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User:Cuaxdon

2022-06-23T05:02:50Z

Cuaxdon: ←Blanked the page

Masaaki Shirakawa

2022-06-09T01:49:07Z

Cuaxdon: Undid revision 1092241259 by Cuaxdon (talk)

{{Infobox officeholder
|name = Masaaki Shirakawa {{lang|ja|白川方明}}
|image = Masaaki Shirakawa 2012.jpg
|office = 30th Governor of the [[Bank of Japan]]
|primeminister = [[Yasuo Fukuda]] [[Taro Aso]] [[Yukio Hatoyama]] [[Naoto Kan]] [[Yoshihiko Noda]] [[Shinzo Abe]]
|deputy = Hirohide Yamaguchi Kiyohiko Nishimura
|term_start = April 9, 2008
|term_end = March 19, 2013
|predecessor = [[Toshihiko Fukui]]
|successor = [[Haruhiko Kuroda]]
|office2 = Deputy Governor of the Bank of Japan
|primeminister2 = [[Yasuo Fukuda]]
|term_start2 = March 20, 2008
|term_end2 = April 9, 2008
|predecessor2 = [[Toshirō Mutō]] Kazumasa Iwata
|successor2 = Kiyohiko Nishimura
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1949|9|27|df=y}}
|alma_mater = [[University of Tokyo]] [[University of Chicago]]
| signature =Masaaki Shirakawa (白川方明) Signature 2012.png
}}

{{Nihongo|'''Masaaki Shirakawa'''|白川方明|Shirakawa Masaaki|extra=born September 27, 1949}} is a [[Japanese people|Japanese]] economist, central banker and the 30th Governor of the [[Bank of Japan]] (BOJ), and professor at [[Aoyama Gakuin University]]. He is also a Director and Vice-Chairman of the [[Bank for International Settlements]] (BIS).<ref>Bank for International Settlements (BIS), [http://www.bis.org/press/p110111a.htm "BIS Board Appoints Masaaki Shirakawa as Vice-Chairman,"] 11 January 2011.</ref>

==Early life==
Shirakawa was born in [[Fukuoka]].<ref>Bank of Japan (BOJ), [http://www.boj.or.jp/en/about/outline/history/pre_gov/index.htm/ List of Governors]</ref> and he graduated from high school in [[Kokura]].

In 1972, he was awarded a B.A. degree at the [[University of Tokyo]]. In 1977, he earned an M.A. in Economics at the [[University of Chicago]].<ref name="BOJ">{{cite web |url=http://www.boj.or.jp/en/about/organization/policyboard/gv_shirakawa.htm/ |title=日本銀行：ページを表示することができませんでした Bank of Japan:Page cannot be displayed. ：日本銀行 Bank of Japan |publisher=Boj.or.jp |date=2011-01-31 |accessdate=2014-08-20 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201115706/http://www.boj.or.jp/en/about/organization/policyboard/gv_shirakawa.htm/ |archivedate=2014-02-01 }}</ref>

==Career==
Shirakawa joined the Bank of Japan in 1972. His varied assignments at the bank included a period as General Manager at the [[Ōita, Ōita|Ōita]] branch. For a time, he was General Manager for the Americas at the bank's office in [[New York City]].<ref name="BOJ"/>

Shirakawa joined the faculty of the graduate school of public policy at [[Kyoto University]] in 2006. He returned to BOJ in 2008.<ref name="BOJ"/>

His nomination to be Governor of the Bank was approved on April 9, 2008. Masaaki ranks 6th on the world's most powerful by ''[[Newsweek]]'' along with economic triumvirs [[Ben Bernanke]] (4th) and [[Jean-Claude Trichet]] (5th).<ref>{{Citation |last=Samuelson |first=Robert J. |date=December 20, 2008 |title=Economic Triumvirate |newspaper=Newsweek |url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/176288 }}</ref>

Shirakawa's mandate is "to respond to changes in circumstances in a flexible and timely manner" in a way which can contribute to the [[sustainable growth]] and development of Japan.<ref>''Nihon Ginkō.'' (2009). ''Annual review,'' p. 7.</ref> In other words, this means that the role of the head of the BOJ is to effect price stability in Japan and to ensure stability of the financial system.

In 2011 he was included in the [[50 Most Influential (Bloomberg Markets ranking)|50 Most Influential]] ranking of [[Bloomberg Markets]] Magazine. He is a member in the [[Group of Thirty]].

In 2013 he accepted a professor post at [[Aoyama Gakuin University]].<ref>{{cite web|author=JSTJul 24, 2013 |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2013/07/24/boj-beat-ex-gov-shirakawa-gets-university-job/ |title=BOJ Beat: Ex-Gov Shirakawa Gets University Job – Japan Real Time – WSJ |publisher=Blogs.wsj.com |date=2013-07-24 |accessdate=2014-08-20}}</ref>

==Selected works==
In a statistical overview derived from writings by and about Masaaki Shirakawa, [[OCLC]]/[[WorldCat]] encompasses roughly 10+ works in 20+ publications in 3 languages and 110+ library holdings.<ref>[http://www.oclc.org/research/activities/identities/default.htm WorldCat Identities] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230150412/http://www.oclc.org/research/activities/identities/default.htm |date=2010-12-30 }}: [http://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-no2001-2607 Shirakawa, Masaaki]</ref>
{{dynamic list}}
* ''The Monetary Approach to the Balance of Payments and the Exchange Rate: an Empirical Study of Japan's Case'' (1980)
* 図說日本銀行 (1993)
* ''Financial Market Globalization: Present and Future'' (1997)
* ''The Asset Price Bubble and Monetary Policy: Japan's Experience in the Late 1980s and the Lessons'' (2000)
* "One Year Under Quantitative Easing"<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.imes.boj.or.jp/english/publication/edps/2002/02-E-03.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-08-21 |archive-date=2019-01-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121214326/http://www.imes.boj.or.jp/english/publication/edps/2002/02-E-03.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> (2002)
* ''Japan's Deflation, Problems in the Financial System and Monetary Policy'' (2005)
* ''De-leveraging and Growth: Is the Developed World Following Japan's Long and Winding Road?'' (2012)

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080415091705/http://www.boj.or.jp/en/type/list/pb_member/shirakawa.htm Deputy Governor] [[Bank of Japan]] retrieved April 8, 2008
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/marketsNews/idUST13915520080408 Highlights 4-Remarks by BOJ nominees Shirakawa and Watanabe] [[Reuters]] retrieved April 8, 2008
*[http://www3.nhk.or.jp/knews/t10013432781000.html 白川・渡辺両氏から所信聴取]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[NHK]] retrieved April 8, 2008
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080411011744/http://sankei.jp.msn.com/politics/policy/080407/plc0804072220013-n1.htm 小沢氏に振り回される福田首相　日銀人事めぐり (1/2ページ) – MSN産経ニュース] [[Sankei Shimbun|MSN Sankei News]] retrieved April 8, 2008
*[http://www.jiji.com/jc/p?id=20080408104807-6092880 白川日銀総裁の同意決定へ＝民主 | 時事ドットコム] [[Jiji Press]] retrieved April 8, 2008
*[http://www.japansociety.org/content.cfm?page=webcast_detail&eid=3bbad4d2 (webcast only) The Way out of Economic and Financial Crisis: Lessons and Actions] Masaaki Shirakawa addresses the current global economic crisis and offer lessons from Japan’s recent experience.

{{S-start}}
{{S-gov}}
{{Succession box|
before=[[Toshihiko Fukui]]|
title=[[Bank of Japan|Governor of the Bank of Japan]]|
after= [[Haruhiko Kuroda]]|
years=2008–2013}}
{{S-end}}

{{Authority control}}

{{commons|Masaaki Shirakawa}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shirakawa, Masaaki}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Economy of Japan]]
[[Category:Governors of the Bank of Japan]]
[[Category:Group of Thirty]]
[[Category:Japanese economists]]
[[Category:Kyoto University faculty]]
[[Category:People from Kitakyushu]]
[[Category:University of Chicago alumni]]
[[Category:University of Tokyo alumni]]

Masaaki Shirakawa

2022-06-09T01:48:36Z

Cuaxdon:

{{Infobox officeholder
|name = Masaaki Shirakawa {{lang|ja|白川方明}}
|image = Masaaki Shirakawa 2012.jpg
|office = 30th Governor of the [[Bank of Japan]]
|primeminister = [[Yasuo Fukuda]] [[Taro Aso]] [[Yukio Hatoyama]] [[Naoto Kan]] [[Yoshihiko Noda]] [[Abe Sinzô]]
|deputy = Hirohide Yamaguchi Kiyohiko Nishimura
|term_start = April 9, 2008
|term_end = March 19, 2013
|predecessor = [[Toshihiko Fukui]]
|successor = [[Haruhiko Kuroda]]
|office2 = Deputy Governor of the Bank of Japan
|primeminister2 = [[Yasuo Fukuda]]
|term_start2 = March 20, 2008
|term_end2 = April 9, 2008
|predecessor2 = [[Toshirō Mutō]] Kazumasa Iwata
|successor2 = Kiyohiko Nishimura
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1949|9|27|df=y}}
|alma_mater = [[University of Tokyo]] [[University of Chicago]]
| signature =Masaaki Shirakawa (白川方明) Signature 2012.png
}}

{{Nihongo|'''Masaaki Shirakawa'''|白川方明|Shirakawa Masaaki|extra=born September 27, 1949}} is a [[Japanese people|Japanese]] economist, central banker and the 30th Governor of the [[Bank of Japan]] (BOJ), and professor at [[Aoyama Gakuin University]]. He is also a Director and Vice-Chairman of the [[Bank for International Settlements]] (BIS).<ref>Bank for International Settlements (BIS), [http://www.bis.org/press/p110111a.htm "BIS Board Appoints Masaaki Shirakawa as Vice-Chairman,"] 11 January 2011.</ref>

==Early life==
Shirakawa was born in [[Fukuoka]].<ref>Bank of Japan (BOJ), [http://www.boj.or.jp/en/about/outline/history/pre_gov/index.htm/ List of Governors]</ref> and he graduated from high school in [[Kokura]].

In 1972, he was awarded a B.A. degree at the [[University of Tokyo]]. In 1977, he earned an M.A. in Economics at the [[University of Chicago]].<ref name="BOJ">{{cite web |url=http://www.boj.or.jp/en/about/organization/policyboard/gv_shirakawa.htm/ |title=日本銀行：ページを表示することができませんでした Bank of Japan:Page cannot be displayed. ：日本銀行 Bank of Japan |publisher=Boj.or.jp |date=2011-01-31 |accessdate=2014-08-20 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201115706/http://www.boj.or.jp/en/about/organization/policyboard/gv_shirakawa.htm/ |archivedate=2014-02-01 }}</ref>

==Career==
Shirakawa joined the Bank of Japan in 1972. His varied assignments at the bank included a period as General Manager at the [[Ōita, Ōita|Ōita]] branch. For a time, he was General Manager for the Americas at the bank's office in [[New York City]].<ref name="BOJ"/>

Shirakawa joined the faculty of the graduate school of public policy at [[Kyoto University]] in 2006. He returned to BOJ in 2008.<ref name="BOJ"/>

His nomination to be Governor of the Bank was approved on April 9, 2008. Masaaki ranks 6th on the world's most powerful by ''[[Newsweek]]'' along with economic triumvirs [[Ben Bernanke]] (4th) and [[Jean-Claude Trichet]] (5th).<ref>{{Citation |last=Samuelson |first=Robert J. |date=December 20, 2008 |title=Economic Triumvirate |newspaper=Newsweek |url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/176288 }}</ref>

Shirakawa's mandate is "to respond to changes in circumstances in a flexible and timely manner" in a way which can contribute to the [[sustainable growth]] and development of Japan.<ref>''Nihon Ginkō.'' (2009). ''Annual review,'' p. 7.</ref> In other words, this means that the role of the head of the BOJ is to effect price stability in Japan and to ensure stability of the financial system.

