
|longtype = cultural, religious
|type = christian
|significance = Celebration prior to fasting season of [[Lent]].
|relatedto = [[Carnival]], [[Brazilian Carnival]], [[Ash Wednesday]], [[Lent]]
|begins = Friday before Ash Wednesday (51 days to Easter)
|ends = Ash Wednesday noon (46 days before Easter)
|duration = 6 days
|date{{CURRENTYEAR}} = ''Canceled''
|date{{NEXTYEAR}} = {{Moveable date |holiday=BRAZILIAN CARNIVAL |year={{NEXTYEAR}} |format=infobox}}
|date{{NEXTYEAR|2}} = {{Moveable date |holiday=BRAZILIAN CARNIVAL |year={{NEXTYEAR|2}} |format=infobox}}
|frequency = annual
}}
The '''Carnival in Rio de Janeiro''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Carnaval do Rio de Janeiro'') is a [[festival]] held every year before [[Lent]]; it is considered the biggest [[carnival]] in the world, with two million people per day on the streets. The first Carnival festival in [[Rio de Janeiro|Rio]] occurred in 1723.<ref name=":0">{{cite web | last=Hughes | first=Amani | title=Rio Carnival 2019: How to attend Rio Carnival – do you need tickets? | website=Express.co.uk | date=February 22, 2019 | url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/1091040/Rio-carnival-2019-rio-de-janeiro-carnival-2019-tickets-do-you-need-tickets | access-date=February 28, 2019}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite book | last=Duhig | first=H. | title=Cultural Contributions from Latin America: Tortillas, Color TV, and More | publisher=Rosen Publishing Group | series=Great Cultures, Great Ideas | year=2018 | isbn=978-1-5383-3829-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-JoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 | access-date=February 28, 2019 | page=20}}</ref>

The typical Rio carnival parade is filled with revelers, floats, and adornments from numerous [[samba school]]s which are located in Rio (more than 200 approximately, divided into five leagues/divisions). A samba school is composed of a collaboration of local neighbours that want to attend the carnival together, with some kind of regional, geographical and common background.

There is a special order that every school has to follow with their parade entries. Each school begins with the "comissão de frente" (meaning "Front Commission"), that is the group of people from the school that appear first. Made of ten to fifteen people, the comissão de frente introduces the school and sets the mood and style of their presentation. These people have choreographed dances in elaborate costumes that usually tell a short story. Following the "comissão de frente" is the first float of the samba school, called "abre-alas" ("Opening Wing"). These are followed by the Mestre-sala and Porta-Bandeira ("Master of Ceremonies and Flag Bearer"), with one to four pairs, one active and three reserve, to lead the dancers, which include the old guard veterans and the "ala das baianas", with the drum line battery at the rear and sometimes a [[brass section]] and guitars.

== History ==
The Rio Carnival celebration dates back to the 1650s. During that time, elaborate feasts were organized to give honor to the Greek wine gods. The Romans used to worship Bacchus, the god of the grape-harvest.
The festival ‘Entrudo’ was introduced by the Portuguese and this inspired the birth of the Carnival in Brazil. In 1840, the very first Rio masquerade took place, and polka and waltz took center stage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rio De Janeiro Carnival 2019 Travel Guide |url=https://www.cheapfaremart.com/blog/rio-de-janeiro-carnival-2019-travel-guide/ |website=Cheapfaremart |access-date=27 November 2018}}</ref>
Africans subsequently influenced the Carnival with the introduction of [[Samba]] music in 1917, which is now considered a traditional Brazilian form.{{cn|date=February 2021}}

There was no carnival in 1915–18 or 1940–45.{{cn|date=February 2021}} It was canceled with strict warnings against clandestine celebrations in 2021 due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Cancelan tradicional carnaval en Río de Janeiro debido a la pandemia |url=https://www.jornada.com.mx/notas/2021/02/10/mundo/cancelan-tradicional-carnaval-en-rio-de-janeiro-de/ |access-date=February 10, 2021 |work=jornada.com.mx |publisher=La Jornada |date=February 10, 2021 |language=es}}</ref>

== Samba school parade ==
[[File:Mangueira 2013 130211.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Parade of [[GRES Estação Primeira de Mangueira|Mangueira]], one of the most traditional samba schools in the Rio Carnival]]

The [[Samba school]] parades were held in Praça Onze, also known as “Big Africa”, the birthplace of the Carioca Carnival parade as it is known today. Future [[Estácio de Sá (samba school)|Estácio de Sá]], together with [[Portela (samba school)|Portela]] and [[Estação Primeira de Mangueira]] paraded for the first time in the city in 1929. In 1930, seven schools were already active in the city. With the works of in [[Avenida Presidente Vargas]], the parade moved there, and from 1942 to 1945 the parade was held in [[São Januário]]. From 1952 temporary stands for the public were annually assembled, and in 1961 paid tickets made their debut to take advantage of the rising international and national interest and the increasing tourist arrivals. In 1974, due to the works of the subway, the parade was held on Avenida Presidente Antônio Carlos, from where it was also broadcast for the first time in color television. In 1978, the parade was transferred to the [[Sambódromo da Marquês de Sapucaí|Marquês de Sapucaí]] Avenue, where it remains up to this day. In 1983, the then governor [[Leonel Brizola]], commissioned the architect [[Oscar Niemeyer]] the project of a permanent local stadium for the parades in that same area, because until then the bleachers had continued to be temporary, and only assembled and disassembled for the event.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}}

With the increase in the number of schools taking part, which made the parade longer and tiring for the public, in 1984 the parade was separated into two dates and categories: Friday evening into Saturday morning for the lower-level schools; and Sunday evening into Monday morning for the major schools, including the more recognizable ones. That year, a “super-champion” school was also announced following the parade of the champions that took place the following Saturday, which by that time were awarded for the best performances of the past nights of competition. Since this practice was never again repeated, [[GRES Estação Primeira de Mangueira|Mangueira]] remains the only samba school to ever be awarded with the title and dignity of "super-champion" of the annual event.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.academiadosamba.com.br/memoriasamba/desfiles/1984-0.htm|title=Grupo Especial 1984|publisher=Academia do Samba|access-date=September 13, 2016}}</ref> [[:pt:Portela (escola de samba)|Portela]] is the samba school that has the largest number of championships with 22.{{When|date=September 2020}}

The schools of the Special Group under [[LIESA]] parade over two days (Sunday and Monday), while the A Series schools parade on Friday and Saturday under [[LIERJ]], which also has the B Series, which parades on [[Fat Tuesday]]. Both organizations were under the [[AESCRJ]] banner before it lost organizing rights, thus also providing for the establishment of new organizations like [[LIESB]] and [[Samba é Nosso]] for the lower level divisions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.carnavalesco.com.br/noticia/riotur-confirma-acordo-no-acesso-liesb-fica-com-srie-b-e-samba--nosso-com-o-c-d-e-e/14866|title=Riotur confirma acordo no Acesso. Liesb fica com Série B e Samba é Nosso com o C, D e E|publisher=Carnavalesco|date=November 18, 2015|access-date=September 13, 2016}}</ref> The Gold Division (A Series) champion school which advances directly as a participant in the Special Group for the next year's Carnival parades last on Carnival Monday while the Special Group champion parades once more on the Saturday after Ash Wednesday.{{cn|date=February 2021}}

As of 2018, LIESB handed over the management of the E series and its schools to ACAS, which now operates it as a rookie level organization for samba schools, in 2020 the C Series (Silver Division) fell under a new organization, LIVRES, with LIESB handling the divisions above and below it.{{cn|date=February 2021}}

[[File:Unidos da Tijuca é a quinta escola no desfile das campeãs 2016 2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A typical performer of [[Samba (Brazilian dance)|Samba dance]]]]

===Dates===
Rio's Carnival begins on the Friday preceding [[Lent]] and ends on Ash Wednesday,<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20110224-carnaval-in-brazil-rio-and-beyond |title=Carnaval in Brazil: Rio and beyond |last=Louis |first=Regis St |date=2011-03-03 |work=BBC Travel |access-date=2020-01-26 |language=en}}</ref> but the Winners' Parade happens on the Saturday after the carnival ends.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://carnivalbookers.com/brazil-carnival/brazil/dates.asp|title=Brazil Carnival 2017|website=CarnivalBookers.com|access-date=September 26, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130807040946/http://www.carnivalbookers.com/brazil-carnival/brazil/dates.asp|archive-date=August 7, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Rio Carnival 2019 dates: When is Rio Carnival? Carnival start time, main events, schedule | website=Express.co.uk | url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/1092574/rio-carnival-2019-dates-when-is-Rio-carnival-start-time-route-map-parade-schedule-events | access-date=February 28, 2019}}</ref> The winning school and runners' up of the Special Group, as well as the A Series champion, all march past one final time on this night.
* March 1 to 6, 2019
* February 21 to 26, 2020
* February 12 to 17, 2021 Cancelled due to [[COVID-19 pandemic]].
* February 25 to March 2, 2022

===Tickets===
[[File:Sambadrome-sectors-diagram.png|thumb|250px|right|Sambadrome sectors diagram]]
In 1984, the government decided to give Rio Carnival its new home in the [[Sambadrome]].<ref>{{cite web | title=About Sambadrome (Sambódromo) | website=Rio Carnival | date=March 2, 1984 | url=http://www.riocarnival.net/sambadrome/about | access-date=February 28, 2019}}</ref> Today, some of the most famous events of Rio Carnival are ticketed events. There are different types of Sambadrome tickets that are available for purchase. Grandstand tickets are general admissions tickets that are available on a first-come, first-served basis and are not allocated ahead of time. Frisas are open air box seats located along the samba runway. Camarotes are luxury boxes situated between the frisas and the grandstands. Sector 9 is the tourist sector which are the same as grandstand tickets, with the difference being that they are allocated so people have assigned seats.<ref>{{cite web | title=Rio Carnival Tickets Guide | website=Rio Carnival | url=http://www.riocarnival.net/rio-carnival/carnival-tickets-guide | access-date=February 28, 2019}}</ref>

Carnival ticket prices can vary depending on the ticket type, sector and season. The cheapest sectors are 12 and 13.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://greentoadbus.com/en/Bus-pass-2/Rio-Carnaval-Package-4/Sambadrome-Parade-Tickets-84|title=Sambadrome Parade Tickets < Rio Carnival Packages - Packages < South America - Green Toad Bus|last=logindesarrollos.com|website=greentoadbus.com}}</ref> Tickets can be bought in advance through international brokers, or through local travel agents in Rio de Janeiro. 'Purchase of a ticket' normally means purchase of a ''voucher'' which is then exchangeable for the ticket close to the date. Ticket sales are organised by [[LIESA]], who will often also make tickets available at late notice via a venue (often a bank) announced the day before. LIESA prices for grandstand tickets vary from Rs5 to Rs500 for the Tourist Sector (2014 prices)<ref>{{cite web | title=Liga Independente das Escolas de Samba do Rio de Janeiro (Alessandra Pirotelli/Camarote Brasil) | website=Liesa | url=http://liesa.globo.com/2015/por/19-ingressos/19-ingressos_arquibancadas.html | language=pt | access-date=February 28, 2019}}</ref> (Rs500 = approx. US$250). LIESA publish the base price of the tickets, and agents and brokers charge more (sometimes significantly more) but offer considerable convenience and other benefits.{{cn|date=February 2021}}

Anyone who bought tickets for the 2021 Carnival can either get a refund or hold on to them for 2022.{{cn|date=February 2021}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150">
File:Desfile da Escola Vila Isabel 2016 8.jpg|[[Sabrina Sato|Drum Queen]]
File:DESFILE DAS ESCOLAS DE SAMBA DO GRUPO ESPECIAL NO SAMBÓDROMO DO RIO DE JANEIRO (33040464051).jpg|Flag bearer and master of ceremony
File:Desfile Portela 2016 (dsc0887).jpg|Float with a giant [[Gulliver's Travels (2010 film)|Lemuel Gulliver]]
File:DESFILE DAS ESCOLAS DE SAMBA DO GRUPO ESPECIAL NO SAMBÓDROMO DO RIO DE JANEIRO (33011568802).jpg|A float with the [[Saint George and the Dragon|Dragon of Saint George]]
File:DESFILE DAS ESCOLAS DE SAMBA DO GRUPO ESPECIAL NO SAMBÓDROMO DO RIO DE JANEIRO (33126487906).jpg|A float with a [[Caravan (travellers)|camel caravan]]
</gallery>

==Street carnival==
[[File:Bola Preta.jpg|thumb|250px|Cordão da Bola Preta, the oldest [[Carnival block|street block]] of Rio de Janeiro's Carnival]]
As the parade is taking place in the [[Sambadrome]] and the balls are being held in the Copacabana Palace and beach, many carnival participants are at other locations. Street festivals are very common during carnival and are highly populated by the locals.<ref>{{cite web | last=Pagnoncelli | first=Eduardo | title=Everything is Possible: Street Carnival in Rio de Janeiro | website=Sounds and Colours | date=February 3, 2011 | url=https://soundsandcolours.com/articles/brazil/everything-is-possible-street-carnival-in-rio-de-janeiro-4102/ | access-date=February 28, 2019}}</ref> Elegance and extravagance are usually left behind, but music and dancing are still extremely common. Anyone is allowed to participate in the street festivals. Bandas are very familiar with the street carnival especially because it takes nothing to join in on the fun except to jump in. One of the most well known bandas of Rio is [[Banda de Ipanema]]. Banda de Ipanema was first created in 1965 and is known as Rio's most irreverent street band.<ref name="April 1, 2007">{{cite web | title=Banda de Ipanema | website=Ipanema.com | url=http://www.ipanema.com/carnival/banda.htm | access-date=February 28, 2019}}</ref>

Incorporated into every aspect of the Rio carnival are dancing and music. The most famous dance is carnival samba, a Brazilian dance with African influences. The samba remains a popular dance not only in carnival but in the ghettos outside of the main cities. These villages keep alive the historical aspect of the dance without the influence of the western cultures.<ref>Shanachie Entertainment Corp, The Spirit of Samba: Black Music of Brazil, VHS, 1990, April 1, 2007.</ref>

Music is another major part of all aspects of the carnival. As stated by Samba City, "Samba Carnival Instruments are an important part of Brazil and the Rio de Janeiro carnival, sending out the irresistible beats and rhythms making the crowd explode in a colourful dance revolution fantasy fest!"<ref>Samba City, Samba Instruments, April 1, 2007.</ref> The samba that is found in Rio is Battucanada, referring to the dance and music being based on percussion instruments. It "is born of a rhythmic necessity that it allows you to sing, to dance, and to parade at the same time."<ref>Samba City, Samba Carnival Instruments, [sambacity.info]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, April 1, 2007.</ref> This is why the batucada style is found in most all of Rio's street carnivals.

Street parades, blocos, and bandas take place throughout the city of Rio during Carnival, the most famous and largest carnival celebration of the world.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.n1ght.com/en/blog/article/top-10-best-carnivals-world |title= Top 10 Carnivals Around The World |date= January 30, 2015 |access-date= February 1, 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160202100309/https://www.n1ght.com/en/blog/article/top-10-best-carnivals-world |archive-date= February 2, 2016 |url-status= dead |df= mdy-all }}</ref> There can be more than 300 bandas taking place at any given point in time. While the biggest street party takes place right outside the Sambadrome, the largest organized street dance is typically found on Cinelândia Square in Rio's Centro. In 2012, more than 2 million revelers took to the streets of Rio de Janeiro to participate in the Cordão da Bola Preta bloco. According to police estimates, more than 5 million people attended a bloco during Rio Carnival 2012 and there was not one reported incident of crime.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rio Carnival Street Parties|url=http://www.riocarnival.net/rio-carnival/street-parties}}</ref>

When the Sambadrome was built in 1984, it had the side-effect of taking street parades from the downtown area to a specific, ticketed performance area. Some samba schools have since been motivated by an agenda that focuses on regaining public space, and using the carnival tradition to occupy the streets with parades or ''blocos''. Many of these represent a local community of the area but are open to all.<ref>Jaguaribe B, ''Images of the crowd: carnival and media'' [http://www.compos.org.br/seer/index.php/e-compos/article/viewFile/942/708] Accessed May 13, 2014. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514052305/http://www.compos.org.br/seer/index.php/e-compos/article/viewFile/942/708 |date=May 14, 2014 }}</ref>

Several of the Rio street [[carnival block]]s that hold the parties are affiliated to the ''Rio de Janeiro State Street Carnival Blocks Federation'' (FBCERJ), established in 1965.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}}

==Corte real==

=== King Momo ===
{{Main|King Momo#King Momos of Rio de Janeiro}}

===Queens of Carnival===
The Queen of the Carnival in Rio de Janeiro and up to two princesses having the duty to woo the revelry, along with the [[King Momo]]. Unlike some cities, in the city of [[Rio de Janeiro]], Queens of Carnival do not see a certain school of samba. In competitions, princesses are usually placed as second and third, and are correspondingly 1st and 2nd Princess. Some of them after the reign become queens or battery bridesmaids.{{clarify|date=December 2020}}

{{col-begin|width=auto}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Years
!Queens of Carnival
!1st Princess
!2nd Princess
|Ref
|-
|2004
|Priscila Mendes
|colspan="2"|
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://noticias.terra.com.br/interna/0,,OI270870-EI3132,00.html|title=Rei Momo magro inicia reinado no Rio de Janeiro|date=February 20, 2004|access-date=September 19, 2013|language=pt}}</ref>
|-
|2005
|bgcolor="pink"|Ana Paula Evangelista
|Elaine Babo
|rowspan="2"|
|<ref name="anaevangelista">{{cite web|url=http://carnaval.ig.com.br/rio/ana-paula-evangelista-com-a-alma-carnavalesca/n1237994073526.html|title=Ana Paula Evangelista:samba International|access-date=September 19, 2013|language=pt}}</ref>
|-
|2006
|bgcolor="pink"|Ana Paula Evangelista
|Cristiane Hani
|<ref name="anaevangelista"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sosamba.com.br/carnaval/rj/noticias/alex-e-rei-momo-pela-oitava-vez-e-rainha-e-bi|title=Alex is the King Momo for the eighth time and Queen is bi|date=December 2, 2005|access-date=November 19, 2013|language=pt}}</ref>
|-
|2007
|Jaqueline Faria
|bgcolor="pink"|Jacqueline Nascimento
|bgcolor="pink"|Mônika Nascimento
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://g1.globo.com/Noticias/Rio/0,,AA1346771-5606,00.html|title=Know the New River Momo King and Queen Carnival 2007|date=November 11, 2006|access-date=September 14, 2013|language=pt}}</ref>
|-
|2008
|bgcolor="pink"|Kétula Mello
|Charlene Costa
|Jaqueline Faria
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sidneyrezende.com/noticia/7271|title=Rio already has Rei Momo and new Carnival Queen|date=October 27, 2007|access-date=September 14, 2013|language=pt}}</ref>
|-
|2009
|bgcolor="pink"|Jéssica Maia
|Charlene Costa
|bgcolor="pink"|Shayene Cesário
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://g1.globo.com/Noticias/Rio/0,,AA1346771-5606,00.html|title=Rio knows the new King Momo and Queen of Carnival 2009|date=September 29, 2008|access-date=September 14, 2013|language=pt}}</ref>
|-
|2010
|bgcolor="pink"|Shayene Cesário
|Talita Castilhos
|Suellen Pinto
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://diversao.terra.com.br/gente/rio-escolhe-princesas-e-rainha-do-carnaval-de-2010,78b8cfa01d39a310VgnCLD200000bbcceb0aRCRD.html|title=Rio chooses princesses and Queen of Carnival 2010|date=October 12, 2009|access-date=September 14, 2013|language=pt}}</ref>
|-
|2011
|bgcolor="pink"|Bianca Salgueiro
|Talita Castilhos
|Suzan Gonçalves
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://carnaval.uol.com.br/2011/ultimas-noticias/redacao/2011/01/18/apos-desistencia-de-mais-uma-princesa-rio-apresenta-nova-corte-do-carnaval.htm|title=After withdrawal of another princess, Rio features new cutting Carnival|date=January 18, 2011|access-date=September 14, 2013|language=pt}}</ref>
|-
|2012
|bgcolor="pink"|Cris Alves
|bgcolor="pink"|Letícia Guimarães
|Suzan Gonçalves
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://g1.globo.com/rio-de-janeiro/noticia/2011/10/de-tamborim-nas-maos-dancarina-e-eleita-rainha-do-carnaval-carioca-2012.html|title=Of tambourine in hand, dancer is elected Queen of Rio's Carnival 2012|date=November 11, 2011|access-date=September 14, 2013|language=pt}}</ref>
|-
|2013
|bgcolor="pink"|Evelyn Bastos
|bgcolor="pink"|Letícia Guimarães
|bgcolor="pink"|Clara Paixão
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://g1.globo.com/rio-de-janeiro/noticia/2012/11/rei-momo-e-rainha-do-carnaval-2013-sao-eleitos-na-cidade-do-samba.html|title=King Momo and Queen of Carnival 2013 is elected at the Samba City|date=November 4, 2012|access-date=September 14, 2013|language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.carnavalesco.com.br/detal_carnavalesco.php?car_id=3997|title=Meet the king momo, queen and princesses of Carnival 2013|date=November 4, 2012|access-date=September 14, 2013|language=pt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053330/http://www.carnavalesco.com.br/detal_carnavalesco.php?car_id=3997|archive-date=September 21, 2013|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
|-
|2014
|bgcolor="pink"|Letícia Guimarães
|bgcolor="pink"|Clara Paixão
|bgcolor="pink"|Graciele Chaveirinho
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sidneyrezende.com/noticia/219745+carnaval+de+2014+ja+tem+sua+corte+oficial|title=Carnival 2014 already has its Official Court|access-date=November 9, 2013|language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://g1.globo.com/rio-de-janeiro/carnaval/2014/noticia/2013/11/rainha-e-rei-momo-do-carnaval-2014-do-rio-sao-eleitos.html|title=Queen and King Momo the 2014 Rio Carnival are elected|access-date=November 9, 2013|language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://g1.globo.com/rio-de-janeiro/carnaval/2014/noticia/2013/11/em-extase-rainha-do-carnaval-do-rio-2014-comemora-coroacao.html|title=' Ecstatic ' Rio 2014 Carnival Queen celebrates coronation|access-date=November 9, 2013|language=pt}}</ref>
|-
|2015
|bgcolor="pink"|Clara Paixão
|bgcolor="pink"|Bianca Monteiro
|bgcolor="pink"|Uillana Adães
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://g1.globo.com/rio-de-janeiro/carnaval/2015/noticia/2014/11/rei-momo-e-rainha-do-carnaval-sao-eleitos-no-rio.html|title=King Momo and Carnival Queen are elected in Rio|date=November 15, 2014|access-date=November 23, 2014|language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://entretenimento.uol.com.br/noticias/redacao/2014/11/15/rio-de-janeiro-escolhe-sua-nova-corte-de-rei-e-rainha-do-carnaval-2015.htm|title=Rio de Janeiro choose your new Court of King and Queen of Carnival 2015|date=November 15, 2014|access-date=November 23, 2014|language=pt}}</ref>
|-
|2016
|bgcolor="pink"|Clara Paixão
|bgcolor="pink"|Uillana Adães
|bgcolor="pink"|Bianca Monteiro
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://g1.globo.com/carnaval/2016/noticia/2015/11/rio-elege-rei-momo-e-rainha-do-carnaval-para-2016.html|title=Rio elege Rei Momo e Rainha do carnaval para 2016|publisher=G1|date=November 14, 2015|access-date=March 6, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://entretenimento.uol.com.br/noticias/redacao/2015/11/14/corte-do-carnaval-wilson-dias-e-clara-paixao-voltam-a-reinar-em-2016.htm|title=Corte do Carnaval: Wilson Dias e Clara Paixão voltam a reinar em 2016|publisher=Claudia Dias, para o UOL|date=November 14, 2015|access-date=March 6, 2016}}</ref>
|-
|2017
|bgcolor="pink"|Uillana Adães
|Joice Rocha
|Deisiane Conceição
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://g1.globo.com/rio-de-janeiro/noticia/2016/10/rei-momo-e-rainha-do-carnaval-do-rio-sao-escolhidos.html|title=Rei Momo, Rainha do Carnaval do Rio e Princesas são escolhidos|publisher=G1|date=October 12, 2016|access-date=October 21, 2016}}</ref>
|-
|2018
|bgcolor="pink"|Jéssica Maia
|Deisiane Conceição
|Cintia de Oliveira
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://g1.globo.com/rio-de-janeiro/carnaval/2018/noticia/milton-junior-e-jessica-maia-voltam-a-reinar-na-corte-do-carnaval-de-2018.ghtml|title=Milton Júnior e Jéssica Maia voltam a reinar na corte do carnaval de 2018|publisher=G1|access-date=16 September 2018}}</ref>
|-
|2019
|bgcolor="pink"|Clara Paixão
|Deisiane Conceição
|Viviane Silveira
|{{cn|date=February 2021}}
|-
|2020
|bgcolor="pink"|Camila Silva
|Deisiane Conceição
|Cinthia de Oliveira
|{{cn|date=February 2021}}
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-end}}

{{Wide image|Panorama_do_sambódromo_da_Marquês_de_Sapucaí.jpg|1200px|<center>Samba Parade at the ''Sambódromo'' (Sambadrome) during the Rio Carnival</center>|100%}}

==See also==
* [[Brazilian Carnival]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==

{{Commons category|Carnival of Rio de Janeiro city}}
* [https://www.rio-carnival.net Official website of Rio Carnival]
* {{in lang|en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20090428120302/http://www.brazilcarnival.com.br/ Brazilian Carnival Glossary of Terms in English]
* [http://www.pbase.com/markwp/streetfairs Rio Carnival photos 2010,13]*
* [http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/57321/carnival-in-rio-crazy-sexy-weird#index/0 Carnival in Rio: Crazy, Sexy, Weird] – slideshow by ''[[Life magazine]]''advanced searcher of America by R.G.
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-KaPs1AxphQ Carnival in Rio: An Online documentary about the Carnival of Rio de Janeiro]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140512223154/http://www.brasiltropicalshow.com/4/ Brasiltropicalshow.com]

{{Carnaval do Rio de Janeiro}}
{{Carnival around the world}}
{{Portal bar|Holidays|Music|Latin America|Brazil}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Rio Carnival| ]]

Dörfli

2021-10-11T11:55:00Z

Zumbo:

'''Dörfli''' (Swiss German for ″little village″) may refer to:

* [[Dörfli (Oberried am Brienzersee)]], a settlement in the municipality of Oberried am Brienzersee, in the Swiss canton of Bern
* [[Dörfli (Silenen)]], a hamlet in the municipality of Silenen in the Swiss canton of Uri
* [[Dörfli (Wolfenschiessen)]], a settlement in the municipality of Wolfenschiessen in the Swiss canton of Nidwalden
* [[Sertig Dörfli]], a settlement in the municipality of Davos, in the Swiss canton of Graubünden
'''See also'''

* [[Dörfli railway station]]

{{disambiguation}}

Sertig

2021-10-11T11:53:17Z

Zumbo: Removed redirection from Dorfli

The '''Sertig Valley''' is located in the municipality of [[Davos]], south of the town, in the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] canton of [[Graubünden]]. It is a lateral valley of the [[Landwasser]] valley. The small village of Sertig Dörfli (at 1,861 m) is accessible by road.

{|cellpadding="2"
|-valign="center"
|
|[[File:Sertigbach.jpg|thumb|left|Sertig river]]
|}

[[File:Panorama Sertig.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Panorama at the end of the valley with the massifs of the [[Mittaghorn]], the [[Plattenfluh]] and the [[Hoch Ducan]]]]

{{coord|46.7258|N|9.8486|E|source:dewiki_region:CH-GR_type:city|format=dms|display=title}}

==External links==
*[https://archive.is/20070701095655/http://www.davos.ch/sertig-001-00050304-en.php?lang=en Sertig valley on Davos website]
*[https://www.myswitzerland.com/en-ch/capuns-and-magnificent-flowers-in-the-sertig-valley.html Sertig valley hiking]

[[Category:Valleys of Graubünden]]

Dorfli

2021-10-11T11:52:11Z

Zumbo: ←Changed redirect target from Sertig to Dörfli

#redirect [[Dörfli]]

Heidi

2021-10-11T11:49:06Z

Zumbo: -incorrect Link

{{Short description|Swiss novel by Johanna Spyri}}
{{About|the book}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2012}}
{{Infobox book

| name = Heidi
| image = Spyri Heidi Cover 1887.jpg
| caption =
| author = [[Johanna Spyri]]
| title_orig = Originally published in two parts- Part 1: Heidi: Her Years of Wandering and Learning, Part 2 Heidi: How She Used What She Learned
| translator = Nathan Haskell Dole
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = [[Switzerland]]
| language = German
| series =
| subject =
| genre = [[Children's fiction]]
| publisher =
| publisher2 =
| pub_date = 1881
| english_pub_date =
| media_type =
| pages =
| awards =
| isbn =
| oclc =
| dewey =
| congress =
| preceded_by =
| preceded_by_quotation_marks =
| followed_by =
| followed_by_quotation_marks =
| wikisource =
}}

'''''Heidi''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|aɪ|d|i}}; {{IPA-de|ˈhaɪdi|lang}}) is a work of children's fiction published in 1881 by Swiss author [[Johanna Spyri]], originally published in two parts as '''''Heidi: Her Years of Wandering and Learning'''''<ref>[http://www.e-rara.ch/sikjm/content/titleinfo/5320749 Title view of the public library of SIKJM]</ref> ({{lang-de|Heidis Lehr- und Wanderjahre}}) and '''''Heidi: How She Used What She Learned'''''<ref>[http://www.e-rara.ch/sikjm/content/pageview/5321162 Page view of the electronic SIKJM library]</ref> ({{lang-de|Heidi kann brauchen, was es gelernt hat}}).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=SmkZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR3 Nathan Haskell Dole], translator of the 1899 edition</ref>
It is a novel about the events in the life of a 5-year-old girl in her paternal grandfather's care in the [[Swiss Alps]]. It was written as a book "for children and those who love children" (as quoted from its subtitle).

''Heidi'' is one of the [[List of best-selling books|best-selling books ever written]] and is among the best-known works of [[Swiss literature]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Swiss Literature (old link) | work=revue.ch | url=http://www.revue.ch/swisskids_en/schweizer_geschichten/SG7_eng_juli.php | access-date=March 4, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070808132233/http://www.revue.ch/swisskids_en/schweizer_geschichten/SG7_eng_juli.php| archive-date=August 8, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Swiss Literature | work=admin.ch | url=http://ead.nb.admin.ch/web/swissinfodesk/cultl-en.html | access-date=March 4, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080206223105/http://ead.nb.admin.ch/web/swissinfodesk/cultl-en.html| archive-date = February 6, 2008}}</ref>

==Plot==
[[Image:Heidi Bild.jpg|left|thumb|Aunt Dete hurrying away after leaving Heidi with her grandfather]]

Heidi<ref>[http://www.namen-namensbedeutung.de/Namen/Namen-Heidi.html Meaning of "Heidi" ] {{in lang|de}}</ref> is an orphaned girl initially raised by her maternal grandmother and aunt Dete in [[Maienfeld]], in the [[Grisons]], after the early deaths of her parents, Tobias and Adelheid (Dete's brother-in-law and sister). Shortly after the grandmother's death, Dete is offered a good job as a maid in the big city, and takes 5-year-old Heidi to her paternal grandfather's house, up the mountain from the Dörfli ('small village' in Swiss German). He has been at odds with the villagers and embittered against God for years and lives in seclusion on the [[alm (alpine pasture)|alm]], which has earned him the nickname 'The Alm-Uncle'. He briefly resents Heidi's arrival, but the girl's evident intelligence and cheerful yet unaffected demeanour soon earn his genuine, if reserved, love. Heidi enthusiastically befriends her new neighbours, young Peter the [[goatherd]], his mother, Brigitte, and his blind maternal grandmother. With each season that passes, the mountaintop inhabitants, especially Peter and the grandmother, grow more attached to Heidi, and she to them. However, the grandfather refuses to allow Heidi to attend school, and quarrels with the local pastor and schoolmaster, who try to encourage him to do so.

Three years later, Dete returns to take Heidi to [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]] to be a hired [[lady's companion]] to a wealthy girl named Clara Sesemann, who is unable to walk and regarded as an [[patient|invalid]]. Clara is charmed by Heidi's simple friendliness and her descriptions of life on the Alm, and delights in all the funny mishaps brought about by Heidi's naïvety and lack of experience with city life. However, the Sesemanns' strict housekeeper, [[Fräulein]] Rottenmeier, views the household disruptions as wanton misbehaviour, and places the free-spirited Heidi under more and more restraint. Soon, Heidi becomes terribly [[Homesickness|homesick]] for the Alm, and grows alarmingly pale and thin. Her one diversion is learning to read and write, motivated by Clara's grandmother, who shows her trust and affection, and encourages her to believe in God and to pray.

Heidi's intractable homesickness leads to episodes of sleepwalking where she goes downstairs and opens the front door, which the household initially takes as the work of ghosts, and the family doctor recommends she be sent home as a matter of urgency before she becomes seriously ill. She returns to the mountains laden with presents for her friends, but finds one of her greatest pleasures is reading hymns to Peter's blind grandmother, who can no longer do so for herself. Her faith in God speaks to something in the Alm-Uncle, and he returns to the [[Christian faith]]. He accompanies Heidi to church, and that winter takes accommodation in the village so that she can attend school.

Heidi and Clara continue to keep in touch and exchange letters. A visit by the doctor to Heidi leads him to eagerly recommend that Clara visit Heidi, feeling assured that the mountain environment and the wholesome companionship will do her good. Clara makes the journey the next season and spends a wonderful summer with Heidi, becoming stronger on [[goat's milk]] and fresh mountain air. But Peter, who grows jealous of Heidi's and Clara's friendship, pushes her empty wheelchair down the mountain to its destruction, although he is soon wracked with guilt about what he did and ultimately confesses to it. Without her wheelchair, Clara has no choice but to learn to walk; she attempts to do so and is gradually successful. She is not very strong, often relying on Heidi or the grandfather to stay standing and not collapse, but it marks an end to her time as a lonely, shut-in invalid. Her grandmother and father are amazed and overcome with joy to see Clara walking again. The Sesemann family promises to provide permanent care for Heidi, if there ever comes a time when her grandfather is no longer able to do so.

==Translations==
'''English:''' Thirteen English translations were done between 1882 and 1959, by British and American translators: Louise Brooks, Helen B. Dole, H.A. Melcon, Helene S. White, Marian Edwardes, Elisabeth P. Stork, Mabel Abbott, Philip Schuyler Allen, Shirley Watkins, M. Rosenbaum, Eileen Hall, and Joy Law.<ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13614541.2010.495568 Stan, Susan (2010). "Heidi in English: A Bibliographic Study", ''New Review of Children's Literature and Librarianship'', 16:1, 1–23, DOI: 10.1080/13614541.2010.495568]</ref> As of 2010, only the Brooks, Edwardes and Hall translations are still in print.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13614541.2010.495568|doi = 10.1080/13614541.2010.495568|title = Heidiin English: A Bibliographic Study|year = 2010|last1 = Stan|first1 = Susan|journal = New Review of Children's Literature and Librarianship|volume = 16|pages = 1–23|s2cid = 143733709|doi-access = free}}</ref>

==Adaptations==

===Film and television===

About 25 film or television productions of the original story have been made. The ''Heidi'' films were popular far and wide, becoming a huge hit, and the Japanese animated series became iconic in several countries around the world. The only incarnation of the Japanese-produced animated TV series to reach the English language was a dubbed feature-length compilation movie using the most pivotal episodes of the television series, released on video in the United States in 1985. Although the original book describes Heidi as having dark, curly hair, she is usually portrayed as [[blonde]].

Versions of the story include:
*[[Heidi (1937 film)|'''''Heidi''''']], a 1937 [[film|motion picture]] which starred [[Shirley Temple]] in the [[title role]].
*'''''[[Heidi (1952 film)|Heidi]]''''', a 1952 film in Swiss German and German, directed by Luigi Comencini, starring Elsbeth Sigmund (filmed on location in Switzerland), and followed by a sequel, ''[[Heidi and Peter]]'', in 1955, directed by Franz Schnyder, also starring Ms. Sigmund.
* '''''Heidemarie S'Waisechind vo Engelberg''''', 1956 film of Austria directed by Hermann Kugelstadt
* '''''A Gift for Heidi''''' (1958), by George Templeton.
*'''''[[Do Phool (1958 film)|Do Phool]]''''', a 1958 Indian [[Hindi]]-language family drama film adaptation by [[A. R. Kardar]] - starring [[Baby Naaz]] in the role of Poornima (Heidi).
*'''''Heidi''''' (1959), music by [[Clay Warnick]], adapted by William Friedberg with [[Neil Simon]].
*'''''Heidi''''' a six-part 1959 BBC TV series starring Sara O'Connor in the title role, with [[Mark Dignam]] as her grandfather and [[Lesley Judd]] as Clara.<ref>{{Cite journal | url=http://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/8d3dbd53d8d342b2aa9d0de3d07487e3 | title=Children's Television: Heidi: 1: Up the Mountain| journal=[[Radio Times]]| issue=1853| pages=14| date=15 May 1959}}</ref>
*[[Heidi (1965 film)|'''''Heidi''''']], a 1965 Austrian film, directed by [[Werner Jacobs]].
*[[Heidi (1968 film)|'''''Heidi''''']], a 1968 [[television film]] which starred [[Jennifer Edwards]] with [[Maximilian Schell]] and [[Michael Redgrave]]. This was the version that became infamous for interrupting an [[Heidi Game|American football]] game that was broadcast the same day (November 17) on NBC. The game between the [[Oakland Raiders]] and the [[New York Jets]] was cut off a few minutes before the end of the game when it looked like the Jets were going to win. However, after the cut off, the Raiders made a comeback and beat the Jets with TV viewers on the east coast missing the conclusion. TV channels displayed the final score (Oakland winning 43-32) during the movie, further enraging football fans. This incident led to a policy of not ending coverage of football games until after their conclusion. The game has gone down in pro football lore as "The Heidi Game."
* '''''Heidi''''' (Disneyland Storyteller Record) a 1968 [[old time radio]]–style adaptation of the story by Disneyland Records, with music by [[Salvador Camarata|Camarata]], recorded in London and starring [[Brenda Dunnich]], [[John Witty]] and introducing (to American audiences) [[Ysanne Churchman]] as Heidi.
*'''''[[Heidi, Girl of the Alps]]''''', a 1974 Japanese [[anime]] series directed by [[Isao Takahata]] for Zuiyo Eizo (later, [[Nippon Animation]]), dubbed into various languages. Compiled into an English-[[dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbed]] movie entitled ''The Story of Heidi''.
*'''''Heidi''''', a 1974 [[BBC]] adaptation starring Emma Blake.
*'''''Heidi''''', a 1978 26-episode Swiss/German television series, starring Katia Polletin as the protagonist, which was dubbed into various languages, including English.<ref name="Heidi1983">{{cite news|title= Thursday TV BBC1 - Heidi |url=https://twitter.com/woodg31/status/1303400534687338496/photo/4|publisher= Radio Times via twitter.com |date=September 8, 1983|access-date=September 8, 2020}}</ref>
*'''''[[The New Adventures of Heidi]]''''' (1978), directed by Ralph Senensky.
*'''Heidi: La marveilleuse histoire d'une fille de la montagne'''(2 record set). Story read by actress Irène Vidy, Heidi theme song sung by Tony Schmitt. Milan Entertainment, a product of Activ-Records, [[Altendorf, Schwyz]] Switzerland, 1980. (SLP 77)
*'''''[[Heidi's Song]]''''', a 1982 American animated film produced by [[Hanna-Barbera]].
*'''''Climb a Tall Mountain''''', a Christian film from 1987 that uses the story's characters to illustrate a message about the importance of love and forgiveness,
*'''''[[Courage Mountain]]''''', a 1990 American adventure drama film and serves as a sequel to Johanna Spyri's novel ''Heidi'', directed by Christopher Leitch.
*'''''[[Heidi (miniseries)|Heidi]]''''', a two-part American television miniseries from 1993, starring [[Noley Thornton]] as Heidi. Co-stars included [[Jane Seymour (actress)|Jane Seymour]] as Miss Rottenmeier, [[Jason Robards]] as Grandfather and [[Lexi Randall]] as Clara.
*[[Heidi (1995 film)|'''''Heidi''''']], a 1995 animated film.
*[[Heidi (2005 animated film)|'''''Heidi''''']], a 2005 animated film.
*[[Heidi (2005 live-action film)|'''''Heidi''''']], a 2005 British live-action film directed by [[Paul Marcus]].
*'''''[[Heidi 4 Paws]]''''', a comedic 2008 adaptation featuring talking dogs with the voice of [[Angela Lansbury]].
*'''''[[Heidi (2015 TV series)|Heidi]]''''', a CGI remake of the 1974 anime series developed in 2015, made by [[Studio 100 Animation]], the same makers of ''[[Maya the Bee (TV series)|Maya the Bee]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.studio100.tv/activities/animation/ |title=Animation |website=Studio100.tv |quote=Studio 100 is producing a new CGI format animated series of Heidi, which will be delivered for broadcast in 2015. It has been sold to more than 100 countries and coincides with the 40th anniversary of the classic 2D series. Johanna Spyri wrote the first Heidi books back in 1880; since then more than 50 million books have been translated into 50 languages worldwide.}}</ref>
*'''''[[Heidi (2015 film)|Heidi]]''''', a 2015 Swiss live-action film directed by Alain Gsponer.
*'''''[[Heidi, bienvenida a casa]]''''', a 2017 telenovela from Argentina.

===Theatre===

A stage musical adaptation of ''Heidi'' with book and lyrics by Francois Toerien, music by Mynie Grové and additional lyrics by Esther von Waltsleben, premiered in South Africa at the Klein Karoo National Arts Festival in 2016. Directed by Toerien with musical direction by Dawid Boverhoff, the production starred Tobie Cronjé (Miss Rottenmeier), Dawid Minnaar (Mr Sesemann), Albert Maritz (Grandfather), [[Ilse Klink]] (Aunt Detie), Karli Heine (Heidi), Lynelle Kenned (Clara), Dean Balie (Peter), Jill Middlekop and Marlo Minnaar. Puppets for the production were created by Hansie Visagie.<ref>[http://www.kosie.biz/index.php?option=com_zoo&task=item&item_id=38&Itemid=207 "'The story behind the legend of Sweeney Todd "]. ''Kosie House of Theatre''. Retrieved on October 22, 2016.</ref>

A stage musical adaptation of ''Heidi of the Mountain'' (music and lyrics by Claude Watt, book by Claude and Margaret Watt) was performed in Sidney, BC, Canada by Mountain Dream Productions, premiering in 2007 at the Charlie White Theatre, and has been performed again several times since then.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.peninsulanewsreview.com/entertainment/kids-bring-heidi-to-charlie-white/|title=Kids bring Heidi to Charlie White|date=25 January 2012|website=Peninsula News Review|author = Reeuwyck, Christine|language=en-US|access-date=13 December 2019}}</ref> The 2007 production starred Claude Watt (Grandfather), Margaret Watt (Frau Rottenmeier), Rianne Craig (Heidi) and Katrina Brindle (Clara).

===Computer games===
There have been two Heidi computer games released for mobile devices, with the most recent being Heidi: Mountain Adventures. Both games are based on the Studio 100 TV series of 2015 and are aimed at young children, with educational elements and a series of mini-games.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://bunnygaming.com/news/mobile/heidi-mountain-adventures-released/|title=Mobile : Explore the Swiss Alps in Heidi: Mountain Adventures|work=bunnygaming.com|access-date=June 1, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gamasutra.com/view/pressreleases/345659/Explore_the_Swiss_Alps_in_Heidi_Mountain_Adventures.php|title=Explore the Swiss Alps in Heidi: Mountain Adventures!|work=[[Gamasutra]]|access-date=June 1, 2019}}</ref>

==Heidiland==
[[Image:Karte Gemeinde Maienfeld.png|thumb|250px|right|Maienfeld, the main town in Heidiland]]

Heidiland, named after the ''Heidi'' books, is an important tourist area in Switzerland, popular especially with Japanese and Korean tourists.<ref name="abend"/> [[Maienfeld]] is the center of what is called Heidiland; one of the villages, formerly called Oberrofels,<ref name="beattie">{{Cite book
| last = Beattie
| first = Andrew
| title = The Alps: a cultural history
| publisher = Oxford UP
| year = 2006
| location = Oxford
| page = 142
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dm7MK6qHL_oC&pg=PA142
| isbn = 978-0-19-530955-3}}</ref> is actually renamed "Heididorf".<ref name="simonis">{{Cite book
| last = Simonis
| first = Damien
|author2=Sarah Johnstone |author3=Nicole Williams
| title = Switzerland
| publisher = Lonely Planet
| year = 2006
| page = 274
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-CIiItGuisoC&pg=PA274
| isbn = 978-1-74059-762-3}}</ref> Heidiland is located in an area called [[Graubünden|Bündner Herrschaft]]; it is criticized as being a "laughable, infantile cliche"<ref name="abend">{{Cite book
| last = Abend
| first = Bernhard
|author2=Anja Schliebitz
| title = Schweiz
| publisher = Baedeker
| year = 2006
| pages = 145–46
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JTqNwBa58xAC&pg=PT146
| isbn = 978-3-8297-1071-8}}</ref> and "a more vivid example of [[hyperreality]]."<ref name="Solomon">{{Cite book
| last = Solomon
| first = Michael R.
| title = Conquering consumerspace: marketing strategies for a branded world
| publisher = Amacom
| year = 2006
| location = Broadway
| page = 30
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wBej3cFqSSAC&pg=PA30
| isbn = 978-0-8144-0741-7}}</ref>

==Sequels==
The five sequel books, ''Heidi and Her Friends'', ''[[Heidi Grows Up]]'', ''[[Heidi's Children]]'', ''Heidi grand-mère 1941'' (''Heidi as grandmother'') and ''Au Pays de Heidi 1952'' (''In Heidi's land''), were neither written nor endorsed by Spyri, but were adapted from her other works by her French translator, Charles Tritten in the 1930s, many years after she died.<ref>[http://www.swissinfo.ch/fre/heidi-au-pays-des-romands/1889318 Heidi au pays des Romands]; swissinfo.ch</ref><ref>[https://books.google.no/books?id=3edI5BpygPEC&lpg=PA23&ots=Wn8tExowQ5&dq=%22heidi%20grand-m%C3%A8re%22%20tritten&hl=no&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q=%22heidi%20grand-m%C3%A8re%22%20tritten&f=false Dans le palais des glaces de la littérature romande]; edited by Vittorio Frigerio and Corine Renevey. Amsterdam, 2002. {{ISBN|90-420-0923-3}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.no/books?id=EldTFsP8AZkC&lpg=PA1029&ots=2gOP88j4aX&dq=%22Au%20Pays%20de%20Heidi%22%20tritten&hl=no&pg=PA1029#v=onepage&q=%22Au%20Pays%20de%20Heidi%22%20tritten&f=false Bibliographie französischer Übersetzungen aus dem Deutschen; Bibliographie de traductions françaises d'auteurs de langue allemande]; by L. Bihl, K. Epting. Walter de Gruyter, 1987</ref><ref>[http://www.abebooks.fr/Heidi-Grandit-Jeune-Fille-Enfants-Grand-M%C3%A8re/9910359021/bd abebooks.fr]</ref>

There are some major differences between the original ''Heidi'' and the Tritten sequels. These include;

* ''Heidi'', the original story by Spyri, shows the simple life of Heidi imbued with a deep love of children and childhood. Spyri mentioned that the work was "for children and those who love children". The sequels portray Heidi in a different manner, as she grows up and gets married.
* Heidi in the first book, ''Heidi'', is described as having "short, black curly hair", when she is around five to eight years of age. In ''Heidi Grows Up'', when she is fourteen, her hair is long, straight and fair.
* In some English editions of ''Heidi'' the names of the goats are translated into English (Little Swan and Little Bear), while other editions use their original Swiss-German names, Schwanli and Baerli. In ''Heidi Grows Up'' only the names Schwanli and Baerli are used.

In 1990, screenwriters Weaver Webb and Fred & Mark Brogger, and director Christopher Leitch, produced ''[[Courage Mountain]]'', starring [[Charlie Sheen]] and Juliette Caton as Heidi. Billed as a sequel to Spyri's story, the film is anachronistic in that it depicts Heidi as a teenager during World War I, despite the fact that the original novel (where Heidi is only five years old) was published in 1881.

==Basis for ''Heidi''==
In April 2010, a Swiss professorial candidate, Peter Buettner, uncovered a book written in 1830 by the German author Hermann Adam von Kamp. The 1830 story is titled "Adelaide: The Girl from the Alps" (German: ''Adelaide, das Mädchen vom Alpengebirge)''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.hna.de/welt/heidi-zeichner-isao-takahata-ist-tot-wo-kommt-heidi-her-9756166.html | title=Heidi-Zeichner ist tot: Woher das Zeichentrick-Mädchen kommt und was aus ihm geworden ist| date=2018-04-06}}</ref> The two stories share many similarities in plot line and imagery.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/switzerland/7653092/Swiss-Heidi-may-in-fact-be-German.html | title=Swiss Heidi may in fact be German| date=2010-04-29| last1=Squires| first1=by Nick}}</ref> Spyri biographer Regine Schindler said it was entirely possible that Spyri may have been familiar with the story as she grew up in a literate household with many books.

==Reception==
The book has been criticised, even in its day, for its religiously conservative positions,<ref>{{Cite book | url=http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118616455.html | title=Neue Deutsche Biographie, Band 24| year=2010}}</ref> and later for black-and-white character portrayals and an idealization of pastoral life.<ref>Kari Sønsthagen og Torben Weinreich. ''Leksikon for børnelitteratur''. Branner og Korch, 2003. {{ISBN|87-411-5970-5}}</ref>{{page number|date=March 2021}}

In Japan, since its first Japanese translation in 1906, the book has been influential upon the general, stereotypical image of Switzerland for the Japanese, especially its tourists, many visiting the Heidi's Village park.

==See also==
{{Portal|Novels}}
* [[2521 Heidi]] (an asteroid named after ''Heidi'')
* [[Alps#Alpine people and culture|Alpine people and culture]]
* [[Alpine transhumance]] (the traditional practice of moving grazing herds in the Alps between winter valleys and summer mountain pastures)
* [[History of the Alps]]
* [[Swiss folklore]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
[[File:Swiss-Commemorative-Coin-2001-CHF-50-obverse.png|thumb|Heidi on a [[Swiss franc|CHF]] 50 Swiss [[commemorative coin]], 2001.]]
*{{Wikisource-inline|Heidi|''Heidi''}}
*{{Commons category-inline|Heidi|''Heidi''}}
{{Gutenberg|no=1448|name=Heidi}}
{{Gutenberg|no=20781|name=Heidi}} (illustrated)
{{Gutenberg|no=7500|name=Heidis Lehr- und Wanderjahre}} (in German)
* {{librivox book | title=Heidi | author=Johanna Spyri}}
*[http://girlebooks.com/ebook-catalog/johanna-spyri/heidi/ ''Heidi'' (in English) free downloads in multiple ebook formats]
* [http://www.heidisland.com ''Heidi's Land''], The official Web site (in French) for the 1980s television show with Katia Polletin (Heidi) and Stefan Arpagaus (Peter)
* [http://www.eturbonews.com/21441/remembering-heidi-swiss-pride-its-best ''Remembering Heidi: Swiss Pride at its best''], by Dr. Anton Anderssen
* [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/switzerland/7653092/Swiss-Heidi-may-in-fact-be-German.html Swiss Heidi may in fact be German ]
* [https://archive.today/20120730120236/http://www.3sat.de/dynamic/sitegen/bin/sitegen.php?tab=2&source=/kulturzeit/themen/143450/index.html Johanna Spyri's stolen Alps story?](in German)

{{Heidi}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Heidi| ]]
[[Category:Heidi books]]
[[Category:1881 German-language novels]]
[[Category:1880s children's books]]
[[Category:Books about women]]
[[Category:Maienfeld]]
[[Category:Swiss novels adapted into television shows]]
[[Category:Swiss novels adapted into films]]
[[Category:Swiss novels adapted into plays]]
[[Category:Alps in fiction]]
[[Category:Frankfurt in fiction]]
[[Category:Novels set in Germany]]
[[Category:Novels set in Switzerland]]

List of short place names

2021-09-06T08:37:33Z

Zumbo: remove duplicated entry

This is a list of short [[placenames]], natively in Latin characters or romanized, with one or two letters.

== One-letter place names ==
[[Image:Comunne Y picardhiv68.jpg|thumb|Road sign marking the end of the village of [[Y, Somme|Y]] in the [[Somme (department)|Somme]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', France]]
*[[:ja:阿村|A]], a former village in [[Kami-Amakusa, Kumamoto|Kami-Amakusa]] city, [[Kumamoto Prefecture|Kumamoto]], [[Japan]]
*Á, a farm in [[Dalabyggð]] municipality, [[Dalasýsla]], [[Iceland]]. ''Á'' is Icelandic for "river".
*[[Å, Andøy|Å]], a village in [[Andøy]] municipality, [[Nordland]], [[Norway]]. ''Å'' is Danish, Norwegian and Swedish for "brook" or "small river".
*[[Å, Moskenes|Å]], a village in [[Moskenes]] municipality, Nordland, Norway
*[[Å, Meldal|Å]], a village in [[Meldal]] municipality, [[Sør-Trøndelag]], Norway
*[[Å, Åfjord|Å]], a village in [[Åfjord]] municipality, Sør-Trøndelag, Norway
*[[Å, Ibestad|Å]], a village in [[Ibestad]] municipality, [[Troms]], Norway
*[[Å, Lavangen|Å]], a village in [[Lavangen]] municipality, Troms, Norway
*[[Å, Tranøy|Å]], a village in [[Tranøy]] municipality, Troms, Norway
*Å, a village in [[Gloppen]] municipality, [[Vestland]], Norway<ref>{{Cite web|title=Å|url=https://www.google.pl/maps/place/6829+%C3%85,+Norway/@61.7294403,5.902194,14z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x46164dd93d8d2781:0x14515f0829ca6cfe!8m2!3d61.7294419!4d5.9197035?hl=en|access-date=2020-10-06|website=Å|language=en}}</ref>
*Å, a place in [[Funen]], [[Denmark]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Ash|first=Russell|title=Boring, Botty and Spong|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bb-UfSQy7xYC&pg=PA70|date=10 November 2011|publisher=RHCP|isbn=978-1-4090-9739-6|page=70}}</ref>
*[[Å, Sweden|Å]], a village in [[Norrköping Municipality|Norrköping]] municipality, [[Östergötland]], [[Sweden]]
*Å, a village in [[Örnsköldsvik Municipality|Örnsköldsvik]] municipality, [[Västernorrland County|Västernorrland]], Sweden<ref>{{Cite web|title=Å|url=https://www.google.pl/maps/place/893+91+%C3%85,+Sweden/@63.1833323,18.2745782,15z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x467b4d5fc40ade03:0x7ba9ce68997f708d!8m2!3d63.183333!4d18.283333?hl=en|access-date=2020-10-06|website=Å|language=en}}</ref>
*Å, a village in [[Kramfors Municipality|Kramfors]] municipality, Västernorrland, Sweden<ref>{{Cite web|title=Å|url=https://www.google.pl/maps/place/872+43+%C3%85,+Sweden/@62.8999993,17.8245781,15z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x4664be95c70a6e65:0x328ce63bd362bfaa!8m2!3d62.9!4d17.833333?hl=en|access-date=2020-10-06|website=Å|language=en}}</ref>
*Å, a village in [[Söderhamn Municipality|Söderhamn]] municipality, [[Gävleborg County|Gävleborg]], Sweden
*Å, a village in [[Uddevalla Municipality|Uddevalla]] municipality, [[Västra Götaland County|Västra Götaland]], Sweden
*Ά, an eco-hippie community in [[Buenos Aires Province]], [[Argentina]]
*[[D River|D]], a river in [[Oregon]], [[United States]]
*[[Mount E|E]], a mountain in [[Hokkaidō]], [[Japan]]
*[[River E|E]], a river in the [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] of [[Scotland]]
*H, also known as H Island, an island in [[Dyke Marsh Wildlife Preserve]], in [[Fairfax County, Virginia]]
*I, a town in [[Fujian|Fujian Province]], [[China]]
*Ì, [[Scottish Gaelic]] name for island of [[Iona]], Scotland (also called ''Ì Chaluim Chille'')
*Ô, a castle near [[Mortrée]], [[France]]
*[[O Brook|O]], a river in [[Devon]], [[England]]
*Ó Street, a street in [[Terézváros]], [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]]
*[[:ja:小川 (富山県)|O]], a river in [[Toyama Prefecture|Toyama]], [[Japan]]
*[[Ö, Sweden|Ö]], a village in Sweden. [[:sv:Ö (landområde)|Ö]] is Swedish for "island".
*[[Ø, Denmark|Ø]], a hill in [[Jutland]], [[Denmark]]. Ø is Danish for "island".
*U, a place in [[Panama]]
*[[U, Pohnpei|U]], a municipality on [[Pohnpei]] in the [[Federated States of Micronesia]]
*Ú, a place in Madagascar{{Citation needed|date=April 2015}}
*U, a place in Vietnam
*U, a place in Tibet, China
*[[Y, Somme|Y]], a [[Communes of France|commune]] in the department of [[Somme (department)|Somme]], France.
*[[Y River|Y]], a river in the north of Russia.
*[[Y, Alaska|Y]], a former census-designated place in [[Alaska]], [[United States]] (recently renamed Susitna North).
*Ý, Vietnamese name for [[Italy]]

== Two-letter place names ==
[[Image:Roadsign of Ii municipality Finland.jpg|thumb|Road sign of [[Ii, Finland]]]]
*[[Aa, Estonia|Aa]], a village in [[Estonia]]
*[[AA (disambiguation)#Rivers|Aa]], several rivers in [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Switzerland]]
*Aa, a skerry at the entrance to Skelda Voe, [[Shetland Islands]], [[Scotland]]
*Ab, in [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]]
*[[Ae, Scotland|Ae]], a village in [[Dumfries and Galloway]], [[Scotland]]
*[[Ág]], a village in [[Baranya (county)|Baranya]] county, [[Hungary]]
*[[Ai (Canaan)|Ai]], a Biblical city in [[Canaan]]
*[[Ai, Alabama|Ai]], a community in [[Alabama]], [[United States]]
*[[Ai, Georgia|Ai]], a community in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[United States]]
*[[Ai, North Carolina|Ai]], a community in [[North Carolina]], [[United States]]
*[[Ai, Ohio|Ai]], a community in [[Ohio]], [[United States]]
*[[Ai River (disambiguation)|Ai River]], several rivers in [[China]] (mainland), [[Japan]], and [[Taiwan]]
*Áj, [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] name for [[Háj, Košice-okolie District|Háj]], [[Slovakia]]
*[[Ål]], a municipality in [[Buskerud]] county, [[Norway]]
*Ål, a village in [[Leksand]] municipality, [[Sweden]]
*[[An County|An]], a county in [[Sichuan]], [[China]]
*[[Ao, Estonia|Ao]], a village in [[Estonia]]
*[[Ao Station|Ao]], a train station in [[Hyōgo Prefecture|Hyōgo]], Japan
*[[As, Belgium|As]], a municipality in [[Limburg (Belgium)|Limburg]] province, [[Belgium]]
*[[Aš]], a town in the [[Karlovy Vary Region|Karlovy Vary]] region of the [[Czech Republic]]
*[[Ås, Akershus|Ås]], a municipality in [[Akershus]] county, Norway
*Ås, the [[Swedish language|Swedish]] name for the [[Harju, Helsinki|Harju]] quarter of [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]]
*[[Ås Hundred|Ås]], a hundred of Västergötland in Sweden
*[[Ås, Nora|Ås]], a village in [[Västmanland]], [[Sweden]]
*[[Ås, Krokom Municipality|Ås]], a village in [[Jämtland]], [[Sweden]]
*[[Au, Vorarlberg|Au]], a town in the state of [[Vorarlberg]], [[Austria]]
*[[Au (Munich)|Au]], a district of the city of [[Munich]], [[Germany]]
*Au, name of three municipalities in Germany: [[Au am Rhein]], [[Au (Breisgau)]] and [[Au in der Hallertau]]
*Au, name of almost hundred of villages and hamlets in Germany, mostly in [[Bavaria]]: [[Au (Sieg)]], [[Au im Murgtal]], [[Au am Inn]], [[Au vorm Wald]], and others
*[[Au, Guinea|Au]], a town in the [[Kankan Region]], [[Guinea]]
*[[Au, St. Gallen|Au]], a municipality in the canton of [[St. Gallen (canton)|St. Gallen]], [[Switzerland]]
*[[Au, Zürich|Au]], a village in the canton of [[Canton of Zürich|Zürich]], [[Switzerland]]
*Ay, an island in [[Banda Sea]], [[Indonesia]]
* [[Aÿ]], a former commune in the department of [[Marne (department)|Marne]], France
*[[Ba, Serbia|Ba]], a village in [[Serbia]]
*[[Ba (town)|Ba]], a town in the [[Ba Province|Ba]] province of [[Fiji]]
*[[Ba, Tha Tum|Ba]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Tha Tum District]], [[Surin Province]], [[Thailand]]
*[[Bo, Sierra Leone|Bo]], a city in [[Sierra Leone]]
*[[Bo, Hòa Bình|Bo]], a town in [[Kim Bôi]], [[Hòa Bình Province]], [[Vietnam]]
*Bo, the [[Asturian language|Asturian]] name for the parish of [[Boo (Aller)|Boo]], [[Asturias]], [[Spain]]
*[[Bo, Khlung|Bo]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Khlung District]], [[Chanthaburi Province]], [[Thailand]]
*[[Bo, Yaba|Bo]], a village in Burkina Faso
*[[Bu, Orkney|Bu]], a hamlet on [[Wyre, Orkney|Wyre]] in the [[Orkney Islands]], Scotland
*[[Bû]], a commune in the department of [[Eure-et-Loir]], France
*[[By, Norway|By]], a village in [[Åfjord]] municipality, Norway
*[[By, Doubs|By]], a commune in the department of [[Doubs]], France
*[[Bø, Telemark]] and [[Bø, Nordland]], municipalities in [[Telemark]] and [[Nordland]], Norway; also the name of several farms. ''Bø'' is an archaic word for farmland.
*[[Bő]], a village in [[Vas County|Vas]] county, Hungary
*[[Cả River|Cả]], a river in Vietnam
*[[Kingdom of Ce|Ce]], a historical kingdom in modern-day Scotland
*[[Ci County|Ci]], a county in [[Hebei]], China
*[[Đà River|Đà]], a river in Vietnam
*[[Di (Burkina Faso)|Di]], a town in [[Burkina Faso]]
*Do, several villages in Bosnia and Herzegovina, including [[Do (Hadžići)]] and [[Do (Trebinje)]]
*[[Du, Kanthararom|Du]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Kanthararom District]], Sisaket, Thailand
*[[Du, Prang Ku|Du]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Prang Ku District]], Sisaket, Thailand
*[[Du, Rasi Salai|Du]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Rasi Salai District]], Sisaket, Thailand
*[[Mount Du|Du]], a mountain in [[Henan]] province, China
*Dú, the [[Irish language|Irish]] name for Hurcle, a [[townland]] in County Meath, Ireland
*[[Đu]], a town in [[Thai Nguyen]], [[Vietnam]]
*[[Ea, Spain|Ea]], a town in the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]], [[Spain]]
*[[Ed, Kentucky|Ed]], an unincorporated community in Kentucky, US
*[[Ed, Sweden|Ed]], a locality in [[Västra Götaland County]], [[Sweden]]
*[[Ee, Dongeradeel|Ee]], a village in the '''[[Noardeast-Fryslân]]''' municipality, [[Friesland]], [[Netherlands]]
*[[Eg, Afghanistan|Eg]], a town in Afghanistan
*[[Eg, Norway|Eg]], a former farm in [[Kristiansand]], Norway
*[[Ei, Kagoshima|Ei]], a town in [[Ibusuki District, Kagoshima|Ibusuki District]], [[Kagoshima Prefecture|Kagoshima]], Japan
*[[Ei Station|Ei]], a train station in [[Kagoshima Prefecture|Kagoshima]], Japan
*[[Eo (river)|Eo]], river between [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] and [[Asturias]], Spain
*[[Ep, Kentucky|Ep]], a community in [[Kentucky]], [[United States]]
*Ér, Hungarian name for [[Ier]] river, [[Romania]]
*[[Eš]], a village and municipality in [[Pelhřimov District]], [[Vysočina Region]], [[Czech Republic]]
*[[Eu, Seine-Maritime|Eu]], a commune in the department of [[Seine-Maritime]], France
*[[Fa, Aude|Fa]], a commune in the department of [[Aude]], France
* Fi, a town in [[Segou]] city in [[Mali]]
*[[Fu County|Fu]], a county in [[Shaanxi]], China
*Fu, a village in [[Mora Municipality, Sweden]]
*[[Gu County|Gu]], a county in [[Shanxi]], China
*[[Gy, Haute-Saône|Gy]], a commune in the department of [[Haute-Saône]], France
*[[Gy, Switzerland|Gy]], a municipality in the canton of [[Canton of Geneva|Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]
*[[Ha, Bhutan|Ha]], a town in [[Paro, Bhutan|Paro]], [[Paro District]], [[Bhutan]]
*[[Hå]], a municipality in [[Rogaland]], Norway
*He, a farm in [[Nord-Odal]] municipality, Norway
*[[He County|He]], a county in [[Anhui]], China
*[[Ho, Ghana|Ho]], a town in [[Ghana]]
*[[Ho, Denmark|Ho]], a village in [[Jutland]], Denmark
* Hồ, a town in [[Thuận Thành]], [[Bắc Ninh]], Vietnam
*Hø, a farm in [[Inderøy]] municipality, Norway
*[[Hu County|Hu]], a county in Shaanxi, China
*[[Ib (train station)|Ib]], a railway town in India
*[[Ie, Okinawa|Ie]], an island and village in [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]], Japan
*Ie, old Irish name for the Scottish island of [[Iona]] or ''Ì'' (or ''Ì Chaluim Chille'')
*[[Château d'If|If]], an island and fortress in southern France. ''If'' is the French word for ''yew tree''.
*[[Ig (Slovenia)|Ig]], a settlement and municipality in [[Slovenia]]
*[[Ii, Finland|Ii]], a municipality in [[Northern Ostrobothnia]], [[Finland]]
*[[Ii Station|Ii]], a train station in [[Yamaguchi Prefecture|Yamaguchi]], Japan
*[[IJ (Amsterdam)|IJ]], a double lake in the Netherlands (the digraph [[IJ (digraph)|IJ]] is sometimes considered a single letter in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], so this could also be seen as a one-letter name)
*[[Ik River|Ik]], a river in [[Russia]]
*[[Iž]], an island in [[Croatia]]
*[[Io (moon)|Io]], innermost moon of Jupiter.
*[[Io, Norway|Io]], an island in [[Hordaland]], Norway
*[[Ios|Io]], alternative name of an island in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]], Greece
*[[Ip, Sălaj|Ip]], a village in [[Sălaj County]], [[Romania]]
*Is, a village in Nizhniy Tura gorsovet of [[Sverdlovskaya Oblast]] Oblast, [[Russia]]
*[[Iž]], an island in [[Croatia]]
*[[Ji County, Shanxi|Ji]], a county in Shanxi, China
*[[Ji County, Tianjin|Ji]], a county in [[Tianjin]], China
*[[Ju County|Ju]], a county in [[Shandong]], China
*Ka, a farm in [[Østre Toten]] municipality, Norway
*[[Ko, Lamphun|Ko]], a village and subdistrict in Li District, Lamphun, Thailand
*Kő, the [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] name for [[Kamenac]], a village in [[Kneževi Vinogradi]] municipality, Osijek-Baranja County, Croatia
*[[Kō Station (Aichi)|Kō]], a train station in [[Aichi Prefecture|Aichi]], Japan
*[[Ku, Prang Ku|Ku]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Prang Ku District]], Sisaket, Thailand
*La, a farm in [[Sykkylven]] municipality, Norway
*Lå, a farm in [[Ål]] municipality, Norway
*La, a river in Vietnam
*[[Lâ]], a town in [[Burkina Faso]]
*Le, a farm in [[Vik, Norway|Vik]], Norway. ''Le'' means ''lee'' in Norwegian.
*[[Le, Kapong|Le]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Kapong District]], Phang Nga, Thailand
*Lé, the [[Irish language|Irish]] name for Lea, a parish in Ireland
*[[Li County, Gansu|Li]], a county in [[Gansu]], China
*[[Li County, Hebei|Li]], a county in Hebei, China
*[[Li County, Hunan|Li]], a county in [[Hunan]], China
*[[Li County, Sichuan|Li]], a county in Sichuan, China
*[[Li, Norway|Li]], a village in [[Sokndal]] municipality, Norway. ''Li'' means ''hillside'' in Norwegian.
*[[Amphoe Li|Li]], a district in [[Lamphun Province]], Thailand.
*[[Lo-Reninge|Lo]], a municipality in [[West Flanders]], Belgium
*Lo, name of several farms in Norway. ''Lo'' is an archaic word for ''meadow''.
*[[Lo, Chun|Lo]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Chun District]], Phayao, Thailand
*Lo, a village in [[Di Department]], Burkina Faso
*[[Lô River|Lô]], a river in the North of Vietnam.
*Lø, farm in [[Vindafjord]] municipality, Norway. ''Lø'' is an archaic word for ''barn''.
*[[Lu, Piedmont|Lu]], a municipality in [[Piedmont]], Italy
*[[Lu County|Lu]], a county in Sichuan, China
*[[Lü, Switzerland|Lü]], a village in the canton of [[Graubünden]], Switzerland
*Lú, the [[Irish language|Irish]] name for [[Louth, County Louth|Louth]], a village and county in Ireland
*Lủ, a village in [[Hanoi]], Vietnam
*[[Ma River|Ma]], a river in Vietnam
*Me, a town in [[Gia Viễn]], [[Ninh Bình]], Vietnam
*[[Mo, Hordaland|Mo]], a village in [[Modalen]] municipality, [[Hordaland]], Norway. ''Mo'' is an archaic word for ''plain''.
*[[Mo, Kapong|Mo]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Kapong District]], Phang Nga, Thailand
*[[Mu River|Mu]], a river in [[Burma]]
*[[Mù, Italy|Mù]], a village in the [[Edolo]] municipality of [[Lombardy]], [[Italy]]. (''Mö'' in the local dialect).
*[[My, Belgium|My]], a village in [[Liège (province)|Liège]] province, [[Belgium]]
*[[Nå, Ullensvang|Nå]], a village in [[Ullensvang]] municipality, Norway
*[[Ne, Liguria|Ne]], a municipality in [[Liguria]], Italy
*[[Ni River (New Caledonia)|Ni]], a river of New Caledonia
*[[Ni River (Virginia)|Ni]], a river in Virginia, USA
*[[No, Denmark|No]], a village in Denmark
*[[Lake No|No]], a lake in South Sudan
*[[Ny, Belgium|Ny]], a municipality in [[Luxembourg (Belgium)|Luxembourg]] province, [[Belgium]]
*[[Oa (river)|Oa]], a river in [[Meldal]] municipality, Norway
*[[The Oa|Oa]], a peninsula on the island of [[Islay]] in the [[Inner Hebrides]], [[Scotland]]
*[[Ob, Russia|Ob]], a town in [[Russia]]
*[[Ob River|Ob]], a major river in Russia, and the seventh-longest river in the world
*[[Gulf of Ob|Ob]], a gulf in Russia
*[[Ōe, Yamagata|Ōe]], a town in [[Yamagata Prefecture|Yamagata]], Japan
*[[Ōe, Kyoto|Ōe]], a former town in [[Kyoto Prefecture|Kyoto]], Japan
*[[Ōe Station (Kyoto)|Ōe]], a train station in [[Kyoto Prefecture|Kyoto]], Japan
*[[Ōe Station (Aichi)|Ōe]], a train station in [[Aichi Prefecture|Aichi]], Japan
*[[Oe Station|Oe]], a train station in [[Nagasaki Prefecture|Nagasaki]], Japan
*Oe, a town in [[Liège]] city in [[Walloon Region]], [[Belgium]]
*[[Of (District), Trabzon|Of]], a town in the province of [[Trabzon Province|Trabzon]], [[Turkey]]
*[[River Og|Og]], a river in Wiltshire, England
*[[Oi, Pong|Oi]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Pong District]], Phayao, Thailand
*[[Ōi, Fukui|Ōi]], a town in [[Ōi District, Fukui|Ōi District]], [[Fukui Prefecture|Fukui]], Japan
*[[Ōi, Kanagawa|Ōi]], a town in [[Kanagawa Prefecture|Kanagawa]], Japan
*[[Ōi, Saitama|Ōi]], a former town in [[Saitama Prefecture|Saitama]], Japan
*[[Ok_(volcano)|Ok]], a shield volcano located in highlands above [[Borgarfjörður]], in the west of [[Iceland]].
*[[O K, Kentucky|O K]], a community in [[Kentucky]], [[United States]]
*[[Om River|Om]], a river in Russia
*[[Øm (Village)|Øm]], a town on the island of [[Zealand]], Denmark. "Øm" is Danish for "sore"
*[[Øn]], a village in [[Sogn og Fjordane]] county, Norway
*[[Oô]], a commune in the department of [[Haute-Garonne]], France
*[[Or (Crimea)|Or]], original name of [[Isthmus of Perekop]] in [[Ukraine]]
*Ör, a district in [[Sundbyberg]] municipality, [[Sweden]]
*[[Őr]], a village in [[Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg]] county, Hungary
*[[Os, Hedmark|Os]], a municipality in [[Hedmark]], Norway.
*[[Os, Hordaland|Os]], a municipality in [[Hordaland]], Norway.
*[[Oś]], a village in [[Kluczbork County]], Poland. ''Oś'' is the Polish word for ''axis''.
*[[Ōu Mountains|Ōu]], a mountain range in Japan
*[[Ox Mountains|Ox]], a mountain range in Ireland
*[[Oy-Mittelberg|Oy]], a municipality in [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]]
*[[Oz, Isère|Oz]], a commune in the department of [[Isère]], France
*[[Oz, Kentucky|Oz]], a community in [[Kentucky]], United States
*Pa, a village in [[Nouna Department]] in [[Burkina Faso]]
*[[Pâ]], a town in [[Burkina Faso]]
*[[Pi, Catalonia|Pi]], a town in Catalonia, Spain. ''Pi'' means ''pine'' in Catalan.
*[[Pi County|Pi]], a county in Sichuan, China
*[[Po River|Po]], a river in [[Italy]]
*[[Po River (Virginia)|Po]], a river in Virginia, USA
*[[Po, Wiang Kaen|Po]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Wiang Kaen District]], Chiang Rai, Thailand
*[[Po, Bueng Bun|Po]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Bueng Bun District]], Sisaket, Thailand
*[[Pô]], a city in [[Burkina Faso]]
*[[Pu County|Pu]], a county in Shanxi, China
*[[Py, Pyrénées-Orientales|Py]], [[Pyrénées-Orientales]], France
*[[Qi County, Kaifeng|Qi]], a county in [[Kaifeng]], [[Henan]], China
*[[Qi County, Hebi|Qi]], a county in [[Hebi]], Henan, China
*[[Qi County, Shanxi|Qi]], a county in [[Jinzhong]], Shanxi, China
*[[Qu County|Qu]], a county in Sichuan, China
*Ra, a farm in [[Borre, Norway|Borre]] municipality, Norway. ''Ra'' is the Norwegian word for a [[moraine]].
*Rå, a farm in [[Ringerike (municipality)|Ringerike]] municipality, Norway. A ''rå'' is a pole on which freshly mowed corn is hung to dry.
*[[Re (VB)|Re]], a village in the region of [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]], Italy. Re is the Italian word for ''king''.
*[[Re, Norway|Re]], a municipality in [[Vestfold]] county, Norway
*[[Île de Ré|Ré]], an island in [[Charente-Maritime]] department, France
*[[Ri, Orne|Ri]], a commune in the department of [[Orne]], France
*[[Ro (island)|Ro]], an island near [[Kastelorizo]], Greece
*[[Ro, Italy|Ro]], a municipality in the region of [[Emilia-Romagna]], Italy
*Ro, name of several farms in Norway
*[[:gl:Ru, Vilasantar, Vilasantar|Ru]], a village in the municipality of [[Vilasantar]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], Spain
*[[Ry, Denmark|Ry]], a town in central [[Jutland]], Denmark
*[[Ry, Seine-Maritime|Ry]], a commune in the department of [[Seine-Maritime]], France
*[[Sa, Chiang Muan|Sa]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Chiang Muan District]], Phayao, Thailand
*[[Sâ]], a town in [[Burkina Faso]]
*[[Sé (disambiguation)|Sé]], several places, including Brazil, Hungary and Portugal
*[[Si County|Si]], a county in Anhui, China
*[[Si, Khun Han|Si]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Khun Han District]], Sisaket, Thailand
*Sí, the [[Irish language|Irish]] name for Shee, a [[townland]] in County Monaghan, Ireland
*[[So, So Phisai|So]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[So Phisai District]], Bueng Kan, Thailand
*Só, Hungarian name for [[Tuzla]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Su, Catalonia|Su]], a village in the municipality of [[Riner]], [[Catalonia]] , [[Spain]]
*[[Sy, Ardennes|Sy]], a commune in the department of [[Ardennes (département)|Ardennes]], France
*[[Sy, Belgium|Sy]], a municipality in [[Liège]] province, [[Belgium]]
*[[Ta, Khun Tan|Ta]], a tambon (sub-district) in [[Khun Tan District]], Chiang Rai, Thailand
*[[Ta River|Ta]], a river in Virginia, USA
*[[Ta, Iran|Ta]], a village in Kurdistan Province, Iran
*[[TB, Maryland|TB]], a community in Maryland, USA<ref>{{GNIS|598145|name=T B}}</ref>
*[[Ti, Oklahoma|Ti]], a settlement in [[Oklahoma]], United States
*Tô, village in [[Toma Department]], Burkina Faso
*[[Tsu, Mie|Tu]], a city in Japan. ''Tu'' is in [[Kunrei-shiki romanization]] and ''Tsu'' in [[Hepburn romanization]] is more common. (Other than [[Mount E]] this is the shortest place name in Japan in both Japanese phonology and orthography. All other Japanese place names in this section require at least two [[kana]].)
*[[Ub, Serbia|Ub]], a town in [[Serbia]]
*[[Ui-dong|Ui]], a town in [[Republic of Korea]]
*Ug, short name for [[Tiszaug]], Hungary
*[[Ul (Portugal)|Ul]], a parish in the [[Oliveira de Azeméis]] municipality in [[Portugal]]
*Ul, a beach in [[Punta Križa]], Croatia
*[[Ur]], ancient city in [[Mesopotamia]]
*[[Ur, Catalonia|Ur]], a town in Catalonia, Spain
*[[Ur, Pyrénées-Orientales|Ur]], a commune in the department of [[Pyrénées-Orientales]], France
*[[Us, Val-d'Oise|Us]], a commune in the department of [[Val-d'Oise]], France
*[[Uz, Hautes-Pyrénées|Uz]], a commune in the department of [[Hautes-Pyrénées]], France
*[[Uz River|Uz]], river and valley in Romania
*[[Uz, Iran]]
*[[Uz, Kentucky]] (the shortest name in Kentucky)<ref>{{cite news | url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=KE5QAAAAIBAJ&sjid=NQ0EAAAAIBAJ&pg=5095%2C6819020 | title=The Queerest Names On The Map | work=The Milwaukee Sentinel | date=April 11, 1943 | accessdate=29 April 2015 | pages=22}}</ref>
*[[Ve, Norway|Ve]], a village in Norway. ''Ve'' is an [[Old Norse]] word for home or dwelling, but can also designate a sacred place (see [[Blót]]).
*[[Ve Skerries|Ve]], a group of skerries off [[Papa Stour]] in the [[Shetland Islands]], Scotland
*[[Vi, Sweden|Vi]], a village near [[Sundsvall]] in Sweden
*[[Vo, Italy|Vò]], a municipality in the region of [[Veneto]], Italy
* Vò, a village in [[Lạc Thủy]], Hòa Bình, Vietnam
*[[Vy, Burkina Faso|Vy]], a town in [[Burkina Faso]]
*[[Wa, Ghana|Wa]], a municipality in [[Ghana]].
*[[Wu (region)|Wu]], a region in the [[Jiangsu]] and [[Zhejiang]] provinces of China
*{{Interlanguage link multi|Wy, Belgium|fr|3=Wy (Belgique)|lt=Wy}}, a municipality in [[Luxembourg (Belgium)|Luxembourg]] province, [[Belgium]]
*[[Xi County, Shanxi|Xi]], a county in Shanxi, China
*[[Xi County, Henan|Xi]], a county in [[Henan]], China
*Xy, a commune in [[Hướng Hóa District|Hướng Hóa]], [[Quảng Trị Province|Quảng Trị]], Vietnam
*[[Yb, Russia|Yb]], two villages and a municipality in [[Komi Republic|Komi]] in Russia
*[[Ye, Mon State|Ye]], a town in [[Mon State]], Burma
*[[Ye County|Ye]], a county in Henan, China
*[[Ye, Lanzarote|Ye]], a village on the island of [[Lanzarote]], Spain
*[[Yé Department|Yé]], department and town in Burkina Faso
*[[Yi (disambiguation)|Yi]], a name of three counties in Hebei, [[Liaoning]] and Anhui, China
*[[Yí River|Yí]], a river in [[Uruguay]]
*[[Y P Desert|Y P]], a desert in the western United States
*[[Ys]], a mythological city in [[Brittany]].
*[[Yu County, Hebei|Yu]], a county in Hebei, China
*[[Yu County, Shanxi|Yu]], a county in Shanxi, China
*[[Yu River (Russia)|Yu]], a river on the north of Russia
*[[Yū, Yamaguchi|Yū]], a former town, now district in [[Iwakuni, Yamaguchi]], Japan
*[[Zu, Afghanistan|Zu]], a village in [[Badakhshan Province]], [[Afghanistan]]

==See also==
*[[List of long place names]]
*[[Longest word in English#Place names|Long place names in English]]
*[[W National Park]], a national park intersecting in [[Benin]], [[Niger]], and [[Burkina Faso]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Place name etymologies}}
[[Category:Lists of place names|Short]]
[[Category:Geography-related lists of superlatives]]

U, Federated States of Micronesia

2021-09-06T08:36:18Z

Zumbo: Remove unencyclopedic and unsourced sentence.

[[File:Pohnpei map.gif|thumb|220px|Map of Pohnpei Island showing the municipalities, U is on the upper right.]]
'''U''' also written '''Uh''', is one of the administrative divisions of [[Pohnpei State]], [[Federated States of Micronesia]].<ref>[http://www.visit-fsm.org/pohnpei/sights.html State of Pohnpei] {{Webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090326012417/http://www.visit-fsm.org/pohnpei/sights.html |date=2009-03-26 }}</ref> U bears the shortest place name in the Federated States of Micronesia, and one of the [[List of short place names|shortest in the world]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Ash|first=Russell|title=Boring, Botty and Spong|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bb-UfSQy7xYC&pg=PA70|date=10 November 2011|publisher=[[Random House]]|isbn=978-1-4090-9739-6|page=70}}</ref>

==Description==
U is one of the six municipalities located in the main island of Pohnpei. It corresponds to the northeastern sector of the island. U had 2,289 inhabitants according to the 2008 census.

Alohkapw is the main town. A channel known as Kepidewen Alohkapw marks the boundary between U and [[Madolenihmw]] municipalities.<ref>Thomas Panholzer & Rufino Mauricio, ''Place Names of Pohnpei Island,'' {{ISBN|978-1-57306-166-7}}</ref>

==Education==
[[Pohnpei State Department of Education]] operates public schools:
* Awak Elementary School<ref name=Schoollist>"[http://pohnpei.doe.fm/index.php/statistics/pohnpei-schools Pohnpei Schools]." Pohnpei State Department of Education. Retrieved on February 23, 2018.</ref>
* Saladak Elementary School<ref name=Schoollist/>

[[Bailey Olter High School]] (former Pohnpei Island Central School or PICS) in [[Kolonia]] serves students from U.<ref>"[http://pohnpei.doe.fm/index.php/schools/94-pdoe/about-us/division/secondary Secondary Division]." [[Pohnpei State Department of Education]]. Retrieved on February 23, 2018.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Madolenihmw]]
* [[Kitti (municipality)]]
* [[Sokehs]]
* [[Nett]]
* [[Kapingamarangi]]
* [[Pingelap]]
* [[Sapwuahfik]]
* [[Nukuoro]]
* [[Mokil]]
* [[Kolonia]]
* [[Oroluk]]
* [[Palikir]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090326012817/http://www.visit-fsm.org/pohnpei/sights/municipality.html View of Sokehs Rock from U Municipality]
*[http://www.opsa.fm/files/ugov_99.pdf U Municipal Government Audit Report 1999]

{{coord|6|58|13|N|158|15|27|E|display=title}}

[[Category:Municipalities of Pohnpei]]

Mauritanian ouguiya

2021-08-16T09:20:27Z

Zumbo: Remove section "Numismatic information". It is unsourced, vague and seems to come from personal experience.

{{short description|currency of Mauritania}}
{{Infobox currency
| currency_name_in_local = {{native name|ar|أوقية موريتانية|italics=no}} {{native name|fr|Ouguiya|italics=no}}
| image_1 =
| image_2 =
| image_title_1 = Current coins
| image_title_2 =
| iso_code = MRU<ref name="amendment-165">{{cite web|url=https://www.currency-iso.org/en/shared/amendments/iso-4217-amendment.html|title=ISO 4217 Amendment Number 165|work=.currency-iso.org}}</ref>
| using_countries = {{MRT}} {{flag icon|SADR}} ''[[Sahrawi Republic]]''
| inflation_rate = 1.5%
| inflation_source_date = ''[[The World Factbook]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2092.html|title=The World Factbook|work=cia.gov}}</ref> 2016 est.
| subunit_ratio_1 = {{frac|5}}
| plural = ouguiya
| subunit_name_1 = [[khoums]]
| symbol = UM
| frequently_used_coins = 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 ouguiya<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bcm.mr/MONNAIE/Pages/Pi%C3%A8ces.aspx |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-02-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719154144/http://www.bcm.mr/MONNAIE/Pages/Pi%C3%A8ces.aspx |archive-date=2011-07-19 }}</ref>
| rarely_used_coins = 1 khoums
| used_banknotes = 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000 ouguiya<ref>[http://www.bcm.mr/bcm/fr/index1.php?numrub=36 Billets] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302003915/http://www.bcm.mr/bcm/fr/index1.php?numrub=36 |date=2008-03-02 }}, Banque Centrale de Mauritanie</ref>
| issuing_authority = [[Banque Centrale de Mauritanie]]
| issuing_authority_website = {{URL|www.bcm.mr}}
| printer = [[Giesecke & Devrient]]
| printer_website = {{URL|www.gi-de.com}}
}}

The '''ouguiya''' ([[currency sign|sign]]: '''UM''';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bcm.mr/Pages/accueil.aspx |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-02-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101219221742/http://www.bcm.mr/Pages/accueil.aspx |archive-date=2010-12-19 }}</ref> {{lang-ar|أوقية}}; [[currency code]]: MRU<ref name="amendment-165"/>), at one time spelled "ougiya",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/240639}}</ref> is the currency of [[Mauritania]]. Each ouguiya constitutes five [[khoums]] (meaning "one fifth"). As such it is one of two circulating currencies, along with the [[Malagasy ariary]], whose division units are not based on a power of ten.

The current ouguiya was introduced in 2018, replacing the old ouguiya at a rate of 1 new ouguiya = 10 old ouguiya, which in turn replaced the [[West African CFA franc|CFA franc]] at a rate of 1 old ouguiya = 5 francs.
The name ''ouguiya'' ({{lang|ar|أوقية}}) is the [[Hassaniya Arabic]] pronunciation of ''[[uqiyyah]]'' {{lang|ar|أُوقِية}}), meaning "ounce".

==First Ouguiya (MRO)==
===Coins===
In 1973, coins of {{frac|1|5}} (1 [[khoums]]), 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 ouguiya were introduced into circulation. This was the only year that the [[khoums]] was minted, as the ouguiya was worth five [[CFA Franc]]s a khoums was the equivalent of the franc (which had no subdivision). The most recent issues were in 2003 (1 ouguiya) and 2004 (other denominations). Coins are minted at the [[Kremnica mint]] in [[Slovakia]]. The coinage slightly changed in 2009, with a reduced 1 ouguiya in plated composition and a bi-metallic 20 ouguiya issued. A bi-metallic 50 ouguiya was issued December 2010.

<gallery>
image:Ouguiya 1.png|Obverse of 1 ouguiya
image:Ouguiya 2.png|Reverse of 1 ouguiya
</gallery>

===Banknotes===
In 1973, notes were issued by the [[Central Bank of Mauritania]] (''Banque Centrale de Mauritanie'') in denominations of 100, 200 and 1,000 ouguiya. In 1974, a second series of notes was issued in the same denominations, with 500-ouguiya notes added in 1979. Banknotes have been printed by [[Giesecke & Devrient]] in Munich, starting with the second issue.
[[File:100 Mauritania Ouguiya observe.jpg|thumb|Obverse of 100 ouguiya note issued in 2011 with [[Eastern Arabic numerals]]. The reverse features text in French and [[Arabic numerals|Western Arabic numerals]].]]
New banknotes were introduced in 2004. These notes have completely new fronts and the vignettes on the backs have been redesigned to accommodate the reduction in size. The 2,000-ouguiya denomination is entirely new.

All but the 100- and 200-ouguiya notes have the denomination expressed in Arabic numerals in a holographic patch at right front. The serial numbers for all denominations now appear horizontally at upper left and lower center, and vertically at far right, all formatted with a 2-character prefix, 7-digit serial number, and 1-character suffix.<ref name="auto">{{cite book | last1 = Linzmayer | first1 = Owen | title = The Banknote Book | chapter = Mauritania | year = 2012 | location = San Francisco, CA | url = http://www.banknotebook.com}}</ref>

An entirely new 5,000-ouguiya denomination dated 28.11.2009 was introduced on 8 August 2010, followed by a redesigned 2,000-ouguiya note dated 28.11.2011 issued on 1 February 2012. <ref name="auto"/>

==Second ouguiya (MRU)==
On December 5, 2017, the Central Bank of Mauritania announced a redenomination of its currency at a rate of 1:10. As part of the redenomination, a new series of coins were issued in denominations of 1 khoums ({{frac|1|5}} ouguiya), 1, 5, 10 and 20 ouguiya, with the latter being struck as a tri-metallic coin and a new series of banknotes in denominations of 50, 100, 200, 500 and 1,000 ouguiya. The new ouguiya banknotes issued for the redenomination are printed entirely in [[Polymer banknote|polymer]]. As a consequence of this change, the ISO Currency Codes for the ouguiya were amended to MRU / 929 and the existing codes of MRO / 478 were retired as per ISO 4217 Amendment Number 165 dated 14 Dec 2017. <ref>https://www.currency-iso.org/en/shared/amendments/iso-4217-amendment.html</ref> A 2 ouguiya coin was issued into circulation in 2018, serving as an intermediate denomination for the 1 and 5 ouguiya coins already in circulation.

{|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%"
!colspan=7| Banknotes of the Mauritanian ouguiya (2017 issues)
|-
!colspan=2| Image !!rowspan=2| Value !!rowspan=2| Main color !!colspan=2| Description !!rowspan=2| Date of issue
|-
! Obverse !! Reverse !! Obverse !! Reverse
|-
|
|
| 50 ouguiya
| Violet
| Ibn Abbas mosque, Nouakchott
| Teapot; musical instruments
| November 28, 2017
|-
|
|
| 100 ouguiya
| Green
| Tower
| Cattle
| November 28, 2017
|-
|
|
| 200 ouguiya
| Yellow
| Tower
| Camels
| November 28, 2017
|-
|
|
| 500 ouguiya
| Blue
| Tower
| Trawler; fish
| November 28, 2017
|-
|
|
| 1,000 ouguiya
| Brown
| Tower
| Locomotive of an ore train
| November 28, 2017
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%"
|-
!colspan="10"|Coins of the Mauritanian ouguiya (2017-2018 issue)
|-
!rowspan="2"| Image !!rowspan="2"| Value !!colspan="4"| Technical parameters !!colspan="3"| Description !!rowspan="2"| Date of first minting
|-
! Diameter !! Thickness !! Mass !! Composition !! Edge !! Obverse !! Reverse
|- {{Coin-copper-color}}
| style="text-align:center; background:#000;"|
| {{frac|5}} ouguiya || {{cvt|16.0|mm}} || {{cvt|2.0|mm}} || {{cvt|2.10|g}} || [[Copper]]-plated [[steel]]
| Plain/Smooth || National seal of Mauritania; denomination || Fish; denomination || 2017
|-
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| style="text-align:center; background:#000;"|
| 1 ouguiya || {{cvt|19.9|mm}} || {{cvt|2.0|mm}} || {{cvt|4.00|g}} || [[Nickel]]-plated [[steel]]
| Reeded/grained || National seal of Mauritania; denomination || Teapot; denomination || 2017
|-
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| style="text-align:center; background:#000;"|
| 2 ouguiya || {{cvt|24.0|mm}} || || {{cvt|5.65|g}} || [[Stainless steel]]
| Reeded/grained || National seal of Mauritania; denomination || National instruments; denomination || 2018
|-
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| style="text-align:center; background:#000;"|
| 5 ouguiya || {{cvt|22.5|mm}} || {{cvt|2.0|mm}} || {{cvt|4.71|g}} || [[Nickel]]-plated [[steel]]
| Plain/smooth || National seal of Mauritania; denomination || Instruments; denomination || 2017
|-
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#000;"|
| 10 ouguiya || {{cvt|24.0|mm}} || {{cvt|1.8|mm}} || {{cvt|5.38|g}} || [[Bi-metallic coin]] ([[Nickel]]-plated [[steel]] center with a [[Brass]]-plated steel ring)
| Segmented (alternating between 10 plain and reeded sections) || National seal of Mauritania; denomination || Cow; denomination || 2017
|-
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#000;"|
| 20 ouguiya || {{cvt|26.0|mm}} || {{cvt|2.0|mm}} || {{cvt|7.63|g}} || Tri-metallic coin ([[Bronze]]-plated steel center plug with a [[Nickel]]-plated steel inner ring and a [[Brass]]-plated steel outer ring)
| Plain/smooth || National seal of Mauritania; denomination || Camels; denomination || 2017
|-
|}

{{Exchange rate|MRU}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Mauritania|Money|Numismatics}}
* [[Economy of Mauritania]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{n-start|title=First ouguiya}}
{{n-before|currency=[[West African CFA franc]]|ratio=1 ouguiya = 5 francs}}
{{n-currency|location=[[Mauritania]]|start=1973|end=2017}}
{{n-after|currency=Second ouguiya|ratio=1 second ouguiya = 10 first ouguiya}}
{{n-end}}

{{n-start|title=Second ouguiya}}
{{n-before|currency=First ouguiya|ratio=1 second ouguiya = 10 first ouguiya}}
{{n-currency|location=[[Mauritania]]|start=2018}}
{{n-after}}
{{n-end}}

*[http://banknotenews.com/files/tag-mauritania.php banknotenews.com]

{{Economy of Mauritania}}
{{Currencies of Africa}}
{{Mauritania topics}}

[[Category:Circulating currencies]]
[[Category:Economy of Mauritania]]
[[Category:Currencies introduced in 1973]]

Decimalisation

2021-08-16T09:14:54Z

Zumbo: Decimal currency is not just a "US model"

{{About|decimalisation of currency and measurement|the system of library classification|Dewey Decimal Classification}}
{{short description|Process of converting a currency from a non-decimal denominations to a decimal system}}
'''Decimalisation''' ([[American English]]: '''Decimalization''') is the conversion of a system of currency or of weights and measures to units related by [[Power of 10|powers of 10]].

Most countries have decimalised their currencies, converting them from non-decimal sub-units to a [[decimal]] system, with one basic currency unit and sub-units that are to a power of [[10 (number)|10]], most commonly 100 and exceptionally 1000; and sometimes at the same time changing the name of the currency or the conversion rate to the new currency. Today, only two countries have non-decimal currencies: [[Mauritania]], where 1 [[Mauritanian ouguiya|ouguiya]] = 5 [[khoums]], and [[Madagascar]], where 1 [[Malagasy ariary|ariary]] = 5 [[iraimbilanja]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://famouswonders.com/malagasy-ariary/|title=Malagasy Ariary|website=famouswonders.com|date=4 April 2011|access-date=2016-12-13}}</ref> However, these are only theoretically non-decimal, as in both cases the value of the main unit is so low that the sub-units are too small to be of any practical use and coins of the sub-units are no longer used. [[Russia]] was the first country to convert to a decimal currency when it decimalised under Tsar [[Peter the Great]] in 1704, resulting in the [[Russian ruble|ruble]] being equal to 100 kopeks,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://numismatics.org/pocketchange/peter/|title=The Reign of Peter the Great as Represented in the ANS Collection | Pocket Change}}</ref> <ref name=":0" /> but it is the USA's version of decimalisation that has been adopted across most of the world, with several countries even using the same terminology of dollar and cent.

For weights and measures this is also called [[metrication]], replacing traditional units that are related in other ways, such as those formed by successive doubling or halving, or by more arbitrary [[conversion factor]]s. Units of physical measurement, such as length and mass, were decimalised with the introduction of the [[metric system]], which has been adopted by almost all countries with the prominent exception of the [[Metrication in the United States|United States]] and, to a lesser extent, the [[United Kingdom]]. Thus a kilometre is 1000 metres, while a mile is 1,760 yards. [[Electrical units]] are decimalised worldwide. Common [[units of time]] remain undecimalised; although an attempt was made during the [[French revolution]], this proved to be unsuccessful and was quickly abandoned.

== Currency decimalisation by region ==
{{see also|List of circulating currencies}}
Decimal currencies have sub-units based on a factor of 10. Most sub-units are [[100 (number)|100]]th of the base currency unit, but currencies based on [[1000 (number)|1,000]] sub-units also exist in several Arab countries.

Some countries changed the name of the base unit when they decimalised their currency, including:

{| class="wikitable"
|+Examples of currency decimalisation
|-
!scope="col"| New unit
!scope="col"| =
!scope="col"| ×
!scope="col"| Old unit
!scope="col"| Year
|-
| [[German gold mark]]
| =
| {{frac|1|3}}
| [[Vereinsthaler]]
| 1873
|-
| [[South African rand]]
| =
| {{frac|1|2}}
| [[South African pound]]
| 1961
|-
| [[Australian dollar]]
| =
| {{frac|1|2}}
| [[Australian pound]]
| 1966
|-
| [[New Zealand dollar]]
| =
| {{frac|1|2}}
| [[New Zealand pound]]
| 1967
|-
| [[Fijian dollar]]
| =
| {{frac|1|2}}
| [[Fijian pound]]
| 1969
|-
| [[Nigerian naira]]
| =
| {{frac|1|2}}
| [[Nigerian pound]]
| 1973
|}

===Europe===
[[Russia]] converted to a decimal currency under Tsar [[Peter the Great]] in 1704, with the [[Russian ruble|ruble]] being equal to 100 kopeks, thus making the Russian ruble the world's first decimal currency,<ref name=":0">The new Encyclopaedia. Britannica. Volume 25.1994</ref> but not quite as we know decimal currencies today, as there were smaller units beneath the kopek itself, the [[Denga]] (200 of which made a ruble) and the [[Polushka]] (400 of which made a ruble). With the [[Russian Revolution]] the [[Soviet Union]] adhered to a purely decimal model by no longer subdividing the kopek.

[[France]] introduced the [[franc]] in 1795 to replace the [[livre tournois]],<ref>Gadoury, V. "Monnaies Françaises" p.48 (1999)</ref> abolished during the [[French Revolution]]. France introduced decimalisation in a number of countries that it invaded during the [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleonic period]].

[[Dutch guilder]] decimalised in 1817 (became equal to 100 centen instead of 20 [[stuiver]]s = 160 [[duit]]en = 320 penningen), with the last pre-decimal coins withdrawn from circulation in 1848.

[[Sweden]] introduced decimal currency in 1855. The [[riksdaler]] was divided into 100 [[öre]]. The riksdaler was renamed [[Swedish krona|krona]] in 1873.

The [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] decimalised the [[Austro-Hungarian gulden]] in 1857, concurrent with its transition from the [[Conventionsthaler]] to the [[Vereinsthaler]] standard.

[[Spain]] introduced its decimal currency unit, the [[Spanish peseta|peseta]], in 1868, replacing all previous currencies.

[[Cyprus]] decimalised the [[Cypriot pound]] in 1955, which comprised 1000 mils, later replaced by 100 cents.

The [[United Kingdom]] and [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] decimalised the [[pound sterling]] and [[Irish pound]], respectively, in 1971. (See [[£sd]] and [[Decimal Day]].)

[[Malta]] decimalised the [[Maltese lira|lira]] in 1972.