In 2011 he was included in the [[50 Most Influential (Bloomberg Markets ranking)|50 Most Influential]] ranking of [[Bloomberg Markets]] Magazine. He is a member in the [[Group of Thirty]].

In 2013 he accepted a professor post at [[Aoyama Gakuin University]].<ref>{{cite web|author=JSTJul 24, 2013 |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2013/07/24/boj-beat-ex-gov-shirakawa-gets-university-job/ |title=BOJ Beat: Ex-Gov Shirakawa Gets University Job – Japan Real Time – WSJ |publisher=Blogs.wsj.com |date=2013-07-24 |accessdate=2014-08-20}}</ref>

==Selected works==
In a statistical overview derived from writings by and about Masaaki Shirakawa, [[OCLC]]/[[WorldCat]] encompasses roughly 10+ works in 20+ publications in 3 languages and 110+ library holdings.<ref>[http://www.oclc.org/research/activities/identities/default.htm WorldCat Identities] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230150412/http://www.oclc.org/research/activities/identities/default.htm |date=2010-12-30 }}: [http://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-no2001-2607 Shirakawa, Masaaki]</ref>
{{dynamic list}}
* ''The Monetary Approach to the Balance of Payments and the Exchange Rate: an Empirical Study of Japan's Case'' (1980)
* 図說日本銀行 (1993)
* ''Financial Market Globalization: Present and Future'' (1997)
* ''The Asset Price Bubble and Monetary Policy: Japan's Experience in the Late 1980s and the Lessons'' (2000)
* "One Year Under Quantitative Easing"<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.imes.boj.or.jp/english/publication/edps/2002/02-E-03.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-08-21 |archive-date=2019-01-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121214326/http://www.imes.boj.or.jp/english/publication/edps/2002/02-E-03.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> (2002)
* ''Japan's Deflation, Problems in the Financial System and Monetary Policy'' (2005)
* ''De-leveraging and Growth: Is the Developed World Following Japan's Long and Winding Road?'' (2012)

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080415091705/http://www.boj.or.jp/en/type/list/pb_member/shirakawa.htm Deputy Governor] [[Bank of Japan]] retrieved April 8, 2008
*[https://www.reuters.com/article/marketsNews/idUST13915520080408 Highlights 4-Remarks by BOJ nominees Shirakawa and Watanabe] [[Reuters]] retrieved April 8, 2008
*[http://www3.nhk.or.jp/knews/t10013432781000.html 白川・渡辺両氏から所信聴取]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[NHK]] retrieved April 8, 2008
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080411011744/http://sankei.jp.msn.com/politics/policy/080407/plc0804072220013-n1.htm 小沢氏に振り回される福田首相　日銀人事めぐり (1/2ページ) – MSN産経ニュース] [[Sankei Shimbun|MSN Sankei News]] retrieved April 8, 2008
*[http://www.jiji.com/jc/p?id=20080408104807-6092880 白川日銀総裁の同意決定へ＝民主 | 時事ドットコム] [[Jiji Press]] retrieved April 8, 2008
*[http://www.japansociety.org/content.cfm?page=webcast_detail&eid=3bbad4d2 (webcast only) The Way out of Economic and Financial Crisis: Lessons and Actions] Masaaki Shirakawa addresses the current global economic crisis and offer lessons from Japan’s recent experience.

{{S-start}}
{{S-gov}}
{{Succession box|
before=[[Toshihiko Fukui]]|
title=[[Bank of Japan|Governor of the Bank of Japan]]|
after= [[Haruhiko Kuroda]]|
years=2008–2013}}
{{S-end}}

{{Authority control}}

{{commons|Masaaki Shirakawa}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shirakawa, Masaaki}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Economy of Japan]]
[[Category:Governors of the Bank of Japan]]
[[Category:Group of Thirty]]
[[Category:Japanese economists]]
[[Category:Kyoto University faculty]]
[[Category:People from Kitakyushu]]
[[Category:University of Chicago alumni]]
[[Category:University of Tokyo alumni]]

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-05-15T15:43:07Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[latin script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]] ([[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]] ([[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]] ([[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]] ([[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɛ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]] ([[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]] ([[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[₭|Kh]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|kh]] ([[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]] ([[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]] ([[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Eng (letter)|Ng]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ng]] ([[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]] ([[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] ([[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ᵽ|Ph]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ph]] ([[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ([[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]] ([[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ŧ|Th]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|th]] ([[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]] ([[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] ([[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]] ([[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[C|Ts]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ts]] ([[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ꞓ|Tsh]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|tsh]] ([[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] ([[Yat|Ѣ]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ѣ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɨ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|<s>ı</s>]] ([[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ы]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-05-15T15:40:20Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[latin script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]] ([[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]] ([[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]] ([[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]] ([[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɛ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]] ([[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]] ([[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[₭|Kh]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|kh]] ([[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]] ([[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]] ([[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Eng (letter)|Ng]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ng]] ([[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]] ([[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] ([[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ᵽ|Ph]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ph]] ([[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ([[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]] ([[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ŧ|Th]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|th]] ([[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]] ([[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] ([[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]] ([[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]] ([[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]] ([[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] ([[Yat|Ѣ]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ѣ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɨ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|<s>ı</s>]] ([[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ы]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon

2022-05-15T15:38:46Z

Cuaxdon:

{| cellspacing="0" style="width: 238px; background: #c5fcdc; border: solid #6ef7a7 1px; margin: 1px; float: right;"
|-
! style="width:45px;height:45px;background:#6ef7a7;font-size:{{{4|14}}}pt" lang="en" | <center>[[{{{3|Taiwanese Hokkien}}}|{{{2|Tâigí}}}]]</center>
| style="font-size:{{{5|8}}}pt;padding:4pt;line-height:1.25em" lang="{{{1}}}}" dir="{{{6|ltr}}}" |{{{2|Tsit ê iōngtsiá ê bə́gí sī tâigí.}}} ----------------------- {{{2|This user is a native speaker of Taiwanese.}}}
|}
{{Overwiki}}
{{User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet min-nan-cyrl|state=collapsed}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-05-15T15:35:46Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[latin script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]] ([[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]] ([[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]] ([[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]] ([[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɛ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]] ([[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]] ([[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]] ([[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]] ([[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]] ([[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]] ([[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]] ([[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] ([[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]] ([[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ([[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]] ([[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]] ([[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]] ([[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] ([[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]] ([[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]] ([[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]] ([[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] ([[Yat|Ѣ]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ѣ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɨ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|<s>ı</s>]] ([[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ы]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-05-15T15:34:57Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[latin script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]] ([[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]] ([[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]] ([[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]] ([[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɛ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]] ([[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]] ([[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]] ([[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]] ([[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]] ([[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]] ([[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]] ([[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] ([[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]] ([[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ([[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]] ([[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]] ([[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]] ([[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] ([[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]] ([[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]] ([[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]] ([[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] ([[Yery|Ѣ]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ѣ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɨ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|<s>ı</s>]] ([[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ы]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

Forum (legal)

2022-05-15T07:53:20Z

Cuaxdon:

{{Short description|Designated space for public expression in the United States}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Public forum|public forum debate}}
{{Other uses|Forum (disambiguation){{!}}Forum}}
In [[United States constitutional law]], a '''forum''' is a property that is open to [[freedom of speech|public expression]] and assembly.

==Types==
Forums are classified as '''public''' or '''nonpublic'''.

===Public forum===
A '''public forum''', also called an ''open forum'', is open to all expression that is protected under the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]. Streets, parks, and sidewalks are considered open to public discourse by tradition and are designated as ''traditional public forums''. The government creates a ''designated public forum'' when it intentionally opens a nontraditional forum for public discourse''. Limited public forums'', such as municipal meeting rooms, are nonpublic forums that have been specifically designated by the government as open to certain groups or topics. Traditional public forums cannot be changed to nonpublic forums by governments.

The use of public forums generally cannot be restricted based on the content of the speech expressed by the user. Use can be restricted based on content, however, if the restriction passes a strict scrutiny test for a traditional and designated forum or the reasonableness test for a limited forum. Also, public forums can be restricted as to the ''time'', ''place'' and ''manner'' of speech. In the 1972 case ''[[Grayned v. City of Rockford]]'', the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] found that "The nature of a place, ''the pattern of its normal activities, dictate the kinds of regulations of time, place, and manner that are reasonable.''" In determining what is reasonable, the Court stated that "[the] crucial question is whether the manner of expression is basically incompatible with the normal activity of a particular place at a particular time." Thus, protesters have the right to march in support of a cause, but not on a public beach during the middle of the day with bullhorns.[this example is dubious and needs citation]

''Types of Public Forums''

Public forums being described in two types: traditional and designated. A traditional public forum is where speech/expression is supported by the first amendment and when the government’s ability to regulate speech is reduced like a sidewalk or state park. Whereas a designated public forum is “for use by the public as a place for expressive activity”, like social media. An open forum made by the government can be barred from expression as long as there is not a retaliation or yearn to reduce certain speech. Like how Donald Trump blocked a group of twitter users from his account on the platform, the court considered his tweets and comments section a public forum, so you are not allowed to infringe on someone’s first amendment right in that setting because social media is just a virtual form of communication/expression. A public forum only applies to protecting political speech for instance. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Babson College: Babson Authentication|url=https://fusionmx.babson.edu/Fusebox/index.cfm?method=Auth.ShowLoginForm&showHeader=true&babsonauth_home=https%3A%2F%2Ffusionmx%2Ebabson%2Eedu%2FFusebox%2Findex%2Ecfm%3Fmethod%3DAuth%2ERedirectToEZProxy%26url%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2F1%2Enext%2Ewestlaw%2Ecom%2FDocument%2FI7e7a3909c02a11eabea4f0dc9fb69570%2FView%2FFullText%2Ehtml%3FnavigationPath%3DSearch%2Fv1%2Fresults%2Fnavigation%2Fi0ad740370000017d710055da3a3acc5e%3Fppcid%3De0922e27c880474eb2bc9bfa1582df40%26Nav%3DANALYTICAL%26fragmentIdentifier%3DI7e7a3909c02a11eabea4f0dc9fb69570%26parentRank%3D0%26startIndex%3D1%26contextData%3D%252528sc%2ESearch%252529%26transitionType%3DSearchItem%26listSource%3DSearch%26listPageSource%3Dfbf1bddf945cc8236974f782badd55bf%26list%3DANALYTICAL%26rank%3D2%26sessionScopeId%3D3e5ac24cb23f19de64d872abd87a6d35fe7852de6a8995b773d35b216bcaee3c%26ppcid%3De0922e27c880474eb2bc9bfa1582df40%26originationContext%3DSearch%2520Result%26transitionType%3DSearchItem%26contextData%3D%28sc%2ESearch%29|access-date=2021-12-04|website=fusionmx.babson.edu}}</ref>

===Nonpublic forums===
A '''nonpublic forum''' is not specially designated as open to public expression. For example, jails, public schools, and military bases are nonpublic forums (unless declared otherwise by the government). Such forums can be restricted based on the ''content'' (i.e., subject matter) of the speech, but not based on ''viewpoint''. Thus, while the government could prohibit speeches related to [[abortion]] on a military base, it could not permit an [[anti-abortion]] speaker while denying an [[Abortion-rights movements|abortion rights]] speaker (or vice versa).

Regardless of the type of forum, any exclusion must be done on a viewpoint neutral basis. Exclusion based on the speaker’s viewpoint is unconstitutional.

==Forum analysis versus government speech doctrine==
In several important cases, courts have decided that what appeared to be viewpoint-based censorship in a forum was actually the government's tailoring of its own [[Speech communication|speech]], which need not be viewpoint neutral, and that no forum was in fact created. When a governmental entity, such as a public broadcaster, employs the speech of ordinary citizens to further its goals, the [[government speech]] doctrine blocks citizens' [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] claims that the government set up a forum for them, and unconstitutionally suppressed speech in it.

==History==
Prior to the legal development of [[due process|substantive due process]], state governments had the authority to regulate speech in public places without regard to the First Amendment. In the 1895 [[Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court]] case ''[[Massachusetts v. Davis]]'', Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] wrote that "For the Legislature absolutely or conditionally to forbid public speaking in a highway or public park is no more an infringement of the rights of a member of the public than for the owner of a private house to forbid it in his house." The Supreme Court unanimously upheld Holmes' opinion in the 1897 appeal ''[[Davis v. Massachusetts]]''.

However, in 1939, Justice [[Owen Josephus Roberts]] stated that "use of the streets and public places has, from ancient times, been a part of the privileges [...] of citizens."<ref>''[[Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization]]'', 307 U.S. 496 (1939).</ref> And in 1965, Professor [[Harry Kalven]] described such places as a "public forum that the citizen can commandeer".

==Usage==
The 1988 decision in ''[[Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier]]'' relied on the notion of a public forum in determining the degree to which a public school newspaper that has not been determined as such a forum can be protected by the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]. The Court decided that such newspapers are subject to a lower level of First Amendment protection than independent student newspapers established (by policy or practice) as forums for student expression.

==See also==
*[[Freedom of speech in the United States#Time.2C place.2C or manner restrictions|Time, place, or manner restrictions]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

*[http://FindLaw.com FindLaw] definitions for [http://dictionary.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/results.pl?co=dictionary.lp.findlaw.com&topic=c0/c003fc5cf940488f6e4b10d09720e9ba#open+forum open forum], [http://dictionary.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/results.pl?co=dictionary.lp.findlaw.com&topic=8e/8ea3343cd7027bd981c378eb742d118e public forum], and [http://dictionary.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/results.pl?co=dictionary.lp.findlaw.com&topic=96/96c61a5d40c0e236961d4c04d5ef71be limited public forum]
*{{cite book |last = Black |first = Henry Campbell |editor = Bryan A. Garner |title = [[Black's Law Dictionary]] |edition = Second Pocket |year = 2001 |publisher = West Group |location = St. Paul, Minnesota |isbn = 0-314-25791-8}}
*{{cite book |last = Barron |first = Jerome A. |author2 = C. Thomas Dienes |title = First Amendment Law: In A Nutshell |edition = 2nd |year = 2000 |publisher = West Group |location = St. Paul, Minnesota |isbn = 0-314-22677-X |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/firstam_bar_2000_00_9143 }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Forum (Legal)}}
[[Category:First Amendment to the United States Constitution]]

M777 howitzer

2022-05-12T03:54:31Z

Cuaxdon: /* External links */

{{Use British English|date=March 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox weapon
| is_artillery = yes|
| image = M777 Light Towed Howitzer 1.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = M777 Light Towed Howitzer in service with the [[10th Mountain Division (United States)|10th Mountain Division]] in support of [[Operation Enduring Freedom]], [[Logar Province]], [[Charkh District]], Afghanistan
| name = M777 Lightweight Towed Howitzer
| origin = [[United Kingdom]]
| type = Towed [[howitzer]]
| date =
| service = 2005–present
| used_by = see ''"[[#Operators|Operators]]"''
| wars = * [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hw91mzpyzjM |title=Artillery fire in Afghanistan (Pech river Valley) Taliban running scared! |website=[[YouTube]] |access-date=11 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111012903/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hw91mzpyzjM |archive-date=11 January 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Iraqi conflict
** [[Iraq War]]
** [[Iraqi Civil War (2014–17)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=93HFYz2LRoA|title = - YouTube|website = [[YouTube]]}}</ref>
* [[Syrian Civil War]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ceAWWIlNhNQ|title = - YouTube|website = [[YouTube]]}}</ref>
* [[Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pIBiLtYzRJE |title=- YouTube |website=[[YouTube]] |access-date=11 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421233552/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pIBiLtYzRJE |archive-date=21 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
** [[Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen]]
* [[Russo-Ukrainian War]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Canada delivers M777 howitzers to Ukraine |url=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-ato/3465305-canada-delivers-m777-howitzers-to-ukraine.html |publisher=Ukrinform |access-date=23 April 2022}}</ref>
** [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]
| caliber = 155 mm L/39<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baesystems.com/en-us/product/m777|title=Company Website Page}}</ref>
| part_length = {{convert|5.08|m|ft|abbr=on}}/L39
| elevation = 0° to +71.7°<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/lw155.htm|title=M777 Lightweight 155mm howitzer (LW155)|author=John Pike|publisher=Globalsecurity.org|access-date=4 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104225942/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/lw155.htm|archive-date=4 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
| rate = Normal: 2 rpm Maximum: 7 rpm
| carriage = [[Gun carriage#Modern gun carriages|Split trail]]
| cartridge = [[M107 projectile|M107]], [[M795]], ERFB, [[M982 Excalibur|M982]]
| velocity = Charge 8S: {{cvt|827|m/s|ft/s}}
| range = [[M107 projectile|M107]]: {{cvt|21|km|mi}} [[M795]]: {{cvt|22.5|km|mi}} ERFB: M795E1 {{cvt|30|km|mi}} [[base bleed]] [[M982 Excalibur|Excalibur]]: {{cvt|40|km|mi}} <ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.raytheonmissilesanddefense.com/what-we-do/land-warfare/precision-weapons/excalibur-projectile|title=Company Website Page}}</ref>|
| weight = {{convert|4200|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref name="BAEweight">{{citation|title=U.S. Upgrades and Orders More Lightweight BAE Systems Howitzers|url=http://www.baesystems.com/article/BAES_028164/us-upgrades-and-orders-more-lightweight-bae-systems-howitzers|publisher=BAE Systems|access-date=9 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710110759/http://www.baesystems.com/article/BAES_028164/us-upgrades-and-orders-more-lightweight-bae-systems-howitzers|archive-date=10 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
| length = Combat: {{convert|10.7|m|ft|abbr=on}} Travel: {{convert|9.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| crew = 7+1
| number =
}}

The '''M777 [[howitzer]]''' is a [[towed artillery|towed]] [[155 mm]] [[artillery]] piece. It is used by the ground forces of [[Australian Army|Australia]], [[Canadian Army|Canada]], [[Indian Army|India]], [[Saudi Arabian Army|Saudi Arabia]], [[Armed Forces of Ukraine|Ukraine]] and the [[United States military|United States]]. It made its combat debut in the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|War in Afghanistan]].

The M777 is manufactured by [[BAE Systems]]' [[BAE Systems Platforms & Services#Global Combat Systems|Global Combat Systems division]]. Prime contract management is based in [[Barrow-in-Furness]] in the United Kingdom as well as manufacture and assembly of the titanium structures and associated recoil components. Final integration and testing of the weapon is undertaken at BAE's facility in [[Hattiesburg, Mississippi]].<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Upgrades and Orders More Lightweight BAE Systems Howitzers|url=http://www.baesystems.com/Newsroom/NewsReleases/autoGen_1119418510.html|work=Press release|publisher=BAE Systems – USA|access-date=6 October 2011|date=4 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007004641/http://www.baesystems.com/Newsroom/NewsReleases/autoGen_1119418510.html|archive-date=7 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Design==
[[File:M777 howitzer rear.jpg|thumb|left|US Marine gunners test fire an M777 howitzer.]]
The M777 began as the Ultralight Field Howitzer (UFH), developed by [[Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering]]'s (VSEL) Armaments Division in Barrow-in-Furness, UK. VSEL was bought by BAE Systems after the UFH prototypes had been manufactured and demonstrated, consequently BAE became responsible for future design refinements and renamed the gun 'M777'.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} Upon taking over responsibility for the weapon BAE 'Americanised' to a large degree the construction and assembly through its US-based BAE Systems Land and Armaments group. The M777 now uses about 70% US-built parts including the gun barrel which is manufactured at the [[Watervliet Arsenal]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wva.army.mil/publications/products.pdf|title=Waltervliet Arsenal Products PDF|access-date=14 July 2019}}</ref>