===Americas===

==== North America ====
===== USA =====
Decimalisation was introduced into the [[Thirteen Colonies]] by the [[American Revolution]], and then enshrined in USA law by the [[Coinage Act of 1792]].

===== Canada =====
Decimalisation in Canada was complicated by the different jurisdictions before Confederation in 1867. In 1841, the united [[Province of canada|Province of Canada's]] Governor General, [[Charles Poulett Thomson, 1st Baron Sydenham|Lord Sydenham]], argued for establishment of a bank that would issue dollar currency (the [[Canadian dollar]]). [[Francis Hincks]], who would become the Province of Canada's Prime Minister in 1851, favoured the plan. Ultimately the provincial assembly rejected the proposal.<ref>McCulloch, A. B. “Currency Conversion in British North America, 1760–1900.” Archivaria 16, (Summer 1983): 83-94.</ref> In June 1851, the Canadian legislature passed a law requiring provincial accounts to be kept decimalised as dollars and cents. The establishment of a [[Bank of Canada|central bank]] was not touched upon in the 1851 legislation. The British government delayed the implementation of the currency change on a technicality, wishing to distinguish the Canadian currency from the United States' currency by referencing the units as "Royals" rather than "Dollars".<ref>Canadian Mint. “Currency Reforms, 1841 – 71.” A History of the Canadian Dollar. Ottawa: Canadian Mint, 2003.</ref> The British delay was overcome by the Currency Act of 1 August 1854. In 1858, coins denominated in cents and imprinted with "Canada" were issued for the first time.

Decimalisation occurred in:<ref>Canadian Mint. “Currency Reforms, 1841 – 71.” A History of the Canadian Dollar. Ottawa: Canadian Mint, 2003.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
!
! Date
! Notes
|-
| [[Province of Canada]]
| 1 August 1854
|
|-
| Nova Scotia
| 1 July 1860
| Ordered its first coinage in 1860, but the coins were not shipped by the Royal Mint until 1862
|-
| New Brunswick
| 1 November 1860
| Like Nova Scotia, the coins were received in 1862
|-
| Newfoundland
| 1866
| Took effect in early 1865 and had different coinage from 1865 to 1947
|-
| Vancouver Island
| 1863
|
|-
| British Columbia
| 1865
|
|-
| Manitoba
| 1870
|
|-
| Prince Edward Island
| 1871
|
|}

The colonial elite, the main advocates of decimalisation, based their case on two main arguments:<ref>Mushin, Jerry. “Twentieth Century Currency Reforms: A Comment.” Kyklos 50 (1997): 247 – 249.</ref> The first was for facilitation of trade and economic ties with the United States, the colonies' largest trading partner; the second was to simplify calculations and reduce accounting errors.<ref>W.T. Easterbrook and Hugh G.J. Aitken, Canadian Economic History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988), 381.</ref>

===== Mexico =====
The [[Mexican peso]] was formally decimalised in the 1860s with the introduction of coins denominated in centavos; however, the currency did not fully decimalise in practice immediately and pre-decimal reales were issued until 1897.

===== Bermuda =====
Bermuda decimalised in 1970, by introducing the [[Bermudian dollar]] equal to 8 shillings 4 pence (100 pence, effectively equal to the US dollar under the [[Bretton Woods system]]).

====Caribbean====
* The [[Cuban peso]] decimalised in 1869 (became equal to 100 centavos instead of 8 reales).
* The [[Dominican peso]] decimalised in 1877 (became equal to 100 centavos instead of 8 reales).
* The [[Haitian gourde]] decimalised in 1881 by peg to French franc (became equal to 100 centimes/santim).
* The [[Netherlands Antillean guilder]] decimalised in 1892 by peg to Dutch guilder (became equal to 100 centen).
* The [[British West Indies dollar]] decimalised in 1955.
* The [[Jamaican dollar]] decimalised in 1969.

==== Central America ====

*[[Costa Rican peso]] decimalised in 1864, divided into 100 centavos, instead of 8 reales.
*[[Honduran peso]] decimalised in 1871, divided into 100 centavos, instead of 8 reales.
*[[Belize dollar|British Honduran (Belize) dollar]] decimalised in 1885, divided into 100 cents.

==== South America ====
* The [[Venezuelan peso]] decimalised in 1843.
* The [[Colombian peso]] decimalised in 1847 (became equal to 10 décimos instead of 8 reales, later became equal to 100 centavos).
* The [[Chilean peso#First peso, 1817–1960|Chilean peso]] decimalised in 1851 (became equal to 10 décimos or 100 centavos instead of 8 reales).
* The [[Peruvian sol (1863–1985)|Peruvian sol]] decimalised in 1863 (equal to 10 dineros or 100 centavos).
* The [[Paraguayan peso]] decimalised in 1870 (became equal to 100 centésimos, later centavos, instead of 8 reales).
* The [[Ecuadorian peso]] decimalised in 1871.
* The [[Argentine peso moneda nacional|Argentine peso]] decimalised in 1881.

===Africa===
* The [[Ethiopian birr]] decimalised in 1931 (became equal to 100 metonnyas instead of 16 ghersh).
* The [[Ghanaian cedi]] decimalised in 1965.
* The [[Zambian kwacha]] decimalised in 1968.
* The [[Rhodesian dollar]] decimalised in 1970.
* The [[Gambian dalasi]] decimalised in 1971.
* The [[Malawian kwacha]] decimalised in 1971.
* The [[Nigerian naira]] decimalised in 1973.

==== South Africa ====
The [[South African rand|rand]] was introduced on 14 February 1961. A Decimal Coinage Commission had been set up in 1956 to consider a move away from the denominations of pounds, shillings and pence, submitting its recommendation on 8 August 1958.<ref>Mboweni, T.T. 2001. The Reserve Bank and the Rand: some historic reflections. Speech by the Governor of the Reserve Bank 29 Nov 2001. http://www.reservebank.co.za</ref> It replaced the [[South African pound]] as legal tender, at the rate of 2 rand = 1 pound or 10 [[shilling]]s to the rand. Australia, New Zealand and [[Rhodesia]] also chose ten shillings as the base unit of their new currency.

===Oceania===

==== Australia and New Zealand ====
[[File:ABC Decimal Currency.ogv|thumb|right|1964 [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] report describing the design of the soon to be introduced Australian decimal coins.]]
[[Australia]] decimalised on 14 February 1966, with the [[Australian dollar]]s replacing the [[Australian pound]]. A television campaign containing a memorable [[jingle]], sung to the tune of ''[[Click Go the Shears]]'', was used to help the public to understand the changes.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TZVEEs-RJpw|title = Australian Dollar Bill Currency Decimal Jingle from 1965}}</ref> [[New Zealand]] decimalised on 10 July 1967, with the [[New Zealand dollar]]s replacing the [[New Zealand pound]].

In both countries, the conversion rate was one pound to two dollars and 10 shillings to one dollar.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Conversion between £sd and $c, Australia and New Zealand
!£sd
!$c
|-
|£50
|$100
|-
|£10
|$20
|-
|£5
|$10
|-
|£1
|$2
|-
|10 shillings
|$1
|-
|5 shillings
|50 cents
|-
|2 shillings
|20 cents
|-
|1 shilling
|10 cents
|-
|6 pence
|5 cents
|-
|3 pence
|2.5 cents
|-
|1.2 pence
|1 cent
|-
|1 penny
|{{Frac|5|6}} cent
|}
To ease the transition, the new 5-cent, 10-cent and 20-cents coins were the same size and weight, and the new $1, $2, $10 and $20 banknotes (and the new $100 banknote in New Zealand) were the same colour, as their pre-decimal equivalents. Because of the inexact conversion between cents and pence, people were advised to tender halfpenny, penny and threepence coins in multiples of sixpence (the [[Least common multiple|lowest common multiple]] of both systems) during the transition.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://museum.rba.gov.au/displays/rba-currency-reform/|title=The Reserve Bank and Reform of the Currency: 1960–1988|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190315121444/https://museum.rba.gov.au/displays/rba-currency-reform/|archive-date=2019-03-15}}</ref>

==== Rest of Oceania ====

*[[Tongan pa'anga]] decimalised on 3 April 1967
*[[Samoan tala]] decimalised on 10 July 1967
*[[Fijian dollar]] decimalised on 15 January 1969

===Asia===
[[Sri Lanka]] (known as [[Ceylon]] at the time) decimalised in 1869.

King [[Chulalongkorn]] decimalised the [[Thai baht|Thai currency]] in 1897.

[[Iran]] decimalised its currency in 1932, with the [[Iranian rial|rial]], subdivided into 100 new dinars, replacing the [[Iranian qiran|qiran]] at par.

[[India]] changed from the [[rupee]], [[Anna (coin)|anna]], [[Pie (Indian coin)|pie]] system to decimal currency on 1 April 1957.

[[Yemen Arab Republic]] introduced coinage system of 1 [[North Yemeni rial]]=100 [[fils (currency)|fils]] in 1974, to replace former system of 1 rial = 40 buqsha = 80 halala = 160 zalat. The country was one of the last to convert its coinage.

[[Japan]] historically had two decimalisations of the yen, the sen (1/100) and the rin (1/1,000). However, they were taken out of circulation as of December 31, 1953, and all transactions are now conducted in round amounts of 1 yen or greater.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/S62/S62HO042.html|title=通貨の単位及び貨幣の発行等に関する法律|work=e-gov.go.jp|access-date=2014-05-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208174436/http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htmldata/S62/S62HO042.html|archive-date=2013-02-08|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Rupee-anna-paisa-pie conversion ====
In India, Pakistan, and other places where a system of 1 rupee = 16 [[Indian anna|annas]] = 64 paise = 192 pies was used, the decimalisation process defines 1 naya paisa = {{frac|100}} rupee. The following table shows the conversion of common denominations of coins issued in modern India and Pakistan. Bold denotes the actual denomination written on the coins

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 100%;"
! Rupee !! Anna !! Paisa !! Pie
! Naya paisa
|-
|-
| {{frac|192}} || '''{{frac|12}}''' || {{frac|3}} || '''1'''
| {{frac|25|48}} ≈ 0.5208
|-
|-
| {{frac|128}} || {{frac|8}} || '''{{frac|2}}''' || {{frac|1|1|2}}
| {{Frac|25|32}} = 0.78125
|-
|-
| {{frac|64}} || {{frac|4}} || '''1''' || 3
| {{frac|1|9|16}} = 1.5625
|-
|-
| {{frac|32}} || '''{{frac|2}}''' || 2 || 6
| {{frac|3|1|8}} = 3.125
|-
|-
| {{frac|16}} || '''1''' || 4 || 12
| {{frac|6|1|4}} = 6.25
|-
|-
| {{frac|8}} || '''2''' || 8 || 24
| {{frac|12|1|2}} = 12.5
|-
|-
| '''{{frac|4}}''' || '''4''' || 16 || 48
| 25
|-
|-
| '''{{frac|2}}''' || '''8''' || 32 || 96
| 50
|-
|-
| '''1''' || 16 || 64 || 192
| 100
|}

===Mauritania and Madagascar===
[[Mauritania]] and [[Madagascar]] theoretically retain currencies with units whose values are in the ratio five to one: the [[Mauritanian ouguiya]] (MRU) is equivalent to five khoums, and the [[Malagasy ariary]] (MGA) to five [[iraimbilanja]].

In practice, however, the value of each of these two larger units is very small: as of 2021, the MRU is traded against the [[euro]] at about 44 to one, and the MGA at about 4,600 to one. In each of these countries, the smaller denomination is no longer used, although in Mauritania there is still a "one-fifth ouguiya" coin.

== Non-currency cases ==

=== Securities ===
In the special context of quoting the prices of stocks, traded almost always in blocks of 100 or more [[Share (finance)|share]]s and usually in blocks of many thousands, stock exchanges in the United States used eighths or sixteenths of dollars, until converting to decimals between September 2000 and April 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sec.gov/news/testimony/ts092000.htm|title=SEC Testimony: Decimal Pricing in the Securities and Options Markets (A. Levitt)|work=sec.gov}}</ref>

Similarly, in the UK, the prices of government securities continued to be quoted in multiples of {{frac|32}} of a pound ({{frac|7|1|2}} d or {{frac|3|1|8}} p) long after the currency was decimalised.

===Metrication===
{{main|Metrication}}
The idea of measurement and currency systems where units are related by factors of ten was suggested by [[Simon Stevin]] who in 1585 first advocated the use of decimal numbers for everyday purposes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/565994/Simon-Stevin |title=Simon Stevin (Dutch mathematician) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |access-date=2018-10-26}}</ref> The [[Metric system]] was developed in France in the 1790s as part of the reforms introduced during the [[French Revolution]]. Its adoption was gradual, both within France and in other countries, but its use is nearly universal today. One aspect of measurement decimalisation was the introduction of [[metric prefix]]es to derive bigger and smaller sizes from base unit names. Examples include ''kilo'' for 1000, ''hecto'' for 100, ''centi'' for 1/100 and ''milli'' for 1/1000. The list of metric prefixes has expanded in modern times to encompass a wider range of measurements.

While the common [[units of time]], minute, hour, day, month and year, are not decimalised, there have been proposals for [[decimal time|decimalisation of the time of day]] and [[decimal calendar]] systems. Astronomers use a decimalised [[Julian day number]] to record and predict events.

== See also ==
* [[Decimal Day]]
* [[British coinage]]
* [[Non-decimal currencies]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Decimalisation| ]]
[[Category:Currency]]
[[Category:Russian inventions]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

Calvary

2021-07-27T11:17:11Z

Zumbo: linkfix

{{short description|Location outside Jerusalem}}
{{redirect|Golgotha||Golgotha (disambiguation)|and|Calvary (disambiguation)}}
{{distinguish|Cavalry}}
[[File:Golgotha (Church of the Holy Sepulchre).jpg|thumb|Traditional site of Golgotha in the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]]]

'''Calvary''', or '''Golgotha''' ({{lang-grc-koi|Γολγοθᾶ[ς]}} ''Golgothâ[s]'', traditionally interpreted as reflecting {{lang-syr|ܓܓܘܠܬܐ}} ''gāgūlṯā'',<ref>{{cite book|last=Schultens|first=Albert|author-link=Albert Schultens|title=Institutiones ad fundamenta linguæ Hebrææ: quibus via panditur ad ejusdem analogiam restituendam, et vindicandam : in usum collegii domestici|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ANZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA334|year=1737|publisher=Johannes Luzac|page=334}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Thrupp|first=Joseph Francis|author-link=Joseph Francis Thrupp|title=Ancient Jerusalem: A New Investigation Into the History, Topography and Plan of the City, Environs, and Temple, Designed Principally to Illustrate the Records and Prophecies of Scripture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apJHAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA272|year=1855|publisher=Macmillan & Company|page=272}}</ref><ref>Toma Audo, Treasure of the Syriac Language: A Dictionary of Classical Syriac (Mosul: Imprimerie des pères dominicains, 1897-[1901]. Reprints: Chicago, 1978; Stockholm, 1979; Glane/Losser, 1985; Piscataway, NJ, 2008) Vol 1, p. 117 https://www.dukhrana.com/lexicon/TomaAudo/page.php?p=117</ref><ref>Robert Payne Smith, Thesaurus Syriacus (Oxford: The Calerndon Press, 1879) Vol 1, p. 324 https://www.dukhrana.com/lexicon/RPayneSmith/page.php?p=649</ref><ref>J. Payne Smith (Mrs. Margoliouth), A Compendious Syriac Dictionary (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1903) p. 60 https://www.dukhrana.com/lexicon/PayneSmith/page.php?p=60</ref> as it were [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''gulgōleṯ'' "skull" ({{lang|he|גולגולת}});<ref name= Hebrew>{{cite book|last=Lande|first=George M.|title=Building Your Biblical Hebrew Vocabulary Learning Words by Frequency and Cognate|url=http://www.sbl-site.org/publications/ICI_Resources_Biblical_study.aspx|series=Resources for Biblical Study 41|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|location=Atlanta|year=2001|orig-year=1961|isbn=1-58983-003-2|page=115}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=H1538 - gulgoleth - Strong's Hebrew Lexicon (KJV) |url=https://www.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H1538&t=KJV |website=Blue Letter Bible |language=en}}</ref> {{lang-ar|جلجثة}}), was, according to the [[canonical Gospels]], a site immediately outside [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem's]] walls where [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]] was [[crucifixion of Jesus|crucified]].<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Calvary}}</ref>

The Gospels use the [[Koine Greek|Koine]] term ''Kraníon'' ({{lang|grc|Κρανίον}})<ref>{{bibleverse||Luke|23:33|NKJV}}</ref> or ''Kraniou topos'' ({{lang|grc|Κρανίου τόπος}}) <ref>{{bibleverse||Matthew|27:33|NKJV}}; {{bibleverse||Mark|15:22|NKJV}} {{bibleverse||John|19:17|NKJV}}</ref> when testifying to the place outside Jerusalem where Jesus was crucified. E.g., Mark 15:22 ([[NRSV]]), "Then they brought Jesus to the place called Golgotha (which means: 'the place of a skull')." ''Kraníon'' is often translated as "[[Skull]]" in English, but more accurately means ''Cranium'', the part of the skull enclosing the brain. In [[Latin]] it is rendered '''Calvariae Locus''', from which the English term ''Calvary'' derives.

Its traditional site, identified by [[Helena (empress)|Queen Mother Helena]], mother of [[Constantine the Great]], in 325, is at the site of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]. A 19th-century suggestion places it at the site now known as '[[The Garden Tomb]]' on Skull Hill, some {{convert|500|m|abbr=on}} to the north, and {{convert|200|m|abbr=on}} north of the [[Damascus Gate]]. Historian [[Joan E. Taylor]] bases a location c. {{convert|175|m|abbr=on}} south-southeast of the traditional site on her reading of textual evidence.<ref name="Taylor">{{cite journal |title= Golgotha: A Reconsideration of the Evidence |first= Joan |last= Taylor |journal= [[Bible and Spade]] |date= Spring 2002 |publisher= Associates for Biblical Research |url= http://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2010/01/11/Golgotha-A-Reconsideration-of-the-Evidence-for-the-Sites-of-Jesuse28099-Crucifixion-and-Burial.aspx#Article |access-date= 27 July 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180727212219/http://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2010/01/11/Golgotha-A-Reconsideration-of-the-Evidence-for-the-Sites-of-Jesuse28099-Crucifixion-and-Burial.aspx#Article |archive-date= 27 July 2018 |url-status= dead }}</ref>

==Biblical references and etymology==
[[File:Altar of the Crucifixion in The Church of The Holy Sepulchre.ogv|thumb|Altar at the traditional site of Golgotha]]
[[File:Голгофа.jpg|thumb|The [[altar]] at the traditional site of Golgotha]]
[[File:Illustration from Views in the Ottoman Dominions by Luigi Mayer, digitally enhanced by rawpixel-com 65.jpg|thumb|Chapel of Mount Calvary, painted by [[Luigi Mayer]]]]
The recorded form Γολγοθα may be a simplified pronunciation of an Aramaic ''golgolta'',<ref>so [[John Lightfoot]] (ed. Dove 1822) iii.[https://books.google.ch/books?id=rBQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA164 164]. Lightfoot points out that ''golgotha'' is the [[Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan]] form of Biblical Hebrew {{lang|he|גֻּלְגֹּלֶת}} in [[Book of Numbers|Numeri]] 1:18 ({{lang|he|לְגֻלְגְּלֹתָֽם }} "by their polls").
see also Samuel James Andrews, ''The Life of Our Lord Upon the Earth Considered in Its Historical, Chronological, and Geographical Relations'' (1873), [https://books.google.ch/books?id=EFdOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA559 p. 559]</ref> corresponding to Hebrew ''gulgōleṯ'' ({{lang|he|גֻּלְגֹּלֶת}}) "skull".<ref name= Hebrew/>

English ''Calvary'' is the anglicized form of the [[Latin]] gloss from the [[Vulgate]] (''Calvariæ''), to refer to Golgotha in [[Luke 23]]:33,
where the Greek text gives Κρανίον rather than the explicit Κρανίου Τόπος of [[Matthew 27]]:33, [[Mark 15]]:22 and [[John 19]]:17.
The adoption of the Latin form has a long tradition in [[English Bible translations]], going back to at least the late 10th century ([[Wessex Gospels]]<ref>''Da Halgan Godspel on Englisc'' ed. Thorpe (1842), [https://archive.org/stream/dahalgangodspelo00thor#page/n183/mode/2up p. 176].</ref>), and is retained in [[Wycliffe's Bible]] and [[Tyndale's Bible]] as well as in the [[King James Version]].
By contrast, [[Martin Luther]] translates Luke's Κρανίον into German as ''{{lang|de|Schädelstätte}}'' ("place of skull(s)").<ref>Luther in this diverges from the pre-Lutheran Lübeck translation, which like Wycliffe retains Latin ''calvarie''.
''Biblia'', Lübeck, 1494 (Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek Rar. 880, [http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/~db/0002/bsb00025548/images/index.html?id=00025548&groesser=&fip=193.174.98.30&no=&seite=863 p. 430]).</ref> The Latinism is also current in various other languages within the [[Latin rite|Latin sphere of influence]], including Spanish and Italian ''Calvario'', French ''Calvaire'', Polish ''Kalwaria'', Lithuanian ''Kalvarijos''.

The church fathers offer different interpretations for the name; either deriving it from a topographic feature resembling a cranium ([[Pseudo-Tertullian]]),<ref name=skullpan>Golgotha is described as "A spot there is called Golgotha, – of old the fathers' earlier tongue thus called its name, 'The skull-pan of a head'." by Five Books in Reply to Marcion, Book 2, Ante-Nicene Fathers Volume 4, p. 276</ref>
or alternatively as the site where the skull of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] was said to be buried ([[Origenes]]), or from the skulls of those executed there ([[Jerome]], ''locum decollatorum'').<ref name="ce"/>

The association of the site with the "skull of Adam" is expanded in a number of noncanonical Christian writings, including [[Clementine literature|the ''Kitab al-Magall'']], the ''[[Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan]]'', the ''[[Cave of Treasures]]'', as well as by [[Patriarch Eutychius of Alexandria]] (9th century). According to these accounts, [[Shem]] and [[Melchizedek]] traveled to the resting place of [[Noah's Ark]], retrieved the body of Adam from it, and were led by Angels to Golgotha – described as a skull-shaped hill at the centre of the Earth, where also the [[Serpents in the Bible|serpent's head]] had been crushed following the [[Fall of Man]].<ref name="ce"/>

While the Gospels merely identify Calvary as a "place" ({{lang|grc|τόπος}}), Christian tradition since at least the 6th century has described the location as a "mountain" or "hill".<ref name="ce">{{Cite book|title=Mount Calvary|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03191a.htm|work=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]|volume=Vol. III|location=New York|publisher=Robert Appleton Company|year=1908}}</ref>

The location itself is mentioned in all four [[Biblical Canon|canonical Gospels]]:
* [[Matthew 27]]:33: "And when they were come unto a place called Golgotha [Γολγοθᾶ], that is to say, a place of a skull [Κρανίου Τόπος]" (KJV)
* [[Mark 15]]:22: "And they bring him unto the place Golgotha [Γολγοθᾶ], which is, being interpreted, The place of a skull [Κρανίου Τόπος]" (KJV)
* [[Luke 23]]:33: "And when they were come to the place, which is called Calvary [Κρανίον], there they crucified him, and the malefactors, one on the right hand, and the other on the left." (KJV)
* [[John 19]]:17: "And he bearing his cross went forth into a place called the place of a skull [Κρανίου Τόπον], which is called in the Hebrew Golgotha [Γολγοθα]." (KJV)

An alternative suggestion, due to Krafft (1846)<ref>
Wilhelm Ludwig Krafft, ''Die Topographie Jerusalems'', Bonn (1846)</ref>
proposes that the reported association with the word "skull" is a popular etymology of an original name ''Gol Goatha'', interpreted (by Krafft) as meaning "heap of death", or "hill of execution";
the supposed toponym ''Goatha'' has also been identified, by Ferguson (1847),
with the location called ''Goʿah'' (גֹּעָה)<ref>''Strong's Concordance'' [https://www.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H1601&t=KJV H1601] "Goah, a place near Jerusalem: Goath."</ref> in [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 31:39, in a description of the geography of Jerusalem.<ref>James Fergusson, ''An Essay on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem'' (1847), [https://books.google.ch/books?id=Jh2N93EjjFsC&pg=PA80 80f].
Ferguson in this disagrees with Krafft, who identified the ''Goath'' of Jeremiah with the ''Gennath'' Γεννάθ of Josephus, i.e. the "garden gate" to the west of the Temple mount.</ref>

==Location==
There is no consensus as to the location of the site. [[Gospel of John|John]] ({{Bibleverse-nb|John|19:20|KJV}}) describes the crucifixion site as being "near the city". According to [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] ({{Bibleref2|Hebrews 13:12}}), it was "outside the city gate". {{bibleverse|Matthew|27:39|KJV}} and {{bibleverse|Mark|15:29|KJV}} both note that the location would have been accessible to "passers-by". Thus, locating the crucifixion site involves identifying a site that, in the city of Jerusalem some four decades before its [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction in AD 70]], would have been outside a major gate near enough to the city that the passers-by could not only see him, but also read the inscription 'Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews'.<ref>{{bibleverse||John|19:20|KJV}}</ref>

===Church of the Holy Sepulchre===
Christian tradition since the fourth century has favoured a location now within the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]. This places it well within today's [[walls of Jerusalem]], which surround the [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City]] and were rebuilt in the 16th century by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Proponents of the traditional Holy Sepulchre location point out at the fact that first-century Jerusalem had a different shape and size from the 16th-century city, leaving the church's site outside the pre-AD 70 city walls. Those opposing it doubt this.

Defenders of the traditional site have argued that the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was only brought within the city limits by [[Herod Agrippa]] (41–44), who built the so-called Third Wall around a newly-settled northern district, while at the time of Jesus' crucifixion around AD 30 it would still have been just outside the city.

[[Henry Chadwick (theologian)|Henry Chadwick]] (2003) argued that when Hadrian's builders replanned the old city, they "incidentally confirm[ed] the bringing of Golgotha inside a new town wall."<ref name="Chadwick 2003">{{Cite book|last=Chadwick|first=H.|title=The Church in Ancient Society: From Galilee to Gregory the Great|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2003|page=21|isbn=0-19-926577-1}}</ref>

In 2007 [[Dan Bahat]], the former City Archaeologist of Jerusalem and Professor of Land of Israel Studies at [[Bar-Ilan University]], stated that "Six graves from the first century were found on the area of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. That means, this place [was] outside of the city, without any doubt…",<ref name="ZDF">Dan Bahat [https://web.archive.org/web/20071022135746/http://zdf.de/ZDFde/inhalt/17/0%2C1872%2C5262833%2C00.html in German television ZDF, April 11, 2007]</ref> thus maintaining that there are no scientific, archaeological grounds for rejecting the traditional location for Calvary.

===Alternative theories===
Some Protestant advocates of an alternative site claim that a wall would imply the existence of a defensive ditch outside it, so an earlier wall could not be immediately adjacent to the ''Golgotha'' site, which, combined with the presence of the [[Temple Mount]], would make the city inside the wall quite thin. Essentially, for the traditional site to have been outside the wall, the city would have had to be limited to the lower parts of the [[Tyropoeon Valley]], rather than including the defensively advantageous western hill. Since these geographic considerations imply that not including the hill within the walls would be willfully making the city prone to attack from it, some scholars, including the late 19th century surveyors of the [[Palestine Exploration Fund]], consider it unlikely that people would build a wall that cut the hill off from the city in the valley.<ref>Colonel [[Claude R. Conder]], ''The City of Jerusalem'' (1909), (republished 2004); for details about Conder himself, see [[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener#Survey of Western Palestine]]</ref> However, archaeological digs within the Church of the Holy Sepulchre proved the existence of six graves from the first century on the area of the church, placing it outside the city area<ref name="ZDF"/> and casting doubt on the "Strategic Weakness" and "Defensive Ditch" hypotheses.

Joan Taylor supports a location inside the Old City, east of Jaffa Gate, southwest of the David and Habad Street junction, but still north of St Mark's Street.<ref name="Taylor"/> She considers that canonical as well as apocryphal Gospels, in connection with the known history and archaeology of [[Aelia Capitolina]] and Byzantine Jerusalem, together with the works of [[Melito of Sardis]] and [[Eusebius]], indicate that Golgotha was the name of an area created by a large [[First Temple Period]] quarry, and not just of the crucifixion site, the latter of which she locates at the southern margin of this area.<ref name="Taylor"/> At the same time, Taylor supports the traditional location of the tomb.<ref name="Taylor"/>

==Church of the Holy Sepulchre==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Jerusalem Holy Sepulchre BW 4.JPG
| width1 = 140
| alt1 =
| caption1 = Pilgrims queue to touch the rock of Calvary in Chapel of the Crucifixion
| image2 = 5208-20080122-1255UTC--jerusalem-calvary.jpg
| width2 = 140
| alt2 =
| caption2 = Disc marking traditional place, under the altar, where Jesus' cross stood.
| footer =
}}
[[File:Jerusalem Christian Quarter.jpg|thumb|The Holy Sepulchre (1) in the [[Christian Quarter]] of [[Jerusalem]]]]
The traditional location of Golgotha derives from its identification by [[Helena, mother of Constantine I|Queen Mother Helena]], mother of [[Constantine the Great]], in 325.
Only a few steps away (within {{convert|45|m|yd|-1}}), Helena also identified the location of the tomb of Jesus and claimed to have discovered the [[True Cross]]; her son, Constantine, then built the Church of the Holy Sepulchre around the whole site. In 333, the author of the ''[[Itinerarium Burdigalense]]'', entering from the east, described the result:

{{quote|On the left hand is the little hill of Golgotha where the Lord was crucified. About a stone's throw from thence is a vault [crypta] wherein his body was laid, and rose again on the third day. There, at present, by the command of the Emperor Constantine, has been built a [[basilica]]; that is to say, a church of wondrous beauty.<ref>''[[Itinerarium Burdigalense]]'', pp. 593, 594</ref>}}

In Nazénie Garibian de Vartavan's doctoral thesis, now published as ''La Jérusalem Nouvelle et les premiers sanctuaires chrétiens de l’Arménie. Méthode pour l’étude de l’église comme temple de Dieu,'' she concluded, through multiple arguments (mainly theological and archaeological), that the true site of Golgotha was precisely at the vertical of the now buried Constantinian basilica's altar and away from where the traditional rock of Golgotha is situated.<ref name="Garibian de Vartavan 2008">{{Cite book|last=Garibian de Vartavan|first=N.|title=La Jérusalem Nouvelle et les premiers sanctuaires chrétiens de l'Arménie. Méthode pour l'étude de l'église comme temple de Dieu|location=London|publisher=Isis Pharia|year=2008|isbn=978-0-9527827-7-3}}</ref> The plans published in the book indicate the location of the Golgotha within a precision of less than two meters, below the circular passage situated a metre away from where the blood stained shirt of Christ was traditionally recovered and immediately before the stairs leading down to St. Helena's Chapel (the above-mentioned mother of Emperor Constantine), alternatively called St. Vartan's Chapel.

===Temple to Aphrodite===
[[File:Roman Jerusalem.PNG|thumb|right|Jerusalem after being rebuilt by [[Hadrian]]: Two main east–west roads were built, as well as two main north-south roads.]]

Prior to Helena's identification, the site had been a [[temple]] to [[Aphrodite]]. Constantine's construction took over most of the site of the earlier temple enclosure, and the ''Rotunda'' and [[cloister]] (which was replaced after the 12th century by the present ''[[Katholikon|Catholicon]]'' and ''Calvary chapel'') roughly overlap with the temple building itself; the [[basilica]] church Constantine built over the remainder of the enclosure was destroyed at the turn of the 11th century, and has not been replaced. [[Sacred Tradition|Christian tradition]] claims that the location had originally been a Christian place of veneration, but that Hadrian had deliberately buried these Christian sites and built his own temple on top, on account of his alleged hatred for Christianity.<ref>[[Eusebius]], ''Life of Constantine'', 3:26</ref>

There is certainly evidence that circa 160, at least as early as 30 years after [[Aelia Capitolina|Hadrian's temple]] had been built, Christians associated it with the site of ''Golgotha''; [[Melito of Sardis]], an influential mid-2nd century bishop in the region, described the location as "in the middle of the street, in the middle of the city",<ref>Melito of Sardis, ''On Easter''</ref> which matches the position of Hadrian's temple within the mid-2nd century city.

The Romans typically built a city according to a [[Hippodamus|Hippodamian]] [[grid plan]] – a North-South [[arterial road]], the [[Cardo]] (which is now the Suq Khan-ez-Zeit), and an East-West arterial road, the [[Decumanus Maximus]] (which is now the [[Via Dolorosa]]).<ref name="Warwick Ball">{{Cite book|last=Ball|first=Warwick|title=Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire|page=294}}</ref> The [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] would traditionally be located on the intersection of the two roads, with the main temples adjacent.<ref name="Warwick Ball" /> However, due to the obstruction posed by the Temple Mount, as well as the [[Legio X Fretensis|Tenth Legion]] encampment on the Western Hill, Hadrian's city had two ''Cardo'', two ''Decumanus Maximus'', two forums,<ref name="Warwick Ball" /> and several temples. The Western Forum (now the [[Muristan]]) is located on the crossroads of the West Cardo and what is now El-Bazar/David Street, with the Temple of Aphrodite adjacent, on the intersection of the Western Cardo and the [[Via Dolorosa]]. The Northern Forum is located north of the Temple Mount, on the junction of the Via Dolorosa and the Eastern Cardo (the [[Tyropoeon Valley|Tyropoeon]]), adjacent to the Temple of [[Jupiter Capitolinus]], intentionally built atop the Temple Mount.<ref name="Clermont-Ganneau I">{{Cite book|last=Clermont-Ganneau|first=Charles|title=Archaeological researches in Palestine during the years 1873–1874}}</ref> Another popular holy site that Hadrian converted to a pagan temple was the [[Pool of Bethesda]], possibly referenced to in the fifth chapter of the Gospel of John,<ref>{{bibleverse||John|5:1–18|}}</ref><ref name="MurphyOConnor">[[Jerome Murphy-O'Connor]], ''The Holy Land'', (2008), p. 29</ref> on which was built the Temple of [[Asclepius]] and [[Serapis]]. While the positioning of the Temple of Aphrodite may be, in light of the common [[Colonia (Roman)|Colonia]] layout, entirely unintentional, Hadrian is known to have concurrently built pagan temples on top of other holy sites in Jerusalem as part of an overall "[[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]]" policy.<ref name="Schäfer2003">{{cite book|author=Peter Schäfer|title=The Bar Kokhba war reconsidered: new perspectives on the second Jewish revolt against Rome|url={{Google books |id=1TA-Fg4wBnUC |page=36 |plainurl=yes }} |access-date=4 December 2011|year=2003|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|isbn=978-3-16-148076-8|pages=36–}}</ref><ref name="erp-places">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310053428/http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm|archive-date=10 March 2008|title=Palestine: History|access-date=18 April 2007|date=22 February 2007|last=Lehmann|first=Clayton Miles|encyclopedia=The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces|publisher=The University of South Dakota}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Cohen|first=Shaye J. D.|chapter=Judaism to Mishnah: 135–220 C.E|title=Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism: A Parallel History of their Origins and Early Development|editor=Hershel Shanks|year=1996|location=Washington DC|page=196|publisher=Biblical Archaeology Society}}</ref><ref>Emily Jane Hunt, {{Google books |id=Dn5ERgK0djMC |page=7 |title=Christianity in the second century: the case of Tatian}}, Psychology Press, 2003, p. 7</ref><ref>E. Mary Smallwood {{Google books |id=nw0VAAAAIAAJ |page=460 |title=The Jews under Roman rule: from Pompey to Diocletian, a study in political relations}} Brill, 1981, p. 460.</ref>

Archaeological excavations under the Church of the Holy Sepulchre have revealed Christian pilgrims' graffiti, dating from the period that the Temple of Aphrodite was still present, of a ship, a common early Christian symbol<ref name=newadvent>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10724a.htm Nave] ''New Advent encyclopedia'', accessed 25 March 2014.</ref><ref>[http://www.jesuswalk.com/christian-symbols/ship.htm Ship as a Symbol of the Church (Bark of St. Peter)] Jesus Walk, accessed 11 February 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sidneyherald.com/archives/ship-hangs-in-balance-at-pella-evangelical-lutheran-church/article_9485d09f-e314-5f3e-b071-0cf8b2059dd7.html|title=Ship hangs in balance at Pella Evangelical Lutheran Church|date=10 June 2008|work=Sidney ([[Montana]]) Herald|access-date=3 January 2016}}</ref> and the etching "DOMINVS IVIMVS", meaning "Lord, we went",<ref name="Clermont-Ganneau II">{{Cite book|last=Clermont-Ganneau|first=Charles|title=Archaeological researches in Palestine during the years 1873–1874|page=103}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://followinghadrian.com/2014/11/05/exploring-aelia-capitolina-hadrians-jerusalem/|title=Exploring Aelia Capitolina, Hadrian's Jerusalem|last=followinghadrian|date=5 November 2014|access-date=28 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218124758/https://followinghadrian.com/2014/11/05/exploring-aelia-capitolina-hadrians-jerusalem/|archive-date=18 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> lending possible support to the statement by Melito of Sardis' asserting that early Christians identified Golgotha as being in the middle of Hadrian's city, rather than outside.

===Rockface===
[[File:Golgotha Stone Chapel of Adam.jpg|thumb|Natural stone of Golgotha in the Chapel of Adam below site]]

During 1973–1978 restoration works and excavations inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and under the nearby [[Muristan]], it was found that the area was originally a quarry, from which white Meleke [[limestone]] was struck;<ref name="Hesemann170">{{Cite book|title=Die Jesus-Tafel|last=Hesemann|first=Michael|publisher=Freiburg|year=1999|isbn=3-451-27092-7|page=170|language=de|author-link=Michael Hesemann}}</ref> surviving parts of the quarry to the north-east of the chapel of St. Helena are now accessible from within the chapel (by permission). Inside the church is a rock, about 7 m long by 3 m wide by 4.8 m high,<ref name="Hesemann170"/> that is traditionally believed to be all that now remains visible of ''Golgotha''; the design of the church means that the ''Calvary Chapel'' contains the upper foot or so of the rock, while the remainder is in the chapel beneath it (known as the ''tomb of Adam''). [[Virgilio Canio Corbo|Virgilio Corbo]], a [[Franciscan]] priest and archaeologist, present at the excavations, suggested that from the city the little hill (which still exists) could have looked like a skull.<ref name="HesemannHill">Hesemann 1999, p. 170: "Von der Stadt aus muß er tatsächlich wie eine Schädelkuppe ausgesehen haben," and p. 190: a sketch; and p. 172: a sketch of the geological findings by C. Katsimbinis, 1976: "der Felsblock ist zu 1/8 unterhalb des Kirchenbodens, verbreitert sich dort auf etwa 6,40 Meter und verläuft weiter in die Tiefe"; and p. 192, a sketch by Corbo, 1980: Golgotha is distant 10 meters outside from the southwest corner of the Martyrion-basilica</ref>

During a 1986 repair to the floor of the ''Calvary Chapel'' by the art historian George Lavas and architect Theo Mitropoulos, a round slot of {{convert|11.5|cm|1|abbr=on}} diameter was discovered in the rock, partly open on one side (Lavas attributes the open side to accidental damage during his repairs);<ref name="Lavas">George Lavas, ''The Rock of Calvary'', published (1996) in ''The Real and Ideal Jerusalem in Jewish, Christian and Islamic Art'' (proceedings of the 5th International Seminar in Jewish Art), pp. 147–150</ref> although the dating of the slot is uncertain, and could date to Hadrian's temple of Aphrodite, Lavas suggested that it could have been the site of the crucifixion, as it would be strong enough to hold in place a wooden trunk of up to {{convert|2.5|m}} in height (among other things).<ref>Hesemann 1999, pp. 171–172: "....Georg Lavas and ... Theo Mitropoulos, ... cleaned off a thick layer of rubble and building material from one to 45 cm thick that covered the actual limestone. The experts still argue whether this was the work of the architects of Hadrian, who aimed thereby to adapt the rock better to the temple plan, or whether it comes from 7th century cleaning....When the restorers progressed to the lime layer and the actual rock....they found they had removed  a circular slot of 11.5 cm diameter".</ref><ref>Vatican-magazin.com, Vatican 3/2007, pp. 12/13; [https://web.archive.org/web/20110717185434/http://www.vatican-magazin.com/archiv/2007/03-2007/titel.pdf Vatican 3/2007, p. 11, here p. 3 photo No. 4, quite right], photo by Paul Badde: der steinere Ring auf dem Golgothafelsen.</ref> The same restoration work also revealed a crack running across the surface of the rock, which continues down to the ''Chapel of Adam'';<ref name="Lavas"/> the crack is thought by archaeologists to have been a result of the quarry workmen encountering a flaw in the rock.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.holyplacesinisrael.com/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318144411/http://www.holyplacesinisrael.com/church_holy_sepulchre.html|url-status=dead|title=502 Bad Gateway nginx openresty 208.80.154.49|archive-date=March 18, 2009|website=www.holyplacesinisrael.com}}</ref>

Based on the late 20th century excavations of the site, there have been a number of attempted reconstructions of the profile of the cliff face. These often attempt to show the site as it would have appeared to Constantine. However, as the ground level in Roman times was about {{convert|4|–|5|ft}} lower and the site housed Hadrian's temple to Aphrodite, much of the surrounding rocky slope must have been removed long before Constantine built the church on the site. The height of the ''Golgotha'' rock itself would have caused it to jut through the platform level of the Aphrodite temple, where it would be clearly visible. The reason for Hadrian not cutting the rock down is uncertain, but Virgilio Corbo suggested that a statue, probably of Aphrodite, was placed on it,<ref>Virgilio Corbo, ''The Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem'' (1981)</ref> a suggestion also made by [[Jerome]]. Some archaeologists have suggested that prior to Hadrian's use, the rock outcrop had been a ''nefesh'' – a Jewish funeral monument, equivalent to the [[stele]].<ref>Dan Bahat, ''Does the Holy Sepulchre Church Mark the Burial of Jesus?'', in ''[[Biblical Archaeology Review]]'' May/June 1986</ref>

===Pilgrimages to Constantine's Church===
[[File:Jesus in Golgotha by Theophanes the Cretan.jpg|thumb|left|[[Icon]] of Jesus being led to Golgotha, 16th century, [[Theophanes the Cretan]] ([[Stavronikita]] [[Monastery]], [[Mount Athos]])]]

The [[Itinerarium Burdigalense]] speaks of Golgotha in 333: "... On the left hand is the little hill of Golgotha where the Lord was crucified. About a stone's throw from thence is a vault (crypta) wherein His body was laid, and rose again on the third day. There, at present, by the command of the Emperor Constantine, has been built a basilica, that is to say, a church of wondrous beauty,"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/pilgr/bord/10Bord07bJerus.html#Golgotha|title=Bordeaux Pilgrim – Text 7b: Jerusalem (second part)|first=john|last=abela|access-date=2011-10-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513215942/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/pilgr/bord/10Bord07bJerus.html#Golgotha|archive-date=2016-05-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Cyril of Jerusalem]], a distinguished theologian of the early Church, and eyewitness to the early days of Constantine's edifice, speaks of Golgotha in eight separate passages, sometimes as near to the church where he and his listeners assembled:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pravoslavnaolomouc.cz/ZIP/OTCO/PNC/PN7.PDF |title=St. Cyril of Jerusalem| page =51, note 313 |access-date=2007-06-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616164151/http://www.pravoslavnaolomouc.cz/ZIP/OTCO/PNC/PN7.PDF |archive-date=2007-06-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> "Golgotha, the holy hill standing above us here, bears witness to our sight: the Holy Sepulchre bears witness, and the stone which lies there to this day."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pravoslavnaolomouc.cz/ZIP/OTCO/PNC/PN7.PDF |title=Cyril, Catechetical Lectures, year 347, lecture X|page =160, note 1221 |access-date=2007-06-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616164151/http://www.pravoslavnaolomouc.cz/ZIP/OTCO/PNC/PN7.PDF |archive-date=2007-06-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> And just in such a way the [[Egeria (pilgrim)|pilgrim Egeria]] often reported in 383: "… the church, built by Constantine, which is situated in Golgotha …"<ref>''[http://www.ccel.org/m/mcclure/etheria/etheria.htm Iteneraria Egeriae]''</ref> and also bishop [[Eucherius of Lyon]] wrote to the island presbyter Faustus in 440: "Golgotha is in the middle between the Anastasis and the Martyrium, the place of the Lord's passion, in which still appears that rock which once endured the very cross on which the Lord was.",<ref>[http://homepages.luc.edu/~avande1/jerusalem/sources/eucherius.htm Letter To The Presbyter Faustus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613200112/http://homepages.luc.edu/~avande1/jerusalem/sources/eucherius.htm |date=2008-06-13 }}, by Eucherius. "What is reported, about the site of the city Jerusalem and also of Judaea"; ''Epistola Ad Faustum Presbyterum.'' "Eucherii, Quae fertur, de situ Hierusolimitanae urbis atque ipsius Iudaeae." ''Corpus Scriptorum Eccles. Latinorum'' XXXIX Itinera Hierosolymitana, Saeculi IIII–VIII, P. Geyer, 1898</ref> and Breviarius de Hierosolyma reports in 530: "From there (the middle of the basilica), you enter into Golgotha, where there is a large court. Here the Lord was crucified. All around that hill, there are silver screens."<ref>Whalen, Brett Edward, Pilgrimage in the Middle Ages, p. 40, University of Toronto Press, 2011, {{ISBN|978-1-4426-0199-4}}; Iteneraria et alia geographica, Corpus Christianorum Series Latina, vol. 175 (Turnhout, [[Brepols]] 1965), pp. 109–112</ref> (See also: [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] in 338.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iv.vi.iii.xxxv.html|title=NPNF2-01. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine – Christian Classics Ethereal Library}}</ref>)
{{Clear}}

==Gordon's Calvary==
{{main|Gordon's Calvary}}
[[File:Golgotha photo.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Rocky escarpment resembling a skull, located northwest of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]], near the [[Garden Tomb]] with c. 1900s picture posted on pole for comparison]]
In 1842, heavily relying on the research of [[Edward Robinson (scholar)|Edward Robinson]], a German theologian and biblical scholar from Dresden named [[Otto Thenius]] was the first to publish a proposal that the rocky knoll north of Damascus Gate was the biblical ''Golgotha''.<ref name="Golgotha and The Holy Sepulchre">Charles W. Wilson, [https://archive.org/stream/golgothaandholy00wilsgoog/golgothaandholy00wilsgoog_djvu.txt ''Golgotha and The Holy Sepulchre''] (1906, The Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund), pp. 103-120</ref><ref>Otto Thenius, "Golgatha et Sanctum Sepulchrum" in [https://archive.org/details/zeitschriftfurd04illggoog ''Zeitschrift fir die historische Theologie'' (1842)]</ref>
In 1882–83, Major-General [[Charles George Gordon]] endorsed this view, and subsequently the site has sometimes been known as [[Gordon's Calvary]]. The location, usually referred to today as ''[[Skull Hill]]'', is beneath a cliff that contains two large sunken holes, which Gordon regarded as resembling the eyes of a skull. He and a few others before him  believed that the skull-like appearance would have caused the location to be known as Golgotha.<ref>Bill White, ''A Special Place: The Story of the Garden Tomb'' (1989).</ref>

Nearby is an ancient rock-cut tomb known today as [[the Garden Tomb]], which Gordon proposed as the tomb of Jesus. The Garden Tomb contains several ancient burial places, although the archaeologist [[Gabriel Barkay]] has proposed that the tomb dates to the 7th century BCE and that the site may have been abandoned by the 1st century.<ref>Gabriel Barkay, ''The Garden Tomb'', published in ''[[Biblical Archaeology Review]]'' March/April 1986</ref>

[[Eusebius]] comments that Golgotha was in his day (the 4th century) pointed out ''north of Mount Zion''.<ref name=Onomasticon>Eusebius, ''[[Eusebius' Onomasticon|Onomasticon]]'', 365</ref> While "Mount Zion" was used previously in reference to the Temple Mount itself, [[Josephus]], the first-century AD historian who knew the city as it was before the [[Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70)|Roman destruction of Jerusalem]], identified Mount Zion as being the Western Hill (the current Mount Zion),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://global.britannica.com/place/Zion-hill-Jerusalem|title=Zion, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''}}</ref><ref>[http://jbq.jewishbible.org/assets/Uploads/303/303_zion303a.pdf The Unknown Mount Zion]</ref> which is south of both the Garden Tomb and the Holy Sepulchre. Eusebius' comment therefore offers no additional argument for either location.

==On Aelia Capitolina's Decumanus==
See Joan Taylor's theory in the article's introduction and under [[#Alternative theories|Alternative theories]].

==Outside Lions Gate==
[[File:Skulltotemple.jpg|right|thumb|800px|The hill having the appearance of a cranium (the skull-pan of a head<ref name=skullpan />), approx. 200 meters northeast of where the curtain at the Temple entrance once stood. The cranium appears to be looking directly towards where the temple entrance and the north side of the altar once stood, both identified in prophetic Scriptures as being 'before the LORD' (Lev{{Bibleref2c-nb|Lev|1:3}}{{Bibleref2c-nb|Lev|1:11}}).]]
Another possible location has been proposed by Rodger Dusatko, a missionary in Germany. He identifies the hill just outside the [[Lions' Gate|Lions Gate]]<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.golgotha.eu/|title=Golgotha Rediscovered}}</ref> having the appearance of a cranium as the 'Cranium Place' mentioned in the [[Gospels]]. 

All four [[Gospels]] use the Greek word ''kranion'' to describe the place where Jesus was crucified. Unlike ''skufion'' ("skull"), ''kranion'' (in English – cranium)<ref>cranium – The bony case enclosing the brain, excluding the bones of the face; braincase – American Heritage Medical Dictionary</ref> is the upper part of the skull excluding the face bones.

Since the temple faced east,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bible.ca/archeology/bible-archeology-jerusalem-temple-mount-east-orientation-jewish-temples-altars.htm|title=East orientation of Jewish temples and altars}}</ref> the curtain in front of the entrance<ref>{{cite web|url=http://biblehub.com/aramaic-plain-english/matthew/27.htm|title=Peshitta Mat 27}}</ref> of the temple would have been in direct view of those gathered on this mount at the northeast corner of the [[Temple Mount]], just outside the city wall. And to testify that the curtain ripped at the very moment when Jesus died,<ref>But Yeshua cried again with a loud voice, and his Spirit departed. And at once the curtain entrance of The Temple was ripped in two from top to bottom. Mt 27,50-51 Peshitta</ref> there must have been eyewitnesses.