With a weight of {{convert|4200|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, the M777 is 41% lighter than the {{convert|7154|kg|lb|abbr=on}} [[M198 howitzer]] it replaces.<ref name="M777 weight">{{cite web|title=M777 Howitzer - Specifications |url=http://www.army-armee.forces.gc.ca/en/weapons/m777-howitzer.page |website=Canadian Army |access-date=18 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803013955/http://www.army-armee.forces.gc.ca/en/weapons/m777-howitzer.page |archive-date=3 August 2016 |language=en |quote=Weight: 4200 kg |url-status=dead|date=8 March 2013 }}</ref><ref name="M198 specs">{{cite web|title=M198 Towed Howitzer - Specifications |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m198-specs.htm |website=GlobalSecurity.org |access-date=18 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401195648/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m198-specs.htm |archive-date=1 April 2013 |language=en |quote=Weight: 15,758 pounds (7.154 kilograms) |url-status=dead}}</ref> Much of the weight reduction is due to the extensive use of [[titanium]].<ref name="Titanium">{{cite web|title=M777 155mm Ultralightweight Field Howitzer |url=http://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh |website=Army Technology |access-date=18 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115173004/http://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh |archive-date=15 November 2016 |language=en |quote=The construction of the M777 makes extensive use of titanium and titanium castings, enabling a weight reduction of 3,175 kg (7,000lb) compared to the M198 howitzer which it replaces in the US Army and USMC inventory. |url-status=dead}}</ref> The M777 can be transported by helicopter [[Cargo hook (helicopter)|sling-load]], [[Military transport aircraft|transporter aircraft]] such as the [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules]], or towed by air-braked vehicles weighing over {{convert|2.5|t|lb}}, such as the [[Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles|FMTV]] and [[Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacement|MTVR]] medium vehicles.<ref name="Transport">{{cite web|title=M777 155mm Ultralightweight Field Howitzer |url=http://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh/ |website=Army Technology |access-date=18 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115173004/http://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh |archive-date=15 November 2016 |language=en |quote=The M777 has a production weight of 3,745 kg and can be transported by helicopter, transporter aircraft and ship. The howitzer can be towed by an air-braked 4x4 vehicle greater than 2.5t. |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Transport 2">{{cite web|title=M777 Howitzer - Specifications |url=http://www.army-armee.forces.gc.ca/en/weapons/m777-howitzer.page |website=Canadian Army |access-date=18 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803013955/http://www.army-armee.forces.gc.ca/en/weapons/m777-howitzer.page |archive-date=3 August 2016 |language=en |quote=The M777 weighs 9,200 pounds [...] making it highly mobile and easily transportable by C130 aircraft, helicopter or a truck of at least 2.5 tonnes. |url-status=dead|date=8 March 2013 }}</ref> The minimal gun crew required is five, compared to a previous nine.<ref name=crew>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/lw155.htm |title=M777 Lightweight 155 mm howitzer (LW155) |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org |access-date=26 May 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050526084951/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/lw155.htm |archive-date=26 May 2005 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The M777 uses a digital [[fire-control system]] similar to that found on self-propelled howitzers such as the [[M109 howitzer|M109A6 Paladin]] to provide navigation, pointing and self-location, allowing it to be put into action quickly.<ref>{{Cite web|title=M777 155mm Ultralightweight Field Howitzer|url=https://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh/|access-date=2020-09-23|website=Army Technology|language=en-GB|quote=The TAD digital fire control system provides on-board ballistic computation, navigation, pointing and self-location, providing greater accuracy and faster reaction times, and also includes a laser ignition system, electric drives for the howitzer’s traverse and elevation, and a powered projectile rammer.}}</ref> The Canadian M777 in conjunction with the traditional "glass and iron sights/mounts" also uses a digital fire control system called the Digital Gun Management System (DGMS) produced by [[Leonardo S.p.A.|Leonardo MW]] with components of the Indirect Fire Control Software Suite (IFCSS) built by the Firepower team in the Canadian Army Land Software Engineering Centre.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lsec.dnd.ca/prj-firepower_e.htm|title=LSEC Firepower Team|website=dnd.ca|access-date=30 May 2017}}{{Dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The Leonardo MW portion of the system, known as LINAPS, had been proven previously through earlier use on the [[British Army]] 105 mm [[L118 light gun|L118 Light Gun]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/land-terre/news-nouvelles/story-reportage-eng.asp?id=1240|title=Army News article on the Canadian DGMS|publisher=forces.gc.ca|access-date=30 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905042527/http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/land-terre/news-nouvelles/story-reportage-eng.asp?id=1240|archive-date=5 September 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:XM982 Excalibur inert (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[M982 Excalibur|XM982]] Excalibur GPS-guided munition (inert)]]
The M777 may be combined with the [[M982 Excalibur]] GPS-guided munition, which allows accurate fire at a range of up to {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}}. This almost doubles the area covered by a single battery to about {{convert|1250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. Testing at the [[Yuma Proving Ground]] by the US Army placed 13 of 14 Excalibur rounds, fired from up to {{convert|24|km|mi}}, within {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}} of their target, suggesting a [[circular error probable]] of {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=can>{{cite web|url=http://defensenews.com/story.php?F=2740557&C=landwar|title=Canada Deploys GPS Shell To Afghanistan|publisher=defensenews.com|access-date=4 November 2014}}{{dead link|date=August 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
In June 2012, Golf Battery, [[2nd Battalion, 11th Marines]], out of Camp Pendleton, California, fired the M982 Excalibur against insurgents at a range of {{convert|36|km|mi|abbr=on}} in [[Helmand Province]], Afghanistan. This was the longest operational shot in the history of the M777 howitzer, and the longest operational tube artillery shot in history for the Marine Corps.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/article/20120630/NEWS/206300308/Long-shot-Artillery-battery-sets-lethal-record |title=Long shot: Artillery battery sets lethal record |work=Marine Corps Times |date=30 June 2012 |access-date=11 October 2013 |author=Lamothe, Dan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012102151/http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/article/20120630/NEWS/206300308/Long-shot-Artillery-battery-sets-lethal-record |archive-date=12 October 2013}}</ref> The furthest hit from an Excalibur ammunition by the United States Army was {{convert|30|km|mi|abbr=on}} in Iraq.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ M777A2 vs legacy M198<ref name="Goldman">{{cite web|last=Goldman|first=Harvey I.|title=LW155 Howitzer Towed Artillery Digitization|url=http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2007armaments/Goldman.pdf|work=NDIA Armaments Technology and Firepower Symposium 12 June 2007|publisher=dtic.mil|access-date=27 January 2013|date=12 June 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913140125/http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2007armaments/Goldman.pdf|archive-date=13 September 2012}}</ref>
|-
!
! M777A2
! M198
|-
| '''Weight'''
| {{convert|4200|kg|lb|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|16000|lb|kg|abbr=on|order=flip}}
|-
| '''Emplacement time'''
| 6 min 10 s
| 6 min 35 s
|-
| '''Displacement time'''
| 6 min 23 s
| 10 min 40 s
|-
| '''Number carried per C-130 Load'''
| 2
| 1
|-
| '''Crew complement'''
| 5
| 9
|}

==Variants==
[[File:XM1113 in flight.jpg|thumb|XM1113 extended range artillery round, shown here at a range demonstration, uses a rocket-assist motor]]

* '''M777''' – gun with optical fire control{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
* '''M777A1''' – digitization upgrades with the addition of an onboard power source, satellite global positioning, inertial navigation, radio, Gun Display Unit (GDU) and Section Chief Assembly (SCA).{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
* '''M777A2''' – Block 1A software upgrade. Addition of an Enhanced Portable Inductive Artillery Fuze Setter (EPIAFS) to enable [[M982 Excalibur|Excalibur]] and precision munition compatibility.<ref name="Goldman"/><ref>{{cite web|last1=Gooding|first1=Keith|last2=Kratzer|first2=David|title=PEO GCS's Digitized Towed Howitzer Supports the GWOT|url=http://asc.army.mil/docs/pubs/alt/2008/4_OctNovDec/articles/32_PEO_GCS's_Digitized_Towed_Howitzer_Supports_the_GWOT_200810.pdf|publisher=US Army Acquisition Support Center|work=Army Acquisition, Logistics, and Technology Magazine|access-date=27 January 2013|page=32|date=October–December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110232243/http://asc.army.mil/docs/pubs/alt/2008/4_OctNovDec/articles/32_PEO_GCS%27s_Digitized_Towed_Howitzer_Supports_the_GWOT_200810.pdf|archive-date=10 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* '''M777ER''' – Upgrade created by the Extended Range Cannon Artillery (ERCA) project to extend range from {{convert|30|to|70|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref>[https://www.armyrecognition.com/weapons_defence_industry_military_technology_uk/u.s._army_engineers_work_to_create_a_new_longer_m777_155mm_howitzer_under_the_name_m777er_13103162.html U.S. Army engineers work to create a new longer M777 155mm howitzer under the name M777ER] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325052123/https://www.armyrecognition.com/weapons_defence_industry_military_technology_uk/u.s._army_engineers_work_to_create_a_new_longer_m777_155mm_howitzer_under_the_name_m777er_13103162.html |date=25 March 2018 }}. ''Army Recognition''. 31 March 2016.</ref> Modified with a longer 58-caliber, {{cvt|30|ft|m|order=flip}} barrel and supercharged propellant firing the XM1113 [[rocket-assisted projectile]].<ref>[https://www.defensenews.com/land/2020/03/06/army-takes-40-mile-shots-from-extended-range-cannon-in-demo/ US Army takes 40-mile shots from extended-range cannon in demo]. ''Defense News''. 6 March 2020.</ref>

==Service history==
===Australia===
[[File:Australian soldiers from the 8-12 Field Regiment firing a M777 155mm howitzer.jpg|thumb|Australian soldiers firing an M777A2 during a training exercise in 2016]]
In 2008, the Australian Defence Force made a US [[Foreign Military Sales]] request for 57 M777A2s worth an estimated US$248m.<ref>{{cite web|title=Australia – M777A2 155MM Light-Weight Howitzers|url=http://www.dsca.osd.mil/PressReleases/36-b/2008/Australia_08-78.pdf|publisher=Defense Security Cooperation Agency|access-date=12 September 2012|date=17 July 2008|quote=WASHINGTON, July 17, 2008 – The Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress of a possible Foreign Military Sale to Australia of M777A2 155MM Light-Weight Howitzers as well as associated equipment and services. The total value, if all options are exercised, could be as high as $248 million.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915115922/http://www.dsca.osd.mil/PressReleases/36-b/2008/Australia_08-78.pdf|archive-date=15 September 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Subsequently, 35 guns were purchased for the Australian Army.<ref>{{cite news |date=29 October 2009 |title=Boost in firepower |page=2 |work=Army: The Soldiers' Newspaper |publisher=Department of Defence |issue=1224 |location=Canberra |url=https://www.defence.gov.au/Publications/NewsPapers/Army/editions/1224/1224.pdf |access-date=7 January 2020 |issn=0729-5685}}</ref> to re-equip the [[1st Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery]], the [[4th Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery]], and the [[8th/12th Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery]], to replace 155 mm M198s and 105 mm [[L118 light gun#L119|L119 Light Guns.]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} The first deliveries of M777A2 began in late 2010.<ref name="Bergmann">{{cite news|last=Bergmann|first=Kym|title=Push is on to bring out the big guns|newspaper=[[The Australian]]|publisher=News Ltd|date=23 October 2010|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/defence/push-is-on-to-bring-out-the-big-guns/story-e6frg8yo-1225940262119|access-date=4 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Kennedy|first1=Lt-Col Mitch|last2=Doran|first2=LCpl Mark|title=Changes in artillery|url=https://www.defence.gov.au/Publications/NewsPapers/Army/editions/1253/1253.pdf|work=Army: The Soldiers' Newspaper|issue=1253|publisher=Department of Defence|location=Canberra|issn=0729-5685|page=3|date=3 March 2011|access-date=7 January 2020}}</ref> An additional 19 guns will be bought directly from American production lines to enable a total of six batteries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Army to get more towed guns|url=http://www.news.com.au/breaking-news/national/army-to-get-more-towed-field-guns/story-e6frfku9-1226497153525|work=news.com.au|agency=AAP|access-date=16 October 2012|date=16 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016105843/http://www.news.com.au/breaking-news/national/army-to-get-more-towed-field-guns/story-e6frfku9-1226497153525|archive-date=16 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Concurrently, the Australian Army has acquired guided 155 mm munitions in the form of the [[M982 Excalibur]] and [[XM1156 Precision Guidance Kit]].<ref>[http://www.deagel.com/news/FMS-Australia-Requests-Precision-Guidance-Kits-for-155mm-Munitions_n000011806.aspx FMS: Australia Requests Precision Guidance Kits for 155mm Munitions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311080218/http://www.deagel.com/news/FMS-Australia-Requests-Precision-Guidance-Kits-for-155mm-Munitions_n000011806.aspx |date=11 March 2014 }} - Deagel.com, 12 August 2013</ref> In late April 2022, Australia announced that they would donate six of their M777 howitzers, with ammunition, to aid in the defence of Ukraine during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mitchell |first1=Alex |last2=Brown |first2=Andrew |title=Australia provides Ukraine extra support |url=https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7714577/australia-provides-ukraine-extra-support/ |access-date=27 April 2022 |work=The Canberra Times |date=27 April 2022}}</ref>

===Brazil===
In 2010, The [[Brazilian Navy]] evaluated the 155 mm M777 as a candidate to replace the six 155 mm [[M114 155 mm howitzer|M114A1]] howitzers of the [[Brazilian Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] branch.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.forte.jor.br/2010/09/19/marinha-do-brasil-interessada-no-obuseiro-m777-da-bae-systems/|title=Marinha do Brasil interessada no obuseiro M777 da BAE Systems|date=2010-09-19|website=Forças Terrestres - ForTe|language=pt|trans-title=Brazilian Navy interested on BAE Systems' M777 howitzer|access-date=2017-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630084333/http://www.forte.jor.br/2010/09/19/marinha-do-brasil-interessada-no-obuseiro-m777-da-bae-systems/|archive-date=30 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The successor to the M114 has not yet been chosen.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===Canada===
[[File:M777_Howitzer_Helmand_April2007.JPEG|thumb|right|Canadian soldiers fire an M777 at a forward operating base in the Helmand Province of Afghanistan, 7 April 2007.]]
In December 2005, 1st Regiment, [[Royal Canadian Horse Artillery]], conducted an inaugural firing of its first 155 mm M777 towed howitzers, for a total of six guns. The six guns delivered were supplied by the United States Marine Corps under a Foreign Military Sales (FMS) contract<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh/|title=FMS Contract Details|access-date=4 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115173004/http://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh|archive-date=15 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|reason=domain on WP:BLACKLIST|date=July 2016}} between the U.S. and Canada. The Canadian guns were first fired by A Battery, 1 RCHA at CFB Shilo and then were deployed to Afghanistan in support of [[Operation Archer]], and were put into service in the Canadian theatre of operations around [[Kandahar]] in early 2006, this marked the first use of the M777 in combat operations. In the summer they made a significant contribution during the [[Battle of Panjwaii]] when a small number of rounds were used to huge effect on [[Taliban]] elements retreating from the battle area. Many of the 72 reported killed during the heaviest period of fighting were due to artillery fire from only two of these guns. In late fall of 2006, the Canadian M777 howitzers were equipped with the Digital Gun Management System (DGMS), which greatly improved accuracy and led to these guns being used for short range close support of Canadian and US ground forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afghanistannewscenter.com/news/2007/may/may92007.html|title=Afghanistan News May 9, 2007|publisher=afghanistannewscenter.com|access-date=11 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928114911/http://www.afghanistannewscenter.com/news/2007/may/may92007.html|archive-date=28 September 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> They proved so successful that an order for an additional six guns was placed with BAE. In May 2009, the Canadian government ordered a further 25 M777s, bringing the total to 37.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defense-aerospace.com/article-view/release/105619/bae-wins-%24118m-orders-for-m777-howitzer.html|title=BAE Wins $118m Orders for M777 Howitzer|publisher=defense-aerospace.com|access-date=4 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104235852/http://www.defense-aerospace.com/article-view/release/105619/bae-wins-%24118m-orders-for-m777-howitzer.html|archive-date=4 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/commun/ml-fe/article-eng.asp?id=5426|title=More howitzers on the way|publisher=forces.gc.ca|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622134530/http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/Commun/ml-fe/article-eng.asp?id=5426|archive-date=22 June 2013}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> The DGMS is also being improved with integrated communications.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/land-terre/news-nouvelles/story-reportage-eng.asp?id=5497|title=M777 equipped with new digital gun management system|publisher=forces.gc.ca|access-date=30 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529105748/http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/land-terre/news-nouvelles/story-reportage-eng.asp?id=5497|archive-date=29 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> In April 22, 2022 Canada reportedly sent four of their M777 howitzers, with ammunition, to Ukraine to aid in the defense of Ukraine during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref name="Canada M777">{{cite web |first=Murray |last=Brewster |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/ukraine-m777-howitzer-russia-heavy-artillery-1.6427762 |title=Canada sends four pieces of field artillery to Ukraine as country braces for renewed Russian attack |publisher=CBC News |date=2022-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Sarah |last=Ritchie |first2=Jordan |last2=Press |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/canada-has-sent-heavy-artillery-and-ammunition-to-ukraine-1.5872534 |title=Canada has sent heavy artillery and ammunition to Ukraine |publisher=The Canadian Press |date=2022-04-22}}</ref>

===India===
The [[Indian Army]] first announced plans to acquire 145 guns for {{INRConvert|30|b|0}},<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/US-okays-howitzers-worth-647-million-for-India/articleshow/5506969.cms |work=The Times of India |first1=Chidanand |last1=Rajghatta |title=US okays howitzers worth $647 million for India |date=28 January 2010 |access-date=30 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100130193304/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/US-okays-howitzers-worth-647-million-for-India/articleshow/5506969.cms |archive-date=30 January 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> but purchase plans were overtaken when the procurement process was restarted in July 2010. India's [[Ministry of Defence (India)|Ministry of Defence]] cleared the proposal for buying 145 guns for US$660 million on 11 May 2012 through the US Government's Foreign Military Sales (FMS) process.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globaldefence.net/defence-news/21762-india-orders-145-m777-ultra-light-howitzers-from-bae-systems.html|title=India Orders 145 M777 Ultra Light Howitzers From BAE Systems|author=HP|access-date=4 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105020731/http://www.globaldefence.net/defence-news/21762-india-orders-145-m777-ultra-light-howitzers-from-bae-systems.html|archive-date=5 November 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> This was put up before the [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]] for clearance and will subsequently be taken up by the [[Cabinet Committee on Security]] for final approval.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics/nation/india-clears-660-million-deal-for-artillery-guns/articleshow/13095688.cms|work=The Economic Times|title=India clears $660 million deal for artillery guns |date=11 May 2012}}</ref><ref>
{{cite news |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_india-to-buy-m777-howitzers-from-us_1687512 |work=DNA |title=Defence Ministry clears M777 howitzers procurement projects |date=11 May 2012 |access-date=12 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513214402/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_india-to-buy-m777-howitzers-from-us_1687512 |archive-date=13 May 2012 |url-status=live }}
</ref> On 2 August 2013, India requested the sale of 145 M777 howitzers for US$885 million.<ref>[http://www.deagel.com/news/FMS-India-Requests-Sale-of-145-M777-155mm-Light-Weight-Towed-Howitzers_n000011794.aspx FMS: India Requests Sale of 145 M777 155mm Light-Weight Towed Howitzers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130814001154/http://www.deagel.com/news/FMS-India-Requests-Sale-of-145-M777-155mm-Light-Weight-Towed-Howitzers_n000011794.aspx |date=14 August 2013 }} - Deagel.com, 7 August 2013</ref> On 24 February 2014 the purchase was again postponed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defensenews.com/article/20140224/DEFREG03/302240025 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140224210228/http://www.defensenews.com/article/20140224/DEFREG03/302240025 |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 February 2014 |title=India Postpones Purchase of 145 Ultra Light Howitzers |last1=Raghuvanshi |first1=Vivek |date=24 February 2014 |website=defensenews.com |publisher=Gannett Government Media |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> On 11 May 2014 the purchase was cleared by India's Ministry of Defence.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/india-buys-new-artillery-guns-27-years-after-bofors-209582 |title=India buys new artillery guns, 27 years after Bofors |date=11 May 2014 |access-date=26 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017144906/http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/india-buys-new-artillery-guns-27-years-after-bofors-209582 |archive-date=17 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 11 July 2014, the Government of India announced that it would not order the guns because of cost issues.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/article/40766/indian-mod-says-m777-buy-in-doubt-over-high-cost-offset-requirements |title=Indian MoD says M777 buy in doubt over high cost, offset requirements |date=13 July 2014 |access-date=12 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015225942/http://www.janes.com/article/40766/indian-mod-says-m777-buy-in-doubt-over-high-cost-offset-requirements |archive-date=15 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 22 November 2014, the selection process was restarted under the "[[Make In India]]" program.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Three-decades-on-defence-minister-clears-Rs-15750-crore-howitzer-projects/articleshow/45245771.cms |title=Three decades on, defence minister clears Rs 15,750 crore howitzer projects |last1=Pandit |first1=Rajat |date=23 November 2014 |work=The Times of India|publisher=TNN |access-date=22 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141126090010/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Three-decades-on-defence-minister-clears-Rs-15750-crore-howitzer-projects/articleshow/45245771.cms |archive-date=26 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 13 May 2015, the Ministry of Defence approved ₹29 billion (₹2,900 crore) to buy 145 M777 ultralight howitzers from the US.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://defencenews.in/defence-news-internal.aspx?id=ly/B44LoBP4= |title=New Aircraft Carrier, Brahmos Missiles, C-295 Planes & M-777 Howitzers all cleared for Purchase |last1=Govindan |first1=Adarsh |date=14 May 2015 |website=defencenews.in |publisher=TNN |access-date=13 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150519033229/http://www.defencenews.in/defence-news-internal.aspx?id=ly%2FB44LoBP4%3D |archive-date=19 May 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 15 December 2015, the Indian Ministry of Defence said it was keen on placing a follow-up order of 500 more M777 guns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/ministry-keen-to-purchase-500-more-howitzer-guns-from-bae-systems/article7987937.ece|title=Ministry keen to purchase 500 more Howitzer guns from BAE Systems|first=Nayanima|last=Basu|date=14 December 2015|website=The Hindu Businessline|access-date=30 May 2017}}</ref>

On 26 June 2016, it was announced that 145 guns will be purchased by India for US$750 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/india-clears-purchase-of-145-ultra-light-howitzer-guns-from-us/1/700866.html|title=India clears purchase of 145 ultra-light Howitzer guns from US|work=India Today|access-date=30 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511044221/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/india-clears-purchase-of-145-ultra-light-howitzer-guns-from-us/1/700866.html|archive-date=11 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> On 30 November 2016 the Indian government completed the deal to buy 145 howitzers from the US.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ssbinterviewtips.in/m777-howitzer-deal-inked-by-the-indian-government/637 |title=M777 howitzer deal inked by the Indian government |date=30 November 2016 |access-date=30 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201021609/http://www.ssbinterviewtips.in/m777-howitzer-deal-inked-by-the-indian-government/637 |archive-date=1 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> The deal was completed in December 2016.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lal|first1=Neeta|title=India Gets its Guns – 30 years late|url=http://www.asiasentinel.com/econ-business/india-guns-30-years-late/|access-date=21 December 2016|work=Asia Sentinel|date=19 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220220256/http://www.asiasentinel.com/econ-business/india-guns-30-years-late/|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Under the agreement, BAE Systems supplied 25 ready-built howitzers, while 120 guns were manufactured in India by Mahindra Defence Systems Limited.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Army's M777 regiment to get 3 made-in-India guns |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/m777-regiment-to-get-3-made-in-india-guns/story-xhNr4drnZCckqN3qErlfyK.html |website=Hindustan Times |access-date=13 November 2019 |language=en |date=13 November 2019}}</ref>