The [[Gospel of John]] refers to Golgotha as being very near the city, so near that all who passed by could read the inscription{{Bibleref2c-nb|Jn|19:20}}. The [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] testifies that Jesus suffered outside the gate{{Bibleref2c-nb|Heb|13:12}}. Considering also the prophecy in Psalms 69:12{{Bibleref2c-nb|Ps|69:12}}, his place of crucifixion would have been near enough to the gate that Jesus could hear what the people were saying about him. And just as [[Eusebius]] comments in [[Eusebius' Onomasticon|Onomasticon]] concerning Golgotha as being a hill just outside Jerusalem, north of the ancient [[Mount Zion]],<ref name=Onomasticon /> this hill fits his description.

==See also==
* [[Crucifixion of Jesus]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{commons category-inline|Golgotha}}
*[http://www.golgotha.eu/ Golgotha Rediscovered] – proposes that Golgotha was outside [[Lions' Gate]]
*[https://culture.pl/en/article/polish-calvaries-architecture-as-a-stage-for-the-passion-of-christ Polish Calvaries: Architecture as a Stage for the Passion of Christ]

{{coord|31|46|43|N|35|13|46|E|source:kolossus-jawiki|display=title}}
{{New Testament places associated with Jesus}}

[[Category:Calvary| ]]
[[Category:New Testament places]]
[[Category:Crucifixion of Jesus]]

Calvary

2021-07-27T11:16:43Z

Zumbo: +Links

{{short description|Location outside Jerusalem}}
{{redirect|Golgotha||Golgotha (disambiguation)|and|Calvary (disambiguation)}}
{{distinguish|Cavalry}}
[[File:Golgotha (Church of the Holy Sepulchre).jpg|thumb|Traditional site of Golgotha in the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]]]

'''Calvary''', or '''Golgotha''' ({{lang-grc-koi|Γολγοθᾶ[ς]}} ''Golgothâ[s]'', traditionally interpreted as reflecting {{lang-syr|ܓܓܘܠܬܐ}} ''gāgūlṯā'',<ref>{{cite book|last=Schultens|first=Albert|author-link=Albert Schultens|title=Institutiones ad fundamenta linguæ Hebrææ: quibus via panditur ad ejusdem analogiam restituendam, et vindicandam : in usum collegii domestici|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ANZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA334|year=1737|publisher=Johannes Luzac|page=334}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Thrupp|first=Joseph Francis|author-link=Joseph Francis Thrupp|title=Ancient Jerusalem: A New Investigation Into the History, Topography and Plan of the City, Environs, and Temple, Designed Principally to Illustrate the Records and Prophecies of Scripture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apJHAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA272|year=1855|publisher=Macmillan & Company|page=272}}</ref><ref>Toma Audo, Treasure of the Syriac Language: A Dictionary of Classical Syriac (Mosul: Imprimerie des pères dominicains, 1897-[1901]. Reprints: Chicago, 1978; Stockholm, 1979; Glane/Losser, 1985; Piscataway, NJ, 2008) Vol 1, p. 117 https://www.dukhrana.com/lexicon/TomaAudo/page.php?p=117</ref><ref>Robert Payne Smith, Thesaurus Syriacus (Oxford: The Calerndon Press, 1879) Vol 1, p. 324 https://www.dukhrana.com/lexicon/RPayneSmith/page.php?p=649</ref><ref>J. Payne Smith (Mrs. Margoliouth), A Compendious Syriac Dictionary (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1903) p. 60 https://www.dukhrana.com/lexicon/PayneSmith/page.php?p=60</ref> as it were [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''gulgōleṯ'' "skull" ({{lang|he|גולגולת}});<ref name= Hebrew>{{cite book|last=Lande|first=George M.|title=Building Your Biblical Hebrew Vocabulary Learning Words by Frequency and Cognate|url=http://www.sbl-site.org/publications/ICI_Resources_Biblical_study.aspx|series=Resources for Biblical Study 41|publisher=Society of Biblical Literature|location=Atlanta|year=2001|orig-year=1961|isbn=1-58983-003-2|page=115}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=H1538 - gulgoleth - Strong's Hebrew Lexicon (KJV) |url=https://www.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H1538&t=KJV |website=Blue Letter Bible |language=en}}</ref> {{lang-ar|جلجثة}}), was, according to the [[canonical Gospels]], a site immediately outside [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem's]] walls where [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]] was [[crucifixion of Jesus|crucified]].<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Calvary}}</ref>

The Gospels use the [[Koine Greek|Koine]] term ''Kraníon'' ({{lang|grc|Κρανίον}})<ref>{{bibleverse||Luke|23:33|NKJV}}</ref> or ''Kraniou topos'' ({{lang|grc|Κρανίου τόπος}}) <ref>{{bibleverse||Matthew|27:33|NKJV}}; {{bibleverse||Mark|15:22|NKJV}} {{bibleverse||John|19:17|NKJV}}</ref> when testifying to the place outside Jerusalem where Jesus was crucified. E.g., Mark 15:22 ([[NRSV]]), "Then they brought Jesus to the place called Golgotha (which means: 'the place of a skull')." ''Kraníon'' is often translated as "[[Skull]]" in English, but more accurately means ''Cranium'', the part of the skull enclosing the brain. In [[Latin]] it is rendered '''Calvariae Locus''', from which the English term ''Calvary'' derives.

Its traditional site, identified by [[Helena (empress)|Queen Mother Helena]], mother of [[Constantine the Great]], in 325, is at the site of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]. A 19th-century suggestion places it at the site now known as '[[The Garden Tomb]]' on Skull Hill, some {{convert|500|m|abbr=on}} to the north, and {{convert|200|m|abbr=on}} north of the [[Damascus Gate]]. Historian [[Joan E. Taylor]] bases a location c. {{convert|175|m|abbr=on}} south-southeast of the traditional site on her reading of textual evidence.<ref name="Taylor">{{cite journal |title= Golgotha: A Reconsideration of the Evidence |first= Joan |last= Taylor |journal= [[Bible and Spade]] |date= Spring 2002 |publisher= Associates for Biblical Research |url= http://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2010/01/11/Golgotha-A-Reconsideration-of-the-Evidence-for-the-Sites-of-Jesuse28099-Crucifixion-and-Burial.aspx#Article |access-date= 27 July 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180727212219/http://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2010/01/11/Golgotha-A-Reconsideration-of-the-Evidence-for-the-Sites-of-Jesuse28099-Crucifixion-and-Burial.aspx#Article |archive-date= 27 July 2018 |url-status= dead }}</ref>

==Biblical references and etymology==
[[File:Altar of the Crucifixion in The Church of The Holy Sepulchre.ogv|thumb|Altar at the traditional site of Golgotha]]
[[File:Голгофа.jpg|thumb|The [[altar]] at the traditional site of Golgotha]]
[[File:Illustration from Views in the Ottoman Dominions by Luigi Mayer, digitally enhanced by rawpixel-com 65.jpg|thumb|Chapel of Mount Calvary, painted by [[Luigi Mayer]]]]
The recorded form Γολγοθα may be a simplified pronunciation of an Aramaic ''golgolta'',<ref>so [[John Lightfoot]] (ed. Dove 1822) iii.[https://books.google.ch/books?id=rBQwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA164 164]. Lightfoot points out that ''golgotha'' is the [[Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan]] form of Biblical Hebrew {{lang|he|גֻּלְגֹּלֶת}} in [[Book of Numbers|Numeri]] 1:18 ({{lang|he|לְגֻלְגְּלֹתָֽם }} "by their polls").
see also Samuel James Andrews, ''The Life of Our Lord Upon the Earth Considered in Its Historical, Chronological, and Geographical Relations'' (1873), [https://books.google.ch/books?id=EFdOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA559 p. 559]</ref> corresponding to Hebrew ''gulgōleṯ'' ({{lang|he|גֻּלְגֹּלֶת}}) "skull".<ref name= Hebrew/>

English ''Calvary'' is the anglicized form of the [[Latin]] gloss from the [[Vulgate]] (''Calvariæ''), to refer to Golgotha in [[Luke 23]]:33,
where the Greek text gives Κρανίον rather than the explicit Κρανίου Τόπος of [[Matthew 27]]:33, [[Mark 15]]:22 and [[John 19]]:17.
The adoption of the Latin form has a long tradition in [[English Bible translations]], going back to at least the late 10th century ([[Wessex Gospels]]<ref>''Da Halgan Godspel on Englisc'' ed. Thorpe (1842), [https://archive.org/stream/dahalgangodspelo00thor#page/n183/mode/2up p. 176].</ref>), and is retained in [[Wycliffe's Bible]] and [[Tyndale's Bible]] as well as in the [[King James Version]].
By contrast, [[Martin Luther]] translates Luke's Κρανίον into German as ''{{lang|de|Schädelstätte}}'' ("place of skull(s)").<ref>Luther in this diverges from the pre-Lutheran Lübeck translation, which like Wycliffe retains Latin ''calvarie''.
''Biblia'', Lübeck, 1494 (Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek Rar. 880, [http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/~db/0002/bsb00025548/images/index.html?id=00025548&groesser=&fip=193.174.98.30&no=&seite=863 p. 430]).</ref> The Latinism is also current in various other languages within the [[Latin rite|Latin sphere of influence]], including Spanish and Italian ''Calvario'', French ''Calvaire'', Polish ''Kalwaria'', Lithuanian ''Kalvarijos''.

The church fathers offer different interpretations for the name; either deriving it from a topographic feature resembling a cranium ([[Pseudo-Tertullian]]),<ref name=skullpan>Golgotha is described as "A spot there is called Golgotha, – of old the fathers' earlier tongue thus called its name, 'The skull-pan of a head'." by Five Books in Reply to Marcion, Book 2, Ante-Nicene Fathers Volume 4, p. 276</ref>
or alternatively as the site where the skull of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] was said to be buried ([[Origenes]]), or from the skulls of those executed there ([[Jerome]], ''locum decollatorum'').<ref name="ce"/>

The association of the site with the "skull of Adam" is expanded in a number of noncanonical Christian writings, including [[Clementine literature|the ''Kitab al-Magall'']], the ''[[Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan]]'', the ''[[Cave of Treasures]]'', as well as by [[Patriarch Eutychius of Alexandria]] (9th century). According to these accounts, [[Shem]] and [[Melchizedek]] traveled to the resting place of [[Noah's Ark]], retrieved the body of Adam from it, and were led by Angels to Golgotha – described as a skull-shaped hill at the centre of the Earth, where also the [[Serpents in the Bible|serpent's head]] had been crushed following the [[Fall of Man]].<ref name="ce"/>

While the Gospels merely identify Calvary as a "place" ({{lang|grc|τόπος}}), Christian tradition since at least the 6th century has described the location as a "mountain" or "hill".<ref name="ce">{{Cite book|title=Mount Calvary|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03191a.htm|work=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]|volume=Vol. III|location=New York|publisher=Robert Appleton Company|year=1908}}</ref>

The location itself is mentioned in all four [[Biblical Canon|canonical Gospels]]:
* [[Matthew 27]]:33: "And when they were come unto a place called Golgotha [Γολγοθᾶ], that is to say, a place of a skull [Κρανίου Τόπος]" (KJV)
* [[Mark 15]]:22: "And they bring him unto the place Golgotha [Γολγοθᾶ], which is, being interpreted, The place of a skull [Κρανίου Τόπος]" (KJV)
* [[Luke 23]]:33: "And when they were come to the place, which is called Calvary [Κρανίον], there they crucified him, and the malefactors, one on the right hand, and the other on the left." (KJV)
* [[John 19]]:17: "And he bearing his cross went forth into a place called the place of a skull [Κρανίου Τόπον], which is called in the Hebrew Golgotha [Γολγοθα]." (KJV)

An alternative suggestion, due to Krafft (1846)<ref>
Wilhelm Ludwig Krafft, ''Die Topographie Jerusalems'', Bonn (1846)</ref>
proposes that the reported association with the word "skull" is a popular etymology of an original name ''Gol Goatha'', interpreted (by Krafft) as meaning "heap of death", or "hill of execution";
the supposed toponym ''Goatha'' has also been identified, by Ferguson (1847),
with the location called ''Goʿah'' (גֹּעָה)<ref>''Strong's Concordance'' [https://www.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H1601&t=KJV H1601] "Goah, a place near Jerusalem: Goath."</ref> in [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 31:39, in a description of the geography of Jerusalem.<ref>James Fergusson, ''An Essay on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem'' (1847), [https://books.google.ch/books?id=Jh2N93EjjFsC&pg=PA80 80f].
Ferguson in this disagrees with Krafft, who identified the ''Goath'' of Jeremiah with the ''Gennath'' Γεννάθ of Josephus, i.e. the "garden gate" to the west of the Temple mount.</ref>

==Location==
There is no consensus as to the location of the site. [[Gospel of John|John]] ({{Bibleverse-nb|John|19:20|KJV}}) describes the crucifixion site as being "near the city". According to [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] ({{Bibleref2|Hebrews 13:12}}), it was "outside the city gate". {{bibleverse|Matthew|27:39|KJV}} and {{bibleverse|Mark|15:29|KJV}} both note that the location would have been accessible to "passers-by". Thus, locating the crucifixion site involves identifying a site that, in the city of Jerusalem some four decades before its [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction in AD 70]], would have been outside a major gate near enough to the city that the passers-by could not only see him, but also read the inscription 'Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews'.<ref>{{bibleverse||John|19:20|KJV}}</ref>

===Church of the Holy Sepulchre===
Christian tradition since the fourth century has favoured a location now within the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]. This places it well within today's [[walls of Jerusalem]], which surround the [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City]] and were rebuilt in the 16th century by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Proponents of the traditional Holy Sepulchre location point out at the fact that first-century Jerusalem had a different shape and size from the 16th-century city, leaving the church's site outside the pre-AD 70 city walls. Those opposing it doubt this.

Defenders of the traditional site have argued that the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was only brought within the city limits by [[Herod Agrippa]] (41–44), who built the so-called Third Wall around a newly-settled northern district, while at the time of Jesus' crucifixion around AD 30 it would still have been just outside the city.

[[Henry Chadwick (theologian)|Henry Chadwick]] (2003) argued that when Hadrian's builders replanned the old city, they "incidentally confirm[ed] the bringing of Golgotha inside a new town wall."<ref name="Chadwick 2003">{{Cite book|last=Chadwick|first=H.|title=The Church in Ancient Society: From Galilee to Gregory the Great|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2003|page=21|isbn=0-19-926577-1}}</ref>

In 2007 [[Dan Bahat]], the former City Archaeologist of Jerusalem and Professor of Land of Israel Studies at [[Bar-Ilan University]], stated that "Six graves from the first century were found on the area of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. That means, this place [was] outside of the city, without any doubt…",<ref name="ZDF">Dan Bahat [https://web.archive.org/web/20071022135746/http://zdf.de/ZDFde/inhalt/17/0%2C1872%2C5262833%2C00.html in German television ZDF, April 11, 2007]</ref> thus maintaining that there are no scientific, archaeological grounds for rejecting the traditional location for Calvary.

===Alternative theories===
Some Protestant advocates of an alternative site claim that a wall would imply the existence of a defensive ditch outside it, so an earlier wall could not be immediately adjacent to the ''Golgotha'' site, which, combined with the presence of the [[Temple Mount]], would make the city inside the wall quite thin. Essentially, for the traditional site to have been outside the wall, the city would have had to be limited to the lower parts of the [[Tyropoeon Valley]], rather than including the defensively advantageous western hill. Since these geographic considerations imply that not including the hill within the walls would be willfully making the city prone to attack from it, some scholars, including the late 19th century surveyors of the [[Palestine Exploration Fund]], consider it unlikely that people would build a wall that cut the hill off from the city in the valley.<ref>Colonel [[Claude R. Conder]], ''The City of Jerusalem'' (1909), (republished 2004); for details about Conder himself, see [[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener#Survey of Western Palestine]]</ref> However, archaeological digs within the Church of the Holy Sepulchre proved the existence of six graves from the first century on the area of the church, placing it outside the city area<ref name="ZDF"/> and casting doubt on the "Strategic Weakness" and "Defensive Ditch" hypotheses.

Joan Taylor supports a location inside the Old City, east of Jaffa Gate, southwest of the David and Habad Street junction, but still north of St Mark's Street.<ref name="Taylor"/> She considers that canonical as well as apocryphal Gospels, in connection with the known history and archaeology of [[Aelia Capitolina]] and Byzantine Jerusalem, together with the works of [[Melito of Sardis]] and [[Eusebius]], indicate that Golgotha was the name of an area created by a large [[First Temple Period]] quarry, and not just of the crucifixion site, the latter of which she locates at the southern margin of this area.<ref name="Taylor"/> At the same time, Taylor supports the traditional location of the tomb.<ref name="Taylor"/>

==Church of the Holy Sepulchre==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Jerusalem Holy Sepulchre BW 4.JPG
| width1 = 140
| alt1 =
| caption1 = Pilgrims queue to touch the rock of Calvary in Chapel of the Crucifixion
| image2 = 5208-20080122-1255UTC--jerusalem-calvary.jpg
| width2 = 140
| alt2 =
| caption2 = Disc marking traditional place, under the altar, where Jesus' cross stood.
| footer =
}}
[[File:Jerusalem Christian Quarter.jpg|thumb|The Holy Sepulchre (1) in the [[Christian Quarter]] of [[Jerusalem]]]]
The traditional location of Golgotha derives from its identification by [[Queen Mother Helena|Helena, mother of Constantine I]], mother of [[Constantine the Great]], in 325.
Only a few steps away (within {{convert|45|m|yd|-1}}), Helena also identified the location of the tomb of Jesus and claimed to have discovered the [[True Cross]]; her son, Constantine, then built the Church of the Holy Sepulchre around the whole site. In 333, the author of the ''[[Itinerarium Burdigalense]]'', entering from the east, described the result:

{{quote|On the left hand is the little hill of Golgotha where the Lord was crucified. About a stone's throw from thence is a vault [crypta] wherein his body was laid, and rose again on the third day. There, at present, by the command of the Emperor Constantine, has been built a [[basilica]]; that is to say, a church of wondrous beauty.<ref>''[[Itinerarium Burdigalense]]'', pp. 593, 594</ref>}}

In Nazénie Garibian de Vartavan's doctoral thesis, now published as ''La Jérusalem Nouvelle et les premiers sanctuaires chrétiens de l’Arménie. Méthode pour l’étude de l’église comme temple de Dieu,'' she concluded, through multiple arguments (mainly theological and archaeological), that the true site of Golgotha was precisely at the vertical of the now buried Constantinian basilica's altar and away from where the traditional rock of Golgotha is situated.<ref name="Garibian de Vartavan 2008">{{Cite book|last=Garibian de Vartavan|first=N.|title=La Jérusalem Nouvelle et les premiers sanctuaires chrétiens de l'Arménie. Méthode pour l'étude de l'église comme temple de Dieu|location=London|publisher=Isis Pharia|year=2008|isbn=978-0-9527827-7-3}}</ref> The plans published in the book indicate the location of the Golgotha within a precision of less than two meters, below the circular passage situated a metre away from where the blood stained shirt of Christ was traditionally recovered and immediately before the stairs leading down to St. Helena's Chapel (the above-mentioned mother of Emperor Constantine), alternatively called St. Vartan's Chapel.

===Temple to Aphrodite===
[[File:Roman Jerusalem.PNG|thumb|right|Jerusalem after being rebuilt by [[Hadrian]]: Two main east–west roads were built, as well as two main north-south roads.]]

Prior to Helena's identification, the site had been a [[temple]] to [[Aphrodite]]. Constantine's construction took over most of the site of the earlier temple enclosure, and the ''Rotunda'' and [[cloister]] (which was replaced after the 12th century by the present ''[[Katholikon|Catholicon]]'' and ''Calvary chapel'') roughly overlap with the temple building itself; the [[basilica]] church Constantine built over the remainder of the enclosure was destroyed at the turn of the 11th century, and has not been replaced. [[Sacred Tradition|Christian tradition]] claims that the location had originally been a Christian place of veneration, but that Hadrian had deliberately buried these Christian sites and built his own temple on top, on account of his alleged hatred for Christianity.<ref>[[Eusebius]], ''Life of Constantine'', 3:26</ref>

There is certainly evidence that circa 160, at least as early as 30 years after [[Aelia Capitolina|Hadrian's temple]] had been built, Christians associated it with the site of ''Golgotha''; [[Melito of Sardis]], an influential mid-2nd century bishop in the region, described the location as "in the middle of the street, in the middle of the city",<ref>Melito of Sardis, ''On Easter''</ref> which matches the position of Hadrian's temple within the mid-2nd century city.

The Romans typically built a city according to a [[Hippodamus|Hippodamian]] [[grid plan]] – a North-South [[arterial road]], the [[Cardo]] (which is now the Suq Khan-ez-Zeit), and an East-West arterial road, the [[Decumanus Maximus]] (which is now the [[Via Dolorosa]]).<ref name="Warwick Ball">{{Cite book|last=Ball|first=Warwick|title=Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire|page=294}}</ref> The [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] would traditionally be located on the intersection of the two roads, with the main temples adjacent.<ref name="Warwick Ball" /> However, due to the obstruction posed by the Temple Mount, as well as the [[Legio X Fretensis|Tenth Legion]] encampment on the Western Hill, Hadrian's city had two ''Cardo'', two ''Decumanus Maximus'', two forums,<ref name="Warwick Ball" /> and several temples. The Western Forum (now the [[Muristan]]) is located on the crossroads of the West Cardo and what is now El-Bazar/David Street, with the Temple of Aphrodite adjacent, on the intersection of the Western Cardo and the [[Via Dolorosa]]. The Northern Forum is located north of the Temple Mount, on the junction of the Via Dolorosa and the Eastern Cardo (the [[Tyropoeon Valley|Tyropoeon]]), adjacent to the Temple of [[Jupiter Capitolinus]], intentionally built atop the Temple Mount.<ref name="Clermont-Ganneau I">{{Cite book|last=Clermont-Ganneau|first=Charles|title=Archaeological researches in Palestine during the years 1873–1874}}</ref> Another popular holy site that Hadrian converted to a pagan temple was the [[Pool of Bethesda]], possibly referenced to in the fifth chapter of the Gospel of John,<ref>{{bibleverse||John|5:1–18|}}</ref><ref name="MurphyOConnor">[[Jerome Murphy-O'Connor]], ''The Holy Land'', (2008), p. 29</ref> on which was built the Temple of [[Asclepius]] and [[Serapis]]. While the positioning of the Temple of Aphrodite may be, in light of the common [[Colonia (Roman)|Colonia]] layout, entirely unintentional, Hadrian is known to have concurrently built pagan temples on top of other holy sites in Jerusalem as part of an overall "[[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]]" policy.<ref name="Schäfer2003">{{cite book|author=Peter Schäfer|title=The Bar Kokhba war reconsidered: new perspectives on the second Jewish revolt against Rome|url={{Google books |id=1TA-Fg4wBnUC |page=36 |plainurl=yes }} |access-date=4 December 2011|year=2003|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|isbn=978-3-16-148076-8|pages=36–}}</ref><ref name="erp-places">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310053428/http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm|archive-date=10 March 2008|title=Palestine: History|access-date=18 April 2007|date=22 February 2007|last=Lehmann|first=Clayton Miles|encyclopedia=The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces|publisher=The University of South Dakota}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Cohen|first=Shaye J. D.|chapter=Judaism to Mishnah: 135–220 C.E|title=Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism: A Parallel History of their Origins and Early Development|editor=Hershel Shanks|year=1996|location=Washington DC|page=196|publisher=Biblical Archaeology Society}}</ref><ref>Emily Jane Hunt, {{Google books |id=Dn5ERgK0djMC |page=7 |title=Christianity in the second century: the case of Tatian}}, Psychology Press, 2003, p. 7</ref><ref>E. Mary Smallwood {{Google books |id=nw0VAAAAIAAJ |page=460 |title=The Jews under Roman rule: from Pompey to Diocletian, a study in political relations}} Brill, 1981, p. 460.</ref>

Archaeological excavations under the Church of the Holy Sepulchre have revealed Christian pilgrims' graffiti, dating from the period that the Temple of Aphrodite was still present, of a ship, a common early Christian symbol<ref name=newadvent>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10724a.htm Nave] ''New Advent encyclopedia'', accessed 25 March 2014.</ref><ref>[http://www.jesuswalk.com/christian-symbols/ship.htm Ship as a Symbol of the Church (Bark of St. Peter)] Jesus Walk, accessed 11 February 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sidneyherald.com/archives/ship-hangs-in-balance-at-pella-evangelical-lutheran-church/article_9485d09f-e314-5f3e-b071-0cf8b2059dd7.html|title=Ship hangs in balance at Pella Evangelical Lutheran Church|date=10 June 2008|work=Sidney ([[Montana]]) Herald|access-date=3 January 2016}}</ref> and the etching "DOMINVS IVIMVS", meaning "Lord, we went",<ref name="Clermont-Ganneau II">{{Cite book|last=Clermont-Ganneau|first=Charles|title=Archaeological researches in Palestine during the years 1873–1874|page=103}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://followinghadrian.com/2014/11/05/exploring-aelia-capitolina-hadrians-jerusalem/|title=Exploring Aelia Capitolina, Hadrian's Jerusalem|last=followinghadrian|date=5 November 2014|access-date=28 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218124758/https://followinghadrian.com/2014/11/05/exploring-aelia-capitolina-hadrians-jerusalem/|archive-date=18 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> lending possible support to the statement by Melito of Sardis' asserting that early Christians identified Golgotha as being in the middle of Hadrian's city, rather than outside.

===Rockface===
[[File:Golgotha Stone Chapel of Adam.jpg|thumb|Natural stone of Golgotha in the Chapel of Adam below site]]

During 1973–1978 restoration works and excavations inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and under the nearby [[Muristan]], it was found that the area was originally a quarry, from which white Meleke [[limestone]] was struck;<ref name="Hesemann170">{{Cite book|title=Die Jesus-Tafel|last=Hesemann|first=Michael|publisher=Freiburg|year=1999|isbn=3-451-27092-7|page=170|language=de|author-link=Michael Hesemann}}</ref> surviving parts of the quarry to the north-east of the chapel of St. Helena are now accessible from within the chapel (by permission). Inside the church is a rock, about 7 m long by 3 m wide by 4.8 m high,<ref name="Hesemann170"/> that is traditionally believed to be all that now remains visible of ''Golgotha''; the design of the church means that the ''Calvary Chapel'' contains the upper foot or so of the rock, while the remainder is in the chapel beneath it (known as the ''tomb of Adam''). [[Virgilio Canio Corbo|Virgilio Corbo]], a [[Franciscan]] priest and archaeologist, present at the excavations, suggested that from the city the little hill (which still exists) could have looked like a skull.<ref name="HesemannHill">Hesemann 1999, p. 170: "Von der Stadt aus muß er tatsächlich wie eine Schädelkuppe ausgesehen haben," and p. 190: a sketch; and p. 172: a sketch of the geological findings by C. Katsimbinis, 1976: "der Felsblock ist zu 1/8 unterhalb des Kirchenbodens, verbreitert sich dort auf etwa 6,40 Meter und verläuft weiter in die Tiefe"; and p. 192, a sketch by Corbo, 1980: Golgotha is distant 10 meters outside from the southwest corner of the Martyrion-basilica</ref>

During a 1986 repair to the floor of the ''Calvary Chapel'' by the art historian George Lavas and architect Theo Mitropoulos, a round slot of {{convert|11.5|cm|1|abbr=on}} diameter was discovered in the rock, partly open on one side (Lavas attributes the open side to accidental damage during his repairs);<ref name="Lavas">George Lavas, ''The Rock of Calvary'', published (1996) in ''The Real and Ideal Jerusalem in Jewish, Christian and Islamic Art'' (proceedings of the 5th International Seminar in Jewish Art), pp. 147–150</ref> although the dating of the slot is uncertain, and could date to Hadrian's temple of Aphrodite, Lavas suggested that it could have been the site of the crucifixion, as it would be strong enough to hold in place a wooden trunk of up to {{convert|2.5|m}} in height (among other things).<ref>Hesemann 1999, pp. 171–172: "....Georg Lavas and ... Theo Mitropoulos, ... cleaned off a thick layer of rubble and building material from one to 45 cm thick that covered the actual limestone. The experts still argue whether this was the work of the architects of Hadrian, who aimed thereby to adapt the rock better to the temple plan, or whether it comes from 7th century cleaning....When the restorers progressed to the lime layer and the actual rock....they found they had removed  a circular slot of 11.5 cm diameter".</ref><ref>Vatican-magazin.com, Vatican 3/2007, pp. 12/13; [https://web.archive.org/web/20110717185434/http://www.vatican-magazin.com/archiv/2007/03-2007/titel.pdf Vatican 3/2007, p. 11, here p. 3 photo No. 4, quite right], photo by Paul Badde: der steinere Ring auf dem Golgothafelsen.</ref> The same restoration work also revealed a crack running across the surface of the rock, which continues down to the ''Chapel of Adam'';<ref name="Lavas"/> the crack is thought by archaeologists to have been a result of the quarry workmen encountering a flaw in the rock.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.holyplacesinisrael.com/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318144411/http://www.holyplacesinisrael.com/church_holy_sepulchre.html|url-status=dead|title=502 Bad Gateway nginx openresty 208.80.154.49|archive-date=March 18, 2009|website=www.holyplacesinisrael.com}}</ref>

Based on the late 20th century excavations of the site, there have been a number of attempted reconstructions of the profile of the cliff face. These often attempt to show the site as it would have appeared to Constantine. However, as the ground level in Roman times was about {{convert|4|–|5|ft}} lower and the site housed Hadrian's temple to Aphrodite, much of the surrounding rocky slope must have been removed long before Constantine built the church on the site. The height of the ''Golgotha'' rock itself would have caused it to jut through the platform level of the Aphrodite temple, where it would be clearly visible. The reason for Hadrian not cutting the rock down is uncertain, but Virgilio Corbo suggested that a statue, probably of Aphrodite, was placed on it,<ref>Virgilio Corbo, ''The Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem'' (1981)</ref> a suggestion also made by [[Jerome]]. Some archaeologists have suggested that prior to Hadrian's use, the rock outcrop had been a ''nefesh'' – a Jewish funeral monument, equivalent to the [[stele]].<ref>Dan Bahat, ''Does the Holy Sepulchre Church Mark the Burial of Jesus?'', in ''[[Biblical Archaeology Review]]'' May/June 1986</ref>

===Pilgrimages to Constantine's Church===
[[File:Jesus in Golgotha by Theophanes the Cretan.jpg|thumb|left|[[Icon]] of Jesus being led to Golgotha, 16th century, [[Theophanes the Cretan]] ([[Stavronikita]] [[Monastery]], [[Mount Athos]])]]

The [[Itinerarium Burdigalense]] speaks of Golgotha in 333: "... On the left hand is the little hill of Golgotha where the Lord was crucified. About a stone's throw from thence is a vault (crypta) wherein His body was laid, and rose again on the third day. There, at present, by the command of the Emperor Constantine, has been built a basilica, that is to say, a church of wondrous beauty,"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/pilgr/bord/10Bord07bJerus.html#Golgotha|title=Bordeaux Pilgrim – Text 7b: Jerusalem (second part)|first=john|last=abela|access-date=2011-10-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513215942/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/pilgr/bord/10Bord07bJerus.html#Golgotha|archive-date=2016-05-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Cyril of Jerusalem]], a distinguished theologian of the early Church, and eyewitness to the early days of Constantine's edifice, speaks of Golgotha in eight separate passages, sometimes as near to the church where he and his listeners assembled:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pravoslavnaolomouc.cz/ZIP/OTCO/PNC/PN7.PDF |title=St. Cyril of Jerusalem| page =51, note 313 |access-date=2007-06-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616164151/http://www.pravoslavnaolomouc.cz/ZIP/OTCO/PNC/PN7.PDF |archive-date=2007-06-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> "Golgotha, the holy hill standing above us here, bears witness to our sight: the Holy Sepulchre bears witness, and the stone which lies there to this day."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pravoslavnaolomouc.cz/ZIP/OTCO/PNC/PN7.PDF |title=Cyril, Catechetical Lectures, year 347, lecture X|page =160, note 1221 |access-date=2007-06-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616164151/http://www.pravoslavnaolomouc.cz/ZIP/OTCO/PNC/PN7.PDF |archive-date=2007-06-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> And just in such a way the [[Egeria (pilgrim)|pilgrim Egeria]] often reported in 383: "… the church, built by Constantine, which is situated in Golgotha …"<ref>''[http://www.ccel.org/m/mcclure/etheria/etheria.htm Iteneraria Egeriae]''</ref> and also bishop [[Eucherius of Lyon]] wrote to the island presbyter Faustus in 440: "Golgotha is in the middle between the Anastasis and the Martyrium, the place of the Lord's passion, in which still appears that rock which once endured the very cross on which the Lord was.",<ref>[http://homepages.luc.edu/~avande1/jerusalem/sources/eucherius.htm Letter To The Presbyter Faustus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613200112/http://homepages.luc.edu/~avande1/jerusalem/sources/eucherius.htm |date=2008-06-13 }}, by Eucherius. "What is reported, about the site of the city Jerusalem and also of Judaea"; ''Epistola Ad Faustum Presbyterum.'' "Eucherii, Quae fertur, de situ Hierusolimitanae urbis atque ipsius Iudaeae." ''Corpus Scriptorum Eccles. Latinorum'' XXXIX Itinera Hierosolymitana, Saeculi IIII–VIII, P. Geyer, 1898</ref> and Breviarius de Hierosolyma reports in 530: "From there (the middle of the basilica), you enter into Golgotha, where there is a large court. Here the Lord was crucified. All around that hill, there are silver screens."<ref>Whalen, Brett Edward, Pilgrimage in the Middle Ages, p. 40, University of Toronto Press, 2011, {{ISBN|978-1-4426-0199-4}}; Iteneraria et alia geographica, Corpus Christianorum Series Latina, vol. 175 (Turnhout, [[Brepols]] 1965), pp. 109–112</ref> (See also: [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] in 338.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iv.vi.iii.xxxv.html|title=NPNF2-01. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine – Christian Classics Ethereal Library}}</ref>)
{{Clear}}

==Gordon's Calvary==
{{main|Gordon's Calvary}}
[[File:Golgotha photo.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Rocky escarpment resembling a skull, located northwest of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]], near the [[Garden Tomb]] with c. 1900s picture posted on pole for comparison]]
In 1842, heavily relying on the research of [[Edward Robinson (scholar)|Edward Robinson]], a German theologian and biblical scholar from Dresden named [[Otto Thenius]] was the first to publish a proposal that the rocky knoll north of Damascus Gate was the biblical ''Golgotha''.<ref name="Golgotha and The Holy Sepulchre">Charles W. Wilson, [https://archive.org/stream/golgothaandholy00wilsgoog/golgothaandholy00wilsgoog_djvu.txt ''Golgotha and The Holy Sepulchre''] (1906, The Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund), pp. 103-120</ref><ref>Otto Thenius, "Golgatha et Sanctum Sepulchrum" in [https://archive.org/details/zeitschriftfurd04illggoog ''Zeitschrift fir die historische Theologie'' (1842)]</ref>
In 1882–83, Major-General [[Charles George Gordon]] endorsed this view, and subsequently the site has sometimes been known as [[Gordon's Calvary]]. The location, usually referred to today as ''[[Skull Hill]]'', is beneath a cliff that contains two large sunken holes, which Gordon regarded as resembling the eyes of a skull. He and a few others before him  believed that the skull-like appearance would have caused the location to be known as Golgotha.<ref>Bill White, ''A Special Place: The Story of the Garden Tomb'' (1989).</ref>

Nearby is an ancient rock-cut tomb known today as [[the Garden Tomb]], which Gordon proposed as the tomb of Jesus. The Garden Tomb contains several ancient burial places, although the archaeologist [[Gabriel Barkay]] has proposed that the tomb dates to the 7th century BCE and that the site may have been abandoned by the 1st century.<ref>Gabriel Barkay, ''The Garden Tomb'', published in ''[[Biblical Archaeology Review]]'' March/April 1986</ref>

[[Eusebius]] comments that Golgotha was in his day (the 4th century) pointed out ''north of Mount Zion''.<ref name=Onomasticon>Eusebius, ''[[Eusebius' Onomasticon|Onomasticon]]'', 365</ref> While "Mount Zion" was used previously in reference to the Temple Mount itself, [[Josephus]], the first-century AD historian who knew the city as it was before the [[Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70)|Roman destruction of Jerusalem]], identified Mount Zion as being the Western Hill (the current Mount Zion),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://global.britannica.com/place/Zion-hill-Jerusalem|title=Zion, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''}}</ref><ref>[http://jbq.jewishbible.org/assets/Uploads/303/303_zion303a.pdf The Unknown Mount Zion]</ref> which is south of both the Garden Tomb and the Holy Sepulchre. Eusebius' comment therefore offers no additional argument for either location.

==On Aelia Capitolina's Decumanus==
See Joan Taylor's theory in the article's introduction and under [[#Alternative theories|Alternative theories]].

==Outside Lions Gate==
[[File:Skulltotemple.jpg|right|thumb|800px|The hill having the appearance of a cranium (the skull-pan of a head<ref name=skullpan />), approx. 200 meters northeast of where the curtain at the Temple entrance once stood. The cranium appears to be looking directly towards where the temple entrance and the north side of the altar once stood, both identified in prophetic Scriptures as being 'before the LORD' (Lev{{Bibleref2c-nb|Lev|1:3}}{{Bibleref2c-nb|Lev|1:11}}).]]
Another possible location has been proposed by Rodger Dusatko, a missionary in Germany. He identifies the hill just outside the [[Lions' Gate|Lions Gate]]<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.golgotha.eu/|title=Golgotha Rediscovered}}</ref> having the appearance of a cranium as the 'Cranium Place' mentioned in the [[Gospels]]. 

All four [[Gospels]] use the Greek word ''kranion'' to describe the place where Jesus was crucified. Unlike ''skufion'' ("skull"), ''kranion'' (in English – cranium)<ref>cranium – The bony case enclosing the brain, excluding the bones of the face; braincase – American Heritage Medical Dictionary</ref> is the upper part of the skull excluding the face bones.

Since the temple faced east,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bible.ca/archeology/bible-archeology-jerusalem-temple-mount-east-orientation-jewish-temples-altars.htm|title=East orientation of Jewish temples and altars}}</ref> the curtain in front of the entrance<ref>{{cite web|url=http://biblehub.com/aramaic-plain-english/matthew/27.htm|title=Peshitta Mat 27}}</ref> of the temple would have been in direct view of those gathered on this mount at the northeast corner of the [[Temple Mount]], just outside the city wall. And to testify that the curtain ripped at the very moment when Jesus died,<ref>But Yeshua cried again with a loud voice, and his Spirit departed. And at once the curtain entrance of The Temple was ripped in two from top to bottom. Mt 27,50-51 Peshitta</ref> there must have been eyewitnesses.

The [[Gospel of John]] refers to Golgotha as being very near the city, so near that all who passed by could read the inscription{{Bibleref2c-nb|Jn|19:20}}. The [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] testifies that Jesus suffered outside the gate{{Bibleref2c-nb|Heb|13:12}}. Considering also the prophecy in Psalms 69:12{{Bibleref2c-nb|Ps|69:12}}, his place of crucifixion would have been near enough to the gate that Jesus could hear what the people were saying about him. And just as [[Eusebius]] comments in [[Eusebius' Onomasticon|Onomasticon]] concerning Golgotha as being a hill just outside Jerusalem, north of the ancient [[Mount Zion]],<ref name=Onomasticon /> this hill fits his description.

==See also==
* [[Crucifixion of Jesus]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{commons category-inline|Golgotha}}
*[http://www.golgotha.eu/ Golgotha Rediscovered] – proposes that Golgotha was outside [[Lions' Gate]]
*[https://culture.pl/en/article/polish-calvaries-architecture-as-a-stage-for-the-passion-of-christ Polish Calvaries: Architecture as a Stage for the Passion of Christ]

{{coord|31|46|43|N|35|13|46|E|source:kolossus-jawiki|display=title}}
{{New Testament places associated with Jesus}}

[[Category:Calvary| ]]
[[Category:New Testament places]]
[[Category:Crucifixion of Jesus]]

Woman (disambiguation)

2021-04-20T12:01:31Z

Zumbo: Listing alternative spellings is not the purpose of disambiguation pages.

{{Wiktionarypar|woman}}

'''[[Woman]]''' is an adult female human.

'''Woman''' also can refer to:

{{TOC Right}}

==Music==
=== Albums ===
* [[Woman (Burt Bacharach album)|''Woman'' (Burt Bacharach album)]], 1978
* [[Woman (Mike McGear album)|''Woman'' (Mike McGear album)]], and title track, 1972
* [[Woman (Nancy Sinatra album)|''Woman'' (Nancy Sinatra album)]], 1972
* [[Woman (Jill Scott album)|''Woman'' (Jill Scott album)]], 2015
* [[Woman (Jon Stevens album)|''Woman'' (Jon Stevens album)]], 2015
* [[Woman (Justice album)|''Woman'' (Justice album)]], 2016
* [[Woman (Rhye album)|''Woman'' (Rhye album)]], 2013 album and title track
* ''Woman'', a 2019 album by [[Wallis Bird]]
* [[A Woman (album)|''A Woman'' (album)]], 1979

=== Songs ===
* [[Woman (John Lennon song)|"Woman" (John Lennon song)]], 1980
* [[Woman (Kesha song)|"Woman" (Kesha song)]], 2017
* [[Woman (Klaatu song)|"Woman" (Klaatu song)]], 1988
* [[Woman (Neneh Cherry song)|"Woman" (Neneh Cherry song)]], 1996
* [[Woman (Paul McCartney song)|"Woman" (Paul McCartney song)]], recorded by Peter and Gordon in 1965
* [[Woman (Wolfmother song)|"Woman" (Wolfmother song)]], 2005
* "Woman", by Cat Power from the album ''[[Wanderer (Cat Power album)|Wanderer]]''
* "Woman", by Delta Goodrem from the album ''[[Delta (2007 album)|Delta]]''
* "Woman", by Ellie Goulding from the album ''[[Brightest Blue]]''
* "W-o-m-a-n", by Etta James from 1955; see ''[[Etta James discography]]''
* "Woman", by Free from [[Free (Free album)|their self-titled album]]
* "Woman", by Harry Styles from [[Harry Styles (album)|his self-titled album]]
* "Woman", by James Gang from the album ''[[James Gang Rides Again]]''
* "Woman", by Level 42 from the album ''[[Strategy (album)|Strategy]]''
* "Woman", by Mike McGear from the album ''[[Woman (Mike McGear album)|Woman]]''
* "Woman", by Zager & Evans from the album ''[[2525 (Exordium & Terminus)]]''
* "The Woman", by Aretha Franklin from the album ''[[A Rose Is Still a Rose]]''

==Entertainment==

=== Films ===
* [[A Woman (1915 film)|''A Woman'' (1915 film)]], an American silent film directed by and starring Charlie Chaplin
* [[A Woman (2010 film)|''A Woman'' (2010 film)]], an American-Italian drama by Giada Colagrande
* [[Woman (1918 film)|''Woman'' (1918 film)]], an American silent allegorical film directed by Maurice Tourneur
* [[Woman (1968 film)|''Woman'' (1968 film)]], a three-part South Korean film
* [[Woman (2019 film)|''Woman'' (2019 film)]]
* [[The Woman (1915 film)|''The Woman'' (1915 film)]], a 1915 American drama silent film directed by George Melford
* [[The Woman (2011 film)|''The Woman'' (2011 film)]], a 2011 American horror film directed by Lucky McKee

=== Other ===
* [[Woman (Australian magazine)|''Woman'' (Australian magazine)]], an Australian magazine published between 1934 and 1954
* [[Woman (UK magazine)|''Woman'' (UK magazine)]], a mainstream women's weekly magazine
* Woman, ring name of [[Nancy Benoit]], American professional wrestling valet and wife of Chris Benoit
* [[The Woman (novel)|''The Woman'' (novel)]], a novel written by Jack Ketchum and Lucky McKee
==Religion==
* [[Mary (mother of Jesus)]], addressed as woman by Jesus in John 19:26
* [[Woman of the Apocalypse]], a character in the Book of Revelation

==Art==
* One of a number of paintings by the artist [[Willem de Kooning]]

==Computing==
* WoMan, a program to read Unix [[man page]]s from the text editor GNU Emacs.

==See also==
* [[Women (disambiguation)]]

{{disambiguation}}

The Lions of Lucerne

2021-02-23T13:02:21Z

Zumbo: Delete outdated announcement / advertising

{{Infobox Book
| name = The Lions of Lucerne
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = LionsofLucerne.jpg
| image_caption =
| author = [[Brad Thor]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country =
| language = English
| series =
| subject =
| genre = [[spy novel]]
| publisher = [[Simon & Schuster#Imprints|Atria Books]]
| pub_date = January 2002
| english_pub_date =
| media_type = Hardcover, Paperback
| pages = 432 (Hardcover) 544 (Paperback)
| isbn = 0-7434-3674-1
| oclc= 50550991
| preceded_by =
| followed_by = Path of the Assassin
}}
'''''The Lions of Lucerne''''' is a [[spy novel]] published in 2002 and written by American novelist [[Brad Thor]].

==Plot==
The work is Brad Thor's first novel with the character of Scot Harvath, an ex-[[Navy SEAL]] and current [[U.S. Secret Service]] agent. Harvath survives an attack which leaves 30 of his fellow agents dead and the president of the United States kidnapped. He begins a search for those responsible and attempts to rescue the president.<ref name=BN />

==Reviews==
Reviews for the book were mixed. Publishing industry trade magazines were generally negative. ''[[Publishers Weekly]]'' wrote "it's hard to get past the novel's many graceless shortcomings, clichéd language [...], cartoonish scenes and a protagonist whose superhero character desperately needs fleshing out."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.amazon.com/Lions-Lucerne-Brad-Thor/dp/0743436733/ref=ed_oe_h | publisher=Amazon.com | title=The Lions of Lucerne}}</ref> A reviewer for ''[[Kirkus Reviews]]'' called Thor's prose "tangled" at times.<ref name=BN>{{cite web | url=http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Lions-of-Lucerne/Brad-Thor/e/9780743436748#TABS | title=The Lions of Lucerne | publisher=Barnes & Noble}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.kirkusreviews.com/kirkusreviews/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1159750 | title=Review of Lions of Lucerne | publisher=Kirkus Reviews}}</ref> ''[[Library Journal]]'', however, highly recommended the novel, calling it "an assured debut" and concluding that "this international thriller will delight readers with its nonstop action, relentless suspense, strong protagonist, and wintry settings in Utah, D.C., and Switzerland. Well researched, high-voltage entertainment reminiscent of Robert Ludlum and David Morrell [...]."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ronterpening.com/meet_ron/bk_reviews/thor-1.htm | title=Review of The Lions of Lucerne | publisher=Library Journal}}</ref>

Other media, notably regional titles, were just as positive. ''[[The Anniston Star]]'' wrote that Thor had recreated "a genre that has been firmly in the grasp of [[Tom Clancy]] for so long is not an easy feat. Fortunately for military intrigue devotees, Brad Thor has done just that — and on his first time out too." The ''Tacoma Reporter'' wrote "this book is one of the best entries into the military thriller genre since the early works of Tom Clancy" and that Harvath "will definitely take a place beside Cussler's Dirk Pitt and Clancy's Jack Ryan."

Named one of the 10 of The Best Political Thrillers Ever<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.barnesandnoble.com/blog/10-of-the-best-political-thrillers-ever/|title=10 of The Best Political Thrillers Ever|date=2018-05-07|work=Barnes & Noble Reads|access-date=2018-05-07|language=en-US}}</ref> by Barnes and Noble

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://bradthor.com/ Author Brad Thor's Website]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G8npl3S-3d8 Behind the Book Video]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lions Of Lucerne}}
[[Category:American spy novels]]
[[Category:2002 American novels]]
[[Category:2002 debut novels]]

{{2000s-mystery-novel-stub}}

Doon Arbus

2020-12-04T10:43:32Z

Zumbo: Remove link to deleted article

{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2014}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Doon Arbus
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1945|4|3}}
| birth_place = [[New York City, New York|New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| occupation = Writer, journalist
| yearsactive = 1965–present
| parents = [[Allan Arbus]] [[Diane Arbus]]
| relatives = {{nowrap| [[Amy Arbus]] (sister) Arin Arbus (half-sister) [[Howard Nemerov]] (maternal uncle) [[Alexander Nemerov]] (maternal first cousin) }}
}}
'''Doon Arbus''' (born April 3, 1945) is an American writer and journalist. She is the elder daughter of actor [[Allan Arbus]] and photographer [[Diane Arbus]]. She was 26 when her mother committed suicide,<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/14/magazine/arbus-reconsidered.html?sec=health | work=The New York Times | first=Arthur | last=Lubow | title=Arbus Reconsidered | date=September 14, 2003}}</ref> at which time she became responsible for the management of her mother's estate.<ref>{{cite book|title=Diane Arbus: A Chronology|year=2011|publisher=Aperture Foundation|location=New York|isbn=978-1-59711-179-9|pages=147|url=http://www.aperture.org/books/books-new/arbus-chronology.html|author=Elizabeth Sussman|author2=Doon Arbus|access-date=April 14, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517073023/http://www.aperture.org/books/books-new/arbus-chronology.html|archive-date=May 17, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> She has authored or contributed to five books on Diane Arbus's work, including ''An Aperture Monograph'' ([[Aperture]], 1972)<ref name="Aperture Monograph">{{cite book |last1=Arbus |first1=Diane |last2=Arbus |first2=Doon |title=Diane Arbus: An Aperture Monograph |date=1972 |publisher=Aperture |location=New York |isbn=978-1-59711-174-4 |pages=184 |edition=40th Anniversary |url=https://aperture.org/shop/diane-arbus-an-aperture-monograph-book |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref> and ''Revelations'' ([[Random House]], 2003).<ref name="Revelations">{{cite book |last1=Arbus |first1=Diane |last2=Arbus |first2=Doon |last3=Sussman |first3=Elisabeth |title=Diane Arbus Revelations |date=2003 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=978-0-3755062-0-8 |pages=352|url=https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/4550/diane-arbus-revelations-by-doon-arbus/ |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref> She has also organized numerous photographic exhibitions in collaboration with [[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]],<ref name="Met 2005">{{cite web |last1=Staff |title=Exhibitions Listings |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2005/diane-arbus |website=metmuseum.org |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref> the [[San Francisco Museum of Modern Art]],<ref name="SFMOMA 2003">{{cite web |last1=Staff |title=SFMOMA Presents Diane Arbus Retrospective |url=https://www.sfmoma.org/press/release/sfmoma-presents-diane-arbus-retrospective-major-e/ |website=sfmoma.org |publisher=San Francisco Museum of Modern Art |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="Revelations Smithsonian">{{cite news |last1=DeCarlo |first1=Tessa |title=A Fresh Look at Diane Arbus |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/a-fresh-look-at-diane-arbus-99861134/ |accessdate=18 April 2020 |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |date=May 2004}}</ref> and the [[Jeu de Paume]],<ref name="Jeu de Paume 2012">{{cite web |last1=Staff |title=Diane Arbus Fotomuseum Winterthur |url=http://www.jeudepaume.org/index.php?page=article&idArt=1471 |website=jeudepaume.org |publisher=Jeu de Paume |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref> among other institutions.