The Indian Army received its first shipment comprising two howitzers on 18 May 2017 in New Delhi from United States in ready to use condition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/army-gets-its-first-artillery-guns-three-decades-after-bofors-will-be-tested-at-pokhran-4661306/|title=Army gets its first artillery guns three decades after Bofors, will be tested at Pokhran today|date=18 May 2017|work=indianexpress|access-date=30 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170602130427/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/army-gets-its-first-artillery-guns-three-decades-after-bofors-will-be-tested-at-pokhran-4661306/|archive-date=2 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/army-gets-two-us-made-m777-ultra-light-howitzers/article18482205.ece|title=Two M777 Ultra-Light Howitzers arrive from U.S.|first=Dinakar|last=Peri|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=30 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518103659/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/army-gets-two-us-made-m777-ultra-light-howitzers/article18482205.ece|archive-date=18 May 2017|url-status=live|date=18 May 2017}}</ref> It was reported that on 2 September 2017, the barrel of one of the howitzers was damaged while firing during calibration trials.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/army-s-new-us-made-m777-howitzer-in-trouble-barrel-explodes-at-pokhran-range/story-FBr9a2voeSWrumBhZisFcO.html |title=Army's new US-made M777 howitzer in trouble, barrel explodes at Pokhran range |access-date=12 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912164656/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/army-s-new-us-made-m777-howitzer-in-trouble-barrel-explodes-at-pokhran-range/story-FBr9a2voeSWrumBhZisFcO.html |archive-date=12 September 2017 |url-status=live |date=12 September 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2017/sep/12/barrel-of-us-manufactured-howitzer-gun-explodes-during-indian-armys-calibration-trial-1656186.html |title=Barrel of US-manufactured Howitzer gun explodes during Indian army's calibration trial |access-date=12 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912174258/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2017/sep/12/barrel-of-us-manufactured-howitzer-gun-explodes-during-indian-armys-calibration-trial-1656186.html |archive-date=12 September 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Indian army used the M777 howitzer in the Himvijay exercise in Arunachal Pradesh which involved the newly raised integrated battle groups.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m-economictimes-com.cdn.ampproject.org/v/s/m.economictimes.com/news/defence/india-to-deploy-latest-american-weapon-systems-for-ex-himvijay-along-china-border/amp_articleshow/71108992.cms?usqp=mq331AQCKAE=&amp_js_v=0.1|title=India China: India to deploy latest American weapon systems for Ex-HimVijay along China border - The Economic Times|website=m-economictimes-com.cdn.ampproject.org|access-date=2019-10-14}}</ref>

A total of 7 artillery regiments are planned, each of 18 guns. The first regiment is planned to be raised by end-2020 with 15 guns supplied by BAE systems and three guns supplied by Mahindra Defense Systems Limited.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/m777-regiment-to-get-3-made-in-india-guns/story-xhNr4drnZCckqN3qErlfyK.html|title=Indian Army's M777 regiment to get 3 made-in-India guns - The Economic Times|website=m-economictimes-com.cdn.ampproject.org|access-date=2019-11-13|date=13 November 2019}}</ref>

In July 2020, in the wake of escalating tension with China in light of hostile Chinese posturing, particularly on the border between the Union Territory of Ladakh and Chinese-occupied Tibet, further purchases of Excalibur shells were announced by the Indian Ministry of Defence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://asiatimes.com/2020/07/border-clashes-prompt-india-to-fast-track-weapons-buys/|title = Border clashes prompt India to fast-track weapons buys|date = 7 July 2020}}</ref>

===Saudi Arabia===
In 2011, [[Saudi Arabia]] ordered 36 M777A2 155 mm towed howitzers from the United States, along with 17,136 rounds of high explosive (HE) ammunition and 2,304 rounds of longer range [[rocket-assisted projectile]]s (RAPs).{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

The Saudis purchased [[HMMWV]] vehicles to haul ammunition and carry the crews and their gear. However, they did not order any GPS-guided 155 mm Excalibur shells for their M777A2 guns.<ref name=Saudi>{{cite web|title=The Arabian Light|url=http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htart/20111007.aspx|date=7 October 2011|access-date=5 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110232112/http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htart/20111007.aspx|archive-date=10 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Ukraine===
In April 2022, during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in the [[Russo-Ukraine War]], the United States provided 90, Canada provided 4 and Australia provided 6 M777 howitzers with ammunition to the [[Armed Forces of Ukraine|Ukrainian armed forces]], to repel Russia.<ref name="Canada M777" /><ref>{{cite news |url= https://apnews.com/69f39ffb0c58c7fdbbf3154cca0a9230 |title= EXPLAINER: Why Washington is boosting heavy arms for Ukraine |author= Robert Burns |date= 22 April 2022 |agency= Associated Press |publisher= AP News }} </ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Mitchell |first1=Alex |last2=Brown |first2=Andrew |title=Australia provides Ukraine extra support |url=https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7714577/australia-provides-ukraine-extra-support/ |access-date=27 April 2022 |work=The Canberra Times |date=27 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fact Sheet on U.S. Security Assistance for Ukraine |url=https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3008717/fact-sheet-on-us-security-assistance-for-ukraine/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=U.S. Department of Defense |language=en-US}}</ref>

On 9 May 2022 Ukrainian journalist [[Yurii Butusov]] released a video showing presumably one of the first shots fired from a M777 howitzer in the East of Ukraine.<ref>{{YouTube|QieV3CMi9es|Первые выстрелы ВС Украины из американских гаубиц М777 по российским войскам на Востоке Украины.}}</ref>

===United States===

The M777 succeeded the [[M198 howitzer]] in the [[United States Marine Corps]] and [[United States Army]] in 2005. In 2014 the US military began fielding several upgrades to its M777 howitzers including new [[liquid crystal display]] units, software updates, improved power systems, and muzzle sensors for onboard ballistic computing. Future upgrades include a touchscreen Chief Section Display, a new Mission System Computer, and a digital radio.<ref name="PM Towed Artillery Systems">{{cite web|title=PM Towed Artillery Systems|url=http://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/pm-towed-artillery-systems/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105012411/http://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/pm-towed-artillery-systems/|archive-date=5 November 2014|access-date=4 November 2014|work=Defense Media Network}}</ref>

====Army====
[[File:Firing rounds with an M777 Howitzer Afghanistan 2009.jpg|right|thumb|Soldiers with Battery C, 1st Battalion, 321st Airborne Field Artillery Regiment, 18th Fires Brigade, [[82nd Airborne Division]], fire {{Nowrap|155 mm}} rounds using an M777 Howitzer weapons system, on Forward Operating Base Bostick, Afghanistan, 2009.]]

The [[18th Field Artillery Brigade]] (Airborne) at [[Fort Bragg]], North Carolina, was the initial Army test bed unit for the XM777 which included the 1st and 3rd Battalions of the [[321st Field Artillery Regiment]]. The initial prototypes were test by 1st Battalion, 377th Air Assault Regiment, in 1998 also a unit of the 18th Field Artillery Brigade. 2nd Platoon, Bravo Battery, 2nd Battalion, [[11th Field Artillery Regiment]] (2-11 FA), was the first US Army unit to fire the M777A in combat on {{Nowrap|2 January}} 2008 in support of [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]]. In June 2007, the M777 in its A2 configuration was assigned to the U.S. Army's 3-321 FA. It deployed to [[Afghanistan]] in support of [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in December 2007 in January 2008 making the unit the first U.S. Army unit to utilise the M777 in combat in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. In April 2008, the M777 was deployed for testing with [[8th Field Artillery Regiment|2-8 FA]] at [[Fort Wainwright]] in [[Fairbanks, Alaska]].<ref>[http://www.newsminer.com/news/2008/mar/27/alaska-brief-march-27/ "Alaska in Brief—March 27"] "Army to test new howitzer in Fairbanks", ''Fairbanks Daily News-Miner'', 27 March 2008. Accessed 27 March 2008.</ref> On 20 July 2008, at [[Camp Shelby]], Mississippi, [[108th Field Artillery Regiment|1-108 FA]], [[28th Infantry Division (United States)|28th Infantry Division]], [[Pennsylvania National Guard]], became the first field artillery unit of the [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]] to field and fire the M777. Two soldiers from [[321st Field Artillery Regiment|2-319 FA]] were killed from a breech explosion and other members of their gun crew were injured while attempting to fire a M777 at an ISIL mortar position in northern Iraq.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.stripes.com/news/2-us-soldiers-killed-in-artillery-mishap-in-iraq-identified-1.482836#.WZaAAulLfIU|title=2 US soldiers killed in artillery mishap in Iraq identified|access-date=18 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816013329/https://www.stripes.com/news/2-us-soldiers-killed-in-artillery-mishap-in-iraq-identified-1.482836#.WZaAAulLfIU|archive-date=16 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Multiple firing incidents have occurred during training with the M777 including a fatal one in February 2014 with 3-321 FA<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Latest-News-Wires/2014/0222/82nd-Airborne-paratrooper-dies-in-howitzer-explosion-at-Fort-Bragg|title=82nd Airborne paratrooper dies in howitzer explosion at Fort Bragg|agency=Associated Press|journal=The Christian Science Monitor|access-date=4 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105002911/http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Latest-News-Wires/2014/0222/82nd-Airborne-paratrooper-dies-in-howitzer-explosion-at-Fort-Bragg|archive-date=5 November 2014|url-status=live|date=22 February 2014}}</ref> and previously in 2011 with Marines from [[Camp Lejeune]] also at Fort Bragg.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wral.com/news/local/story/9271350/|title=Ten injured during artillery training at Fort Bragg|publisher=WRAL.com|access-date=4 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104224019/http://www.wral.com/news/local/story/9271350/|archive-date=4 November 2014|url-status=live|date=15 March 2011}}</ref>

In May 2017, the US Army revealed it was buying the Swedish [[Bofors 155 Bonus|BONUS]] round as an interim system as a result of the required phasing out of [[cluster munitions]] from artillery shells, complying with policy to achieve less than 1% [[unexploded ordnance]] from non-unitary explosives; the BONUS has two sensor-fused munitions deployed by a 155 mm carrier projectile that scan the ground for targets and fire [[explosively formed penetrator]]s down from the air. The system has been tested from the M777 howitzer.<ref>[http://www.military.com/daily-news/2017/05/02/army-concerned-over-ban-on-cluster-munitions-land-mines.html "Army Concerned Over Ban on Cluster Munitions, Land Mines"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806185246/http://www.military.com/daily-news/2017/05/02/army-concerned-over-ban-on-cluster-munitions-land-mines.html?ESRC=todayinmil.sm|date=6 August 2017}} Military.com, 2 May 2017</ref>

The [[3rd Cavalry Regiment (United States)|3rd Cavalry Regiment]] deployed multiple M777A2 guns to Firebase Saham in Iraq on the border with [[Syria]] from 8 November 2018 to April 2019 to support the [[Syrian Democratic Forces]] in the [[Battle of Baghuz Fawqani]], the ultimately successful operation to capture the [[Al-Baghuz Fawqani|final town]] held by [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.army.mil/article/215289/firebase_saham_a_day_in_the_life_of_joint_artillerymen_securing_the_iraq_border|title=Firebase Saham: A day in the life of joint-artillerymen securing the Iraq border|last=Welch|first=Jason|date=2018-12-18|website=www.army.mil|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419021415/https://www.army.mil/article/215289/firebase_saham_a_day_in_the_life_of_joint_artillerymen_securing_the_iraq_border|archive-date=19 April 2019|url-status=live|access-date=2019-04-19}}</ref>

====Marine Corps====
[[File:United States Marine Corps M777A2-155mm-howitzer.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|alt=Marines fire an M777A2 155 mm howitzer|Marines fire an M777A2 155 mm howitzer]]