As a freelance journalist in the mid-1960s, alongside other writers like [[Tom Wolfe]], [[Jimmy Breslin]], and [[Robert Benton]], she contributed to the ''[[New York Herald Tribune]]'s'' Sunday supplement, ''[[New York (magazine)|New York]],'' one of the earliest proponents of [[New Journalism]]. Her articles also appeared in ''[[Rolling Stone]]'', ''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'', and ''[[Cheetah (magazine)]]''. Her 1966 article "James Brown Is Out of Sight"<ref name="James Brown">{{cite news |last1=Fraden |first1=Angel E. |title=Editorial: Out of Sight, Out of Mind—How America Failed James Brown |url=https://indiecurrent.com/editorial-out-of-sight-out-of-mind-how-america-failed-james-brown/ |accessdate=18 April 2020 |publisher=Indie Current |date=November 28, 2014}}</ref> was among the first profiles of the R&B legend and is included in ''The James Brown Reader'' ([[Plume (publisher)|Plume]], 2008).<ref name="James Brown Plume">{{cite book |last1=George |first1=Nelson |last2=Leeds |first2=Alan |title=The James Brown Reader |date=2008 |publisher=Plume |location=New York |isbn=978-0-4522894-6-8 |pages=368 |url=https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/302539/the-james-brown-reader-by-nelson-george/ |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="James Brown Reader LA Times">{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=RJ |title='The James Brown Reader,' edited by Nelson George and Alan Leeds |url=https://www.latimes.com/style/la-bk-rjsmith11-2008may11-story.html |accessdate=18 April 2020 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=May 11, 2008}}</ref> Arbus was a longtime collaborator of [[Richard Avedon]], with whom she coauthored the books ''Alice in Wonderland: The Forming of a Company, the Making of a Play''<ref name="Alice in Wonderland">{{cite book |last1=Avedon |first1=Richard |last2=Arbus |first2=Doon |title=Alice in Wonderland: The Forming of a Company, The Making of a Play |date=1973 |publisher=E. P. Dutton |location=New York |pages=176 |isbn=978-0-8830650-0-6 |url=http://www.artnet.com/usernet/awc/awc_history_view.asp?aid=424500914&info_type_id=6 |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref> ([[E. P. Dutton]], 1973) and ''Avedon: The Sixties'' (Random House, 1999).<ref name="Sixties">{{cite book |last1=Avedon |first1=Richard |last2=Arbus |first2=Doon |title=The Sixties |date=1999 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=978-0-6794092-3-6 |pages=240 }}</ref>

Her play, ''Third Floor, Second Door on the Right,'' was produced at the [[Cherry Lane Theatre]] by the 2003 [[New York International Fringe Festival]].<ref name="Third Floor [[Backstage (magazine)|Backstage]]">{{cite news |last1=Tolkoff |first1=Esther |title=Third Floor, Second Door on the Right |url=https://www.backstage.com/magazine/article/third-floor-second-door-right-28056/ |accessdate=18 April 2020 |publisher=Backstage |date=September 17, 2003}}</ref><ref name="Third Floor New Yorker">{{cite news |last1=Thurman |first1=Judith |title=Exposure Time |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2003/10/13/exposure-time |accessdate=18 April 2020 |publisher=[[The New Yorker]] |date=October 6, 2003}}</ref> Her first novel is ''The Caretaker'' ([[New Directions Publishing|New Directions]], 2020).<ref name="Caretaker" />

==Published Work==

===Selected Articles and Criticism===
“James Brown Is Out of Sight,” ''New York/The Sunday Herald Tribune Magazine'', 1966<ref name="James Brown" /> 
“The Man in the Paper Suit: James Rosenquist,” ''New York/The Sunday World Journal Tribune Magazine'', (1966)<ref name="Paper Suit New York 1966">{{cite web |last1=Arbus |first1=Doon |title=The Man in the Paper Suit |url=http://www.jamesrosenquiststudio.com/artist/bibliography/articles |accessdate=18 April 2020 |publisher=New York/The World Journal Tribune Magazine |date=November 6, 1966}}</ref> 
“In Person: The Mothers of Invention,” ''[[Cheetah (magazine)|Cheetah]]'', 1967<ref name="Cheetah 1967">{{cite web |last1=Arbus |first1=Doon |title=In-Person: The Mothers of Invention |url=https://www.afka.net/Mags/Cheetah.htm |accessdate=18 April 2020 |issue=1 |publisher=afka.net |date=October 1967|volume=1 }}</ref> 
“How Fat Alice Lost 12 Stone (Yes 12 Stone—the Weight of An Average Man!) and Found Happiness, God, and the Chance of a Husband,” The London Sunday Times Magazine, 1969<ref name="Magazine Work 1984">{{cite book |last1=Arbus |first1=Diane |last2=Arbus |first2=Doon |title=Magazine Work |date=1984 |publisher=Aperture |location=New York |isbn=978-0-89381-233-1 |pages=176 |url=https://aperture.org/shop/diane-arbus-magazine-work-book/ |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref> 
“The Autobiography of Michael J. Pollard,” Cheetah, 1971<ref name="Pollard 1971">{{cite web |last1=Staff |title=Michael Pollard (Alternate with cigarette), NYC |url=https://www.phillips.com/detail/diane-arbus/NY040110/306 |website=philiips.com |publisher=Phillips |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref> 
“Diane Arbus Photographer,” Ms. Magazine, 1972<ref name="Box of ten 2018">{{cite book |last1=Arbus |first1=Diane |last2=Jacob |first2=John P. |title=Diane Arbus: A box of ten photographs |date=2018 |publisher=Smithsonian American Art Museum & Aperture |location=Washington, D.C. & New York |isbn=978-1-59711-439-4 |pages=110 |url=https://americanart.si.edu/books/arbus |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref> 
“Walker Evans: Allusions to a Presence,” The Nation, 1978<ref name="Walker Evans Unz 1978">{{cite web |last1=Staf |title=Walker Evans, First and Last |url=https://www.unz.com/print/EvansWalker-1978?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=d27593f22db7d70bab33be31b3da7fee7f52a8a5-1587228577-0-Ad070vqLuo9mlRrDsQm6mPcmU06uWUPVyz9GOjcm0BMxWYOezAvpuxw8dE9ohayZJaI5NtQpAh0KTZ4O3uraCQ0B5RLPsLTYJq_WLJ40xarGOrCCoqy8h4y2ZsOWa2v5f5ISOtxWF9gMdDb84TLVOIzWyEEyOwVSOjfEjzDnGzvvo1nj5j8kbLIfg7bLHolo93PKDpNrLad4vZ8WEewCaB3zqkwR9Btuu3h_0EHQ-X6uq258urpLZ1tsiB2yjhvJdk5yD8P-158xGE_AhxRI4IgCeh6aYppZjU2Se8boK8s0DmYs4Q-ajpM8s2sAUw5-UQ |website=The Unz Review |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="Walker Evans Lowenthal">{{cite book |last1=Lowenthal |first1=David |title=The Past Is a Foreign Country |date=1978 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=London |isbn=978-0-5216168-5-0 |pages=676 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=jMqsAQZmv5IC&pg=PA257&lpg=PA257&dq=Walker+Evans:+Allusions+to+a+Presence,+The+Nation,+1978#v=onepage |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref> 
“The Collector: Photographer Peter Beard’s Wild Life and Times,” Rolling Stone, 1978<ref name="Collector 1978">{{cite web |last1=Staff |title=Peter Beard Selected Articles |url=http://www.artnet.com/usernet/awc/awc_history_view.asp?aid=424906752&info_type_id=5 |website=artnet.com |publisher=ArtNet |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref>

===Books===
''Diane Arbus: An Aperture Monograph'' (editor and co-designer). New York: Aperture, 1972<ref name="Aperture Monograph" /> 
''Alice in Wonderland: The Forming of a Company, the Making of a Play'' (coauthor). New York: E. P. Dutton, 1973<ref name="Alice in Wonderland" /> 
''Magazine Work'' (editor). New York: Aperture, 1984<ref name="Magazine Work 1984" /> 
''Untitled: Diane Arbus'' (editor and co-designer). New York: Aperture, 1995<ref name="Untitled">{{cite book |last1=Arbus |first1=Diane |last2=Arbus |first2=Doon |title=Untitled |date=1995 |publisher=Aperture |isbn=978-1-59711-190-4 |pages=112 |url=https://aperture.org/shop/untitled-diane-arbus-book |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref> 
''Avedon: The Sixties'' (coauthor). New York: Random House, 1999<ref name="Sixties" /> 
''Diane Arbus Revelations'' (author), New York: Random House, 2003<ref name="Revelations" /> 
''Diane Arbus: A Chronology, 1923-1971'' (author). New York: Aperture, 2011<ref name="Chronology">{{cite book |last1=Arbus |first1=Doon |last2=Sussman |first2=Elisabeth |title=Diane Arbus: A Chronology |date=2011 |publisher=Aperture |location=New York |isbn=978-1-59711-179-9 |pages=192 |url=https://aperture.org/shop/diane-arbus-a-chronology-essay-book |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref> 
''The Caretaker'' (author). New York: New Directions, 2020<ref name="Caretaker">{{cite book |last1=Arbus |first1=Doon |title=The Caretaker |date=2020 |publisher=New Directions |location=New York |isbn=978-08112294-9-4 |pages=144 |url=https://www.ndbooks.com/author/doon-arbus/#/ |accessdate=18 April 2020}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{imdb name|3109922}}
*[https://pen.org/user/doon-arbus/ PEN America profile]
*[https://aperture.org/search/?q=doon+arbus Aperture publications]
*[https://www.ndbooks.com/author/doon-arbus/#/ New Directions author page]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Arbus, Doon}}
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American writers]]
[[Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers]]
[[Category:Reed College alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century American journalists]]
[[Category:Russek family]]

Cleopatra Selene II

2020-12-04T10:42:58Z

Zumbo: Remove link to deleted article

{{about|the daughter of Cleopatra VII of Egypt and Mark Antony|the daughter of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III|Cleopatra Selene of Syria|other women named Cleopatra|Cleopatra (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox royalty
| consort = yes
| name = Cleopatra Selene II
| image = Cleopatra Selene II bust, Cherchell, Algeria 4.jpg
| caption = An ancient Roman bust of either Cleopatra Selene II, Queen of Mauretania, or her mother [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt]]: [[Archaeological Museum of Cherchell]], Algeria<ref>{{citation|last=Ferroukhi|first=Mafoud|editor-surname1=Walker|editor-given1=Susan|editor-surname2=Higgs|editor-given2=Peter|title=Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth|location=Princeton, N.J.|chapter=Marble portrait, perhaps of Cleopatra VII's daughter, Cleopatra Selene, Queen of Mauretania|publisher=Princeton University Press (British Museum Press)|year=2001|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cleopatraofegypt0000unse/page/219|page=[https://archive.org/details/cleopatraofegypt0000unse/page/219 219]|isbn=9780691088358|postscript=.}}</ref>
| image_size =
| succession = Queen consort of [[Numidia]]
| reign = 25 BC – 25 BC
| succession1 = Queen consort of [[Mauretania]]
| reign1 = 25 BC – 5 BC
| spouse = [[Juba II|Juba II of Numidia]]
| issue = [[Ptolemy of Mauretania|Ptolemy, King of Mauretania]] [[Drusilla of Mauretania (born 5)|Drusilla of Mauretania]]
| father = [[Mark Antony]]
| mother = [[Cleopatra|Cleopatra VII Philopator]]
| birth_date = 40 BC (presumed)
| birth_place = [[Alexandria]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]
| death_date = {{circa|5}} BC
| death_place = [[Cherchell|Caesarea]], [[Mauretania]]
| burial_place = [[Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania]]
| full name = Cleopatra Selene
}}

'''Cleopatra Selene II''' ([[Ancient Greek|Greek]]: Κλεοπάτρα Σελήνη; summer 40 BC – {{circa|5}} BC;<ref>Roller, Duane W. (2003). ''The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier''. New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|9780415305969}}, p. 256</ref> the numeration is modern) was a [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] princess and Queen of [[Mauretania]]. She was the most important royal woman in the early [[History of Rome|Augustan age]].

Cleopatra Selene was the only daughter of [[Greeks|Greek]] [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic]] Queen [[Cleopatra VII]] of Egypt and [[Roman Republic|Roman]] Triumvir [[Mark Antony]]. In the Donations of Antioch and [[Donations of Alexandria|of Alexandria]], she was made ruler of [[Cyrenaica]] and [[Libya]].<ref>Roller, pp. 76–81</ref> After Antony and Cleopatra's defeat [[Battle of Actium|at Actium]] and [[Death of Cleopatra|their suicides]] in Egypt in 30 BC, Selene and her brothers were brought to [[Rome]] and placed in the household of [[Octavian]]'s sister, [[Octavia the Younger]], a former wife of her father.

Selene eventually married [[Juba II]] of [[Numidia]] and [[Mauretania]]. She had great influence in Mauretania's government decisions, especially regarding [[trade]] and [[construction|construction projects]]. During their reign, the country became extremely [[wealth]]y. The couple had a son and successor, [[Ptolemy of Mauretania]]. Through their granddaughter [[Drusilla of Mauretania the Younger|Drusilla]], the Ptolemaic line intermarried into Roman nobility for many generations.

==Early life==
===Childhood===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = An ancient Roman bust of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt2.jpg
| width1 = 120
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = An ancient Roman bust of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt1.jpg
| width2 = 120
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = Ancient [[Roman Republican portraiture|Roman sculpture]] of Cleopatra Selene or her mother, [[Cleopatra VII]] of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]], from the [[Archaeological Museum of Cherchell|Archaeological Museum]] of [[Cherchel]], Algeria.<ref>Roller, Duane W. (2003). ''The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier''. New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|9780415305969}}, p. 139.</ref>
}}
Cleopatra Selene was born in approximately 40 BC in [[Egypt]], as [[Pharaoh]] [[Cleopatra VII]]'s only daughter. Her second name ("moon" in [[Ancient Greek]]) opposes the second name of her [[fraternal twin|twin]] brother, [[Alexander Helios]] ("sun" in Ancient Greek). She was raised and highly educated in [[Alexandria]] in a manner appropriate for a princess. The twins were formally acknowledged by their father, Triumvir [[Mark Antony]], during a political meeting with their mother in 37 BC. Their younger brother, [[Ptolemy Philadelphus (son of Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphos]], was born a year later. Their mother most likely planned for Selene to marry her older half-brother [[Caesarion]], possibly the only biological son of [[Julius Caesar]], after whom he was named.

Over the next two years, Antony bestowed a great deal of land on Cleopatra and their children under his triumviral authority. In 34 BC, during the Donations of Alexandria, huge crowds assembled to witness the couple sit on golden thrones on a silver platform with Caesarion, Cleopatra Selene, Alexander Helios, and Ptolemy Philadelphus sitting on smaller ones below them. Antony declared Cleopatra to be [[King of Kings|Queen of Kings]], Caesarion to be the true son of [[Julius Caesar]] and King of Egypt, and proceeded to bestow kingdoms of their own upon Selene and her brothers. She was made ruler of [[Cyrenaica]] and [[Libya]]. Neither of the children were old enough to assume control of their lands, but it was clear that their parents intended they should do so in the future. This event, along with Antony's marriage to Cleopatra and divorce of [[Octavia the Younger|Octavia Minor]], older sister of Octavian (future [[Roman Emperor]] Caesar [[Augustus]]), marked a turning point that led to the [[Final War of the Roman Republic]].

In 31 BC. during a naval [[Battle of Actium|battle]] at [[Actium]], Antony and Cleopatra were defeated by Octavian. By the time Octavian arrived in Egypt in the summer of 30 BC, the couple had sent the children away. Caesarion went to [[India]], but en route he was betrayed by his tutor, intercepted by Roman forces and executed. Selene, Alexander, and Ptolemy Philadelphos went south to [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]. Meanwhile, their parents committed suicide as Octavian and his army invaded Egypt. The deaths of their mother and Caesarion left Selene and Alexander nominally in charge of Egypt until the kingdom was officially annexed by the [[Roman Empire]] two weeks later.

===Life at Rome===
Octavian captured Selene and her brothers, and took them to [[Rome]]. During his [[Roman triumph|triumph]], he paraded the twins dressed as the moon and the sun in heavy golden chains, behind an [[effigy]] of their mother clutching an [[asp (reptile)|asp]] to her arm. The chains were so heavy that the children were unable to walk in them, eliciting unexpected sympathy from many of the Roman onlookers.<ref>Roller, pp. 82–85</ref>

Once Egypt had ceased to exist as an independent kingdom, there remained the question of what to do with Selene and her brothers. In the absence of any surviving relative, responsibility for the children passed to Augustus, who in turn gave the siblings to Octavia to be raised in her household on the [[Palatine Hill]].<ref>Roller, pp. 82–85</ref> They were members of an extended family that included their half-brother [[Iullus Antonius]] (their father's son with his late wife [[Fulvia]]), their half-sisters, both called Antonia (daughters of their father with Octavia), and Octavia's older children from a previous marriage, [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus]] and his two sisters called Marcella.{{cn|date=May 2020}} Between 26 and 20 BC, Cleopatra Selene is the only known surviving member of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]].<ref>Roller, pp. 84–89</ref> Her brothers are not recorded in any known historical account and are presumed to have died, possibly from either illness or assassination.{{refn|group=note|In his Roman History, [[Cassius Dio]] mentions that the brothers were spared by Augustus as a wedding present (51.15.6), but Dio's adherence to facts is debatable.}}

==Marriage and issue==
[[File:Tolomeo re di numidia e mauretania, busto di restauro, inv. 2253.JPG|thumb|upright|Bust of Ptolemy of Mauretania in the [[Vatican Museums]] (Museo Chiaramonti)]]

Octavia arranged for Cleopatra Selene to marry the intellectual King [[Juba II]] of [[Numidia]], whose father had committed suicide in 46 BC. He was sent to be raised in Caesar's household; on Caesar's death in 44 BC custody passed to Octavian, the future Augustus. The marriage likely took place in 25 BC<ref>Roller, p. 4</ref> and was commemorated in an [[epigram]] that survives in its entirety:
{{poemquote|
Great neighbouring regions of the world, which divides the Nile,
Swollen from black Ethiopia, divides,
You have created common kings for both through marriage, making one race of Egyptians and Libyans.
Let the children of Kings in turn hold from their fathers a strong rule over both lands.
}}

The couple had two children:
* [[Ptolemy of Mauretania]] born in 10 BC <ref name="CB">[http://www.tyndalehouse.com/Egypt/ptolemies/selene_ii_fr.htm Cleopatra Selene] by Chris Bennett</ref> He was named after his mother's dynasty and her younger brother. In naming her son, Cleopatra created a distinct Greek-Egyptian tone and emphasized her role as heiress of the Ptolemies in exile.
* A daughter, whose name has not survived, is mentioned in an inscription. It has been suggested that this was [[Drusilla of Mauretania the Elder|Drusilla of Mauretania]], but she may have been a granddaughter through Ptolemy instead.<ref name="CB"/>

A hoard of Selene's coins has been dated at 17 AD. It is traditionally believed that she was alive to mint them, but this would mean that her husband married Princess [[Glaphyra|Glaphyra of Cappadocia]] during Selene's lifetime. Historians generally assume that Juba wouldn't have taken a second wife as a thoroughly Romanized king, arguing that if he married Glaphyra before 4 AD, then his first wife must have already been dead.<ref>Roller, pp. 249–251</ref> However, even contemporary client kings with Roman citizenship took multiple wives. It is possible that Selene and Juba separated for a time, but that their rift was mended after Juba's divorce from Glaphyra.

==Queen of Mauretania==
[[File:Allégorie de la province romaine d'Afrique - Grand Palais, Paris 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|left|A likely depiction of Cleopatra Selene II wearing an elephant scalp, raised relief image on a gilded silver dish, from the [[Boscoreale Treasure]], 1st century BC<ref>{{citation|last=Walker|first=Susan|editor-surname1=Walker|editor-given1=Susan|editor-surname2=Higgs|editor-given2=Peter|title=Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth|location=Princeton, N.J.|chapter=Gilded silver dish, decorated with a bust perhaps representing Cleopatra Selene|publisher=Princeton University Press (British Museum Press)|year=2001|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cleopatraofegypt0000unse/page/312|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cleopatraofegypt0000unse/page/312 312–313]|isbn=9780691088358|postscript=.}}</ref>]]
In 25 BC, Augustus decided to confer on Juba and Selene the newly created [[Patronage in ancient Rome|client]] kingdom of [[Mauretania]] as [[Numidia]] had been turned into the [[Roman province]] of [[Africa Nova]] in 46 BC. The young rulers renamed their new capital ''[[Caesarea]]'' (modern [[Cherchell]], [[Algeria]]), in honor of the Emperor.<ref>Roller, pp. 98–100</ref>

Mauretania was a vast territory, but lacked organization. Cleopatra Selene is said to have exercised great influence on the policies which Juba promoted. She [[import|imported]] many important advisers, scholars, and artists from her mother's royal court in Alexandria to serve in Caesarea. Through the couple's influence, the Mauretanian kingdom flourished.

===Economy===
[[File:Juba and cleopatra coin.gif|thumb|Coin of the ancient kingdom of Mauretania. Juba II of Numidia on the obverse, Cleopatra Selene II on the reverse.]]
Cleopatra supported Mauretanian [[trade]]. The kingdom developed a significant [[export]] throughout the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] region,<ref>Roller, pp. 91–162</ref> particularly with [[Spain]] and [[Italy]]. Their [[product (business)|products]] included fish, grapes, pearls, figs, grain, wooden furniture and purple dye harvested from shellfish. [[Tingis]] (modern [[Tangier]]), a town at the [[Pillars of Hercules]] (modern [[Strait of Gibraltar]]), became a major trade centre. The value and quality of Mauretanian coins became recognised throughout the Roman Empire.

===Building projects===
Cleopatra's promotion of architecture marks a transition between the Hellenistic style and Roman. The construction and sculptural projects at Caesarea and [[Volubilis]] display a mixture of Ancient [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]], Greek and [[Architecture of ancient Rome|Roman]] architectural styles.<ref>Roller, pp. 91–162</ref> These buildings included a [[lighthouse]] in the style of [[Pharos of Alexandria]] in the [[harbour]], a royal palace situated in the seafront, and numerous temples dedicated to Roman and Egyptian [[deity|deities]]. Her vigorous promotion of her mother's legacy stood in sharp contrast to the negative image being disseminated in contemporary [[Augustan poetry]].<ref name="HT Draycott">{{cite web |url=https://www.historytoday.com/jane-draycott/cleopatras-daughter |title=Cleopatra's Daughter|author= Jane Draycott |work=[[History Today]] |accessdate=April 22, 2020}}</ref>

==Death==
[[File:History Of Algeria.jpeg|thumb|The [[Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania]], a tomb of Cleopatra Selene II and [[Juba II]] in [[Tipaza]], [[Algeria]].]]
The couple ruled Mauretania for almost two decades until Cleopatra's death at the age of 35. Controversy surrounds her exact date of death. The following epigram by Greek epigrammatist [[Crinagoras of Mytilene]] is considered to be her eulogy:<ref>Roller, pp. 249–251</ref>
{{poemquote|
The moon herself grew dark, rising at sunset,
Covering her suffering in the night,
Because she saw her beautiful namesake, Selene,
Breathless, descending to Hades,
With her she had had the beauty of her light in common,
And mingled her own darkness with her death.
}}

If this poem isn't simply literary license, Selene's death seems to have ironically coincided with a [[lunar eclipse]]. If so, astronomical correlation then can be used to help pinpoint the date of her death: Lunar eclipses occurred in 9, 8, 5 and 1 BC and in AD 3, 7, 10, 11 and 14. The event in 5 BC most closely resembles the description given in the eulogy.<ref>Ancey, pp. 139–141</ref> However, the date of her death is not ascertainable with any certainty. [[Zahi Hawass]], former Director of Egyptian Antiquities, believes Cleopatra died in 8 AD.<ref>Roller, p. 250</ref>

Selene was placed in the [[Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania]] in modern [[Algeria]], built by her and Juba east of Caesarea and still visible. Juba died in 23 AD and was buried in the same tomb. There is a fragmentary inscription dedicated to the couple as the "King and Queen of Mauretania". Their remains have not been found at the site, perhaps due to tomb raids, possibly shortly after the mausoleum's construction; or because the structure was meant to serve as a memorial and not as a place of burial.<ref>Davies, Ethel (2009). [https://books.google.com/books?id=H4QeOGV_zl4C ''North Africa: the Roman Coast'']. Chalfont St. Peter, Buckinghamshire: Bradt Travel Guides. {{ISBN|978-1-84162-287-3}}, p. 11.</ref>

==Legacy==

[[File:Ptolemy of Mauretania bust, Cherchell, Algeria 3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|An ancient Roman bust of Cleopatra Selene's only son, [[Ptolemy of Mauretania]], in the [[Archaeological Museum of Cherchell]], Algeria.]]

Cleopatra was survived by her husband and their son Ptolemy, who ruled Mauretania together until Juba's death in AD 23. Ptolemy then reigned until 40, when he was executed by Emperor [[Caligula]], his mother's great nephew, who was probably jealous of Mauretania's [[wealth]]. Caligula's successor, Emperor [[Claudius]], took advantage of Ptolemy's lack of heirs and assumed control of Mauretania, turning it into the Roman provinces of [[Mauretania Caesariensis]] and [[Mauretania Tingitana]]. Thereafter, Cleopatra, Juba and Ptolemy were mostly forgotten.<ref name="HT Draycott" />

One of the two [[satellite]]s of the [[asteroid]] [[216 Kleopatra|(216) Kleopatra]] was named Cleoselene in her honor.

==In fiction==
* Cleopatra Selene is mentioned in the novels by [[Robert Graves]], ''[[I, Claudius]]'' and ''Claudius the God''.
* Cleopatra Selene is a significant character in [[Wallace Breem]]'s historical novel ''The Legate's Daughter'' (1974), Phoenix/Orion Books Ltd. {{ISBN|0-7538-1895-7}}
* ''Cleopatra's Daughter'' by Andrea Ashton (1979) tells of Cleopatra Selene's early life.
*''The Memoirs of Cleopatra'' by Margaret George (1997) {{ISBN|0312154305}} mentions Cleopatra Selene's birth and early life with her mother.
* ''Querida Alejandría'' by María García Esperón (Bogotá 2007: Norma, {{ISBN|958-04-9845-8}}), is a novel in the form of a letter by Cleopatra Selene to the people of Alexandria.
* ''Cleopatra's Daughter'' by [[Michelle Moran]] (2009) tells the story of Cleopatra Selene's early life, from the demise of her parents through her life in Rome until her marriage to Juba II of Numidia.
* ''Lily of the Nile'', ''Song of the Nile'', and ''Daughters of the Nile'', a trilogy by Stephanie Dray, tells the life story of Cleopatra Selene mixed with magical fantasy.
* ''Cleopatra's Moon'' by Vicky Alvear Shecter (2011) is a novel for teens about Cleopatra Selene. The book ends with Cleopatra's marriage to Juba II.
* Cleopatra Selene and her twin Alexander appear briefly in the television series [[Rome (TV series)|''Rome'']].
* ''Selene, córka Kleopatry'' by Natalia Rolleczek is a novel about Cleopatra Selene and her brothers from the death of their parents until her marriage.
* Selene is a lead character in [[Michael Livingston]]'s 2015 historical fantasy novel ''[[The Shards of Heaven]]''.<ref name="PW Shards">{{cite web |url=http://www.publishersweekly.com/978-0-7653-8031-9 |title=''The Shards of Heaven'' by Michael Livingston |work=[[Publishers Weekly]] |accessdate=January 29, 2016}}</ref><ref name="KR Shards">{{cite web |url=https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/michael-livingston/the-shards-of-heaven/ |title=Review: ''The Shards of Heaven'' by Michael Livingston |work=[[Kirkus Reviews]] |date=September 3, 2015 |accessdate=January 29, 2016}}</ref>
*Cleopatra Selene is a major character in "The Daughters of Pallatine Hill", by Phyllis T. Smith (2016)

==See also==
*[[Caesarea]]
*[[Volubilis]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book|title=The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene|last=Roller|first=Duane W|date=24 February 2004|isbn=9781134402960|publisher=Routledge|location=London}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ancey |first1=Gabriel |title=Sur Deux Épigrammes De Crinagoras |journal=Revue Archéologique |date=1910 |volume=15 |issue=Janvier-Juin |pages=139–141 |jstor=41747871 }}
* [[Plutarch]] – ''Makers of Rome'' – Mark Antony
* [[Suetonius]] – ''The Lives of [[the Twelve Caesars]]'' – [[Augustus]] & [[Caligula]]
* [[Cassius Dio]] – ''Roman History''
* [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] – Juba II

==Further reading==
* Draycott, Jane (22 May 2018). "[https://www.historytoday.com/jane-draycott/cleopatras-daughter Cleopatra's Daughter: While Antony and Cleopatra have been immortalised in history and in popular culture, their offspring have been all but forgotten. Their daughter, Cleopatra Selene, became an important ruler in her own right]". ''[[History Today]]''.
* Moran, Michelle. "[http://michellemoran.com/books/cleopatra/background.html Behind the Scenes of Cleopatra's Daughter]".
* {{cite book|last=Roller|first=Duane W.|title=Cleopatra's Daughter: And Other Royal Women of the Augustan Era|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|isbn=9780190618827}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cleopatra Selene}}
[[Category:40 BC births]]
[[Category:6 BC deaths]]
[[Category:1st-century BC Egyptian people]]
[[Category:1st-century BC Egyptian women]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Numidia]]
[[Category:Twin people from Egypt]]
[[Category:Roman client rulers]]
[[Category:Ancient queens consort]]
[[Category:Roman-era Egyptians]]
[[Category:Ptolemaic princesses|Cleopatra Selene 2]]
[[Category:Mauretanian queens]]
[[Category:Children of Cleopatra]]
[[Category:Children of Mark Antony]]

Sergei Pankejeff

2020-12-04T10:42:45Z

Zumbo: Remove link to deleted article

{{short description|Russian noble}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sergei Pankejeff
| image = Sergey Pankejeff.JPG
| alt =
| caption = Sergei Pankejeff
| birth_name = Сергей Константинович Панкеев
| birth_date = December 24, 1886
| birth_place = [[Odessa]]
| death_date = May 7, 1979 (92 years)
| death_place = [[Vienna]]
| nationality = Russian
| other_names = Wolf-Man
| occupation =
| known_for =
}}
'''Sergei Konstantinovitch Pankejeff''' ({{lang-ru|Серге́й Константи́нович Панке́ев}}; December 24, 1886 – May 7, 1979) was a [[Russia]]n aristocrat from [[Odessa]] best known for being a patient of [[Sigmund Freud]], who gave him the [[pseudonym]] of '''Wolf-Man''' (''der Wolfsmann'') to protect his identity, after a [[dream]] Pankejeff had of a tree full of white [[wolf|wolves]].

== Biography ==
[[File:Sergei Pankejeff with his wife c. 1910.jpg|thumb|275px|right|Pankejeff with his wife c. 1910.]]
The Pankejeff family (Freud's German [[transliteration]] from the Russian; in English it would be transliterated as ''Pankeyev'') was a wealthy family in [[St. Petersburg]]. Sergei attended a grammar school in Russia, but after the [[1905 Russian Revolution]] he spent considerable time abroad studying. During his review of Freud's letters and other files, [[Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson]] uncovered notes for an unpublished paper by Freud's associate [[Ruth Mack Brunswick]]. Freud had asked her to review the Pankejeff case, and she discovered evidence that Pankejeff had been sexually abused by a family member during his childhood.<ref>"Anally seduced" as Masson writes, using Freud's "seduction" as an umbrella term for sexual maltreatment. Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff. (1984) ''The Assault On Truth: Freud's Suppression of The Seduction Theory''. Pocket Books, 1984, 1998. {{ISBN|0-671-02571-6}}</ref>

In 1906, his older sister Anna committed suicide while visiting the site of [[Mikhail Lermontov]]'s fatal duel, and by 1907 Sergei began to show signs of serious [[clinical depression|depression]]. Sergei's father Konstantin also suffered from depression, often connected to specific political happenings of the day, and committed suicide in 1907 by consuming an excess of sleeping medication, a few months after Sergei had left for Munich to seek treatment for his own ailment. While in Munich, Pankejeff saw many doctors and stayed voluntarily at a number of elite psychiatric hospitals. In the summers, he always visited Russia.

==Der Wolfsmann (The Wolf-Man)==
[[File:Prescription Sigmund Freud.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Prescription written by [[Sigmund Freud]] for the wife of Pankejeff, November 1919.]]
In January 1910, Pankejeff's physician brought him to Vienna to have treatment with Freud. Pankejeff and Freud met with each other many times between February 1910 and July 1914, and a few times thereafter, including a brief psychoanalysis in 1919. Pankejeff's "nervous problems" included his inability to have [[Defecation|bowel movements]] without the assistance of an [[enema]], as well as debilitating [[clinical depression|depression]]. Initially, according to Freud, Pankejeff resisted opening up to full analysis, until Freud gave him a year deadline for analysis, prompting Pankejeff to give up his resistances.

Freud's first publication on the "Wolf-Man" was "From the History of an Infantile Neurosis" (''Aus der Geschichte einer infantilen Neurose''), written at the end of 1914, but not published until 1918. Freud's treatment of Pankejeff centered on a dream the latter had had as a very young child which he described to Freud:

:"I dreamt that it was night and that I was lying in bed. (My bed stood with its foot towards the window; in front of the window there was a row of old walnut trees. I know it was winter when I had the dream, and night-time.) Suddenly the window opened of its own accord, and I was terrified to see that some white wolves were sitting on the big walnut tree in front of the window. There were six or seven of them. The wolves were quite white, and looked more like foxes or sheep-dogs, for they had big tails like foxes and they had their ears pricked like dogs when they pay attention to something. In great terror, evidently of being eaten up by the wolves, I screamed and woke up. My nurse hurried to my bed, to see what had happened to me. It took quite a long while before I was convinced that it had only been a dream; I had had such a clear and life-like picture of the window opening and the wolves sitting on the tree. At last I grew quieter, felt as though I had escaped from some danger, and went to sleep again." (Freud 1918)

Freud's eventual analysis (along with Pankejeff's input) of the dream was that it was the result of Pankejeff having witnessed a "[[primal scene]]" — his parents having sex ''a tergo'' or ''more ferarum'' ("from behind" or "[[doggy style]]") — at a very young age. Later in the paper, Freud posited the possibility that Pankejeff instead had witnessed [[mating animals|copulation between animals]], which was [[Displacement (psychology)|displaced]] to his parents.

Pankejeff's dream played a major role in Freud's theory of [[psychosexual development]], and along with ''[[Irma's injection]]'' (Freud's own dream, which launched dream analysis), it was one of the most important dreams for the developments of Freud's theories. Additionally, Pankejeff became one of the main cases used by Freud to prove the validity of [[psychoanalysis]]. It was the third detailed case study, after "Notes Upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis" in 1908 (also known by its animal nickname "[[Rat Man]]"), that did not involve Freud analyzing himself, and which brought together the main aspects of [[catharsis]], the [[Unconscious mind|unconscious]], sexuality, and dream analysis put forward by Freud in his ''[[Studies on Hysteria]]'' (1895), ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]'' (1899), and his ''[[Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality]]'' (1905).

==Later life==
Pankejeff later published his own memoir under Freud's given pseudonym and remained in contact with Freudian disciples until his own death (undergoing analysis for six decades despite Freud's pronouncement of his being "cured"), making him one of the longest-running famous patients in the history of psychoanalysis.

A few years after finishing psychoanalysis with Freud, Pankejeff developed a psychotic [[delirium]]. He was observed in a street staring at his reflection in a mirror, convinced that some sort of doctor had drilled a hole in his nose. [[Ruth Mack Brunswick]], a Freudian, explained the delusion as displaced [[castration anxiety]].

==Criticism of Freud's interpretation==
Critics, beginning with [[Otto Rank]] in 1926, have questioned the accuracy and efficacy of Freud's psychoanalytic treatment of Pankejeff.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Otto Rank: Inside Psychoanalysis (eds. E. J. Lieberman and Robert Kramer)|year=2012|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore}}</ref> Similarly, in the mid-20th century, psychiatrist [[Hervey Cleckley]] dismissed Freud's diagnosis as far-fetched and entirely speculative.<ref>"I have become increasingly convinced that some of the popular methods presumed to discover what is in the unconscious cannot be counted upon as reliable methods of obtaining evidence. They often involve the use of symbolism and analogy in such a way that the interpreter can find virtually anything that he is looking for. Freud, for instance, from a simple dream reported by a man in his middle twenties as having occurred at 4 years of age drew remarkable conclusions. The 4-year-old boy dreamed of seeing six or seven white wolves sitting in a tree. Freud interpreted the dream in such a way as to convince himself that the patient at 18 months of age had been shocked by seeing his parents have intercourse three times in succession and that this played a major part in the extreme fear of being castrated by his father which Freud ascribed to him at 4 years of age. No objective evidence was ever offered to support this conclusion. Nor was actual fear of castration ever made to emerge into the light of consciousness despite years of analysis." Hervey Cleckley, The Mask of Sanity, 1941, fifth edition 1976, {{ISBN|0-9621519-0-4}}</ref> Dorpat has suggested that Freud's behavior in the Pankejeff case as an example of [[gaslighting]] (attempting to undermine someone's perceptions of reality).<ref name="Dorpat1996">{{cite book|first=Theodore L. |last=Dorpat|title=Gaslighting, the double whammy, interrogation, and other methods of covert control in psychotherapy and psychoanalysis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3vLaAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=16 June 2011|date=28 October 1996|publisher=J. Aronson|isbn=978-1-56821-828-1}}</ref>

[[Daniel Goleman]] wrote the following in the ''New York Times'':

{{quote|Freud's key intervention with the Wolf-Man rested on a nightmare in which he was lying in bed and saw some white wolves sitting on a tree in front of the open window. Freud deduced that the dream symbolized a trauma: that the Wolf-Man, as a toddler, had witnessed his parents having intercourse. Freud's version of the supposed trauma, however, was contradicted by the Wolf-Man himself, Sergej Pankejeff, in an interview with Karin Obholzer, a journalist who tracked him down in Vienna in the 1970s.

Mr. Pankejeff saw Freud's interpretation of his dream as 'terribly far-fetched.' Mr. Pankejeff said, 'The whole thing is improbable,' since in families of his milieu young children slept in their nanny's bedroom, not with their parents.

Mr. Pankejeff also disputed Freud's claim that he had been cured, and said he resented being 'propaganda' and 'a showpiece for psychoanalysis.' Mr. Pankejeff said, 'That was the theory, that Freud had cured me 100 percent.' However, 'It's all false.'|author=[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE6DD133AF935A35750C0A966958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all]}}

[[Maria Torok]] and [[Nicolas Abraham]] have reinterpreted the Wolf-Man's case (in ''The wolf-man’s magic word, a cryptonymy''), presenting their notion of "the crypt" and what they call “cryptonyms." They provide a different analysis of the case than Freud, whose conclusions they criticise. According to the authors, Pankejeff's statements hide other statements, while the actual content of his words can be illuminated by looking into his multi-lingual background. According to the authors, Pankejeff hid secrets concerning his older sister, and as the Wolf-Man both wanted to forget and preserve these issues, he encrypted his older sister, as an idealised "other" in the heart of himself, and spoke these secrets out loud in a cryptic manner, through words hiding behind words, [[rebus]]es, wordplays etc. For example, in the Wolf-Man's dream, where six or seven wolves were sitting in a tree outside his bedroom window, the expression "pack of six", a "sixter" = ''shiestorka'': ''siestorka'' =''' sister''', which gives the conclusion that his sister is placed in the centre of the trauma.

The case forms a central part of the second plateau of [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattari]]'s ''[[A Thousand Plateaus]]'', titled "One or Several Wolves?" In it, they repeat the accusation made in ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' that Freudian analysis is unduly reductive and that the unconscious is actually a "machinic assemblage". They argue that wolves are a case of the pack or [[multiplicity (philosophy)|multiplicity]] and that the dream was part of a schizoid experience.

==See also==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Rat Man]]
* [[Herbert Graf|Little Hans]]
* [[Anna O.]]
* [[Dora (case study)]]
* [[Screen memory]]
}}

== Notes ==
<references/>

== References ==
*Whitney Davis, ''Drawing the Dream of the Wolves: Homosexuality, Interpretation and Freud's 'Wolf Man''' (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1995), {{ISBN|978-0-253-20988-7}}.
*Sigmund Freud, "From the History of an Infantile Neurosis" (1918), reprinted in [[Peter Gay]], ''The Freud Reader'' (London: Vintage, 1995).
*"The Wolf-Man" [Sergei Pankejeff], ''The Wolf-Man'' (Pankejeff's memoirs, along with essays by Freud and Ruth Mack Brunswick), (New York: Basic Books, 1971).
*James L. Rice, ''Freud's Russia: National Identity in the Evolution of Psychoanalysis'' (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1993), 94-98. {{ISBN|1-56000-091-0}}
*Torok Maria, Abraham Nicolas, The wolf man's magic word, a cryptonymy, 1986

== External links ==
{{commons category|Sergei Pankejeff}}
*[https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/freud/freud02.html Freud exhibit which contains images of Pankejeff]

{{Sigmund Freud}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pankejeff, Sergei}}
[[Category:1886 births]]
[[Category:1979 deaths]]
[[Category:Analysands of Ruth Mack Brunswick]]
[[Category:Analysands of Sigmund Freud]]
[[Category:Case studies by Sigmund Freud]]
[[Category:Dream]]
[[Category:People from Odessa]]
[[Category:Russian nobility]]

Stanislas Merhar

2020-12-04T10:42:23Z

Zumbo: Remove link to deleted article

{{Infobox person
| name = Stanislas Merhar
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| othernames =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1971|1|24|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Paris]], France
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1997–present
| spouse =
| partner = [[Vanessa Paradis]] (1997–98)
| children =
| website =
}}
'''Stanislas Merhar''' (born 24 January 1971) is a [[France|French]] actor.<ref>{{cite news|last=Schaefer|first=Stephen|title=Movie Review; `Merci Docteur Rey' isn't prescription for laughs|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/bostonherald/access/699251921.html?dids=699251921:699251921&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Sep+24,+2004&author=STEPHEN+SCHAEFER&pub=Boston+Herald&desc=Movie+Review;+`Merci+Docteur+Rey'+isn't+prescription+for+laughs&pqatl=google|accessdate=22 January 2011|newspaper=[[Boston Herald]]|date=24 September 2004|page=E 25}}</ref>

He was born in [[Paris]] in a family of immigrants from [[Slovenia]]. He works in cinema, television and theatre.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cannes.lesinrocks.com/2011/05/18/langelique-stanislas-merhar/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-01-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817010306/http://cannes.lesinrocks.com/2011/05/18/langelique-stanislas-merhar/ |archive-date=2011-08-17 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.canalplus.fr/c-cinema/c-les-films-en-salles/cid522400-stanislas-merhar.html?parent_id=1748 |title=STANISLAS MERHAR – BIOGRAPHIE |language=French |publisher=Canalplus.fr |accessdate=2017-04-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metrofrance.com/x/metro/2008/11/05/FsDDrSaJVGMI/index.xml |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-01-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090524075755/http://www.metrofrance.com/x/metro/2008/11/05/FsDDrSaJVGMI/index.xml |archive-date=2009-05-24 |df= }}</ref>

In 1998 Merhar won the [[César Award for Most Promising Actor]] for his role in the film ''[[Dry Cleaning (film)|Dry Cleaning]]''.

== Filmography ==
:1997 : ''[[Nettoyage à sec]]'' by [[Anne Fontaine]]
:1998 : ''[[The Count of Monte Cristo (1998 miniseries)|The Count of Monte Cristo]]'' (TV miniseries, played the role of Albert de Morcerf) by [[Josée Dayan]]
:1998 : ''[[Dry Cleaning (film)|Dry Cleaning]]'' by [[Anne Fontaine]]
:1999 : ''[[The Letter (1999 film)|La Lettre]]'' by [[Manoel de Oliveira]]
:1999 : ''[[Furia (film)|Furia]]'' by [[Alexandre Aja]]
:2000 : ''Franck Spadone'' by [[Richard Bean]]
:2000 : ''[[La Captive]]'' by [[Chantal Akerman]]
:2000 : ''[[Les Savates du bon Dieu]]'' by [[Jean-Claude Brisseau]]
:2001 : ''Nobel'' by [[Fabio Carpi]]
:2001 : ''[[The Knights of the Quest]]'' by [[Pupi Avati]]
:2002 : ''Un monde presque paisible'' by [[Michel Deville]]
:2002 : ''[[Merci Docteur Rey]]'' by [[Andrew Litvack]]
:2003 : ''Courtes Histoires de train court métrage'' by [[François Aunay]]
:2003 : ''[[Adolphe (film)|Adolphe]]'' by [[Benoît Jacquot]]
:2003 : ''L'Enfance de Catherine'' by [[Anne Baudry]], short film
:2005 : ''Un fil à la patte'' by [[Michel Deville]]
:2005 : ''Code 68'' de [[Jean-Henri Roger]]
:2006 : ''Comme un chat noir au fond d'un sac'' by [[Stéphane Elmadjian]]
:2006 : ''Müetter'' de [[Dominique Lienhard]]
:2006 : ''L'Héritage'' by [[Géla Babluani]] and [[Temur Babluani]]
:2011 : ''[[En ville]]'' by [[Valérie Mréjen]] and [[Bertrand Schefer]]
:2011 : ''[[The Art of Love (2011 film)|The Art of Love]]'' by [[Emmanuel Mouret]]
:2011 : ''[[Almayer's Folly (film)|Almayer's Folly]]'' by [[Chantal Akerman]]
:2012 : ''Climats'' by [[Caroline Huppert]]
:2013 : ''Left Foot Right Foot'' by [[Germinal Roaux]]
:2014 : ''Rosenn'' by [[Yvan Le Moine]]
:2015 : ''[[L'Ombre des femmes]]'' by [[Philippe Garrel]]
:2017 : ''[[Madame (2017 film)|Madame]]'' by Amanda Sthers
:2018 : ''[[The Black Book (2018 film)|The Black Book]]''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|0580720}}

{{César Award for Most Promising Actor}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Merhar, Stanislas}}
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Male actors from Paris]]
[[Category:French people of Slovenian descent]]
[[Category:French male film actors]]
[[Category:French male television actors]]
[[Category:French male stage actors]]
[[Category:Most Promising Actor César Award winners]]
[[Category:20th-century French male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century French male actors]]

Pan Hong

2020-12-04T10:42:03Z

Zumbo: Remove link to deleted article

{{short description|Chinese actress}}
{{family name hatnote|[[Pan (surname)|Pan]]|lang=Chinese}}
{{infobox person
| name = Pan Hong
| image =
| alt =
| caption = Pan Hong
| birth_name = 刘蓉华
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1954|11|4}}
| birth_place = [[Shanghai]], [[China]]| alma_mater = [[Shanghai Theatre Academy]]
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 1977 – present
| awards = '''[[Changchun Film Festival]]''' '''Best Actress''' 1994 ''[[Shanghai Fever]]'' '''[[Damascus International Film Festival]]''' '''Best Actress''' 1987 ''Last Queen'' '''[[Shanghai Film Critics Awards]]''' '''Best Actress''' 1994 ''Shanghai Fever'' '''[[Taormina Film Fest]]''' '''Best Actress''' 1988 ''Well''{{awards|award=[[Huabiao Awards]]|name='''[[Huabiao Award for Outstanding Actress|Outstanding Actress]]''' 1994 ''Shanghai Fever''}}{{awards|award=[[Golden Rooster Awards]]|name='''[[Golden Rooster Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]''' 1983 ''At Middle Age'' 1988 ''Well'' 1994 ''Shanghai Fever''}}{{awards|award=[[Hundred Flowers Awards]]|name='''[[Hundred Flowers Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]''' 1994 ''Shanghai Fever''}}
| module = {{Infobox Chinese|child=yes
| t = 潘虹
| s = 潘虹
}}
| module2 = {{infobox musical artist|embed=yes
| alias = Hong Pan
| background = temporary
}}
}}

'''Pan Hong''' (Chinese: 潘虹, born November 4, 1954) is a Chinese film actress. She is widely regarded as one of the best film stars in her generation.

== Early life ==
Born Liu Ronghua (刘蓉华) on November 4, 1954, in [[Shanghai]]. During the [[Cultural Revolution]], her parents were forced to get divorced. Then, she changed her surname "Liu" (her father's) to Pan (her mother's) and lived with her mother who was born in 1922.<ref>[http://www.360doc.com/content/16/0518/18/3247914_560228196.shtml 中国著名电影演员潘虹] Retrieved in 2016-09-03</ref> On April 19, 1968, her father killed himself because of persecution. Two days later, she came to the crematorium alone and took her father's urn back to her father's native place, Harbin by taking the train.<ref>[http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-279293-875491.html 读潘虹日记“无法哭泣”] Retrieved in 2018-07-09</ref>

== Career==
After Pan graduated from the [[Shanghai Theatre Academy]], she performed several supporting roles in films. In 1982, she shot-fame as a leading actress for ''[[At the Middle Age]]''.<ref>[http://www.chinanews.com.cn/yl/ypkb/news/2008/11-24/1460830.shtml 潘虹：每一个角色都值得我拼命去揣摩，去演好]. Chinanews.com . 24 November 2008.</ref> She was awarded a [[Hundred Flowers Award]], [[Changchun Film Festival|Changchun Film Festival Golden Deer]], [[Shanghai Film Critics Awards|Shanghai Film Critics Award]]. As the [[Best Actress (Golden Rooster Awards)|Golden Rooster Award for Best Actress]] three-time winner, Pan received a Golden Rooster Special Award in 1994. Chinese critics named her "The last noble in the Chinese film industry".<ref>[http://www.infzm.com/content/35007 Pan Hong:The last noble]. Southern Weekend. 21 September 2009.</ref> She is the vice-chairman of the [[China Film Association]] and China Film Performance Academic Society.<ref>[http://www.cfa.org.cn/member/g/5716.shtml CFA DATABASE:Pan Hong] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707045454/http://www.cfa.org.cn/member/g/5716.shtml |date=2011-07-07 }}. China Film Association Official Site. 28 September 2007.</ref>

==Personal life ==
{{tone|section|date=September 2018}}
It is said that Pan Hong's paternal grandfather is a Russian man.
When Pan was 7 years old, she fractured her finger by sticking in the sewer.
Her beloved maternal grandmother died in 1974. Her grandma once fractured her hand bone for Pan after a month since her birth.
In 1978, 24-year-old Pan married Mi Jiashan (米家山) who is seven years older（born in May 1947）. Mi, at that time, was a common worker in Shanghai Filmmaking Factory. Mi's hometown is in Chengdu, Sichuan. After marriage, most of time Pan lived in Chengdu. The couple divorced in 1986, but they remained friends. Pan Hong adores him until now. After divorce, Pan returned to Shanghai and lived with her mother temporarily.<ref>[http://www.southcn.com/ent/tv2/jimaodz/200606060875.htm 潘虹坦承：我一辈子在乎米家山] Retrieved 2016-09-03</ref>
New Year's Day in 1989, Pan Hong stayed in New York with the group who is shooting a film called ''The Last Aristocrat''. The year before, she was photographed by an American reporter and became the cover of Times in Sept 12th, 1988. She was the second Chinese (the first being Deng Xiaoping) and the first Chinese actress to become the cover of the magazine. Unfortunately, there's no cover picture in Times' official website.
On February 8, 1994, Pan Hong formally moved to the house she bought with her loan.
In January, 1995, Pan Hong published her diaries written throughout 1994.<ref>[http://book.kongfz.com/18841/314751597/ 《潘虹独语》] Retrieved in 2018-07-09</ref>
Around 2003, she converted herself to Buddhism and became a vegetarian.
To date, Pan never remarried and has no children.<ref>[http://ent.sina.com.cn/v/m/2010-03-19/04082901925.shtml 潘虹坦言：没有子女很遗憾真爱有过一次就够了] Retrieved in 2016-09-03</ref>

==Selected filmography==

===Film===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 1977 || ''Slave's Daughter'' 奴隶的女儿 || Mala Wujia ||
|-
| 1978 || ''Troubled Laughter'' 苦恼人的笑 || Fu Bin's wife ||
|-
| 1982 || ''Du Shiniang'' 杜十娘 || Du Shiniang || 3rd place - [[Hundred Flowers Award for Best Actress]]
|-
| 1983 || ''At the Middle Age'' 人到中年 || Lu Wenting || [[Golden Rooster Award for Best Actress]] 2nd place - [[Hundred Flowers Award for Best Actress]]
|-
| 1984 || ''Cold Night'' 寒夜 || Zeng Shusheng ||
|-
| 1986 || ''[[The Last Emperor]]'' 火龙 || Li Shuxian || Nominated - [[Hong Kong Film Award for Best Actress]]
|-
| 1987 || ''The Last Empress'' 末代皇后 || Wanrong || [[Damascus International Film Festival]] for Best Actress Golden Phoenix Award for Female Actor 2nd place - [[Hundred Flowers Award for Best Actress]]
|-
| 1988 || ''Well'' 井 || Xu Lisha || [[Best Actress (Golden Rooster Awards)|Golden Rooster Award for Best Actress]] Taormina International Film Festival for Best Actress
|-
| 1989 || ''[[The Last Aristocrats]]'' 最后的贵族 || Li Tong ||
|-
| 1990 || ''Single Woman'' 单身女人 || Ouyang Ruoyun || 2nd place - [[Hundred Flowers Award for Best Actress]]
|-
| 1994 || ''Shanghai Fever'' 股疯 || Fan Li || [[Best Actress (Golden Rooster Awards)|Golden Rooster Award for Best Actress]] [[Hundred Flowers Award for Best Actress]] [[Changchun Film Festival]] for Best Actress [[Shanghai Film Critics Award for Best Actress]] Huabiao Film Award for Outstanding Actress Golden Phoenix Award for Female Actor
|-
| 2013 || ''[[So Young (film)|So Young]]'' 致我们终将逝去的青春 || Chen's mom ||
|-
|rowspan=2|2015||''[[Lost in Hong Kong]]'' 港囧 || Xu's mother in law ||
|-
| ''[[The Last Women Standing]]'' || ||
|-
| 2016 || ''Kill Time'' 谋杀似水年华 || ||
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 2001 || ''Beyond Emotion'' 超越情感 || Qi Runwu ||
|-
| rowspan=2| 2002 || ''Wu Tong Yu'' 梧桐雨 || Zhu Yugui ||
|-
| ''Qing Yi'' 青衣 || Liu Ruyun ||
|-
| 2003 || ''Shao nian tian zi'' 少年天子 || [[Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang]]||
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Moment in Peking (2005 Television Series)|Moment in Peking]]'' 京华烟云 || Mrs. Zeng || Nominated - Top Chinese TV Drama Award for Best Supporting Actress
|-
| 2007 || ''[[Thank You for Having Loved Me]]'' 谢谢你曾经爱过我 || Su Yuzhen ||
|-
| 2008 || ''[[Taiwan 1895]]'' 台湾1895 || [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] ||
|-
| 2012 || ''Mu fu feng yun'' 木府风云 || Ms. Luoning ||
|-
| 2013 || ''Hot Mom'' 辣妈正传 || Mrs Deng ||
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Tiger Mom (TV series)|Tiger Mom]]'' 虎妈猫爸 || Sun Yaxian ||
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Win the World]]'' || Old Madame Ba ||
|}

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.dianying.com/en/person/PanHong Dianying.com-Pan Hong]
*{{IMDb name|id=0393251|name=Hong Pan}}

{{Changchun Film Festival Best Actress}}
{{Golden Rooster Award Best Actress}}
{{Hundred Flowers Award Best Actress}}
{{Shanghai Film Critics Award for Best Actress}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pan, Hong}}
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses from Shanghai]]
[[Category:Chinese film actresses]]
[[Category:Chinese television actresses]]
[[Category:Shanghai Theatre Academy alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century Chinese actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century Chinese actresses]]

Maud Linder

2020-12-04T10:41:47Z

Zumbo: Remove link to deleted article

'''Maud Lydié Marcelle Leuvielle''',<ref>Mathiesen, Snorre Smári: Max Linder, Father of Film Comedy (BearManor Media, 2017), p. 152.</ref> better known as '''Maud Linder''' (27 June 1924 – 25 October 2017), was a French journalist, film historian and documentary film director.

== Life ==
Maud Linder was born in 1924 as the only daughter of silent film star [[Max Linder]] (legal name ''Gabriel Leuvielle'') and his wife Hélène Peters. Her parents both committed suicide in October 1925.<ref name="MM">[http://www.moviemail.com/blog/this-day-in-cinema/1813-This-Day-in-1925-Silent-star-Max-Linder-commits-suicide/ This Day in Cinema: This Day in 1925: Silent star Max Linder commits suicide] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150124012148/http://www.moviemail.com/blog/this-day-in-cinema/1813-This-Day-in-1925-Silent-star-Max-Linder-commits-suicide/ |date=2015-01-24 }}, moviemail.com, access date 23 January 2015</ref><ref>[http://www.arte.tv/guide/de/048891-000/max-linder-mein-vater-der-filmstar Max Linder - Mein Vater, der Filmstar] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150124005014/http://www.arte.tv/guide/de/048891-000/max-linder-mein-vater-der-filmstar |date=2015-01-24 }}, arte.tv, access date 23 January 2015</ref>

Raised first by her paternal grandparents, and later by her maternal grandmother, at age 20 she saw one of her father's movies for the first time and decided to make his works accessible to the public again.<ref>Mathiesen, Snorre Smári: Max Linder, Father of Film Comedy (BearManor Media, 2017), p. 159.</ref> In 1963, she compiled a film titled ''Laugh with Max Linder'' which premiered at the [[Venice Film Festival]] and also received the [[Étoile de Cristal]]. The film was a compilation of her father's last three films made in Hollywood. In 1983 Maud Linder made a documentary film titled ''[[The Man in the Silk Hat]]'', about the life and career of her father. It was screened out of competition at the [[1983 Cannes Film Festival]].<ref>[http://www.festival-cannes.fr/en/archives/1983/outOfCompetition.html Official Selection 1983: Out of Competition], festival-cannes.fr, access date 23 January 2015</ref> In 1992, Maud Linder published a book about Linder in France, ''Max Linder was my father'' and in 2008 she received the [[Prix Henri Langlois]]<ref>[https://prixhenrilanglois.wordpress.com/le-prix-henri-langlois/ Lauréats récompensés depuis 2006], prixhenrilanglois.wordpress.com, access date 23 January 2015</ref> for her work to promote her father's legacy.

Linder also worked as a journalist and, in the 1950s and 1960s, as an assistant director, mostly for the filmmaker [[Jean-Paul Le Chanois]].

Linder died on 25 October 2017 at the age of 93.<ref>[http://information.tv5monde.com/en-continu/deces-de-maud-linder-qui-fit-redecouvrir-son-pere-le-cineaste-max-linder-199797 Décès de Maud Linder qui fit redécouvrir son père, le cinéaste Max Linder] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026215506/http://information.tv5monde.com/en-continu/deces-de-maud-linder-qui-fit-redecouvrir-son-pere-le-cineaste-max-linder-199797 |date=2017-10-26 }} {{in lang|fr}}</ref>

== Selected filmography ==
* 1954: Papa, maman, la bonne et moi (assistant director)
* 1954: Faites-moi confiance (assistant director)
* 1955: Papa, maman, ma femme et moi... (assistant director)
* 1961: Par-dessus le mur (assistant director)
* 1963: Laugh with Max Linder (''En compagnie de Max Linder'', director and producer)
* 1983: [[The Man in the Silk Hat]] (''L'homme au chapeau de soie'', director, screenwriter and producer)
* 2014: The Mystery of the King of Kinema (interview)

== Books ==
* ''Max Linder.'' In: ''Les Dieux du cinéma muet.'' Paris, 1992, Éditions Atlas
* ''Max Linder etait mon pere.'' Paris, 1992, Flammarion, {{ISBN|978-2080665768}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|0511727}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121014202833/http://www.institut-max-linder.com/maud-linder.html Biography of Maud Linder] (French)

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Linder, Maud}}
[[Category:1924 births]]
[[Category:2017 deaths]]
[[Category:French women journalists]]
[[Category:French women film directors]]
[[Category:French women screenwriters]]
[[Category:French screenwriters]]

Lola Dewaere

2020-12-04T10:41:35Z

Zumbo: Remove link to deleted article

{{short description|French actress}}
{{BLP sources|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Lola Dewaere
| image = Lola Dewaere 2013 cropped.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Lola Dewaere in 2013
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1979|12|4|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Boulogne-Billancourt]], [[Hauts-de-Seine]], [[France]]
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 2007–present
}}

'''Lola Dewaere''' is a French actress.

==Early life==
Lola Dewaere is the daughter of actor [[Patrick Dewaere]] and Elizabeth Malvina Chalier.

==Theater==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Title
! Author
! Director
|-
| 2010
| ''La Biscotte''
| Antoine Beauville
| Antoine Beauville
|-
| 2013
| ''La véritable histoire de Maria Callas''
| Jean-Yves Rogale
| Françoise Petit-Balmer
|-
| 2015-16
| ''Une folie''
| [[Sacha Guitry]]
| [[Francis Huster]]
|-
|}

==Filmography==
[[File:Lola Dewaere 2012 2.jpg|thumb|Lola Dewaere in 2012]]
{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Director
! Notes
|-
| 2007
| ''Curriculum''
| The designer
| Alexandre Moix
| Short
|-
| 2010
| ''La vie devant soi''
| Nadine
| [[Myriam Boyer]]
| TV Movie
|-
| 2012
| ''[[Mince alors!]]''
| Nina
| [[Charlotte de Turckheim]]
| Nominated - [[César Award for Most Promising Actress]]
|-
| rowspan=2|2013
| ''28 Jours Trop Tard''
| Doctor
| Stephen Bigot
| Short
|-
| ''La croisière''
| Marie-Lou
| Pascal Lahmani
| TV Series (6 Episodes)
|-
| rowspan=2|2014
| ''Tu es si jolie ce soir''
| Barbara
| [[Jean-Pierre Mocky]]
|
|-
| ''Ligne de mire''
| Claire
| Nicolas Herdt
| TV Movie Luchon International Film Festival - Best Young Actress
|-
| 2014-16
| ''Mortus Corporatus''
| Miss Poitou
| Fabien Camaly
| Web Series (20 Episodes)
|-
| rowspan=2|2015
| ''Juste un souvenir''
| Marie
| [[Jérémie Carboni]]
| Short
|-
| ''Le Zèbre''
| Betty
| Frédéric Berthe
| TV Movie
|-
| rowspan=2|2016
| ''Les derniers Parisiens''
| Anita Lola
| [[Hamé]] & Ekoué Labitey
|
|-
| ''Becoming Zoey''
| Karry
| Dorothee Pierson
| TV Mini-Series
|-
| 2016-17
| ''La vengeance aux yeux clairs''
| Pauline Jordan
| David Morlet & Nicolas Guicheteau
| TV Series (14 Episodes)
|-
| rowspan=2|2017
| ''911-Pizza''
| Woman on the phone
| Elefterios Zacharopoulos
| Short
|-
| ''Le tueur du lac''
| Mathilde
| Jérôme Cornuau
| TV %ini-Series
|-
| 2018
| ''Crime dans le Luberon''
| Caroline Martinez
| Éric Duret
| TV Movie
|-
| rowspan=4| 2019
| ''Crime dans l'Hérault''
| Caroline Martinez
| Éric Duret
| TV Movie
|-
| ''[[La Dernière Vague]]''
| Marianne Lewen
| Rodolphe Tissot
| TV Mini-Series
|-
| ''Crimes Parfaits''
| Lucie Perrin
| Philippe Bérenger
| TV Series (1 Episode)
|-
| ''Astrid et Raphaëlle''
| Raphaëlle Coste
| Hippolyte Dard & Elsa Bennet
| TV Series (6 Episodes)
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Lola Dewaere}}
*{{IMDb name|1463127}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dewaere, Lola}}
[[Category:French film actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century French actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Paris]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:Alumni of the Cours Florent]]

{{france-film-actor-stub}}

Manfred Rommel

2020-12-04T10:40:02Z

Zumbo: Remove link to deleted article

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}}
{{Infobox Politician
| name = Manfred Rommel
| image = Manfred-rommel-2004.jpg
| caption = Manfred Rommel in 2004
| birth_date = {{birth date|1928|12|24|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Stuttgart]], [[Weimar Republic]]
| residence =
| death_date ={{death date and age|2013|11|7|1928|12|24|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]]
| office = Mayor of [[Stuttgart]]
| term_start = 1974
| term_end = 1996
| predecessor = [[Arnulf Klett]]
| successor = [[Wolfgang Schuster]]
| party = [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]]
| religion =
| occupation = Lawyer
| majority =
| spouse = {{marriage|Liselotte Daiber|1954}}
| children = 1
| allegiance = {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
| branch = [[Luftwaffe]]
| serviceyears = 1943–1945
| rank = [[Luftwaffenhelfer]]
| battles = [[World War II]]
}}

'''Manfred Rommel''' (24 December 1928 – 7 November 2013) was a [[Germany|German]] politician belonging to the [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]], who served as [[Mayor]] of [[Stuttgart]] from 1974 until 1996. Rommel's policies were described as tolerant and liberal, and he was one of the most popular municipal politicians in Germany. He was the recipient of numerous foreign honours. He was the only son of [[Wehrmacht]] field marshal [[Erwin Rommel]] and his wife Lucia Maria Mollin (1894–1971), and contributed to the establishment of museums in his father's honour. He was also known for his friendship with [[George Patton IV]] and [[David Montgomery, 2nd Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|David Montgomery]], the sons of his father's two principal military adversaries.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-two/10437714/The-sons-of-opposing-wartime-generals.html The sons of wartime generals who became great friends]</ref>

==Background and family==
Rommel was born in Stuttgart and entered service as a [[Luftwaffenhelfer]] (air force assistant) in 1943 at age 14, serving in an anti-aircraft battery. He considered joining the [[Waffen SS]], but his father opposed it. On 14 October 1944, he was present at his parents' house<ref> Rommel, Erwin; Liddell Hart, Basil Henry : ''The Rommel Papers''. Hachette Books 1982.{{ISBN|9780306801570}}</ref> when his father was led off to be forced to commit suicide for his alleged complicity in the [[20 July plot]] to assassinate [[Adolf Hitler]], which was publicly portrayed by the Nazi leadership as a death resulting from a war injury. In February 1945, Rommel was dismissed from air force service and in March was conscripted into the paramilitary [[Reich Labour Service|Reichsarbeitsdienst]] service. Stationed in [[Riedlingen]] at the end of April, he deserted just before the [[First Army (France)|French First Army]] entered the town. He was taken prisoner of war, was interrogated by (among others) general [[Jean de Lattre de Tassigny]], and disclosed the truth about his father's death.<ref>Manfred Rommel: ''Trotz allem heiter''. Stuttgart 1998, 3rd edition, p. 77–85. {{ISBN|3-421-05151-8}}</ref>

==Post-war life and career==
In 1947, he took his [[Abitur]] while studying in [[Biberach an der Riß]] and went on to study law at the [[University of Tübingen]]. He married Liselotte in 1954 and had a daughter named Catherine.<ref name="stern.de">[http://www.stern.de/lifestyle/leute/was-macht-eigentlich-manfred-rommel-316469.html Was Macht Eigenlich...: Manfred Rommel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925191133/http://www.stern.de/lifestyle/leute/was-macht-eigentlich-manfred-rommel-316469.html |date=25 September 2011 }} stern.de</ref> After a stint working as a lawyer, in 1956, Rommel entered the civil service and later became state secretary in the state government of [[Baden-Württemberg]].

In 1974, Rommel succeeded [[Arnulf Klett]] as [[Oberbürgermeister]] (equivalent to Mayor) of Stuttgart by winning 58.5% of the votes in the second round of elections, defeating Peter Conradi of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]]. He was re-elected after the first round of elections in 1982 with 69.8% and in 1990 with 71.7% of the votes. As the mayor of Stuttgart, he was also known for his effort to give the [[Red Army Faction]] terrorists who had committed suicide at the Stuttgart-[[Stammheim Prison|Stammheim prison]] a proper burial, despite the concern that the graves would become a pilgrimage point for radical leftists.<ref>{{cite web| last = Usselmann| first = Rainer | title = 18. Oktober 1977: Gerhard Richter's work of mourning and its new audience | url = http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0425/is_1_61/ai_84848867/pg_4 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060627171844/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0425/is_1_61/ai_84848867/pg_4 | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2006-06-27 | accessdate =2008-10-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zeit.de/1987/43/tage-des-zorns-tage-der-trauer/seite-6|publisher=[[Die Zeit]]|title=Tage des Zorns, Tage der Trauer |date=16 October 1987 |language=de |accessdate=7 November 2013 }}</ref>

While Oberbürgermeister of Stuttgart, Rommel began a much-publicised friendship with U.S. Army Major General [[George Patton IV]], the son of his father's World War II adversary, General [[George S. Patton]], who was assigned to the [[VII Corps (United States)|VII Corps]] headquarters near the city.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sobel|first=Brian M.|title=The Fighting Pattons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p4ootbf49WsC|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|page=94|year=1997|isbn=9780275957148}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Career Spotlight: Benjamin Patton (C'88) |url=http://alumni.georgetown.edu/career/career_138.html |publisher=[[Georgetown University|alumni.georgetown.edu]] |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212022310/http://alumni.georgetown.edu/career/career_138.html |archivedate=12 December 2013 }}</ref> Additionally, he was also friends with [[David Montgomery, 2nd Viscount Montgomery of Alamein]], the son of his father's other great adversary, Field Marshal [[Bernard Montgomery|Bernard Law Montgomery]], a friendship viewed by some as a symbol of British-German reconciliation following the War and West Germany's admission into [[NATO]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Die Väter Feinde, die Söhne Freunde|url=http://www.badische-zeitung.de/suedwest-1/die-vaeter-feinde-die-soehne-freunde|date=5 May 2009|publisher=[[Badische Zeitung]]|language=German}}</ref>

In a 1996 celebration at the Württemberg State Theatre, Manfred Rommel received the highest German civil distinction, the [[Bundesverdienstkreuz]]. In his speech, [[Helmut Kohl]] put particular emphasis on the good relations that were kept and built upon between [[France]] and Germany during Rommel's tenure as Oberbürgermeister of Stuttgart. A few days after this distinction was given to Rommel, the city of Stuttgart offered him the Honorary Citizen Award.<ref>{{cite web|title=Festive retirement party for Stuttgart Mayor Manfred Rommel |work=German News |url=http://www.germnews.de/archive/dn/1996/12/17.html |accessdate=2006-10-05 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050920204754/http://www.germnews.de/archive/dn/1996/12/17.html |archivedate=20 September 2005 }}</ref> He risked his popularity when he stood out for the fair treatment of foreign immigrants, who were being drawn to Stuttgart by its booming economy.<ref name="Manfred Rommel obituary">[[Dan van der Vat]], [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/07/manfred-rommel Manfred Rommel obituary], [[The Guardian]], 7 November 2013</ref> As mayor, Rommel also exerted "tight control over the city's finances, reducing its debt and enabling a radical makeover of the local infrastructure, especially roads and public transport [while working]...to foster Franco-German relations."<ref name="Manfred Rommel obituary" />

Rommel's political position is described as tolerant and liberal.<ref>[http://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/deutschland/manfred-rommel-freundlich-ehrlich-demokratisch/1403900.html ''Manfred Rommel: Freundlich, ehrlich, demokratisch''] Der Tagesspiegel, vom 23. Dezember 2008.</ref>

==Outside politics==
Having retired from politics in 1996, Rommel was still in demand as an author and stirring speaker, despite suffering from [[Parkinson's disease]]. He wrote various political and humorous books. He was known for his down-to-earth and often funny sayings and quotations. Occasionally, he wrote articles for the ''[[Stuttgarter Zeitung]]''.

Rommel collaborated with [[Basil Liddell-Hart]] in the publication of ''[[The Rommel Papers]]'', a collection of diaries, letters and notes that his father wrote during and after his military campaigns. He was awarded several foreign awards including the [[Order of the British Empire|Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE)]], the French [[légion d'honneur]], the US [[Medal of Freedom]] and the highest grade of the German federal order of merit.<ref name="Manfred Rommel obituary"/> He died on 7 November 2013, survived by his daughter Catherine.<ref>{{cite news |last=Martin |first=Douglas |date=9 November 2013 |title=Manfred Rommel, Son of German Field Marshal, Dies at 84 |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/11/world/europe/manfred-rommel-son-of-german-field-marshal-dies-at-84.html }}</ref>

== Movies==
In the following movies about his father during the Second World War, Manfred Rommel was played by the following actors:
* 1951: ''[[The Desert Fox: The Story of Rommel]]'' (German: Rommel, der Wüstenfuchs) (Director: [[Henry Hathaway]]), [[William Reynolds (actor)|William Reynolds]] as Manfred Rommel
* 1962: ''[[The Longest Day (film)|The Longest Day]]'' (German: der längste Tag) (Director(s): [[Ken Annakin|Annakin]]/[[Andrew Marton|Marton]]/[[Bernhard Wicki|Wicki]]/[[Gerd Oswald|Oswald]]/[[Darryl F. Zanuck|Zanuck]]), [[Michael Hinz]] as Manfred Rommel. Hinz's father [[Werner Hinz]] played Field Marshal Rommel in the film
* 1989: ''[[War and Remembrance]]'' (TV-Series), [[Matthias Hinze]] as Manfred Rommel
* 2012: ''[[Rommel (film)|Rommel]]'' (Director: Niki Stein), [[Patrick Mölleken]] as Manfred Rommel

==Honours==
Manfred Rommel once wrote about his many honours: "Die Zahl der Titel will nicht enden. Am Grabstein stehet: bitte wenden!" which translates as: "The number of honours seems to be endless. The inscription on my gravestone will read: Please turn over!"<ref name="stern.de"/>

*1979: Honorary citizen of Cairo<ref name=IW>{{cite web|title=Ehrenbürgerwürde der Universität Stuttgart für Suzanne Mubarak und Manfred Rommel |work=Informationsdienst Wissenschaft |url=http://idw-online.de:8008/pages/en/news?id=84581 |accessdate=2007-06-30 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017094548/http://idw-online.de:8008/pages/en/news?id=84581 |archivedate=17 October 2010 }}</ref>
*1982: Orden wider den tierischen Ernst, for his sense of humor<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.welt.de/print-welt/article658158/Was-vorbei-ist-kann-nicht-mehr-schiefgehen.html|title=Was vorbei ist, kann nicht mehr schiefgehen|last=Löffelholz|first=Thomas|date=16 December 1996|work=[[Die Welt]]|access-date=|via=}}</ref>
*1982: Grand Officer in the [[Order of Orange-Nassau]] of the Netherlands
*1982: Honorary Senator of the University of Applied Sciences Stuttgart
*1984: General-Clay Medal
*1985: Knight of the [[Legion of Honor]] of the French Republic
*1987: Guardian of Jerusalem<ref name=":0" />
*1987: Grand Officer Cross of Merit of the Italian Republic
*1990: Commander of the [[Order of the British Empire]]<ref name=":0" />
*1990: Medal of Merit of the State of Baden-Württemberg
*1990: Dr. Friedrich Lehner Medal for the development of public transport
*1990: Bonding medal for German-American friendship
*1992: Honorary doctorate of the University of Maryland
*1993: Golden Order of Merit of the IAAF
*1995: Otto Hirsch Medal
*1996: Honorary Citizen of the City of Stuttgart
*1996: Chairman of the joint chiefs of staff award for distinguished public service
*1996: Friedrich E. Vogt Medal for Services to the Swabian dialect
*1996: Honorary doctorate of the University of Wales
*1996: Great Cross of Merit (1978) with star (1989) and shoulder belt (1996) *[[Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany]]
*1996: Appointed Professor
*1997: Price of the Entente Franco-Allemande for the German-French friendship
*1997: Honorary member of the German Association of Cities
*1997: Heinz Herbert Karry Prize
*1998: Dolf Sternberger Award for
*2008: Hans-Peter-Stihl Preis

== Works ==
* ''Abschied vom Schlaraffenland. Gedanken über Politik und Kultur''. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart, München 1987, {{ISBN|3-421-06081-9}}.
* ''Manfred Rommels gesammelte Sprüche'', Gefunden und herausgegeben von Ulrich Frank-Planitz, Engelhorn Verlag, Stuttgart 1988, {{ISBN|3-87203-050-7}}
* ''Wir verwirrten Deutschen''. Ullstein, Frankfurt am Main 1989, {{ISBN|3-548-34614-6}}.
* ''Manfred Rommels gesammelte Gedichte''. Engelhorn-Verlag, Stuttgart 1993
* ''Die Grenzen des Möglichen. Ansichten und Einsichten''. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart, München 1995, {{ISBN|3-421-05001-5}}.
* ''Trotz allem heiter. Erinnerungen''. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart, München 1998, {{ISBN|3-421-05151-8}}.
* ''Neue Sprüche und Gedichte''. Gesammelt und herausgegeben von Ulrich Frank-Planitz, Hohenheim-Verlag, Stuttgart 2000, {{ISBN|978-3-89850-002-9}}
* ''Manfred Rommels gesammelte Sprüche'', dva, Stuttgart 2001, {{ISBN|978-3-421-05573-6}}.
* ''Holzwege zur Wirklichkeit''. Hohenheim-Verlag, Stuttgart 2001, {{ISBN|3-89850-026-8}}.
* ''Soll und Haben''. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart, München 2001, {{ISBN|3-421-05579-3}}.
* ''Das Land und die Welt''. Hohenheim-Verlag, Stuttgart 2003, {{ISBN|3-89850-099-3}}.
* ''Ganz neue Sprüche & Gedichte und andere Einfälle''. Hohenheim-Verlag, Stuttgart 2004, {{ISBN|3-89850-123-X}}
* ''Vom Schlaraffenland ins Jammertal?''. Hohenheim-Verlag, Stuttgart 2006, {{ISBN|3-89850-137-X}}.
* ''Gedichte und Parodien''. Hohenheim-Verlag, Stuttgart 2006, {{ISBN|3-89850-151-5}}.
* ''Manfred Rommels schwäbisches Allerlei. Eine bunte Sammlung pfiffiger Sprüche, witziger Gedichte und zumeist amüsanter Geschichten''. Hohenheim-Verlag, Stuttgart 2008, {{ISBN|978-3-89850-170-5}}.
* ''Auf der Suche nach der Zukunft. Zeitzeichen unter dem Motto: Ohne Nein kein Ja''. Hohenheim-Verlag, Stuttgart 2008, {{ISBN|978-3-89850-173-6}}.
* ''1944 – das Jahr der Entscheidung. Erwin Rommel in Frankreich(The year of decesion. Erwin Rommel in France)'', Hohenheim-Verlag, Stuttgart 2010, {{ISBN|978-3-89850-196-5}}.
* ''Die amüsantesten Texte''. Hohenheim-Verlag, Stuttgart 2010, {{ISBN|978-3-89850-203-0}}.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Commons category}}
*Puhl, Widmar: ''Manfred Rommel: Der Oberbürgermeister''. (in German). Zürich/Wiesbaden: Orell Füssli 1990, {{ISBN|3-280-01997-4}}.
*Rommel, Manfred: ''Trotz allem heiter. Erinnerungen''. (in German). Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, Stuttgart 1998, {{ISBN|3-421-05151-8}}. (His memories)

==External links==
*{{OL author|51268A}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rommel, Manfred}}
[[Category:1928 births]]
[[Category:2013 deaths]]
[[Category:Christian Democratic Union of Germany politicians]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany]]
[[Category:German military personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:Honorary Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Mayors of Stuttgart]]
[[Category:University of Tübingen alumni]]
[[Category:People from the Free People's State of Württemberg]]
[[Category:Erwin Rommel]]
[[Category:Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur]]
[[Category:Grand Officers of the Order of Orange-Nassau]]

Melissa Gilbert

2020-12-04T10:39:46Z

Zumbo: Remove link to deleted article

{{short description|American actress and television director}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Melissa Gilbert
| image = Melissa Gilbert after Drug Free America shoot - cropped (5242325680).jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Gilbert in December 2010
| party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| birth_name = Melissa Ellen Gilbert
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1964|5|8}}
| birth_place = [[Los Angeles]], California, U.S.
| education =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = {{hlist|Actress|director|producer|politician}}
| years_active = 1967–present
| known_for =
| spouse = {{marriage|Bo Brinkman|1988|1992|end=divorced}} {{marriage|[[Bruce Boxleitner]]|1995|2011|end=divorced}} {{marriage|[[Timothy Busfield]]|2013|}}
| children = 2; 3 stepchildren
| parents = [[Paul Gilbert (actor)|Paul Gilbert]] Barbara Crane
| relatives = [[Jonathan Gilbert]] (brother) [[Sara Gilbert]] (sister)
| website = {{URL|melissa-gilbert.com}}
| module2 = {{infobox officeholder |embed=yes
|office2 = 26th President of the [[Screen Actors Guild]]
| term_start2 = October 15, 2001
| term_end2 = February 22, 2005
| predecessor2 = [[William Daniels]]
| successor2 = [[Alan Rosenberg]]
}}
}}

'''Melissa Ellen Gilbert''' (born May 8, 1964)<ref name="Emmytvlegends.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.emmytvlegends.org/interviews/people/melissa-gilbert# |title=Melissa Gilbert Interview | Archive of American Television |publisher=Emmytvlegends.org |access-date=May 19, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{harv|Gilbert|2009|pp=228}}</ref> is an American actress, television director, producer, politician and former president of the [[Screen Actors Guild]].

Gilbert began her career as a [[child actress]] in the late 1960s, appearing in numerous commercials and guest starring roles on television. From 1974 to 1984, she starred as [[Laura Ingalls Wilder]], the second oldest daughter of [[Charles Ingalls]] (played by [[Michael Landon]]) on the [[NBC]] series ''[[Little House on the Prairie (TV series)|Little House on the Prairie]]''. During the run of ''Little House'', Gilbert appeared in several popular television films, including ''[[The Diary of Anne Frank (1980 film)|The Diary of Anne Frank]]'' and ''[[The Miracle Worker (1979 film)|The Miracle Worker]]''.

As an adult, she continued her career mainly in television films. Gilbert has also continued with guest starring roles on television and has done [[Voice acting|voice work]] for animation such as ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]'' as [[Barbara Gordon]] / [[Batgirl]]. From 2009 to 2010, Gilbert appeared as [[Caroline Ingalls|Caroline "Ma" Ingalls]] in the touring production of ''[[Little House on the Prairie (musical)|Little House on the Prairie, the Musical]]''. In 2012, she was a contestant on [[Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 14)|season fourteen]] of the popular reality dance competition show ''[[Dancing with the Stars (U.S. TV series)|Dancing with the Stars]]'' on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]].

Gilbert served as the President of the [[Screen Actors Guild]] from 2001 to 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sagaftra.org/melissa-gilbert|title=Melissa Gilbert 2001-2005|website=SAG-AFTRA|access-date=May 14, 2019}}</ref> In 2009, her autobiography ''Prairie Tale: A Memoir'', was released. In 2014, she wrote a short story for children, called ''Daisy and Josephine''<ref>{{cite book|title=Daisy and Josephine: Melissa Gilbert, Julia Kuo: 9781442445789: Amazon.com: Books|isbn = 978-1442445789|last1 = Gilbert|first1 = Melissa|date = January 21, 2014}}</ref> as well as ''My Prairie Cookbook: Memories and Frontier Food from My Little House to Yours''.<ref>{{cite book|title=My Prairie Cookbook: Memories and Frontier Food from My Little House to Yours: Melissa Gilbert, Dane Holweger: 9781419707780: Amazon.com: Books|isbn = 978-1419707780|last1 = Gilbert|first1 = Melissa|date = September 16, 2014}}</ref>

In 2016, Gilbert [[United States House of Representatives elections in Michigan, 2016#District 8|ran]] for [[U.S. Congress]] as a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] in [[Michigan's 8th congressional district]] and she won the Democratic primary. She later dropped out because of head and neck injuries sustained in a 2012 accident.<ref name="drops">{{cite news|last1=Spangler|first1=Todd|last2=Gray|first2=Kathleen|title=Actress Melissa Gilbert drops out of race for Congress|url=http://www.freep.com/story/news/politics/2016/05/24/melissa-gilbert-out-race-congress/84877866/|access-date=May 25, 2016|publisher=Detroit Free Press|date=May 24, 2016}}</ref>

==Early life and family==
Gilbert was born in [[Los Angeles]], California, on May 8, 1964, to a newly engaged couple, Kathy Wood and David Darlington, and given up for adoption immediately after birth.<ref name="Emmytvlegends.org"/> She was adopted one day later by actor and comedian [[Paul Gilbert (actor)|Paul Gilbert]] (born Ed MacMahon, he changed his name to Paul Gilbert to get a Screen Actors Guild card)<ref>{{harv|Gilbert|2009|pp=14–15}}</ref> and his wife, dancer and actress Barbara Crane, the daughter of ''[[The Honeymooners]]'' creator [[Harry Crane]]. The couple later adopted a son, [[Jonathan Gilbert|Jonathan]], who co-starred on ''Little House on the Prairie''. Gilbert's adoptive parents divorced when she was 8 years old. Barbara Crane Gilbert then married Harold Abeles, and together they had biological daughter Sara Rebecca Abeles (the actress known professionally as [[Sara Gilbert]]) on January 29, 1975. On February 13, 1976, Paul Gilbert died. Although 11-year-old Melissa was told that he had suffered a stroke, she found out years later that the 57-year-old had been a VA patient who dealt with constant pain and that he had taken his own life. The marriage of Barbara and Harold Abeles later ended in divorce.<ref>{{harv|Gilbert|2009|p=114}}</ref> According to her biography, Gilbert was "lightly raised" in her adoptive mother's [[Jewish]] religion (her adoptive father was a [[Gentile]]),<ref>{{Cite news|first=Nate |last=Bloom |author-link= Nate Bloom |title=Interfaith Celebrities: The Talk's Hosts and David Schwimmers Bride |newspaper=[[InterfaithFamily]]|date=October 26, 2010 |url=http://www.interfaithfamily.com/arts_and_entertainment/popular_culture/Interfaith_Celebrities_The_Talks_Hosts_and_David_Schwimmers_Bride.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150223103005/http://www.interfaithfamily.com/arts_and_entertainment/popular_culture/Interfaith_Celebrities_The_Talks_Hosts_and_David_Schwimmers_Bride.shtml| archive-date=February 23, 2015}}</ref> but did not have any formal religious education or conversion ceremony.<ref>{{harv|Gilbert|2009|pp=5–6}}</ref>

==Career==

===Early years===
[[File:Little House on the Prairie Melissa Gilbert 1975 Crop 1.jpg|thumb|left|Gilbert as Laura Ingalls, circa 1975]]
Gilbert's earliest television appearances were in dozens of commercials, including one for [[Alpo (pet food)|Alpo]] dog food with [[Lorne Greene]] (Michael Landon's television father on ''[[Bonanza]]''). She also attended school with Landon's daughter, [[Leslie Landon]]. It was Leslie who informed her that she had won the role of Laura Ingalls on ''Little House on the Prairie'', beating out over 500 child actresses for the part. The pilot was shot in 1973 and was a ratings success. Almost a year later, Gilbert began filming the series. Gilbert became extremely close to the Landon family after her adoptive father died. However, a rift developed between Michael Landon and Gilbert after the revelation of Landon's affair with ''Little House''{{'s}} young makeup artist, Cindy Clerico.<ref>E! Entertainment's "Celebrity Profile:Melissa Gilbert," 1999.</ref>

Gilbert had limited contact with Landon after ''Little House'' ended during the 1983–84 season. Seven years later, she was contacted by Landon's family and upon news of his condition, paid him a heartfelt visit following his May 9, 1991, appearance on ''[[The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson]]'' where he discussed his [[pancreatic cancer]]. She visited Landon at his [[Malibu, California|Malibu]] home where he was, by then, bedridden, and they spent the afternoon together. Landon died one week later. When Gilbert gave birth to her son with second husband [[Bruce Boxleitner]] on October 6, 1995, they named him Michael, in honor of Landon.<ref name="people"/>

===Career after ''Little House''===
[[File:Melissa Gilbert at the 1991 Emmy Awards cropped.jpg|150px|thumb|Gilbert at the 1991 Emmy Awards]]

Gilbert has continued to work regularly, mainly in television. She starred as [[Jean Donovan]] in the biopic ''[[Choices of the Heart]]'' (1983), and as [[Anna Sheridan]] in three episodes of ''[[Babylon 5]]'' with then husband Boxleitner in 1996. She also provided the voice of [[Batgirl]] on the 1990s ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]'', though she would be replaced by voice actress [[Tara Strong]] for the series' follow-up ''[[The New Batman Adventures]]''.

For her contribution to the television industry, Gilbert received a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6429 Hollywood Blvd in 1985.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.walkoffame.com/melissa-gilbert|title=Melissa Gilbert|website=Hollywood Walk of Fame|access-date=May 14, 2019}}</ref> Her then-fiancé, [[Rob Lowe]], was present with her when her star was unveiled during the ceremony.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Melissa Gilbert adds her name to the 'star'|date=March 15, 1985|work=The Desert Sun}}</ref>

In 1998, she was inducted into the [[Western Performers Hall of Fame]] at the [[National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum]] in [[Oklahoma City, Oklahoma]]. In 2006, Gilbert appeared as Shari Noble, a patient looking to reconstruct her nipples after committing [[zoophilia]] with her dog in a season four episode of ''[[Nip/Tuck]]''.

In 2008 and through 2009, Gilbert played [[Caroline Ingalls|Caroline "Ma" Ingalls]] in the musical adaptation of ''[[Little House on the Prairie (musical)|Little House on the Prairie]]''. This world premiere production at the [[Guthrie Theater]] in [[Minneapolis]] was directed by [[Francesca Zambello]] and also starred [[Kara Lindsay]] as Laura. The show ran through October 19 and was on a US National tour for 2009–10.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guthrietheater.org/prairie |title=Little House on the Prairie |publisher=Guthrie Theater |year=2008 |access-date=March 21, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927165256/http://www.guthrietheater.org/prairie |archive-date=September 27, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Gans |first=Andrew |url=http://www.playbill.com/news/article/133013-Gilbert_Blanchard_Lindsay_Massey_Loprest_Explore_a_Musical_Prairie_at_Paper_Mill_Opening_Sept._20 |title=Gilbert, Blanchard, Lindsay, Massey, Loprest Explore a Musical Prairie at Paper Mill, Opening Sept. 20 |date=September 20, 2009 |access-date=March 21, 2012 |publisher=playbill.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003113807/http://www.playbill.com/news/article/133013-Gilbert_Blanchard_Lindsay_Massey_Loprest_Explore_a_Musical_Prairie_at_Paper_Mill_Opening_Sept._20 |archive-date=October 3, 2009 }}</ref> The tour ended in June 2010 at [[Starlight Theatre (Kansas City)|Starlight Theatre]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]].

In March and April 2018, Gilbert starred in an [[Off-Off-Broadway]], limited-run production of Geraldine Aron's 2001 one-woman play 2001 ''[[My Brilliant Divorce]]''.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.timeout.com/newyork/theater/my-brilliant-divorce|title=''My Brilliant Divorce'' <nowiki>[review]</nowiki>| first=Juan Michael II|last=Porter |work=[[Time Out New York]]| date=March 20, 2018|access-date=March 28, 2018|archive-date=March 28, 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180328230021/https://www.timeout.com/newyork/theater/my-brilliant-divorce|url-status=live}}</ref>

===''Dancing with the Stars''===

In March 2012, Gilbert joined the cast of celebrity contestants on season 14 of ''[[Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 14)|Dancing with the Stars]]''. She was paired with [[Maksim Chmerkovskiy]]. During week four's show, while dancing the [[Paso Doble]], she fell and hit her head on Maksim's leg and suffered a mild concussion and was taken to a hospital. She went home to recuperate, but returned to continue in the competition.<ref>{{cite news|last=Marikar|first=Sheila|title=Melissa Gilbert Still 'In Pain' After 'Dancing' Concussion|url=https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/entertainment/2012/04/melissa-gilbert-takes-dancing-break-after-concussion/|access-date=April 11, 2012|date=April 11, 2012}}</ref> In week eight of competition, she was eliminated, finishing in fifth place.

==Screen Actors Guild presidency==
Gilbert was elected president of the [[Screen Actors Guild]] in 2001 after a contentious candidacy, in which she ultimately beat her opponent, ''[[Rhoda]]'' actress [[Valerie Harper]], 21,351 votes to 12,613 votes after a second vote was taken. In 2003, she was re-elected, defeating [[Kent McCord]] with 50% of the vote to his 42%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hollywoodreporter.com/hr/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1985537 |title=Gilbert re-elected for two more years as SAG president |work=The Hollywood Reporter |author=Peter Kiefer and Jesse Hiestand |date=September 24, 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013122939/http://hollywoodreporter.com/hr/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1985537 |archive-date=October 13, 2007|access-date=May 8, 2012}}</ref> In July 2005, she announced that she would not seek a third term. She was succeeded by [[Alan Rosenberg]], who assumed the guild presidency on September 25.

==2016 Congressional Election==
On August 10, 2015, Gilbert announced her campaign for [[Michigan's 8th congressional district]] in the [[United States House of Representatives elections in Michigan, 2016|2016 elections]] to the [[United States House of Representatives]].<ref name="freep815">{{Cite news | title = Actress Melissa Gilbert running for Congress in Michigan | author = Spangler, Todd | work = Detroit Free Press | date = August 10, 2015 | access-date = August 10, 2015 |url=http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/2015/08/10/gilbert-congress-run/31424715/ }}</ref><ref name="ld815">{{Cite news | title = Actress Melissa Gilbert announces run for Congress | author = Pael, Wayne | work = Livingston Daily | date = August 10, 2015 | access-date = August 10, 2015 |url=http://www.livingstondaily.com/story/news/2015/08/10/actress-melissa-gilbert-announces-run-congress/31424727/ }}</ref><ref name="mlive815">{{Cite news| title = Melissa Gilbert of 'Little House' fame running for Michigan seat in U.S. House | author = Oosting, Jonathan | work = MLive.com | date = August 10, 2015 | access-date = August 10, 2015 |url=http://www.mlive.com/lansing-news/index.ssf/2015/08/melissa_gilbert_of_little_hous.html }}</ref> Gilbert, who was the presumptive Democratic nominee in the district, dropped out of the race in May 2016, citing health issues.<ref name=drops/>

==Personal life==
{{BLP sources section|date=March 2013}}

===Relationships===
After her break up with [[Rob Lowe]], Gilbert left for New York City to star in the play ''A Shayna Maidel''. Gilbert was set up with actor Bo Brinkman, a cousin of actors [[Randy Quaid]] and [[Dennis Quaid]]. The couple married on February 22, 1988, only seven weeks after her relationship with [[Rob Lowe]] ended. Gilbert became pregnant months later. On May 1, 1989, she gave birth to son Dakota Paul Brinkman. The couple divorced in 1992.