In May 2005, [[3rd Battalion, 11th Marines]], based at [[Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms]], became the first Marine unit to begin fielding the new M777. 580 guns were supplied to the Marines, and 421 to the U.S. Army and National Guard.<ref name="deagel1">{{cite web |url=http://www.deagel.com/news/DoD-Orders-46-Additional-M777-Howitzers_n000008440.aspx |title=DoD Orders 46 Additional M777 Howitzers |publisher=Deagel.com |date=22 February 2011 |access-date=2012-07-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709004034/http://www.deagel.com/news/DoD-Orders-46-Additional-M777-Howitzers_n000008440.aspx |archive-date=9 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="autogenerated190">{{Cite web |url=http://asafm.army.mil/Documents/OfficeDocuments/Budget/BudgetMaterials/FY12/pforms//wtcv.pdf |title=page:190 |access-date=28 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110420084026/http://asafm.army.mil/Documents/OfficeDocuments/Budget/BudgetMaterials/FY12/pforms//wtcv.pdf |archive-date=20 April 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In March 2016, 200 Marines and four M777A2 howitzers from the [[26th Marine Expeditionary Unit]] set up [[Firebase Bell]], officially the Karasoar Counterfire Complex, near the Iraqi town of [[Makhmur, Iraq|Makhmour]], supporting the [[Iraqi Army]]'s [[Mosul offensive (2016)|Mosul offensive]]. The firebase was only {{convert|15|mi|km|order=flip}} from [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]]-controlled territory, and one Marine was killed in a rocket attack on 19 March, just days after arriving; direct attacks on the base dropped off in the following weeks as the Iraqis captured surrounding villages. The Marine howitzers fired every day in support of Iraqi maneuvers, using high explosive, smoke, and illumination rounds.<ref>[http://www.militarytimes.com/story/veterans/2016/04/07/near-isis-front-us-marine-artillerymen-fire-everyday/82748578/ "Near ISIS front, U.S. Marine artillerymen 'fire every day'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818022719/http://www.militarytimes.com/story/veterans/2016/04/07/near-isis-front-us-marine-artillerymen-fire-everyday/82748578/ |date=18 August 2016 }} ''Military Times'', 7 April 2016</ref> They were relieved by Army soldiers after roughly 60 days, after firing more than 2,000 rounds in 486 fire missions.<ref>[http://www.militarytimes.com/story/military/2016/06/30/marines-iraq-came-under-numerous-rocket-attacks-commander-says/86561736/ "Marines in Iraq came under 'numerous' rocket attacks, commander says"]{{Dead link|date=March 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ''Military Times'', 30 June 2016</ref>

In March 2017, the [[11th Marine Expeditionary Unit]] was deployed to Syria to provide artillery support with their M777s for forces seeking to eject ISIL forces from [[Raqqa]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2017/03/08/marines-have-arrived-in-syria-to-fire-artillery-in-the-fight-for-raqqa/|newspaper=The Washington Post|title=Marines have arrived in Syria to fire artillery in the fight for Raqqa|date=8 March 2017|access-date=9 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309004432/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2017/03/08/marines-have-arrived-in-syria-to-fire-artillery-in-the-fight-for-raqqa/|archive-date=9 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Combat history==
* [[Iraq War]]
* [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]]
* [[Military intervention against ISIL]]: Multiple M777A2 guns were deployed to Iraq on the border with [[Syria]] from 8 November 2018 to April 2019 to support the [[Syrian Democratic Forces]] in the [[Battle of Baghuz Fawqani]], the ultimately successful operation to capture the [[Al-Baghuz Fawqani|final town]] held by the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State group]]. They deployed to Firebase Saham, a base freshly constructed by the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] to provide fire support during the battle, especially during cloudy days when U.S. aircraft could not see to conduct airstrikes.<ref name=":1" />
*Sino - Indian border stand-off: The Indian Army has apparently deployed multiple artillery platforms, including the M777 howitzers, along the Line of Actual Control or the border with China where the PLA and the Indian Army have been engaged in a stand-off for many months now.
* [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]<ref name="m777">Caitlin M. Kenney & Kevin Baron [https://www.defenseone.com/threats/2022/04/how-much-can-us-howitzers-help-ukraine/366093/ (25 Apr 2022) How Much Can US Howitzers Help Ukraine?] Explainer</ref>

==Operators==
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2021}}


===Current operators===

;{{AUS}} ([[Australian Army]]): 48 systems (M777A2) previously 54 with 6 having been donated to Ukraine<ref name="Canberra Times">{{cite web |last1=Mitchell |first1=Alex |title=Australia provides Ukraine extra support |url=https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7714577/australia-provides-ukraine-extra-support/ |publisher=The Canberra Times |access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref>
;{{CAN}} ([[Canadian Army]]): 33 systems, previously 37 with 4 having been donated to Ukraine. The donated howitzers will be replenished.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Defence |first=National |date=2014-03-06 |title=Status Report on Transformational and Major Crown Projects - RPP 2014-15 |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/corporate/reports-publications/plans-priorities/2014-15/status-report-transformational-major-crown-projects.html |access-date=2022-04-18 |website=www.canada.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-04-22 |title=Canada announces artillery and other additional military aid for Ukraine |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/news/2022/04/canada-announces-artillery-and-other-additional-military-aid-for-ukraine.html |access-date=2022-05-02 |website=www.canada.ca}}</ref>
;{{IND}} ([[Indian Army]]): 89 systems in service<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/army-to-get-firepower-boost-in-mountains-with-more-m777-guns-101636896249075.html|title = Army to get firepower boost in mountains with more M777 guns|date = 14 November 2021}}.</ref> (a total of 145 systems were on order out of which all the remaining 120 systems are being built in India by Mahindra Defence under the "Make in India" program)
;{{KSA}}: 70 systems
;{{USA}}: 999 systems, 481 for the [[US Marine Corps]] and 518 for the [[US Army]] and [[Army National Guard]], were acquired. The US fields a "pure fleet" of M777A2 variants.<ref name="PM Towed Artillery Systems" /> In 2022 at least 90 of the US Marine Corps' systems were donated to Ukraine.<ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. Marine Corps M777 howitzers shipped to support Ukraine |url=https://www.dvidshub.net/image/7162397/us-marine-corps-m777-howitzers-shipped-support-ukraine |publisher=U.S. Marine Corps |access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref>
;{{flag|Ukraine}}: 100 systems (90<ref>{{Cite web |title=M777 Artillery Deliveries Should Help Ukraine in the Donbas, Says Official |url=https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3015463/m777-artillery-deliveries-should-help-ukraine-in-the-donbas-says-official/ |access-date=2022-05-01 |website=U.S. Department of Defense |language=en-US}}</ref> of which were donated by the United States<ref>{{Cite web |title=First American howitzers bound for Ukraine arrive in Europe as US troops begin training Ukrainians on the cannons |url=https://www.stripes.com/theaters/europe/2022-04-20/ukraine-russia-war-military-aid-howitzers-training-donbas-5747428.html |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Stars and Stripes |lang=en}}</ref> (along with 183,000<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fact Sheet on U.S. Security Assistance for Ukraine |url=https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3008717/fact-sheet-on-us-security-assistance-for-ukraine/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=U.S. Department of Defense |language=en-US}}</ref> 155 mm artillery rounds), 4 systems by Canada,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Defence |first=National |date=2022-04-22 |title=Canada announces artillery and other additional military aid for Ukraine |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/news/2022/04/canada-announces-artillery-and-other-additional-military-aid-for-ukraine.html |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.canada.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-22 |title=Canada sends four pieces of field artillery to Ukraine as it braces for renewed Russian attack |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/ukraine-m777-howitzer-russia-heavy-artillery-1.6427762 |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.cbc.ca}}</ref> and 6 systems by Australia,<ref name="Canberra Times" /> following the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]])<ref>{{Cite web|lang=fr|url=https://fr.euronews.com/2022/04/14/nouvelle-aide-militaire-de-800-millions-de-dollars-pour-kyiv|title=Nouvelle aide militaire de 800 millions de dollars pour Kyiv|website=euronews|date=2022-04-14|access-date=2022-04-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|lang=en-US|url=https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3007229/austin-to-host-meeting-in-germany-to-discuss-ukraines-long-term-defense-needs/|title=Austin to Host Meeting in Germany to Discuss Ukraine|website=U.S. Department of Defense|access-date=2022-04-21}}</ref>
;{{Flag|Colombia}}: The [[Colombian Naval Infantry]] will obtain M777 systems as part of a donation from the [[United States Marine Corps]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Defensa.com |date=2022-02-28 |title=La Infantería de Marina de Colombia se dotará de obuses M777 de 155 mm y vehículos anfibios del Cuerpo de Marines de los Estados Unidos-noticia defensa.com - Noticias Defensa defensa.com Colombia |url=https://www.defensa.com/colombia/infanteria-marina-colombia-dotara-obuses-m777-155-mm-vehiculos |access-date=2022-03-19 |website=Defensa.com |language=es}}</ref>

=== Potential operators ===
* {{flag|United Arab Emirates}}: On 5 May 2016, BAE Systems confirmed that it is working with Emirates Defense Technology (EDT) to develop a self-propelled version of the M777 howitzer for the [[Union Defence Force (UAE)|UAE Armed Forces]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Binnie|first1=Jeremy|title=BAE Systems looks to sell M777 to the UAE|url=http://www.janes.com/article/60097/bae-systems-looks-to-sell-m777s-to-the-uae|website=IHS Jane's 360|publisher=IHS Jane's|access-date=9 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510101455/http://www.janes.com/article/60097/bae-systems-looks-to-sell-m777s-to-the-uae|archive-date=10 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
File:US Navy 090719-N-0120A-634 An MH-53E Sea Stallion helicopter, assigned to the Air Combat Element of the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit, embarked aboard the forward-deployed amphibious assault ship USS Essex (LHD 2) lifts an M77.jpg|[[CH-53 Sea Stallion|Sea Stallion]] helicopter lifts an M777
File:Flares fired by M777 howitzers to illuminate during Operation Tora Arwa V in the Kandahar province Aug. 2 2009.jpg|Illumination rounds fired during Operation Tora Arwa V in the [[Kandahar Province]], Afghanistan
File:M777 Light Towed Howitzer 2.jpg|M777 in [[Logar Province]], Afghanistan
File:U.S. Soldiers with Alpha Battery, Field Artillery Squadron, 2nd Cavalry Regiment, prepare to tow an M777 155 mm howitzer during a decisive action training environment exercise at the Joint Multinational 121028-A-TF309-005.jpg|Towed configuration with the [[Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles|FMTV]] as the prime mover
File:M777 Light Towed Howitzer In operation.ogv|M777 Light Towed Howitzer in Operation in Logar Province, Afghanistan
File:3rd Cavalry Regiment m777 howitzer.jpg|U.S. Army [[3rd Cavalry Regiment (United States)|3rd Cavalry Regiment]] using the ramming staff to load ammunition during the [[military intervention against ISIL]] in [[Al-Qa'im (town)|al-Qa'im]], Iraq
</gallery>

==See also==

* [[152 mm howitzer 2A65]]
* [[AHS Krab]]
* [[List of howitzers]]
* [[SLWH Pegasus]]
* [[Norinco AH4 155 mm howitzer]]
* [[Cannon-launched guided projectile]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|M777 howitzer}}
* http://indiandefenceboard.com/threads/india-clears-660-mn-deal-for-artillery-guns.2375/
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/lw155.htm Global Security]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080405180156/http://www.sfu.ca/casr/bg-artillery-155mm-M777.htm Canadian American Strategic Review]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130216085342/http://www.dsca.osd.mil/PressReleases/36-b/2008/Canada_08-68.pdf 37 additional M777 for Canadian Forces ]

{{DEFAULTSORT:M777 Howitzer}}
[[Category:155 mm artillery]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Artillery of the United States]]
[[Category:BAE Systems weapons systems]]
[[Category:Howitzers]]
[[Category:Post–Cold War artillery of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Military equipment introduced in the 2000s]]