Only weeks after Gilbert's divorce filing, [[Bruce Boxleitner]]'s former wife, Kathryn Holcomb, set Boxleitner up with Gilbert. Holcomb by then was married to actor [[Ian Ogilvy]]. Gilbert had met Boxleitner as a teenager when they both were on ''[[Battle of the Network Stars]]'' when Gilbert introduced herself, and she had a pin-up of him in her locker. But Boxleitner ignored her because she was a teen and he was many years older than she was. After reconnecting, the couple started dating on and off for over a year. They were engaged twice and Boxleitner broke up with her each time. After reuniting for a third time, they finally married on January 1, 1995, in her mother's living room.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Change of Heart|date=January 9, 1995|work=The Record}}</ref> Gilbert quickly became pregnant, but went into premature labor more than two months before her due date. She gave birth to a son, Michael Garrett Boxleitner, named in honor of Michael Landon, on October 6, 1995. His middle name is in honor of Garrett Peckinpah, her friend Sandy Peckinpah's son, who died of [[meningitis]] at age 16. Gilbert is also stepmother to Boxleitner's two sons with Holcomb, Sam (born 1980) and Lee (born 1985).
On March 1, 2011, Gilbert announced that she and Boxleitner had separated.<ref name="people">{{cite web |url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20469878,00.html |title=Melissa Gilbert and Bruce Boxleitner Split |date=March 1, 2011 |access-date=March 21, 2012 |work=[[People (magazine)|People]]}}</ref> On August 22, 2011, Gilbert filed for divorce from Boxleitner.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/gossip/2011/08/melissa-gilbert-divorce-bruce-boxleitner.html |title=Melissa Gilbert files for divorce from Bruce Boxleitner |date=August 26, 2011 |access-date=March 21, 2011 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref>

On January 29, 2013, Gilbert's representative confirmed the actress's engagement to fellow actor [[Timothy Busfield]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20669136,00.html|title=Melissa Gilbert Engaged to Thirtysomething's Timothy Busfield|last1=Jordan|first1=Julie|last2=Shira|first2=Dahvi|date=January 29, 2013|work=People|access-date=February 8, 2013}}</ref> The couple married on April 24, 2013.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Nudd|first1=Tim|last2=Jordan|first2=Julie|title=Melissa Gilbert Weds Timothy Busfield|url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20694427,00.html|work=People|access-date=April 25, 2013|date=April 25, 2013}}</ref> Busfield and Gilbert resided in [[Howell, Michigan]], from 2013 to 2018 <ref>{{cite web|url=https://thelivingstonpost.com/hollywood-comes-to-howell-gilbert-and-busfield-are-the-biggest-stars-weve-had-but-not-the-first|title=Hollywood comes to Howell: Gilbert and Busfield are the biggest stars we've had, but not the first|first=Buddy|last=Moorehouse|date=August 5, 2013|website=thelivingstonpost.com|access-date=April 9, 2019}}</ref> but moved to [[New York City]] late in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2018/07/09/melissa-gilbert-timothy-busfield-estate-sale/766570002/|title=Estate sale planned as Melissa Gilbert, Timothy Busfield leave Michigan|date=July 9, 2018|website=Detroit Free Press|access-date=April 9, 2019}}</ref>

===Tax issues===
Following her announcement as a candidate for [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Representative]] from Michigan, a spokesperson for her opponent's campaign referred to Gilbert as a "tax cheat". Gilbert owed $360,000 in back federal taxes and $112,000 in California state taxes.<ref name="DEggertAP08112015">{{cite news |last=Eggert |first=David |date=August 11, 2015 |title=Actress Melissa Gilbert running for Congress in Michigan |url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/ee8244bcf51345fc864c937f87857aa5/actress-melissa-gilbert-run-congress-michigan |newspaper=Associated Press |location=[[New York City|New York]] |access-date=August 11, 2015|quote=Bishop campaign spokesman Stu Sandler called Gilbert a "tax cheat," noting that she owes $360,000 in back taxes to the U.S. government and $112,000 to California.}}</ref> Gilbert has stated the tax debt is an outgrowth of a stalled acting career, the economy, and divorce.<ref name="OFF THE BEATEN TAX: NOT-SO-LITTLE TAX LIEN ON THE PRAIRIE">{{cite magazine | title=OFF THE BEATEN TAX: NOT-SO-LITTLE TAX LIEN ON THE PRAIRIE | publisher=Tax Notes Today | magazine=2015 TNT 157-4 | date=August 14, 2015 | author=Sheets, Andy}}</ref> She has negotiated a repayment plan with the [[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]].<ref name="DEggertAP08112015"/>

===Health issues===
Gilbert has battled [[alcoholism]] and [[drug abuse]], which she wrote about in her 2009 autobiography.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.momlogic.com/2009/06/melissa_gilbert_praire_tale.php |title=I Drank Three Bottles of Wine a Night|date=June 22, 2009 |access-date=March 21, 2012 |publisher=momlogic.com}}</ref>

While playing the role of Ma Ingalls in the touring musical ''Little House on the Prairie'', a visit to the doctor revealed that Gilbert had been working with a broken back for months. On July 22, 2010, Gilbert underwent surgery to replace a disc as well as fuse a vertebra in her lower spine. The surgery was described as a complete success.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ontheredcarpet.com/2010/07/nagging-back-pain-turns-out-to-be-a-broken-back-for-actress-melissa-gilbert-.html?rss=rss-kabc-snippet-7555630 |title=Melissa Gilbert to undergo surgery for broken back, performed in 'Little House' musical
|first=Frances |last=Watson |date=July 14, 2010 |access-date=March 21, 2012 |publisher=ontheredcarpet.com}}</ref>

In January 2015, Gilbert decided to have her breast implants removed for health reasons.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/melissa-gilbert-breast-implants-removed/story?id=28086683 |title=Why Melissa Gilbert Had Her Breast Implants Removed |last=Rothman |first=Michael |work=Good Morning America |publisher=[[ABC News]] |date=January 8, 2015 |access-date=January 29, 2015}}</ref>

==Filmography==

===Film===
{| class="wikitable sortable" 
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|1967
|''{{sortname|The|Reluctant Astronaut}}''
|Niece
|
|-
|1979
|''[[Nutcracker Fantasy]]''
|Clara (voice)
|
|-
|1985
|''[[Sylvester (film)|Sylvester]]''
|Charlie
|
|-
|1986
|''Drug Free Kids: A Parent's Guide''
|
|Video
|-
|1989
|''Ice House''
|Kay
|Shattered Trust
|-
|2007
|''[[Safe Harbour (film)|Safe Harbour]]''
|Ophelia MacKenzie
|Video
|-
|2015
|''One Smart Fellow''
|Ellen
|Short film
|-
|2019
|''[[Guest Artist]]''
|
|Producer
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable sortable" 
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|1968
|''[[The Dean Martin Show|The Dean Martin Comedy Hour]]''
|Girl on Santa's Lap
|Episode: "1968 Christmas Show"
|-
|1972
|''[[Gunsmoke]]''
|Spratt's Child
|Episode: "The Judgement"
|-
|1972
|''[[Emergency!]]''
|Jenny
|Episode: "Dinner Date"
|-
|1973
|''[[Tenafly (TV series)|Tenafly]]''
|Suzie's sister
|Episode: "The Cash and Carry Caper"
|-
|1974–83
|''[[Little House on the Prairie (TV series)|Little House on the Prairie]]''
|[[Laura Ingalls Wilder|Laura Ingalls]]
|Lead role (191 episodes)
|-
|1977
|''[[Christmas Miracle in Caufield, U.S.A.]]''
|Kelly Sullivan
|TV film
|-
|1978
|''{{sortname|The|Love Boat}}''
|Rosemary 'Rocky' Simpson
|Episode: "Rocky"
|-
|1978
|''[[The Hanna-Barbera Happy Hour]]''
|Herself (Guest Star)
|Episode 1.2
|-
|1979
|''{{sortname|The|Miracle Worker|The Miracle Worker (1979 film)}}''
|[[Helen Keller]]
|TV film
|-
|1979
|''[[List of Little House on the Prairie episodes#Season 6 .281979.E2.80.931980.29|The Little House Years]]''
|Laura Ingalls
|TV film
|-
|1980
|''{{sortname|The|Diary of Anne Frank|The Diary of Anne Frank (1980 film)}}''
|[[Anne Frank]]
|TV film
|-
|1981
|''[[Splendor in the Grass (1981 film)|Splendor in the Grass]]''
|Wilma Dean 'Deanie' Loomis
|TV film
|-
|1983
|''[[Choices of the Heart]]''
|[[Jean Donovan]]
|TV film
|-
|1983
|''[[List of Little House on the Prairie episodes#Post-series movie specials .281983.E2.80.931984.29|Little House: Look Back to Yesterday]]''
|Laura Ingalls Wilder
|TV film
|-
|1984
|''[[List of Little House on the Prairie episodes#Post-series movie specials .281983.E2.80.931984.29|Little House: The Last Farewell]]''
|Laura Ingalls Wilder
|TV film (The events of ''The Last Farewell'' occur before the events of ''Bless All the Dear Children'')
|-
|1984
|''[[Family Secrets (1984 film)|Family Secrets]]''
|Sara Calloway
|TV film
|-
|1984
|''[[List of Little House on the Prairie episodes#Post-series movie specials .281983.E2.80.931984.29|Little House: Bless All the Dear Children]]''
|Laura Ingalls Wilder
|TV film (The events of ''Bless All the Dear Children'' occur after the events of ''The Last Farewell'')
|-
|1985
|''[[Faerie Tale Theatre]]''
|Gerda
|Episode: "The Snow Queen"
|-
|1986
|''[[Choices (film)|Choices]]''
|Terry Granger
|TV film
|-
|1986
|''[[Penalty Phase]]''
|Leah Furman
|TV film
|-
|1987
|''[[Blood Vows: The Story of a Mafia Wife]]''
|Marian
|TV film
|-
|1988
|''[[Killer Instinct (1988 film)|Killer Instinct]]''
|Dr. Lisa DaVito
|TV film
|-
|1989
|''Ice House''
|Kay
|TV film
|-
|1989
|''Chameleons''
|
|TV film
|-
|1990
|''[[Without Her Consent]]''
|Emily Briggs
|TV film
|-
|1990
|''[[Forbidden Nights]]''
|Judith Shapiro
|TV film
|-
|1990
|''Joshua's Heart''
|Claudia
|TV film
|-
|1990
|''Donor''
|Dr. Kristine Lipton
|TV film
|-
|1990
|''{{sortname|The|Lookalike}}''
|Gina / Jennifer
|TV film
|-
|1991
||''[[The Hidden Room (1991–1993 anthology TV series)|The Hidden Room]]''
|
|Episode: "Spirit Cabinet"
|-
|1992
|''[[Stand By Your Man (TV series)|Stand By Your Man]]''
|Rochelle Dunphy
|Main role (8 episodes)
|-
|1992
|''With a Vengeance''
|Jenna King / Valerie Tanner
|TV film
|-
|1992–94
|''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]''
|[[Barbara Gordon]] / [[Batgirl]] (voice)
|Recurring role (6 episodes)
|-
|1993
|''[[Family of Strangers]]''
|Julie Lawson
|TV film
|-
|1993
|''With Hostile Intent''
|Miranda Berkley
|TV film
|-
|1993
|''[[Shattered Trust: The Shari Karney Story]]''
|[[Shari Karney]]
|TV film
|-
|1993
|''House of Secrets''
|Marion Ravinel
|TV film
|-
|1993
|''[[Dying to Remember]]''
|Lynn Matthews
|TV film
|-
|1994
|''{{sortname|The|Babymaker: The Dr. Cecil Jacobson Story}}''
|Mary Bennett
|TV film
|-
|1994
|''Against Her Will: The Carrie Buck Story''
|Melissa Prentice
|TV film
|-
|1994
|''Asbestos in Obstetrics''
|Fire Captain
|TV film
|-
|1994
|''[[Cries from the Heart]]''
|Karen Barth
|TV film
|-
|1994–95
|''[[Sweet Justice]]''
|Kate Delacroy
|Main role (22 episodes)
|-
|1995
|''Zoya''
|Zoya Ossipov
|TV film
|-
|1996
|''[[Babylon 5]]''
|Anna Sheridan
|Episodes: "[[War Without End (Babylon 5)|War Without End: Part 2]]", "[[Shadow Dancing (Babylon 5)|Shadow Dancing]]", "[[Z'ha'dum]]"
|-
|1996
|''{{sortname|A|Holiday for Love|nolink=1}}''
|Emma Murphy
|TV film
|-
|1997
|''Seduction in a Small Town''
|Sarah Jenks
|TV film
|-
|1997
|''Childhood Sweetheart?''
|Karen Carlson
|TV film
|-
|1998
|''{{sortname|The|Outer Limits|The Outer Limits (1995 TV series)}}''
|Teresa Janovitch
|Episode: "[[Relativity Theory (The Outer Limits)|Relativity Theory]]"
|-
|1998
|''Murder at 75 Birch''
|Gwen Todson
|TV film
|-
|1998
|''Her Own Rules''
|Meredith Sanders
|TV film
|-
|1998
|''[[Touched by an Angel]]''
|Michelle Tanner
|Episode: "The Peacemaker"
|-
|1999
|''{{sortname|The|Soul Collector}}''
|Rebecca
|TV film
|-
|1999
|''[[Switched at Birth (1999 film)|Mistaken Identity]]''
|Sarah Barlow
|TV film
|-
|2000
|''{{sortname|A|Vision of Murder: The Story of Donielle|nolink=1}}''
|Donielle
|TV film
|-
| 2001
| ''[[Sanctuary (2001 film)|Sanctuary]]''
| Jo Ellen Hathaway
| TV film
|-
|2002
|''[[Providence (American TV series)|Providence]]''
|Lorna Berlin
|Episode: "Smoke and Mirrors"
|-
|2002
|''[[Presidio Med]]''
|Grace Bennett
|Episode: "Once Upon a Family"
|-
|2003
|''Then Came Jones''
|Devon Jones-Thomas
|TV film
|-
|2003
|''Storyline Online''
|Herself
|Episode: "My Rotten Redheaded Older Brother"
|-
|2003
|''[[Hollywood Wives: The New Generation]]''
|Taylor Singer
|TV film
|-
|2004
|''[[Heart of the Storm (film)|Heart of the Storm]]''
|Cassie Broadbeck
|TV film
|-
|2005
|''[[Thicker than Water (2005 film)|Thicker than Water]]''
|Natalie Travers
|TV film
|-
|2005
|''[[Fat Actress]]''
|Herself
|Episode: "Charlie's Angels or Too Pooped to Pop"
|-
|2005
|''[[7th Heaven (TV series)|7th Heaven]]''
|Marie Wagner
|Episode: "Honor Thy Mother"
|-
|2006
|''[[Nip/Tuck]]''
|Shari Noble
|Episode: "Shari Noble"
|-
|2007
|''[[Sacrifices of the Heart]]''
|Kate Weston / Anne Weston
|TV film
|-
|2011
|''{{sortname|The|Christmas Pageant|nolink=1}}''
|Vera Parks
|TV film
|-
|2012
|''[[Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 14)|Dancing with the Stars]]''
|Herself (Contestant)
|Dance competition (14 episodes)
|-
|2015
|''[[The Night Shift (TV series)|The Night Shift]]''
|Lindsay
|Episode: "Hold On"
|-
|2015
|''[[Secrets and Lies (U.S. TV series)|Secrets and Lies]]''
|Lisa Daly
|Recurring role (5 episodes)
|-
|2017
|''Tenure''
|Tilly Masters
|TV film
|-
|}

==Awards and nominations==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Award
! Category
! Title of work
! Result
|-
| 1980
| [[Primetime Emmy Awards]]
| [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie|Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or a Special]]
| ''[[The Miracle Worker]]''
| {{nom}}
|-
| 1980
| [[Young Artist Award]]
| Best Juvenile Actress in a TV Series or Special
| ''Little House on the Prairie''
| {{nom}}
|-
| 1981
| [[Golden Globe Award]]
| [[Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama|Best Actress – Television Series Drama]]
| ''Little House on the Prairie''
| {{nom}}
|-
| 1982
| Young Artist Award
| Best Young Actress in a Television Special
| ''[[Splendor in the Grass (1981 film)|Splendor in the Grass]]''
| {{nom}}
|-
| 1983
| Young Artist Award
| Best Young Actress in a Drama Series
| ''Little House on the Prairie''
| {{won}}
|-
| 1984
| Young Artist Award
| Best Young Actress in a Drama Series
| ''Little House on the Prairie''
| {{won}}
|-
| 2000
| [[Golden Boot Awards]]
| Golden Boot
| <center>–</center>
| {{won}}
|-
| 2006
| [[TV Land Awards]]
| Most Memorable Kiss
| ''Little House on the Prairie''
| {{won}}
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
*Gilbert, Melissa (2009). ''Prairie Tale: A Memoir'' (1st ed.). Gallery Books. {{ISBN|1-416-59914-2}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[http://melissa-gilbert.com Official personal website]
*[http://www.gilbertformichigan.com Official campaign website]
*{{IMDb name|1271|Melissa Gilbert}}
*{{iobdb name|10574}}
*{{EmmyTVLegends name|melissa-gilbert|Melissa Gilbert}}
*{{C-SPAN|Melissa Gilbert}}
*[http://littlehouseontheprairie.com/about-melissa-gilbert/ About Melissa Gilbert]

{{SAG Presidents}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gilbert, Melissa}}
[[Category:1964 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century American actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century American actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Los Angeles]]
[[Category:American actor-politicians]]
[[Category:American adoptees]]
[[Category:American child actresses]]
[[Category:American film actresses]]
[[Category:Leaders of American trade unions]]
[[Category:American memoirists]]
[[Category:American musical theatre actresses]]
[[Category:American stage actresses]]
[[Category:American television actresses]]
[[Category:American television directors]]
[[Category:American voice actresses]]
[[Category:Women television directors]]
[[Category:Jewish American actresses]]
[[Category:Participants in American reality television series]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Screen Actors Guild]]
[[Category:Michigan Democrats]]
[[Category:Women in Michigan politics]]
[[Category:Activists from California]]
[[Category:American women memoirists]]

Amy Arbus

2020-12-04T10:39:19Z

Zumbo: Remove link to deleted article

{{Infobox person
| name = Amy Arbus
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1954|4|16}}
| birth_place = [[New York City, New York|New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| occupation = Photographer
| yearsactive = 1976-present
| parents = [[Allan Arbus]] [[Diane Arbus]]
| relatives = {{nowrap| [[Doon Arbus]] (sister) [[Howard Nemerov]] (maternal uncle) [[Alexander Nemerov]] (maternal first cousin) }}
}}
'''Amy Arbus''' (born April 16, 1954) is an American [[photographer]]. She teaches portraiture at the [[International Center of Photography]], Anderson Ranch,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andersonranch.org/|title=Anderson Ranch Arts Center|accessdate=29 December 2014}}</ref> NORD photography<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nordphotography.com/info/faculty|title=MEET OUR FACULTY {{!}} NORD Photography|website=www.nordphotography.com|access-date=2016-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306111141/http://www.nordphotography.com/info/faculty|archive-date=2016-03-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the [[Fine Arts Work Center]]. She has published several books of photography, including ''The Fourth Wall'' which ''The New Yorker'' called her "masterpiece."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2008/05/19/show-people-2|title=Show People|last=Als|first=Hilton|date=2008-05-19|newspaper=The New Yorker|issn=0028-792X|access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref> Her work has appeared in over 100 periodicals including ''[[The New Yorker]]'', ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'', ''[[Rolling Stone]]'', ''[[Architectural Digest]]'', and ''[[The New York Times Magazine]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.amyarbus.com/about/bio/bio.html |title=Amy Arbus Photography {{!}} About {{!}} Bio |website=www.amyarbus.com |access-date=2016-03-05 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306104811/http://www.amyarbus.com/about/bio/bio.html |archivedate=2016-03-06 }}</ref> She is the daughter of actor [[Allan Arbus]] and photographer [[Diane Arbus]], the sister of writer and journalist [[Doon Arbus]], and the niece of distinguished poet [[Howard Nemerov]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2003/10/13/exposure-time|title=Exposure Time|last=Thurman|first=Judith|date=2003-10-13|newspaper=The New Yorker|issn=0028-792X|access-date=2016-03-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2_z1JEdY2ToC|title=Illuminations: Women Writing on Photography from the 1850s to the Present|last=Heron|first=Liz|last2=Williams|first2=Val|date=1996-01-01|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=0822317923|language=en}}</ref>

==Life and work==

=== "On the Street" ===
From 1980 to 1990, Arbus had a monthly street style column in the [[Village Voice|Village Voice's]] entitled "On the Street".<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/21/arts/design/amy-arbus-on-the-street-1980-1990.html|title=Amy Arbus: 'On the Street 1980-1990'|last=Goldberg|first=Vicki|date=2014-03-20|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref> On starting with the Village Voice, Arbus said that "I went to the Voice with a portfolio that I had taken of one woman, my friend Jan Collins... All they said to me was 'take a picture of anyone who makes you turn your head.'"<ref name="AnOther">{{Cite web|url=http://www.anothermag.com/fashion-beauty/7354/amy-arbus-on-80s-street-style-photography|title=Amy Arbus on 80s Street Style Photography|last=AnOther|website=AnOther|access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref> These photographs explore performances of self and the ways in which people used fashion as an expression of creativity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/pictureshow/2009/04/on_the_street.html|title=NPR Exclusive: On The Street, Then And Now|website=NPR.org|access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref> Her column often featured portraits of celebrities and tastemakers early in their careers including [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], fashion designer [[Anna Sui]], nightlife impresario [[Susanne Bartsch]], Andre Walker and [[The Clash]].<ref name="AnOther"/> Arbus shot her subjects from slightly below to "suggest they were monuments."<ref name=":0" />

In 2006, Welcome Books published ''On the Street : 1980-1990,''<ref>{{Cite book|title=On the street: 1980-1990|last=Arbus|first=Amy|last2=Homes|first2=A. M|date=2006-01-01|publisher=Welcome Books|isbn=1599620154|location=New York|oclc = 65978538|language=English}}</ref> a collection of more than 70 of the most influential images from Arbus' time at the Village Voice, those that "lend a voice to an era when individuality and self-expression were fighting for breathing room in a culture that valued economics over creativity."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://welcomebooks.com/onthestreet/|title=On the Street|website=welcomebooks.com|access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref> John Spellos then created a documentary called ''On the Street''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.elephanteyefilms.com/films_street.swf|title=On the Street|last=|first=|date=|website=Elephant Eye Films|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref> following Arbus as she tracked down the subjects of these photographs 25 years after they were taken.

=== Recent Work ===
In a talk at UCLA's [[Hammer Museum]], Arbus described her reluctance to become a photographer and her years studying at the [[Berklee College of Music]] and hanging out with [[The Cars]] (then still unknown), before studying at the [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]].<ref>[http://www.hammer.ucla.edu/programs/8/ Hammer.ucla.edu] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913101136/http://www.hammer.ucla.edu/programs/8/ |date=September 13, 2008 }}</ref> In an interview published in ''[[The Guardian]]'', she explains her initial reluctance to enter the field of photography, stating, "I was holding myself back, afraid to compete with this legend... But I remember the minute the viewfinder came up to my eye, I thought, ''I'm home.''"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2006/oct/15/photography/|title=Christopher Turner: Desperately seeking Diane?|work=The Guardian|accessdate=29 December 2014}}</ref>

==Publications==
*''No Place Like Home'' (1986).
*''The Inconvenience of Being Born'' (1999).
*''On the Street 1980–1990'' (2006).
*''The Fourth Wall'' (2008).
*''After Images'' (2013).

==Collections==
Her work is held in the following public collections:
*[[New York Public Library]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/collections/photographs-by-amy-arbus#/?tab=about|title=Photographs by Amy Arbus - NYPL Digital Collections|website=digitalcollections.nypl.org|access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref>
*[[Museum of Modern Art]], New York.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://github.com/MuseumofModernArt/collection/blob/master/Artists.csv|title=MuseumofModernArt/collection|website=GitHub|access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{Official website}}
*[http://www.johnpaulcaponigro.com/photographers/conversations/amy-arbus/ John Paul Caponigro: Illuminating Creativity]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Arbus, Amy}}
[[Category:Photographers from New York City]]
[[Category:Commercial photographers]]
[[Category:American portrait photographers]]
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:American women photographers]]
[[Category:Jewish American artists]]
[[Category:The New Yorker people]]
[[Category:Rolling Stone people]]
[[Category:Vanity Fair (magazine) people]]
[[Category:The Village Voice people]]
[[Category:20th-century American photographers]]
[[Category:21st-century American photographers]]
[[Category:20th-century American women artists]]
[[Category:21st-century American women artists]]
[[Category:Russek family]]
[[Category:20th-century women photographers]]
[[Category:21st-century women photographers]]

Spalding Gray

2020-12-04T10:35:20Z

Zumbo: Remove link to deleted article

{{short description|American actor, dramatist, playwright, screenwriter (1941-2004)}}
{{use mdy dates|date=September 2013}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Spalding Gray
| image = Early gray.jpg
| imagesize = 250px
| caption = Gray at the [[Performing Garage]] (1979–81). Photograph by Gary Schoichet
| alt =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1941|6|5}}
| birth_name = Spalding Gray
| birth_place = [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]], [[Rhode Island]], U.S.
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2004|1|11|1941|6|5}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| death_cause = [[Suicide|Suicide by drowning]]
| resting_place = [[Oakland Cemetery (Sag Harbor, NY)|Oakland Cemetery]] [[Sag Harbor, New York|Sag Harbor]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| resting_place_coordinates = 
| children = 2
| occupation = Actor, writer
| spouse = [[Renée Shafransky]] (1991–1993) Kathleen Russo (1994–2004; his death)
}}

'''Spalding Gray''' (June 5, 1941 – January 11, 2004) was an American actor and writer. He is best known for the autobiographical [[One-person show|monologues]] that he wrote and performed for the theater in the 1980s and 1990s, as well as for his film adaptations of these works, beginning in 1987. He wrote and starred in several, working with different directors.

Theater critics [[John A. Willis|John Willis]] and Ben Hodges described his monologue work as "trenchant, personal narratives delivered on sparse, unadorned sets with a dry, [[White Anglo-Saxon Protestant|WASP]], quiet mania."<ref>[[John A. Willis|Willis, John]]; Hodges, Ben (2006). ''Theatre World: Volume 60''. [[Hal Leonard Corporation]].</ref>{{rp|316}} Gray achieved renown for his monologue ''[[Swimming to Cambodia]]'', which he adapted as a 1987 film in which he starred; it was directed by [[Jonathan Demme]]. Other of his monologues which Gray adapted for film were ''[[Monster in a Box]]'' (1991), directed by [[Nick Broomfield]], and ''[[Gray's Anatomy (film)|Gray's Anatomy]]'' (1996), directed by [[Steven Soderbergh]].

Gray is believed to have died by [[suicide]] by jumping into New York City's [[East River]] in January 2004, when he was found drowned, after struggling with depression and severe injuries following a car accident. Steven Soderbergh made a documentary film about Gray's life titled ''[[And Everything Is Going Fine]]'' (2010). An unfinished monologue and a selection from his journals were published in 2005 and 2011, respectively.

==Early life==
Spalding Rockwell Gray was born in [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]], Rhode Island, to Rockwell Gray, Sr., the treasurer of [[Brown & Sharpe]] and Margaret Elizabeth "Betty" (née Horton). He was the middle-born of three sons; his brothers were Rockwell, Jr. and Channing. They were raised in the [[Christian Science]] faith of their mother. Gray and his brothers grew up in [[Barrington, Rhode Island|Barrington]], Rhode Island, spending summers at their grandmother's house in [[Newport, Rhode Island|Newport]], Rhode Island. Rockwell became a literature professor at [[Washington University in Saint Louis]], and Channing a journalist in Rhode Island.<ref name="NYmag2"/>

After graduating from [[Fryeburg Academy]] in [[Fryeburg, Maine]], Gray enrolled at [[Emerson College]] in [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], as a poetry major. He earned a Bachelor of Arts in 1963.

In 1965, Gray moved to [[San Francisco]], [[California]], where he became a speaker and teacher of poetry at the [[Esalen Institute]]. In 1967, while Gray was vacationing in Mexico City, his mother died by suicide at age 52. She had suffered from depression.<ref name="gaby">{{cite news
| last = Gaby
| first = Wood
| title = Shades of Gray
| work = [[The Observer]]
| date = December 26, 2004
| url = https://www.theguardian.com/film/2004/dec/26/1
| access-date = November 25, 2008}}</ref> After his mother's death, Gray returned to the East Coast and settled permanently in New York City. Gray's books ''Impossible Vacation'' and ''Sex and Death to the Age 14'' are largely based on his childhood and early adulthood.

==Career==
Gray began his theater career in New York in the late 1960s. In 1970, he joined [[Richard Schechner]]'s experimental troupe, [[The Performance Group]]. With actors from The Performance Group, including [[Willem Dafoe]] and [[Elizabeth LeCompte]], Gray helped to co-found the theater company [[The Wooster Group]]. He worked with them from 1975 to 1980, before leaving the company to focus on his monologue work. During this time, he also appeared in [[adult film]]s, having a featured role in ''[[Farmer's Daughters]]'' (1976) and appearing in [[Radley Metzger]]'s ''Maraschino Cherry'' (1978),<ref name=SFWeekly>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.sfweekly.com/exhibitionist/2011/08/spalding_gray_monologist_racon.php |title=Here's to the Late Spalding Gray: Monologist. Raconteur. Porn Star.|first=Sherilyn|last=Connelly|work=[[SF Weekly]] |access-date=June 26, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/18/books/journals-of-spalding-gray-edited-by-nell-casey-review.html |title=Peering Beyond a Monologist's Stage Presence Into His Uncensored Mind|date=October 18, 2011|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=June 26, 2016}}</ref>

Gray first achieved prominence in the United States with the film version of his monologue ''[[Swimming to Cambodia]].'' He had performed this monologue in New York City, and published it as a book in 1985. He adapted it as a film in 1987, directed by Jonathan Demme. This work was based on his experience in Thailand during filming a small role in ''[[The Killing Fields (movie)|The Killing Fields]]'' (1984), about the war in Cambodia.

In 1987 Gray traveled to Nicaragua with Office of the Americas. He wrote an unproduced screenplay based on the experience. Some of his experiences there were documented in ''[[Monster in a Box]]''.

Gray received a [[Guggenheim Fellowship]] and the [[National Book Award]] in 1985 for this work. He continued to write and perform monologues until his death. Through 1993, these works often incorporated his relationship to his girlfriend [[Renée Shafransky]]. They married and she became his collaborator.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gray|first=Spalding|title=Monster in a Box|year=1992|publisher=[[Vintage Books]]|location=New York City|isbn=0679737391|edition=A Vintage original, 1st|url=https://archive.org/details/monsterinbox00gray}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Gray|first=Spalding|title=Gray's Anatomy|year=1994|publisher=[[Vintage Books]]|location=New York City|isbn=0679751785|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomy00gray}}</ref> He later married Kathleen Russo.

Gray's success with his monologues brought him various supporting movie roles. He also played the lead role of the Stage Manager in a high-profile 1988 revival of [[Thornton Wilder]]'s play ''[[Our Town]]'' by the [[Lincoln Center Theater]].

In 1992, Gray published his only novel, ''Impossible Vacation.'' The novel reflects elements of Gray's life, including his mother's [[Christian Scientist]] beliefs,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gray|first=Spalding|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Mj9x23iWJQC&q=Gray's+life,+including+his+upbringing+as+a+Christian+Scientist,&pg=PA3|title=The Journals of Spalding Gray|date=2012-10-02|publisher=Vintage Books|isbn=978-0-307-47491-9|language=en}}</ref> his [[White Anglo-Saxon Protestant|WASP]] background, and his mother's suicide. Gray wrote a subsequent monologue related to his experiences in writing and promoting this book, titled ''Monster in a Box''.

During an interview in 1997 with film critic [[Edward Vilga]], Gray was asked whether the movie industry was "confused" by his writings and roles. He responded:

::I would say that my major problem with Hollywood is this—I sometimes paraphrase [[Bob Dylan]]—Bob Dylan says "I may look like [[Robert Ford (outlaw)|Robert Ford]], but I feel just like [[Jesse James]]." I say, "I may look like a gynecologist, an American ambassador's aide, or a lawyer, but I feel like [[Woody Allen]].". . . My insides are not what my outsides are. I'm not who I appear to be. I appear to be a [[Boston Brahmin|Wasp Brahmin]], but I'm really a sort of neurotic, perverse New York Jew. When I was performing one year ago at this time in Israel, a review came out in Hebrew about ''Monster in a Box,'' and it read, "Spalding Gray is funny, sometimes hilarious, wonderfully neurotic for a non-Jew." Only the Jews can say something like "wonderfully neurotic."<ref>Vilga, Edward (1997). ''Acting Now: Conversations on Craft and Career''. [[Rutgers University Press]].</ref>{{rp|111}}

Gray's performance style relied upon an impressionistic use of memories rather than a recounting of chronological facts. Gray referred to his style of monologue as resulting from a sort of "poetic journalism."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gentile|first1=John S.|title=Cast of One: One-Person Shows from the Chautauqua Platform to the Broadway Stage|url=https://archive.org/details/castofoneonepers00gent|url-access=registration|date=1989|publisher=University of Illinois Press|location=Champaign-Urbana|page=[https://archive.org/details/castofoneonepers00gent/page/150 150]}}</ref>

==Health problems and death==
In June 2001, Gray suffered severe injuries in a car crash while on vacation in Ireland. In the crash, Gray suffered a broken hip, which left his right leg almost immobilized, and a fracture in his skull. During surgery on his skull, a [[Titanium#Medical|titanium]] plate was placed over the break after surgeons removed dozens of bone fragments from his [[Frontal lobe|frontal cortex]]. A jagged scar on his forehead was a reminder of the injury. He struggled to recover from his injuries and a severe depression that set in some time after the accident. He had already struggled intermittently with depression in his life.<ref name="sacks">{{Cite web |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/04/27/the-catastrophe-oliver-sacks |last=Sacks |first=Oliver |author-link=Oliver Sacks |work=[[The New Yorker]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |title=The Catastrophe |date=April 27, 2015}}</ref> Suffering both from physical impairment and ongoing depression, Gray struggled for months and was treated with a variety of different therapies.<ref name="NYmag2">{{cite web | last = Williams | first = Alex | title = Vanishing Act | work = [[New York (magazine)|New York]]| date = February 2, 2004 | url = http://nymag.com/nymetro/news/features/n_9787/ | access-date = July 9, 2008}}</ref>

Gray sought treatment from [[neurologist]] [[Oliver Sacks]], who began treating Gray in August 2003 and continued to do so until almost the time of Gray's death. Sacks later said Gray perceived the taking of his own life as part of what he had to say, with the monologuist having "talked about what he called 'a creative suicide.' On one occasion, when he was being interviewed, he thought that the interview might be culminated with a 'dramatic and creative suicide. ... I was at pains to say that he would be much more creative alive than dead."<ref name="sacks" />

On January 9, 2004, Gray had an interview with Theresa Smalec, the subject of which was [[Ron Vawter]], a deceased friend and colleague whom he had met in the winter of 1972–73. Gray and Vawter had worked closely together throughout the 1970s, first with [[The Performance Group]], then as core members of [[The Wooster Group]] (founded by Gray and [[Elizabeth LeCompte]]). The edited transcript of "Spalding Gray's Last Interview" was published in 2008 by the ''New England Theatre Journal''.<ref>{{cite web | last = Smalec | first = Theresa | title = Spalding Gray's Last Interview | work = [[New England Theatre Journal]] | year = 2008 | url = http://www.netconline.org/netc-publications.php | access-date = September 7, 2009}}</ref>

On January 11, 2004, Gray was declared missing. The night before his disappearance, he had taken his children to see [[Tim Burton]]'s film ''[[Big Fish]].'' It ends with the line, "A man tells a story over and over so many times he becomes the story. In that way, he is immortal." Gray's widow, Kathie Russo, said after he disappeared, "You know, Spalding cried after he saw that movie. I just think it gave him permission. I think it gave him permission to die."<ref name="NYmag2" />

When Gray was first reported missing, his profile was featured on the Fox Network television show ''[[America's Most Wanted]].''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amw.com/missing_persons/brief.cfm?id=25815 |title=Spalding Gray – Missing Person | work = [[America's Most Wanted]] |access-date= December 4, 2009}}</ref>

On March 7, 2004, the Office of Chief Medical Examiner of the City of New York reported that Gray's body was discovered by two men and pulled from the [[East River]]. One of the men gave an interview about the incident.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.esquire.com/dont-miss/wifl/spaldinggray0807 |title=What It Feels Like to Find Spalding Gray's Body |last=Snead|first=Robin|date=August 2007 |work=[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]|page=91|access-date= February 23, 2009}}</ref> It is believed that Gray jumped off the side of the [[Staten Island Ferry]]. Gray had previously attempted suicide in 2002; he had a history of depression, and his mother had killed herself in 1967.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/08/obituaries/spalding-grays-body-is-found-2-months-after-disappearance.html?_r=0|title=Spalding Gray's Body Is Found 2 Months After Disappearance|agency=[[Associated Press]]|via=The New York Times| date=March 8, 2004|access-date=March 2, 2017}}</ref> Gray was reported to have been working on a new monologue at the time of his death. There was speculation that his revisiting the material of the car crash in Ireland and his subsequent attempts to recover from his injuries might have triggered a final bout of depression.<ref name="NYmag2" />

Gray was buried at [[Oakland Cemetery (Sag Harbor, NY)|Oakland Cemetery]] in [[Sag Harbor, New York|Sag Harbor]], New York. He was survived by his wife Kathie Russo, stepdaughter Marissa, sons Forest Dylan <ref>[[Forrest Dylan Gray]]</ref> and Theo Spalding Gray, and brothers Rockwell and Channing Gray.

===Legacy===
Theater historian Don Wilmeth noted Gray's contribution to a unique style of writing and acting:
{{quote|The 1980s saw the rise of the autobiographical monologue, its leading practitioner Spalding Gray, the WASP from Rhode Island who portrays himself as an innocent abroad in a crazy contemporary world. . . others, like [[Mike Feder]], who grew up in Queens and began telling his life on New York radio, pride themselves on their theatrical minimalism, and simply sit and talk. Audiences come to autobiography for direct connection and great stories, both sometimes hard to find in today's theatre.<ref>Wilmeth, Don B.; Miller, Tice L. (1996). ''Cambridge Guide to American Theatre''. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref>{{rp|293}}}}

Describing the play-film monologue, theatre director Mark Russell wrote:
{{quote|He broke it all down to a table, a glass of water, a spiral notebook and a mic. Poor theatre—a man and an audience and a story. Spalding sitting at that table, speaking into the mic, calling forth the script of his life from his memory and those notebooks. A simple ritual: part news report, part confessional, part American raconteur. One man piecing his life back together, one memory, one true thing at a time. Like all genius things, it was a simple idea turned on its axis to become absolutely fresh and radical."<ref name=Swimming/>}}

Journalist and author [[Roger Rosenblatt]], described Gray as
{{quote|Spalding the storyteller... Spalding the mystical. Spalding the hilarious. Spalding the self-exposed, the professionally puzzled, the scared, the brave. Spalding the supporting actor. That's what he was in the movies. But as a writer and a stage performer, he changed the idea of what a supporting actor is. He supported ''us''... He played our part... We tacitly elect a few to be the chief tellers of our tales. Spalding was one of the elected. The specialty of his storytelling was the search for a sorrow that could be alchemized into a myth. He went for the misery sufficiently deep to create a story that makes us laugh... In so doing, he invented a form, a very rare thing among artists. Some called it the 'epic monologue' because first it was spoken and then it was written, like the old epics, and because it consisted of great and important themes drawn from the hero's life...And the one true heroic element in his makeup was the willingness to be open, rapidly open, about his confusions, his frailties."<ref name=Swimming>Gray, Spalding (2005). ''Swimming to Cambodia''. Theatre Communications Group.</ref>{{rp|Intro}} }}

Director Jonathan Demme said of Gray, "Spalding's unfailing ability to ignite universal emotions and laughter in all of us while gloriously wallowing in his own exquisite uniqueness will remain forever one of the great joys of American performance and literature".<ref name=Swimming/>

"He took the anarchy and illogic of life and molded it into something we could grab a hold of," said actor and novelist [[Eric Bogosian]]. "It took courage to do what Spalding did, courage to make theatre so naked and unadorned, to expose himself in this way and to fight his demons in public."

Theater critic Mel Gussow wrote of Gray's ''Swimming to Cambodia'' and ''Terrors of Pleasure'' that "Through a look or a comment, he offers intelligent analysis. Though the narrative is entirely centered around Mr. Gray himself, it never suffers from self-pity or self-indulgence. He remains the antihero in his own fascinating life story, the never ending tale of EverySpalding."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gussow|first1=Mel|title=Theatre: Spalding Gray. Review of Terrors of Pleasure, by Spalding Gray|work=The New York Times|date=May 15, 1986}}</ref>

===Posthumous works by and about him===
In 2005, Gray's unfinished final monologue was published in a hardcover edition entitled ''Life Interrupted: The Unfinished Monologue.'' The monologue, which Gray had performed in one of his last public appearances, is augmented by two additional pieces he performed at the time, a short remembrance called "The Anniversary" and an open letter to New York City written in the wake of the [[September 11 attacks]]. Also included in the book is an extensive collection of remembrances and tributes from fellow performers and friends.

The 2007 play ''Spalding Gray: Stories Left to Tell,'' produced at the Minetta Lane Theatre in New York City, is based on his monologues and journals. Kathleen Russo, his widow, developed the concept for the play.<ref name="brantley"/> The show has a cast of four actors as well as a rotating guest artist; all five read from selected portions of his work.<ref name="brantley">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/07/theater/reviews/07gray.html |author-link=Ben Brantley|first=Ben |last=Brantley |title=A Master of Monologues, Living on in His Words|work=The New York Times|date= March 7, 2007|access-date= February 19, 2017}}</ref>

In January 2010, [[Steven Soderbergh]]'s documentary about Gray, ''[[And Everything Is Going Fine]],'' was released at Utah's [[Slamdance Film Festival]]. The film was compiled from film and video clips of Gray's early life and career. His widow said that Soderbergh "wanted Spalding to tell the story, as if it was his last monologue, and I think he accomplished that".<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/17/movies/17soderbergh.html |title=One Singular Auteur, Through Another|work=The New York Times|date= January 15, 2010}}</ref>

In 2011 a selection from his journals was published as ''The Journals of Spalding Gray,'' edited by Nell Casey, who had worked with his widow Kathie Russo on the project.<ref name="rosenbaum">{{cite news| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/30/books/review/the-journals-of-spalding-gray-edited-by-nell-casey-book-review.html |first=Ron|last= Rosenbaum|title= What Spalding Gray Left Us|work=The 'New York Times|date= October 28, 2011|access-date= February 19, 2017}}</ref> Dwight Garner thought this material was less interesting than Spalding's monologues. He said they have value as a "portrait of a theatrical coming of age" as Gray determined how to make his art. Garner notes, "His art, these journals make clear, is what kept him alive."<ref name="garner">{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/18/books/journals-of-spalding-gray-edited-by-nell-casey-review.html?action=click&contentCollection=Sunday%20Book%20Review&module=RelatedCoverage&region=Marginalia&pgtype=article |first=Dwight|last= Garner|title=Peering Beyond a Monologist's Stage Presence Into His Uncensored Mind| work=The New York Times|date= October 17, 2011|access-date= February 19, 2017}}</ref>

The 2016 season of the Independent Film Channel's mockumentary television series "[[Documentary Now!]]" includes the episode "Parker Gail's Location is Everything," a parody of Gray's [[Swimming to Cambodia]].<ref>{{Citation|title="Documentary Now!" Parker Gail's Location Is Everything (TV Episode 2016) - IMDb|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt5819980/fullcredits|access-date=2019-06-22}}</ref> In it, [[Bill Hader]] delivers a monologue expressing his dismay at having to find a new loft apartment in New York City upon learning that his current residence will be converted into an electronics store.

==Filmography==

===Movies written and performed by Spalding Gray===
*''[[Swimming to Cambodia]]'' (1987)
*''[[Spalding Gray: Terrors of Pleasure]]'' (1988)
*''[[Monster in a Box]]'' (1991)
*''[[Gray's Anatomy (film)|Gray's Anatomy]]'' (1996)
*''[[And Everything Is Going Fine]]'' (2010)
**In addition to the five theatrically released film versions of Gray's monologues, video recordings from 1982 of ''Sex and Death at the Age of 14'' and ''A Personal History of the American Theater'' were released by the [[Criterion Collection]] on the DVDs of ''And Everything Is Going Fine'' and ''Gray's Anatomy'', respectively.

==Bibliography==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*''[[Swimming to Cambodia]]'' (1985){{spaced ndash}} monologue
*''The Nothing Issue'' (1985)
*''Sex and Death to the Age 14'' (1986){{spaced ndash}} a collection of six early monologues
*''In Search of the Monkey Girl'' (1987){{spaced ndash}} non-fiction essay
*''High & Low'' (1988)
*''Homespun'' (1988)
*''[[Monster in a Box]]'' (1992){{spaced ndash}} monologue
*''Impossible Vacation'' (1992){{spaced ndash}} novel
*''[[Gray's Anatomy (film)|Gray's Anatomy]]'' (1994){{spaced ndash}} monologue
*''First Words'' (1996)
*''It's a Slippery Slope'' (1997){{spaced ndash}} monologue
*''Morning, Noon and Night'' (1999){{spaced ndash}} monologue
*''Life Interrupted: The Unfinished Monologue'' (2005){{spaced ndash}} a monologue, a story and a letter
*''The Journals of Spalding Gray'', (October, 2011) Knopf; edited by Nell Casey and Kathie Russo
{{div col end}}

===Actor===
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*''Cowards'' (1970, in a low-budget drama; it was later edited and released as an adult film, ''Love-In '72'') - Radical at Party
*''[[Farmer's Daughters]]'' (1976) - George

*''Maraschino Cherry'' (1978) – uncredited<ref name=SFWeekly /> - Penny's Client with Beard (uncredited)
*''Variety'' (1983) - (voice)
*''[[The Killing Fields (movie)|The Killing Fields]]'' (1984) - U.S. Consul
*''[[Almost You]]''<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0086876/ Almost You film page], IMDB, accessed 1 February 2020</ref> (1985) - Travel agent
*''[[Seven Minutes in Heaven (film)|Seven Minutes in Heaven]]'' (1985) - Dr. Rodney
*''[[Hard Choices (film)|Hard Choices]]''<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0091170/ Hard Choices film page], IMDB, accessed 1 February 2020</ref> (1985) - Terry Norfolk
*''The Communists Are Comfortable''<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0088945/ The Communists Are Comfortable film page], IMDB, accessed 1 February 2020</ref> (1985, Documentary)
*''[[True Stories (film)|True Stories]]'' (1986) - Earl Culver
*''[[Swimming to Cambodia]]'' (1987) - Himself
*''[[Stars and Bars (1988 film)|Stars and Bars]]'' (1988) - Reverend T.J. Cardew
*''[[Clara's Heart]]'' (1988) - Peter Epstein
*''[[Beaches (film)|Beaches]]'' (1988) - Dr. Richard Milstein
*''Spalding Gray: Terrors of Pleasure'' (1988) - Himself
*''[[Heavy Petting (1989 film)|Heavy Petting]]'' (1989, Documentary) - Himself
*''The Image''<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0099829/ The Image film page], IMDB, accessed 1 February 2020</ref> (1990, TV Movie) - Frank Goodrich
*''To Save a Child''<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0103096/ To Save a Child film page], IMDB, accessed 1 February 2020</ref> (1991, TV Movie) - Hobart
*''[[Straight Talk]]'' (1992) - Dr. David Erdman
*''[[Monster in a Box]]'' (1992) - Himself
*''[[Twenty Bucks]]'' (1993) - Priest
*''[[The Pickle]]'' (1993) - Doctor
*''[[King of the Hill (film)|King of the Hill]]'' (1993) - Mr. Mungo
*''[[Zelda (film)|Zelda]]'' (1993, TV Movie) - Sayre
*''[[The Paper (film)|The Paper]]'' (1994) - Paul Bladden
*''[[Bad Company (1995 film)|Bad Company]]'' (1995) - Walter Curl
*''[[Beyond Rangoon]]'' (1995) - Jeremy Watt
*''Drunks''<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0112907/ Drunks film page], IMDB, accessed 1 February 2020</ref> (1995) - Louis
*''[[Glory Daze (film)|Glory Daze]]'' (1995) - Jack's Dad
*''[[Buckminster Fuller: Thinking Out Loud]]'' (1996)
*''[[Diabolique (1996 film)|Diabolique]]'' (1996)
*''Gray's Anatomy'' (1996) - Himself
*''Bliss''<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0118742/ Bliss film page], IMDB, accessed 1 February 2020</ref> (1997) - Alfred
*''[[Coming Soon (1999 film)|Coming Soon]]'' (1999) - Mr. Jennings
*''[[Julie Johnson]]'' (2001) - Mr. Tom Miranda
*''Revolution #9''<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0253586/ Revolution #9 film page], IMDB, accessed 1 February 2020</ref> (2001) - Scooter McCrae
*''[[Kate & Leopold]]'' (2001) - Dr. Geisler
*''[[How High]]'' (2001) - Prof. Jackson
*''The Paper Mache Chase''<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0379924/ The Paper Mache Chase film page], IMDB, accessed 1 February 2020</ref> (2003, Short) - Dr. Calhoun (final film role)
*''[[And Everything Is Going Fine]]'' (2010, Documentary) - Himself
{{div col end}}

===Television===
*''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' (1 episode, 1977) - Narrator of 'Brides' (voice, uncredited)
*''[[Spenser: For Hire]]'' (1 episode, 1987) - Edward Niles
*''Trying Times''{{citation needed|date=March 2017}} (1 episode, 1987) - Gary
*''[[The Nanny]]'' (9 episodes, 1997–1998) - Dr. Jack Miller
*''[[The Mike O'Malley Show]]'' (1 episode, 1999) - Professor Beaumont
*''[[Will & Grace]]'' (1 episode, 2000)

==See also==
*[[List of solved missing persons cases]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

{{Wikiquote}}
{{Portal|Biography|Theatre|Comedy|New York City|United States}}
* {{IMDb name|336960}}
* {{IBDB name}}
* {{iobdb name|8880}}
* {{worldcat id|id=lccn-n85-176138}}
* {{YouTube|coxoEhQmjzY|Scene from ''Swimming to Cambodia''}} video, 5 minutes
* [https://www.npr.org/features/feature.php?wfId=1781976 "Remembering Spalding Gray" – Fresh Air Audio Archives] ([[National Public Radio|NPR]])
* [http://www.spaldinggray.com Official Website from the Estate of Spalding Gray]
* [http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/pajj.2008.30.1.1 Spalding Gray's Last Interview], Theresa Smalec, ''PAJ: A Journal of Performance and Art,'' Jan 2008, Vol. 30, No. 1, (PAJ 88): 1–14.
* [http://www.newmillenniumrecords.com/interview.html Audio Interview with Mr. Gray, recorded 1996], conducted by Douglas Ordunio, New Millennium Records

{{Authority control}}

{{Spalding Gray}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gray, Spalding}}
[[Category:1941 births]]
[[Category:2000s missing person cases]]
[[Category:2004 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American male actors]]
[[Category:20th-century American novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:21st-century American male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:21st-century American novelists]]
[[Category:21st-century American dramatists and playwrights]]

[[Category:American male actors who committed suicide]]
[[Category:American autobiographers]]
[[Category:American founders]]
[[Category:American male non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:American male television actors]]
[[Category:American male screenwriters]]
[[Category:Burials in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Dramatists and playwrights who committed suicide]]
[[Category:Emerson College alumni]]
[[Category:Former Christian Scientists]]
[[Category:Fryeburg Academy alumni]]
[[Category:Male actors from New York City]]
[[Category:Male actors from San Francisco]]
[[Category:Missing person cases in New York (state)]]
[[Category:National Book Award winners]]
[[Category:Performance art in New York City]]
[[Category:People from Barrington, Rhode Island]]
[[Category:People with traumatic brain injuries]]
[[Category:Actors from Providence, Rhode Island]]
[[Category:Pornographic film actors from New York (state)]]
[[Category:Pornographic film actors from Rhode Island]]
[[Category:Suicides by drowning in the United States]]
[[Category:Suicides in New York City]]
[[Category:Writers from New York City]]
[[Category:Writers from Providence, Rhode Island]]
[[Category:Writers from San Francisco]]
[[Category:Writing teachers]]
[[Category:Monologists]]
[[Category:American male novelists]]
[[Category:American people of British descent]]
[[Category:American male dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Rhode Island]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from New York (state)]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from California]]
[[Category:20th-century American male writers]]
[[Category:21st-century American male writers]]
[[Category:Novelists from New York (state)]]
[[Category:Suicide in 2004]]
[[Category:20th-century American screenwriters]]

Jean Cocteau

2020-12-04T10:34:57Z

Zumbo: Remove link to deleted article

{{short description|French poet, novelist, dramatist, designer and filmmaker}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2013}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jean Cocteau
| image = Jean Cocteau b Meurisse 1923.jpg
| caption = Cocteau in 1923
| imagesize =
| birth_name = Jean Maurice Eugène Clément Cocteau
| other_names = The Frivolous Prince
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1889|07|05|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Maisons-Laffitte]], France
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1963|10|11|1889|07|05|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Milly-la-Foret]], France
| occupation = {{hlist|Poet|dramatist|novelist|filmmaker|visual artist}}
| spouse =
| partner = {{ublist|class=nowrap|[[Raymond Radiguet]] (1919–1923)|Jean Bourgoint (1925)|Jean Desbordes (1926–1933)|Marcel Khill (1933–1937)|[[Jean Marais]] (1938–1963)|Édouard Dermit (1947–1963)}}
| years_active = 1908–1963
| signature = Jean Cocteau signature.svg
| website = {{URL|jeancocteau.net}}
}}
{{French literature sidebar}}

'''Jean Maurice Eugène Clément Cocteau''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|k|ɒ|k|t|oʊ}}, {{IPAc-en|US|k|ɒ|k|ˈ|t|oʊ}}, {{IPA-fr|ʒɑ̃ moʁis øʒɛn klemɑ̃ kɔkto|lang}}; 5 July 1889 – 11 October 1963) was a French poet, playwright, novelist, designer, filmmaker, visual artist and critic.

==Works==
Jean Cocteau insisted on calling himself a [[poet]], classifying the great variety of his works – poems, novels, plays, essays, drawings, films – as "poésie", "poésie de roman", "poésie de thêatre", "poésie critique", "poésie graphique" and "poésie cinématographique".<ref name="FS">Francis Steegmuller "Jean Cocteau: A Brief Biography", ''Jean Cocteau and the French Scene'', Abbeville Press 1984</ref>

He is best known for his novels ''Le Grand Écart'' (1923), ''Le Livre Blanc'' (1928), and ''[[Les Enfants Terribles]]'' (1929); the stage plays ''[[The Human Voice|La Voix Humaine]]'' (1930), ''[[The Infernal Machine (play)|La Machine Infernale]]'' (1934), ''[[Les Parents terribles]]'' (1938), ''[[La Machine à écrire]]'' (1941), and ''[[L'Aigle à deux têtes]]'' (1946); and the films ''[[The Blood of a Poet]]'' (1930), ''[[Les Parents terribles (film)|Les Parents Terribles]]'' (1948), ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1946 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'' (1946), ''[[Orpheus (film)|Orpheus]]'' (1949), and ''[[Testament of Orpheus]]'' (1960), which alongside ''Blood of a Poet'' and ''Orpheus'' constitute the so-called [[Orphic Trilogy]]. He was described as "one of [the] [[avant-garde]]'s most successful and influential filmmakers" by [[AllMovie]].<ref name="A">{{cite web |title=Biography |url=https://www.allmovie.com/artist/jean-cocteau-p85359 |website=AllMovie}}</ref>

==Biography==
===Early life===
Cocteau was born in [[Maisons-Laffitte]], [[Yvelines]], a town near [[Paris]], to Georges Cocteau and his wife, Eugénie Lecomte; a socially prominent Parisian family. His father, a lawyer and amateur painter, committed suicide when Cocteau was nine. From 1900–1904, Cocteau attended the [[Lycée Condorcet]] where he met and began a relationship with schoolmate Pierre Dargelos, who would reappear throughout Cocteau's oeuvre.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Guédras|editor1-first=Annie|title=Jean Cocteau: Erotic Drawings|date=1999|publisher=Evergreen|location=Köln|isbn=3-8228-6532-X|page=11}}</ref> He left home at fifteen. He published his first volume of poems, ''Aladdin's Lamp'', at nineteen. Cocteau soon became known in [[Bohemianism|Bohemian]] artistic circles as ''The Frivolous Prince'', the title of a volume he published at twenty-two. [[Edith Wharton]] described him as a man "to whom every great line of poetry was a sunrise, every sunset the foundation of the Heavenly City..."<ref>{{cite book|chapterurl=http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/w/wharton/edith/backward_glance/chapter11.html|url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/w/wharton/edith/backward_glance/index.html|title=A Backward Glance|last1=Wharton|first1=Edith|publisher=eBooks@Adelaide|date=17 December 2014|chapter=Chapter 11|orig-year=1st pub. 1934|accessdate=9 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829004848/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/w/wharton/edith/backward_glance/index.html|archive-date=29 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Early career===

[[File:1916, Modigliani, Jean Cocteau.jpg|thumb|left|[[Amedeo Modigliani]], ''Jean Cocteau'', 1916, [[Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection]], on long-term loan to the [[Princeton University Art Museum]]]]
[[File:Portrait of Jean Cocteau.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of Jean Cocteau by [[Federico de Madrazo y Ochoa]], ca. 1910-1912]]
[[File:Erik Satie Parade.jpg|thumb|right|[[Érik Satie]], Parade, thème de Jean Cocteau|150px]]

In his early twenties, Cocteau became associated with the writers [[Marcel Proust]], [[André Gide]], and [[Maurice Barrès]]. In 1912, he collaborated with [[Léon Bakst]] on ''[[Le Dieu bleu]]'' for the [[Ballets Russes]]; the principal dancers being [[Tamara Karsavina]] and [[Vaslav Nijinsky]]. During [[World War I]] Cocteau served in the [[Red Cross]] as an ambulance driver. This was the period in which he met the poet [[Guillaume Apollinaire]], artists [[Pablo Picasso]] and [[Amedeo Modigliani]], and numerous other writers and artists with whom he later collaborated. Russian impresario [[Sergei Diaghilev]] persuaded Cocteau to write a scenario for a ballet, which resulted in ''[[Parade (ballet)|Parade]]'' in 1917. It was produced by [[Diaghilev]], with sets by Picasso, the [[libretto]] by Apollinaire and the music by [[Erik Satie]]. "If it had not been for Apollinaire in uniform," wrote Cocteau, "with his skull shaved, the scar on his temple and the bandage around his head, women would have gouged our eyes out with hairpins."{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} He denied being a Surrealist or being in any way attached to the movement.{{Citation needed|date=February 2008}}

An important exponent of [[avant-garde art]], Cocteau had great influence on the work of others, including a group of composers known as [[Les six]]. In the early twenties, he and other members of Les six frequented a wildly popular bar named [[Le Boeuf sur le Toit (cabaret)|Le Boeuf sur le Toit]], a name that Cocteau himself had a hand in picking. The popularity was due in no small measure to the presence of Cocteau and his friends.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Thompson|first1=Daniella|title=How the ''Ox'' got its name, and other Parisian legends.|url=http://daniellathompson.com/Texts/Le_Boeuf/boeuf.pt.5.htm|website=The Boeuf Chronicles|publisher=Musica Brasiliensis|accessdate=9 April 2016|date=6 May 2002}} (Autoplaying music on site)</ref>

===Friendship with Raymond Radiguet===
[[File:Marie Laurencin, 1921, Portrait de Jean Cocteau.jpg|thumb|[[Marie Laurencin]], ''Portrait de Jean Cocteau'', 1921]]
In 1918 he met the French poet [[Raymond Radiguet]]. They collaborated extensively, socialized, and undertook many journeys and vacations together. Cocteau also got Radiguet exempted from military service. Admiring of Radiguet's great literary talent, Cocteau promoted his friend's works in his artistic circle and arranged for the publication by Grasset of ''[[Le Diable au corps (novel)|Le Diable au corps]]'' (a largely autobiographical story of an adulterous relationship between a married woman and a younger man), exerting his influence to have the novel awarded the "[[Nouveau Monde]]" literary prize. Some contemporaries and later commentators thought there might have been a romantic component to their friendship.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=32}} Cocteau himself was aware of this perception, and worked earnestly to dispel the notion that their relationship was sexual in nature.<ref name="Steegmuller">{{cite book |author=Francis Steegmuller|title=Cocteau, A Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/cocteaubiography00stee|url-access=registration|quote=Monsieur, I have just received your letter and must reply despite my regret at being unable to explain the inexplicable. It is possible that my friendship for your son and my deep admiration for his gifts (which are becoming increasingly apparent) are of an uncommon intensity, and that from the outside it is hard to make out how far my feelings go. His literary future is of primary consideration with me: he is a kind of prodigy. Scandal would spoil all this freshness. You cannot possibly believe for a second that I do not try to avoid that by all the means in my power|year=1970}}</ref>

There is disagreement over Cocteau's reaction to Radiguet's sudden death in 1923, with some claiming that it left him stunned, despondent and prey to [[opium]] addiction. Opponents of that interpretation point out that he did not attend the funeral (he generally did not attend funerals) and immediately left Paris with Diaghilev for a performance of ''[[Les noces]]'' (''The Wedding'') by the [[Ballets Russes]] at [[Monte Carlo]]. Cocteau himself much later characterised his reaction as one of "stupor and disgust."{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} His opium addiction at the time,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.netcomuk.co.uk/~lenin/jean_cocteau_biogra.html |title=Jean Cocteau Biography – Jean Cocteau Website |publisher=Netcomuk.co.uk |date=11 October 1963 |accessdate=14 March 2012}}</ref> Cocteau said, was only coincidental, due to a chance meeting with Louis Laloy, the administrator of the [[Monte Carlo Opera]]. Cocteau's opium use and his efforts to stop profoundly changed his literary style. His most notable book, ''[[Les Enfants Terribles]]'', was written in a week during a strenuous [[opium]] weaning. In ''{{Interlanguage link multi|Opium: Journal of drug rehabilitation|fr|3=Opium : Journal d'une désintoxication}}'', he recounts the experience of his recovery from opium addiction in 1929. His account, which includes vivid pen-and-ink illustrations, alternates between his moment-to-moment experiences of drug withdrawal and his current thoughts about people and events in his world. Cocteau was supported throughout his recovery by his friend and correspondent, Catholic philosopher [[Jacques Maritain]]. Under Maritain's influence Cocteau made a temporary return to the sacraments of the Catholic Church. He again returned to the Church later in life and undertook a number of religious art projects.

===Further works===
On June 15, 1926 Cocteau's play ''[[Orpheus (play)|Orphée]]'' was staged in Paris. It was quickly followed by an exhibition of drawings and "constructions" called ''Poésie plastique–objets, dessins''. Cocteau wrote the libretto for [[Igor Stravinsky]]'s opera-oratorio ''[[Oedipus rex (opera)|Oedipus rex]]'', which had its original performance in the [[Théâtre Sarah Bernhardt]] in Paris on 30 May 1927. In 1929 one of his most celebrated and well known works, the novel ''[[Les Enfants terribles]]'' was published.<ref name="FS" />

In 1930 Cocteau made his first film ''[[The Blood of a Poet]]'', publicly shown in 1932. Though now generally accepted as a [[surrealism|surrealist]] film, the surrealists themselves did not accept it as a truly surrealist work. Although one of Cocteau's best known works the 1930s is notable rather for a number of stage plays. Most notably ''[[La Voix humaine]]'' and ''[[Les Parents terribles]]'', which was a popular success. His 1934 play ''[[The Infernal Machine (play)|La Machine infernal]]'' was Cocteau's stage version of the [[Oedipus]] legend and is considered to be his greatest work for the theater.<ref>Neal Oxenhandler "The Theater of Jean Cocteau", ''Jean Cocteau and the French scene'', Abbeville Press 1984</ref> During this period Cocteau also published two volumes of journalism, including ''Mon Premier Voyage: Tour du Monde en 80 jours'', a neo-[[Jules Verne]] around the world travel reportage he made for the newspaper [[Paris-Soir]].<ref name="FS" />

===1940–1944===
[[File:Jean Cocteau I Married a Witch Maryhill Museum.jpg|thumb|''Tribute to René Clair: I Married a Witch'', Jean Cocteau (1945), a set design for the [[Théâtre de la Mode]].]]

Biographer [[James S. Williams]] describes Cocteau's politics as "naturally Right-leaning."{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=123}} During the [[Nazi occupation of France]], he
was in a ''"round-table"'' of French and German intellectuals who met at the [[Georges V Hotel in Paris]], including Cocteau, the writers [[Ernst Jünger]], [[Paul Morand]] and [[Henry Millon de Montherlant]], the publisher [[Gaston Gallimard]] and the Nazi legal scholar [[Carl Schmitt]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Junger |first= Ernst |title= A German Officer in Occupied Paris |accessdate= |edition= |origyear= |year=2019 |publisher= Columbia University Press |location= New York |isbn= 9780231127400 |oclc= |page= xvi}}</ref>

His friend [[Arno Breker]] convinced him that [[Adolf Hitler]] was a pacifist and patron of the arts with France's best interests in mind. In his diary, Cocteau accused France of disrespect towards Hitler and speculated on the Führer's sexuality. Cocteau effusively praised Breker's sculptures in an article entitled 'Salut à Breker' published in 1942. This piece caused him to be arraigned on charges of collaboration after the war, though he was cleared of any wrongdoing and had used his contacts to his failed attempt to save friends such as [[Max Jacob]].{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=182–185}}

In 1940, ''Le Bel Indifférent'', Cocteau's play written for and starring [[Édith Piaf]], was enormously successful.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cocteau|first=Jean|date=|title=Musée SACEM : Edith Piaf et Jean Cocteau|url=https://musee.sacem.fr/index.php/ExhibitionCMS/Chroniques/SimpleExhibitions?id=151|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-23|website=musee.sacem.fr|language=fr}}</ref>
===Later years===
Cocteau's later years is mostly associated with his films. Cocteau's films, most of which he both wrote and directed, were particularly important in introducing the avant-garde into [[Cinema of France|French cinema]] and influenced to a certain degree the upcoming [[French New Wave]] genre.<ref name="A" />

Following ''[[The Blood of a Poet]]'' (1930), his best known films include ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1946 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'' (1946), ''[[Les Parents terribles (film)|Les Parents terribles]]'' (1948), and ''[[Orpheus (film)|Orpheus]]'' (1949). His final film, ''[[Testament of Orpheus|Le Testament d'Orphée]]'' (''The Testament of Orpheus'') (1960), featured appearances by Picasso and matador [[Luis Miguel Dominguín]], along with [[Yul Brynner]], who also helped finance the film.

In 1945 Cocteau was one of several designers who created sets for the [[Théâtre de la Mode]]. He drew inspiration from filmmaker [[René Clair]] while making ''Tribute to René Clair: I Married a Witch''. The [[maquette]] is described in his "Journal 1942–1945," in his entry for 12 February 1945: {{blockquote|I saw the model of my set. Fashion bores me, but I am amused by the set and fashion placed together. It is a smoldering maid's room. One discovers an aerial view of Paris through the wall and ceiling holes. It creates vertigo. On the iron bed lies a fainted bride. Behind her stand several dismayed ladies. On the right, a very elegant lady washes her hands in a flophouse basin. Through the unhinged door on the left, a lady enters with raised arms. Others are pushed against the walls. The vision provoking this catastrophe is a bride-witch astride a broom, flying through the ceiling, her hair and train streaming.}}

In 1956 Cocteau decorated the ''Chapelle Saint-Pierre'' in [[Villefranche-sur-Mer]] with mural paintings. The following year he also decorated the marriage hall at the Hôtel de Ville in [[Menton]].<ref>''Jean Cocteau and the French scene'', Abbeville Press 1984, p. 227</ref>

===Private life===
Jean Cocteau never hid his [[homosexuality]]. He was the author of the mildly homoerotic and semi-autobiographical ''Le livre blanc'' (translated as ''The White Paper'' or ''The White Book''),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://rictornorton.co.uk/cocteau.htm|title=Cocteau's White Paper on Homophobia|website=rictornorton.co.uk}}</ref> published anonymously in 1928. He never repudiated its authorship and a later edition of the novel features his foreword and drawings. The novel begins:

{{quote|As far back as I can remember, and even at an age when the mind does not yet influence the senses, I find traces of my love of boys. I have always loved the strong sex that I find legitimate to call the fair sex. My misfortunes came from a society that condemns the rare as a crime and forces us to reform our inclinations.}}

Frequently his work, either literary (''[[Les enfants terribles]]''), graphic (erotic drawings, book illustration, paintings) or cinematographic (''[[The Blood of a Poet]]'', ''[[Orpheus (film)|Orpheus]]'', ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1946 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]''), is pervaded with homosexual undertones, homoerotic imagery/symbolism or [[Camp (style)|camp]]. In 1947 [[w:fr:Paul Morihien|Paul Morihien]] published a clandestine edition of ''[[Querelle de Brest]]'' by [[Jean Genet]], featuring 29 very explicit erotic drawings by Cocteau. In recent years several albums of Cocteau's [[homoerotica]] have been available to the general public.

It is widely believed that Cocteau had affairs with [[Raymond Radiguet]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nyrb.com/collections/raymond-radiguet|title=Raymond Radiguet|website=New York Review Books|language=en|access-date=2019-12-23}}</ref> [[w:fr:Jean Desbordes|Jean Desbordes]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kb.nl/fr/collection-koopman/le-livre-blanc|title=Le livre blanc {{!}} Koninklijke Bibliotheek|website=www.kb.nl|access-date=2019-12-23}}</ref> [[w:fr:Marcel Khill|Marcel Khill]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cocteau.biu-montpellier.fr/index.php?id=601|title=Cocteau|website=cocteau.biu-montpellier.fr|access-date=2019-12-23}}</ref> and [[Panama Al Brown]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://narratively.com/the-secret-story-of-the-groundbreaking-boxing-champ-who-lost-his-title-because-he-was-gay/|title=The Secret Story of the Groundbreaking Boxing Champ Who Lost His Title -- Because He Was Gay|date=2017-06-15|website=Narratively|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-23}}</ref>

In the 1930s, Cocteau is rumoured to have had a very brief affair with Princess [[Natalie Paley]], the daughter of a [[Romanov]] [[Grand Duke]] and herself a sometime actress, model, and former wife of couturier [[Lucien Lelong]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Liaut|first1=Jean-Noël|title=Natalie Paley: Une princesse dechiree|date=1996|publisher=Filipacchi|location=Paris|isbn=2-85018-295-8|language=French}}</ref>

Cocteau's longest-lasting relationships were with French actors [[Jean Marais]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ecrannoir.fr/stars/legendes/marais.htm|title=Légendes d'Écran Noir: Jean Marais|website=www.ecrannoir.fr}}</ref> and [[w:fr:Édouard Dermit|Édouard Dermit]], whom Cocteau formally adopted. Cocteau cast Marais in ''[[L'Éternel Retour|The Eternal Return]]'' (1943), ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1946 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'' (1946), ''[[Ruy Blas]]'' (1947), and ''[[Orpheus (film)|Orpheus]]'' (1949).

===Death===
Cocteau died of a heart attack at his [[château]] in [[Milly La Foret|Milly-la-Forêt]], Essonne, France, on 11 October 1963 at the age of 74. His friend, French singer [[Édith Piaf]], died the day before but that was announced on the morning of Cocteau's day of death; it has been said that his heart failed upon hearing of Piaf's death. Actually, according to author [[Roger Peyrefitte]],<ref>''Propos secrets'', Paris: Albin Michel, 1977</ref> since early that year Cocteau had been devastated after a breach with his longtime friend and extremely wealthy and generous patroness [[Francine Weisweiller]]: since 1960 she was having an affair with a minor writer, which cooled her off towards Cocteau.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1450644/Francine-Weisweiller.html ''Francine Weisweiller obituary'']</ref> He had a severe heart attack on April 22.

According to his wishes Cocteau is buried beneath the floor of the Chapelle Saint-Blaise des Simples in Milly-la-Forêt.<ref>Wilson, Scott. ''Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons'', 3d ed.: 2 (Kindle Location 8971). McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Kindle Edition.</ref> The epitaph on his gravestone set in the floor of the chapel reads: "I stay with you" ("Je reste avec vous").

==Honours and awards==
In 1955, Cocteau was made a member of the [[Académie française]] and [[The Royal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium|The Royal Academy of Belgium]].

During his life, Cocteau was commander of the [[Légion d'honneur|Legion of Honor]], Member of the Mallarmé Academy, German Academy (Berlin), American Academy, [[Mark Twain]] (U.S.A) Academy, Honorary President of the [[Cannes Film Festival]], Honorary President of the France-Hungary Association and President of the Jazz Academy and of the Academy of the Disc.

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Original title
!English title
|-
|1930
|''[[The Blood of a Poet|Le Sang d'un poète]]''
|''The Blood of a Poet''
|-
|1946
|''[[Beauty and the Beast (1946 film)|La Belle et la Bête]]''
|''The Beauty and the Beast''
|-
| rowspan="2" |1948
|''[[The Eagle with Two Heads|L'Aigle à deux têtes]]''
|''The Eagle with Two Heads''
|-
|''[[Les Parents terribles (film)|Les Parents terribles]]''
|''The Terrible Parents'', a.k.a. ''The Storm Within''
|-
|1950
|''[[Orpheus (film)|Orphée]]''
|''Orpheus''
|-
|1957
|''[[8 × 8: A Chess Sonata in 8 Movements]]''
|N/A
|-
|1960
|''[[Testament of Orpheus|Le Testament d'Orphée]]''
|''The Testament of Orpheus''
|}

==Works==
{{category see also|Ballets by Jean Cocteau}}

===Literature===
;Poetry
*1909: ''La Lampe d'Aladin''
*1910: ''Le Prince frivole''
*1912: ''La Danse de Sophocle''
*1919: ''Ode à Picasso'' – ''Le Cap de Bonne-Espérance''
*1920: ''Escale''. ''Poésies'' (1917–1920)
*1922: ''Vocabulaire''
*1923: ''La Rose de François'' – ''Plain-Chant''
*1925: ''Cri écrit''
*1926: ''L'Ange Heurtebise''
*1927: ''Opéra''
*1934: ''Mythologie''
*1939: ''Énigmes''
*1941: ''Allégories''
*1945: ''Léone''
*1946: ''La Crucifixion''
*1948: ''Poèmes''
*1952: ''Le Chiffre sept'' – ''La Nappe du Catalan'' (in collaboration with [[Georges Hugnet]])
*1953: ''Dentelles d'éternité'' – ''Appoggiatures''
*1954: ''Clair-obscur''
*1958: ''Paraprosodies''
*1961: ''Cérémonial espagnol du Phénix'' – ''La Partie d'échecs''
*1962: ''Le Requiem''
*1968: ''Faire-Part'' (posthume)
;Novels
*1919: ''[[Le Potomak]]'' (definitive edition: 1924)
*1923: ''[[Le Grand Écart]]'' – ''[[Thomas l'imposteur]]''
*1928: ''[[Le Livre blanc]]''
*1929: ''[[Les Enfants terribles]]''
*1940: ''[[La Fin du Potomak]]''
;Theater
*1917: ''[[Parade (ballet)|Parade]]'', ballet (music by [[Erik Satie]], choreography by [[Léonide Massine]])
*1921: ''[[Les mariés de la tour Eiffel]]'', ballet (music by [[Georges Auric]], [[Arthur Honegger]], [[Darius Milhaud]], [[Francis Poulenc]] and [[Germaine Tailleferre]])
*1922: ''[[Antigone (Cocteau)|Antigone]]''
*1924: ''Roméo et Juliette''
*1925: ''[[Orpheus (play)|Orphée]]''
*1927: ''[[Oedipus rex (opera)|Oedipus Rex]]'', opera-oratorio (music by [[Igor Stravinsky]])
*1930: ''[[The Human Voice|La Voix humaine]]''
*1934: ''[[The Infernal Machine (play)|La Machine infernale]]''
*1936: ''[[L'École des veuves]]''
*1937: ''Œdipe-roi''. ''[[Les Chevaliers de la Table ronde (Cocteau)|Les Chevaliers de la Table ronde]]'', premiere at the [[Théâtre Antoine]]
*1938: ''[[Les Parents terribles]]'', premiere at the [[Théâtre Antoine]]
*1940: ''[[Les Monstres sacrés]]''
*1941: ''[[La Machine à écrire]]''
*1943: ''[[Renaud et Armide]]''. ''L'Épouse injustement soupçonnée''
*1944: ''[[L'Aigle à deux têtes]]''
*1946: ''[[Le Jeune Homme et la Mort]]'', ballet by [[Roland Petit]]
*1948: ''Théâtre'' I and II
*1951: ''[[Bacchus (play)|Bacchus]]''
*1960: Nouveau théâtre de poche
*1962: ''L'Impromptu du Palais-Royal''
*1971: ''[[Le Gendarme incompris]]'' (in collaboration with [[Raymond Radiguet]] and [[Francis Poulenc]])

;Poetry and criticism
*1918: ''Le Coq et l'Arlequin''
*1920: ''Carte blanche''
*1922: ''Le Secret professionnel''
*1926: ''Le Rappel à l'ordre'' – ''Lettre à Jacques Maritain'' – ''Le Numéro [[Barbette (performer)|Barbette]]''
*1930: ''Opium''
*1932: ''Essai de critique indirecte''
*1935: ''Portraits-Souvenir''
*1937: ''Mon premier voyage'' (Around the World in 80 Days)
*1943: ''Le Greco''
*1946: ''La Mort et les Statues'' (photos by [[Pierre Jahan]])
*1947: ''Le Foyer des artistes'' – ''La Difficulté d'être''
*1949: ''Lettres aux Américains'' – ''Reines de la France''
*1951: ''[[Jean Marais]]'' – A Discussion about Cinematography (with André Fraigneau)
*1952: ''[[André Gide|Gide]] vivant''
*1953: ''Journal d'un inconnu''. ''Démarche d'un poète''
*1955: ''[[Colette]]'' (Discourse on the reception at the Royal Academy of Belgium) – Discourse on the reception at the [[Académie française]]
*1956: Discours d'Oxford
*1957: ''Entretiens sur le musée de Dresde'' (with Louis Aragon) – ''La Corrida du 1er mai''
*1950: ''Poésie critique I''
*1960: ''Poésie critique II''
*1962: ''Le Cordon ombilical''
*1963: ''La Comtesse de Noailles, oui et non''
*1964: ''Portraits-Souvenir'' (posthumous; A discussion with [[Roger Stéphane]])
*1965: ''Entretiens'' avec André Fraigneau (posthumous)
*1973: ''Jean Cocteau par Jean Cocteau'' (posthumous; A discussion with William Fielfield)
*1973: ''Du cinématographe'' (posthumous). ''Entretiens sur le cinématographe'' (posthumous)

;Journalistic poetry
*1935–1938 (posthumous)

===Film===
;Director
* 1925: ''[[Jean Cocteau fait du cinéma]]'' lost<ref>{{cite book|last=Arnaud|first=Claude|year=2016|title=Jean Cocteau: A Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ejj2DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA513|publisher=Yale University Press|pages=513–|isbn=978-0-300-17057-3}}</ref>
* 1930: ''[[The Blood of a Poet|Le Sang d'un poète]]''
* 1946: ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1946 film)|La Belle et la Bête]]''
* 1948: ''[[The Eagle with Two Heads|L'Aigle à deux têtes]]''
* 1948: ''[[Les Parents terribles (film)|Les Parents terribles]]''
* 1950: ''[[Orpheus (film)|Orphée]]''
* 1950: ''Coriolan'' unreleased home movie<ref>{{Citation|title=Coriolan|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0205844/|access-date=2019-08-31}}</ref>
* 1952: ''[[La Villa Santo-Sospir]]''
* 1955: ''L'Amour sous l'électrode''
* 1957: ''[[8 × 8: A Chess Sonata in 8 Movements]]''
* 1960: ''[[Testament of Orpheus|Le Testament d'Orphée]]''
;Scriptwriter
* 1943: ''[[L'Éternel Retour]]'' directed by [[Jean Delannoy]]
* 1944: ''[[Les Dames du Bois de Boulogne]]'' directed by [[Robert Bresson]]
* 1948: ''[[Ruy Blas (film, 1948)|Ruy Blas]]'' directed by [[Pierre Billon (director)|Pierre Billon]]
* 1950: ''[[Les Enfants Terribles (film)|Les Enfants terribles]]'' directed by [[Jean-Pierre Melville]], script by Jean Cocteau based on his novel
* 1951: ''[[La Couronne Noire]]'' directed by [[Luis Saslavsky]]
* 1961: ''[[La Princesse de Clèves (film, 1961)|La Princesse de Clèves]]'' directed by [[Jean Delannoy]]
* 1965: ''[[Thomas l'imposteur]]'' directed by [[Georges Franju]], script by Jean Cocteau based on his novel
;Dialogue writer
* 1943: ''[[Le Baron fantôme]]'' ('''+ actor''') directed by [[Serge de Poligny]]
* 1961: ''[[La Princesse de Clèves (film, 1961)|La Princesse de Clèves]]'' directed by [[Jean Delannoy]]
* 1965: ''[[Thomas l'imposteur]]'' directed by [[Georges Franju]]
;Director of Photography
* 1950: ''[[Un chant d'amour]]'' réalisé par [[Jean Genet]]

=== Artworks ===
*1924 : Dessins
*1925 : ''Le Mystère de Jean l'oiseleur''
*1926 : ''Maison de santé''
*1929 : ''25 dessins d'un dormeur''
*1935 : 60 designs for ''Les Enfants Terribles''
*1941 : Drawings in the margins of ''Chevaliers de la Table ronde''
*1948 : ''Drôle de ménage''
*1957 : ''La Chapelle Saint-Pierre'', [[Villefranche-sur-Mer]]
*1958 : ''La Salle des mariages'', City Hall of [[Menton]] – ''La Chapelle Saint-Pierre'' (lithographies)
*1958 : Un Arlequin (The Harlequin), https://www.artsy.net/artwork/jean-cocteau-un-arlequin-the-harlequin-1
*1959 : ''Gondol des morts''
*1960 : Chapelle ''Saint-Blaise-des-Simples'', [[Milly-la-Forêt]]
*1960 : Stained glass windows of the Church of Saint Maximin, Metz, France<ref>[[:fr:Église Saint-Maximin de Metz]]</ref>{{Circular reference|date=March 2019}}

===Recordings===
* ''Colette par Jean Cocteau'', discours de réception à l'Académie Royale de Belgique'', Ducretet-Thomson 300 V 078 St.
* ''Les Mariés de la Tour Eiffel'' and ''Portraits-Souvenir'', La Voix de l'Auteur LVA 13
* ''Plain-chant'' by Jean Marais, extracts from the piece ''Orphée'' by [[Jean-Pierre Aumont]], [[Michel Bouquet]], [[Monique Mélinand]], ''Les Parents terribles'' by [[Yvonne de Bray]] and Jean Marais, ''L'Aigle à deux têtes'' par [[Edwige Feuillère]] and Jean Marais, L'Encyclopédie Sonore 320 E 874, 1971
* Collection of three vinyl recordings of ''Jean Cocteau'' including ''La Voix humaine'' by [[Simone Signoret]], 18 songs composed by Louis Bessières, Bee Michelin and Renaud Marx, on double-piano [[Paul Castanier]], ''Le Discours de réception à l'Académie française'', Jacques Canetti JC1, 1984
* ''Derniers propos à bâtons rompus avec Jean Cocteau'', 16 September 1963 à Milly-la-Forêt, Bel Air 311035
* ''Les Enfants terribles'', radio version with Jean Marais, [[Josette Day]], [[Silvia Monfort]] and Jean Cocteau, CD Phonurgia Nova {{ISBN|2-908325-07-1}}, 1992
* Anthology, 4 CD containing numerous poems and texts read by the author, ''Anna la bonne'', ''La Dame de Monte-Carlo'' and ''Mes sœurs, n'aimez pas les marins'' by [[Marianne Oswald]], ''Le Bel Indifférent'' by [[Edith Piaf]], ''La Voix humaine'' by [[Berthe Bovy]], ''Les Mariés de la Tour Eiffel'' with [[Jean Le Poulain]], [[Jacques Charon]] and Jean Cocteau, discourse on the reception at the Académie française, with extracts from ''Les Parents terribles'', ''La Machine infernale'', pieces from ''Parade'' on piano with two hands by [[Georges Auric]] and [[Francis Poulenc]], Frémeaux & Associés FA 064, 1997
* Poems by Jean Cocteau read by the author, CD EMI 8551082, 1997
* ''Hommage à Jean Cocteau'', mélodies d'[[Henri Sauguet]], [[Arthur Honegger]], [[Louis Durey]], [[Darius Milhaud]], [[Erik Satie]], [[Jean Wiener]], [[Max Jacob]], Francis Poulenc, [[Maurice Delage]], Georges Auric, Guy Sacre, by [[Jean-François Gardeil]] (baritone) and [[Billy Eidi]] (piano), CD Adda 581177, 1989
* ''Le Testament d'Orphée'', journal sonore, by Roger Pillaudin, 2 CD INA / Radio France 211788, 1998

===Journals===
*1946 ''La Belle et la Bête'' (film journal)
*1949 ''Maalesh'' (journal of a stage production)
*1983 ''Le Passé défini'' (posthumous)
*1989 ''Journal, 1942–1945''

===Stamps===
* [[Marianne de Cocteau]], 1960

==See also==
*[[Jean Cocteau Repertory]]
*[[List of ambulance drivers during World War I]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*[[André Breton|Breton, André]] (1953). ''La Clé des champs'', p. 77. Paris: Éditions du Sagittaire.
*''Crucifixion'' translated into Bengali by [[Malay Roy Choudhury]]
*[[Francis Steegmuller|Steegmuller, Francis]] (1970). ''Cocteau: A Biography''. Boston: Atlantic-Little Brown & Company. {{ISBN|0-316-81219-6}}.
*{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=James S.|title=Jean Cocteau|date=2008|publisher=Reaktion|location=London|isbn=978-1861893543|ref=harv|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/jeancocteau00will}}

==Further reading==
*Evans, Arthur B. (1977). ''Jean Cocteau and his Films of Orphic Identity''. Philadelphia: Art Alliance Press. {{ISBN|9780879820114}}.
*Peters, Arthur King. (1986) ''Jean Cocteau and His World''. New York: Vendôme Press. {{ISBN|0865650683}}
*Tsakiridou, Cornelia A., ed. (1997). ''Reviewing Orpheus: Essays on the Cinema and Art of Jean Cocteau''. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press. {{ISBN|0-8387-5379-5}}.
* ''Album Cocteau''. Biographie et iconographie de Pierre Bergé. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade. Éditions Gallimard, 2006. {{ISBN|2070118088}}.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Portal|Literature|Poetry|Novels|LGBT|Film|Biography}}
* {{IBDB name}}
* {{IMDb name|168413}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Jean Cocteau}}
* {{FadedPage|id=Cocteau, Jean|name=Jean Cocteau|author=yes}}
* {{Librivox author |id=11458}}
* [http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/frenchbib.html#cocteau Cocteau/cinema Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)]
* {{curlie|Arts/People/C/Cocteau,_Jean/|Jean Cocteau}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071014053208/http://centremed.monte-carlo.mc/eng/cocteau_centre.php Cocteau CMEF Cap d'Ail]
* [http://essonnebalades.free.fr/Cocteau/index.html Cocteau et La chapelle Saint-Blaise-des-Simples]
* [[Raquel Bitton (singer)|Raquel Bitton]]: ''The Sparrow and the Birdman'', a drama focusing on the relationship of Cocteau to [[Edith Piaf]]
* {{cite journal | url=http://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4485/the-art-of-fiction-no-34-jean-cocteau| title=Jean Cocteau, The Art of Fiction No. 34| journal=Paris Review| date=Summer–Fall 1964| author=William Fifield }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180124114037/http://maisoncocteau.net/ Maison Jean Cocteau - Cocteau's former home]

{{Jean Cocteau}}
{{Académie française Seat 31}}
{{Cannes Film Festival jury presidents}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cocteau, Jean}}
[[Category:Jean Cocteau| ]]
[[Category:1889 births]]
[[Category:1963 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Maisons-Laffitte]]
[[Category:Lycée Condorcet alumni]]
[[Category:French ballet librettists]]
[[Category:20th-century French dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:French experimental filmmakers]]
[[Category:French fantasy writers]]
[[Category:French film directors]]
[[Category:French illustrators]]
[[Category:French novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century French painters]]
[[Category:20th-century male artists]]
[[Category:French male painters]]
[[Category:French poets]]
[[Category:French male screenwriters]]
[[Category:French screenwriters]]
[[Category:Writers from Île-de-France]]
[[Category:Prince des poètes]]
[[Category:Christian poets]]
[[Category:Christian novelists]]
[[Category:Les Six]]
[[Category:Gay writers]]
[[Category:LGBT writers from France]]
[[Category:LGBT directors]]
[[Category:LGBT screenwriters]]
[[Category:LGBT Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Surrealist filmmakers]]
[[Category:French surrealist artists]]
[[Category:French stamp designers]]
[[Category:French Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Members of the Académie Française]]
[[Category:Members of the Académie royale de langue et de littérature françaises de Belgique]]
[[Category:Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur]]
[[Category:LGBT dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:LGBT poets]]
[[Category:LGBT novelists]]
[[Category:Painters of the Return to Order]]

Harald Quandt

2020-12-04T10:34:20Z

Zumbo: Remove Link to deleted Article

{{more citations needed|date=December 2018}}
{{short description|German businessman}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Harald Quandt
| image = Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1978-086-03, Joseph Goebbels mit Familie.jpg
| image_size = 325px
| alt =
| caption = In a vintage [[Photo manipulation|manipulated image]],<ref>[https://www.bild.bundesarchiv.de/dba/de/search/?query=Bild+146-1978-086-03 Federal Archive of Germany, image no. 146-1978-086-03]</ref> Quandt (in [[Luftwaffe]] ''Fahnenjunker'' uniform and being elsewhere because of military duty) was added to a family photo showing his mother [[Magda Goebbels]], the [[Goebbels children]], and stepfather [[Joseph Goebbels]].
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1921|11|01|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Charlottenburg]], [[Prussia]], [[Weimar Republic]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1967|09|22|1921|11|01|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Cuneo]], [[Italy]]
| death_cause = Airplane crash
| resting_place = [[Waldfriedhof (disambiguation)|Waldfriedhof]], [[Bad Homburg vor der Höhe]]
| monuments =
| residence =
| nationality = German
| other_names =
| ethnicity =
| citizenship =
| education =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Industrialist
| years_active =
| known_for =
| spouse = Inge Bandekow (1951–1967)
| partner =
| children = Katarina Gabriele Anette Colleen-Bettina Patricia
| parents = [[Günther Quandt]] (1881–1954) [[Magda Goebbels|Magda Behrend Rietschel]] (1901–1945)
| relatives = [[Herbert Quandt]] (half-brother) [[Johanna Quandt]] (half-sister-in-law) [[Joseph Goebbels]] (stepfather)
| module = {{Infobox military person | embed=yes
| allegiance = {{flag|Nazi Germany}} (1941-1945)
| branch = {{Luftwaffe|Nazi Germany}}
| serviceyears =
| rank = [[Leutnant]]
| unit = [[Fallschirmjäger_(World_War_II)|Fallschirmjäger]]
| commands =
| battles = [[World War II]]
* [[Battle of Crete]]
| mawards =
| footnotes =
}}
}}

'''Harald Quandt''' (1 November 1921 – 22 September 1967) was a German industrialist, the son of industrialist [[Günther Quandt]] and [[Magda Goebbels|Magda Behrend Rietschel]]. His parents divorced and his mother was later married to [[Joseph Goebbels]]. After [[World War II]], Quandt and his older half-brother [[Herbert Quandt]] ran the industrial empire that was left to them by their father and that continues today, the family owning a stake in Germany's luxury car manufacturer [[BMW]].

==Early life==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R32860, Berlin, Trauung von Joseph und Magda Goebbels.jpg|left|upright=1.5|thumb|10-year-old Harald Quandt on the right, at his mother's remarriage with Goebbels and Hitler in the background]]
Harald Quandt was born in [[Charlottenburg]], the son of industrialist [[Günther Quandt]] and [[Magda Goebbels|Magdalena Behrend Rietschel]] who had married in 1921. Although the couple divorced in 1929, they remained on friendly terms. Magda later married [[Joseph Goebbels]] at a property owned by Günther Quandt. [[Adolf Hitler]] was Goebbels' [[Participants in wedding ceremonies#Groomsmen|best man]].{{fact|date=November 2020}}

After his mother's remarriage, Quandt remained with his father, who became a prominent business leader in [[Nazi Germany]]. Nevertheless, he paid regular visits to his mother, who had become "the First Lady of the Third Reich", and to his stepfather, who was minister of [[Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda|Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]] from 1933. After 1934, he returned to his mother and lived with the Goebbels family until passing his school-leaving examination in 1940. Residing with his adopted family, he raised several eyebrows by supporting the sloganeering of the Indian politician [[Subhash Chandra Bose]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://ww2gravestone.com/general/quandt-harald | title=Quandt, Harald | publisher=monkey republic | access-date=November 15, 2014}}</ref>

Quandt served as a [[lieutenant]] in the [[Luftwaffe]] during [[World War II]]. He took part in the [[Battle of Crete]] in 1941 and later fought in Russia and Italy, where he was injured. In 1944, he was captured by [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] troops in [[Italy]]; he was released in 1947. Magda and Joseph Goebbels committed suicide after killing [[Goebbels children|their six children]] on 1 May 1945. Harald was the only one of Magda's children to survive.{{fact|date=November 2020}}

==Post-war==
Quandt married Inge Bandekow (1928–1978), who was the daughter of the company's lawyer and worked as a secretary with her father, at the beginning of the 1950s. In the following 17 years, the couple had five daughters: Katarina Geller (1951), Gabriele Quandt-Langenscheidt (1952), Anette May-Thies (1954), Colleen-Bettina Rosenblat-Mo (1962) and Patricia Halterman (1967–2005). However, Quandt had the reputation of being a “committed playboy".<ref>{{Citation | last=Boyes | first=Roger | title=Susanne Klatten: the billionairess and her dangerous liaison | newspaper=The Sunday Times | date=November 25, 2008 | url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/life/article1749943.ece | access-date=22 August 2016}}</ref>

==Business dealings==
After returning to Germany, Quandt first assisted his half-brother in re-building the family firms, and then from 1949 to 1953 studied mechanical engineering in [[Hanover]] and [[Stuttgart]], where his family owned large firms ([[Accumulatoren-Fabrik AFA|AFA]]/[[VARTA]] in Hanover, a private equity firm in Stuttgart).

Quandt's father died in 1954, leaving his empire jointly to Herbert and Harald, and making Harald one of the wealthiest men in [[West Germany]]. By then, the Quandt group consisted of more than 200 companies, ranging from the original textile businesses to pharmaceutical company [[Altana AG]]. The family holdings also included large stakes in the German [[auto industry]] with nearly 10% of [[Daimler-Benz]] and 30% of [[BMW]]. Although Herbert and Harald jointly managed the companies, Herbert focused on AFA/VARTA and the automotive investments, while Harald was in charge of [[IWKA]] and the engineering and tooling companies. Harald was an enthusiast of the amphibious vehicle known as the [[Amphicar]] that was manufactured by IWKA. His death was a factor in the ceasing of production of the Amphicar.{{fact|date=November 2020}}

==Death==
Quandt survived an aviation accident at [[Zurich International Airport]] on 12 December 1965, but he was killed when another of his aircraft crashed in [[Cuneo]], Italy, on 22 September 1967.{{fact|date=November 2020}}

==Family inheritance==
Harald Quandt's five daughters inherited about 1.5 billion Deutsche Mark ($760 million, €585 million) and later increased their wealth through the Harald Quandt Holding GmbH, a German-based family investment company and trust named after their father.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-01-27/nazi-goebbels-step-grandchildren-are-hidden-billionaires.html|title= Nazi Goebbels' Step-Grandchildren Are Hidden Billionaires|last= de Jong|first= David|date= 2013-01-28|website= Bloomberg|publisher= Bloomberg|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130904173543/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-01-27/nazi-goebbels-step-grandchildren-are-hidden-billionaires.html|archive-date= 2013-09-04|url-status= live|access-date= 2013-09-10|ref= BloombergGoebbels}}</ref> Today, they share a fortune worth at least $6 billion.<ref>[https://www.bloomberg.com/billionaires/2013-02-02/aaa Bloomberg Billionaires Index]</ref>

==In popular culture==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 185-23-21, Bremen-Farge, U-Boot-Bunker "Valentin", Bau.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Forced [[concentration camp]] labour at [[U-boat pen]]s in Bremen, 1944]]

The [[Hanns-Joachim-Friedrichs-Award]] winning documentary film ''The Silence of the Quandts''<ref name=Silence>{{youtube|FpQpgd_EeWY|The Silence of the Quandts (English subtitles, German narration) }}</ref><ref name="WSWS">{{cite web | url=http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2008/11/quan-n29.html | title=The Silence of the Quandts: The history of a wealthy German family. A documentary film by Eric Friedler and Barbara Siebert | publisher=[[World Socialist Web Site]] | date=November 29, 2008 | access-date=November 15, 2014 | author=Emma Bode and Brigitte Fehlau}}</ref> by the German public broadcaster [[ARD (broadcaster)|ARD]] described in October 2007 the role of the Quandt family businesses during the [[Second World War]]. The family's Nazi past was previously not well known, and the documentary film revealed it to a wide audience and confronted the Quandts about the use of [[Forced labor in Germany during World War II|slave labourers]] in the family's factories during World War II. As a result, five days after the showing,<ref name="Independent">{{cite web | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/bmw-dynasty-breaks-silence-on-its-nazi-past-2362634.html | title=BMW dynasty breaks silence on its Nazi past | work=[[The Independent]] | date=29 September 2011 | access-date=November 15, 2014 | author=Paterson, Tony}}</ref> four family members announced, on behalf of the entire Quandt family, their intention to fund a research project in which a historian will examine the family's activities during [[Adolf Hitler]]'s dictatorship.<ref>{{Citation
|last=Bonstein| first=Julia| title=Breaking the Silence: BMW's Quandt Family to Investigate Wealth Amassed in Third Reich|newspaper=[[Der Spiegel]]| date=December 10, 2007| url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,511193,00.html }}</ref> The independent 1,200-page study released in 2011 concluded that, "The Quandts were linked inseparably with the crimes of the Nazis," according to Joachim Scholtyseck, the historian who compiled and researched the study.<ref name="Independent"/>

==See also==
* [[Secret Meeting of 20 February 1933]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{ Citation| last=Jungbluth| first=Rüdiger| title=Die Quandts: Ihr leiser Aufstieg zur mächtigsten Wirtschaftsdynastie Deutschlands
|year=2002| isbn = 3-404-61550-6}}, {{ISBN|3-593-36940-0}}
* {{ Citation| last=Sander|first=Ulrich | title= Mörderisches Finale – NS-Verbrechen bei Kriegsende | publisher=Neue Kleine Bibliothek Nr. 129 | place=[[Cologne]] | year=2008 | isbn = 978-3-89438-388-6 }}

==External links==
* ''The Silence of the Quandts'' - {{IMDb title|1145926|Das Schweigen der Quandts (2007)}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Quandt, Harald}}
[[Category:German people of Dutch descent]]
[[Category:1921 births]]
[[Category:1967 deaths]]
[[Category:Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in Italy]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Berlin]]
[[Category:20th-century German businesspeople]]
[[Category:German industrialists]]
[[Category:Fallschirmjäger of World War II]]
[[Category:German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Quandt family|Harald]]
[[Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Italy]]
[[Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1967]]
[[Category:Goebbels family]]

Master KG

2020-10-05T08:30:07Z

Zumbo: +Link

{{Infobox musical artist
| background = solo_singer
| name =
| honorific_prefix =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| birth_name = Kgaogelo Moagi
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Tzaneen]], [[Limpopo]], [[South Africa]]
| genre =
* [[Electro (music)|Electro]]
* [[Afropop]]
| occupation =
* Music producer
* DJ
* Singer
| years_active = 2016{{endash}}present
| label = Open Mic Productions
}}
'''Kgaogelo Moagi''', known professionally as '''Master KG''' is a [[South Africa|South African]] musician and record producer. His album ''Skeleton Move'' achieved acclaim including an [[All Africa Music Awards|AFRIMMA]] Award for Best Artist/Group in the African Electro category.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://briefly.co.za/32929-master-kg-biography-age-real-awards-songs-albums.html|title=Everything you need to know about Master KG|last=Githuri|first=Job|date=2019-07-16|website=Briefly|language=en|access-date=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://thenation.co.za/bio/master-kg-biography/|title=Master KG Biography, Age, Profile, Record Label, Songs & Music Video|last=Nkosi|first=Joseph|date=2019-12-04|website=The Nation SA|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://southerntimesafrica.com/site/news/african-music-awards-nominees-released|title=African music awards nominees released|work=Southern Times|access-date=2020-03-02}}</ref> He is also known as the pioneer of "Balobedu" dance.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/entertainment/2018-07-22-bolobedu-hitmaker-master-kg-in-the-right-situation-and-going-places/|title=Bolobedu hitmaker Master KG in the right situation and going places|website=SowetanLIVE|language=en-ZA|access-date=2020-03-02}}</ref> In 2020, his song "[[Jerusalema]]", featuring [[Nomcebo Zikode]], went [[viral video|viral]] online, garnering international success.<ref name="News24">{{cite web|url=https://www.news24.com/amp/drum/celebs/news/master-kgs-jerusalem-gets-30-million-views-on-youtube-20200629|title=Master KG's Jerusalem gets 30 million views on YouTube!|work=[[News24]]|last=Mavuso|first=Karabo|date=29 June 2020|accessdate=26 July 2020}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Master KG grew up in [[Calais, Limpopo|Calais]] Village in Limpopo.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> He started playing with beats at the age of thirteen using a computer that his late uncle bought him.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> Master KG was in a relationship with [[Makhadzi]] before they split in August, 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://citizen.co.za/lifestyle/2347888/indeed-its-true-makhadzi-confirms-break-up-with-master-kg/#:~:text=Master%20KG%20and%20Makhadzi's%20romantic,need%20to%20achieve%20big%20things.}}</ref>

== Career ==
Master KG's music career started when he got in touch with DJ Maebela and they began experimenting with music software.<ref name=":2" /> In 2016, after much practice, he released his first single "Situation." After getting signed to his current record label, Open Mic Productions, Master KG released his debut album ''Skeleton Move'' in 2018.<ref name=":0" /> Master KG has collaborated with a number of artists including [[Zanda Zakuza]] and [[Makhadzi]]. He sings in his local language Khelobedu,<ref name=":2" /> a language spoken by [[Lobedu people|Lobedu People]]. Master KG has performed in a number of other countries including [[Zambia]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/so-this-is-master-kg/|title=So, this is Master KG|work=Zambia Daily Mail|access-date=2020-03-02}}</ref> In December 2018, his song "Skeleton Move" was apparently voted [[Thobela FM]]'s song of the year and sparked controversy as [[King Monada]]'s fans felt "Malwedhe" (which is King Monada's song) deserved the award.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://citizen.co.za/lifestyle/your-life-entertainment-your-life/2062969/thobela-fms-song-of-the-year-drama-continues/|title=Thobela FM’s song of the year drama continues|website=The Citizen|language=en|access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref>

In December 2019, Master KG released the song "[[Jerusalema]]", featuring [[Nomcebo (singer)|Nomcebo Zikode]]. In mid-2020, it went [[viral video|viral]] online, charting internationally and spawning a remix with [[Burna Boy]].<ref name="News24" /> The video of "Jerusalema" was taken down on [[YouTube]] on the late hours of 5 August 2020, but was restored on the following day.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Zeeman|first=Kyle|title= 'Jerusalema' returns to YouTube - 'moment of silence for those who thought it was deleted'|url= https://www.timeslive.co.za/amp/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2020-08-07-jerusalema-returns-to-youtube-moment-of-silence-for-those-who-thought-it-was-deleted/ |website=times.co.za|access-date=2020-08-15}}</ref>

==Awards and nominations==
===Awards===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Title
!Song
!Year Awarded
!Awarding Board
!Associated Artists
|-
|Best Artiste, Duo or Group

In African Electro<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailysun.co.za/News/Entertainment/afrima-2018-award-winners-20181126|title=AFRIMA 2018 AWARD WINNERS!|website=DailySun|access-date=2020-03-02}}</ref>
| rowspan="3" |"Skeleton Move"
| rowspan="3" |2018
|[[All Africa Music Awards|AFRIMMA]]
| rowspan="3" |Zanda Zakuza
|-
|Song of the Year<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://briefly.co.za/21700-master-kg-ends-2018-a-big-bang-following-prestigious-award.html|title=Master KG ends 2018 with a big bang following prestigious award|last=Leng|first=Claudio|date=2019-01-06|website=Briefly|language=en|access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref><ref name=":6" />
|[[South African Broadcasting Corporation|SABC]] Summer Song
|-
|Best Dance Song<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />
|[[Limpopo Music Awards]]
|-
|Best Male Artist Southern Africa<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/sundayworld/lifestyle/2019-08-27-master-kg-recognised-for-his-work/|title=Master KG recognised for his work|website=SowetanLIVE|language=en-ZA|access-date=2020-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/entertainment/2019-10-28-master-kg-wins-big-with-international-award/|title=Master KG wins big with international award|website=SowetanLIVE|language=en-ZA|access-date=2020-03-02}}</ref>
|
|2019
|African Musik Magazine Awards
|
|}

=== Nominations ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Title
!Song
!Year Awarded
!Awarding Board
!Associated Artists
|-
|Best Music Video
| rowspan="3" |"Skeleton Move"<ref name=":5" />
| rowspan="3" |2018
| rowspan="3" |Limpopo Music Awards
| rowspan="3" |Zanda Zakuza
|-
|Best Song
|-
|Best Dance Song
|}

== See also ==
* [[All Africa Music Awards]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:}}
[[Category:1986 births]]
[[Category:21st-century South African singers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:South African record producers]]
[[Category:People from Tzaneen]]