M777 howitzer

2022-05-12T03:53:53Z

Cuaxdon: /* External links */

{{Use British English|date=March 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox weapon
| is_artillery = yes|
| image = M777 Light Towed Howitzer 1.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = M777 Light Towed Howitzer in service with the [[10th Mountain Division (United States)|10th Mountain Division]] in support of [[Operation Enduring Freedom]], [[Logar Province]], [[Charkh District]], Afghanistan
| name = M777 Lightweight Towed Howitzer
| origin = [[United Kingdom]]
| type = Towed [[howitzer]]
| date =
| service = 2005–present
| used_by = see ''"[[#Operators|Operators]]"''
| wars = * [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hw91mzpyzjM |title=Artillery fire in Afghanistan (Pech river Valley) Taliban running scared! |website=[[YouTube]] |access-date=11 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111012903/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hw91mzpyzjM |archive-date=11 January 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Iraqi conflict
** [[Iraq War]]
** [[Iraqi Civil War (2014–17)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=93HFYz2LRoA|title = - YouTube|website = [[YouTube]]}}</ref>
* [[Syrian Civil War]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ceAWWIlNhNQ|title = - YouTube|website = [[YouTube]]}}</ref>
* [[Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pIBiLtYzRJE |title=- YouTube |website=[[YouTube]] |access-date=11 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421233552/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pIBiLtYzRJE |archive-date=21 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
** [[Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen]]
* [[Russo-Ukrainian War]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Canada delivers M777 howitzers to Ukraine |url=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-ato/3465305-canada-delivers-m777-howitzers-to-ukraine.html |publisher=Ukrinform |access-date=23 April 2022}}</ref>
** [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]
| caliber = 155 mm L/39<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baesystems.com/en-us/product/m777|title=Company Website Page}}</ref>
| part_length = {{convert|5.08|m|ft|abbr=on}}/L39
| elevation = 0° to +71.7°<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/lw155.htm|title=M777 Lightweight 155mm howitzer (LW155)|author=John Pike|publisher=Globalsecurity.org|access-date=4 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104225942/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/lw155.htm|archive-date=4 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
| rate = Normal: 2 rpm Maximum: 7 rpm
| carriage = [[Gun carriage#Modern gun carriages|Split trail]]
| cartridge = [[M107 projectile|M107]], [[M795]], ERFB, [[M982 Excalibur|M982]]
| velocity = Charge 8S: {{cvt|827|m/s|ft/s}}
| range = [[M107 projectile|M107]]: {{cvt|21|km|mi}} [[M795]]: {{cvt|22.5|km|mi}} ERFB: M795E1 {{cvt|30|km|mi}} [[base bleed]] [[M982 Excalibur|Excalibur]]: {{cvt|40|km|mi}} <ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.raytheonmissilesanddefense.com/what-we-do/land-warfare/precision-weapons/excalibur-projectile|title=Company Website Page}}</ref>|
| weight = {{convert|4200|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref name="BAEweight">{{citation|title=U.S. Upgrades and Orders More Lightweight BAE Systems Howitzers|url=http://www.baesystems.com/article/BAES_028164/us-upgrades-and-orders-more-lightweight-bae-systems-howitzers|publisher=BAE Systems|access-date=9 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710110759/http://www.baesystems.com/article/BAES_028164/us-upgrades-and-orders-more-lightweight-bae-systems-howitzers|archive-date=10 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
| length = Combat: {{convert|10.7|m|ft|abbr=on}} Travel: {{convert|9.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| crew = 7+1
| number =
}}

The '''M777 [[howitzer]]''' is a [[towed artillery|towed]] [[155 mm]] [[artillery]] piece. It is used by the ground forces of [[Australian Army|Australia]], [[Canadian Army|Canada]], [[Indian Army|India]], [[Saudi Arabian Army|Saudi Arabia]], [[Armed Forces of Ukraine|Ukraine]] and the [[United States military|United States]]. It made its combat debut in the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|War in Afghanistan]].

The M777 is manufactured by [[BAE Systems]]' [[BAE Systems Platforms & Services#Global Combat Systems|Global Combat Systems division]]. Prime contract management is based in [[Barrow-in-Furness]] in the United Kingdom as well as manufacture and assembly of the titanium structures and associated recoil components. Final integration and testing of the weapon is undertaken at BAE's facility in [[Hattiesburg, Mississippi]].<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Upgrades and Orders More Lightweight BAE Systems Howitzers|url=http://www.baesystems.com/Newsroom/NewsReleases/autoGen_1119418510.html|work=Press release|publisher=BAE Systems – USA|access-date=6 October 2011|date=4 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007004641/http://www.baesystems.com/Newsroom/NewsReleases/autoGen_1119418510.html|archive-date=7 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Design==
[[File:M777 howitzer rear.jpg|thumb|left|US Marine gunners test fire an M777 howitzer.]]
The M777 began as the Ultralight Field Howitzer (UFH), developed by [[Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering]]'s (VSEL) Armaments Division in Barrow-in-Furness, UK. VSEL was bought by BAE Systems after the UFH prototypes had been manufactured and demonstrated, consequently BAE became responsible for future design refinements and renamed the gun 'M777'.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} Upon taking over responsibility for the weapon BAE 'Americanised' to a large degree the construction and assembly through its US-based BAE Systems Land and Armaments group. The M777 now uses about 70% US-built parts including the gun barrel which is manufactured at the [[Watervliet Arsenal]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wva.army.mil/publications/products.pdf|title=Waltervliet Arsenal Products PDF|access-date=14 July 2019}}</ref>

With a weight of {{convert|4200|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, the M777 is 41% lighter than the {{convert|7154|kg|lb|abbr=on}} [[M198 howitzer]] it replaces.<ref name="M777 weight">{{cite web|title=M777 Howitzer - Specifications |url=http://www.army-armee.forces.gc.ca/en/weapons/m777-howitzer.page |website=Canadian Army |access-date=18 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803013955/http://www.army-armee.forces.gc.ca/en/weapons/m777-howitzer.page |archive-date=3 August 2016 |language=en |quote=Weight: 4200 kg |url-status=dead|date=8 March 2013 }}</ref><ref name="M198 specs">{{cite web|title=M198 Towed Howitzer - Specifications |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m198-specs.htm |website=GlobalSecurity.org |access-date=18 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401195648/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m198-specs.htm |archive-date=1 April 2013 |language=en |quote=Weight: 15,758 pounds (7.154 kilograms) |url-status=dead}}</ref> Much of the weight reduction is due to the extensive use of [[titanium]].<ref name="Titanium">{{cite web|title=M777 155mm Ultralightweight Field Howitzer |url=http://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh |website=Army Technology |access-date=18 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115173004/http://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh |archive-date=15 November 2016 |language=en |quote=The construction of the M777 makes extensive use of titanium and titanium castings, enabling a weight reduction of 3,175 kg (7,000lb) compared to the M198 howitzer which it replaces in the US Army and USMC inventory. |url-status=dead}}</ref> The M777 can be transported by helicopter [[Cargo hook (helicopter)|sling-load]], [[Military transport aircraft|transporter aircraft]] such as the [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules]], or towed by air-braked vehicles weighing over {{convert|2.5|t|lb}}, such as the [[Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles|FMTV]] and [[Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacement|MTVR]] medium vehicles.<ref name="Transport">{{cite web|title=M777 155mm Ultralightweight Field Howitzer |url=http://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh/ |website=Army Technology |access-date=18 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115173004/http://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh |archive-date=15 November 2016 |language=en |quote=The M777 has a production weight of 3,745 kg and can be transported by helicopter, transporter aircraft and ship. The howitzer can be towed by an air-braked 4x4 vehicle greater than 2.5t. |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Transport 2">{{cite web|title=M777 Howitzer - Specifications |url=http://www.army-armee.forces.gc.ca/en/weapons/m777-howitzer.page |website=Canadian Army |access-date=18 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803013955/http://www.army-armee.forces.gc.ca/en/weapons/m777-howitzer.page |archive-date=3 August 2016 |language=en |quote=The M777 weighs 9,200 pounds [...] making it highly mobile and easily transportable by C130 aircraft, helicopter or a truck of at least 2.5 tonnes. |url-status=dead|date=8 March 2013 }}</ref> The minimal gun crew required is five, compared to a previous nine.<ref name=crew>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/lw155.htm |title=M777 Lightweight 155 mm howitzer (LW155) |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org |access-date=26 May 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050526084951/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/lw155.htm |archive-date=26 May 2005 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The M777 uses a digital [[fire-control system]] similar to that found on self-propelled howitzers such as the [[M109 howitzer|M109A6 Paladin]] to provide navigation, pointing and self-location, allowing it to be put into action quickly.<ref>{{Cite web|title=M777 155mm Ultralightweight Field Howitzer|url=https://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh/|access-date=2020-09-23|website=Army Technology|language=en-GB|quote=The TAD digital fire control system provides on-board ballistic computation, navigation, pointing and self-location, providing greater accuracy and faster reaction times, and also includes a laser ignition system, electric drives for the howitzer’s traverse and elevation, and a powered projectile rammer.}}</ref> The Canadian M777 in conjunction with the traditional "glass and iron sights/mounts" also uses a digital fire control system called the Digital Gun Management System (DGMS) produced by [[Leonardo S.p.A.|Leonardo MW]] with components of the Indirect Fire Control Software Suite (IFCSS) built by the Firepower team in the Canadian Army Land Software Engineering Centre.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lsec.dnd.ca/prj-firepower_e.htm|title=LSEC Firepower Team|website=dnd.ca|access-date=30 May 2017}}{{Dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The Leonardo MW portion of the system, known as LINAPS, had been proven previously through earlier use on the [[British Army]] 105 mm [[L118 light gun|L118 Light Gun]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/land-terre/news-nouvelles/story-reportage-eng.asp?id=1240|title=Army News article on the Canadian DGMS|publisher=forces.gc.ca|access-date=30 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905042527/http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/land-terre/news-nouvelles/story-reportage-eng.asp?id=1240|archive-date=5 September 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:XM982 Excalibur inert (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[M982 Excalibur|XM982]] Excalibur GPS-guided munition (inert)]]
The M777 may be combined with the [[M982 Excalibur]] GPS-guided munition, which allows accurate fire at a range of up to {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}}. This almost doubles the area covered by a single battery to about {{convert|1250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. Testing at the [[Yuma Proving Ground]] by the US Army placed 13 of 14 Excalibur rounds, fired from up to {{convert|24|km|mi}}, within {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}} of their target, suggesting a [[circular error probable]] of {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=can>{{cite web|url=http://defensenews.com/story.php?F=2740557&C=landwar|title=Canada Deploys GPS Shell To Afghanistan|publisher=defensenews.com|access-date=4 November 2014}}{{dead link|date=August 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
In June 2012, Golf Battery, [[2nd Battalion, 11th Marines]], out of Camp Pendleton, California, fired the M982 Excalibur against insurgents at a range of {{convert|36|km|mi|abbr=on}} in [[Helmand Province]], Afghanistan. This was the longest operational shot in the history of the M777 howitzer, and the longest operational tube artillery shot in history for the Marine Corps.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/article/20120630/NEWS/206300308/Long-shot-Artillery-battery-sets-lethal-record |title=Long shot: Artillery battery sets lethal record |work=Marine Corps Times |date=30 June 2012 |access-date=11 October 2013 |author=Lamothe, Dan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012102151/http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/article/20120630/NEWS/206300308/Long-shot-Artillery-battery-sets-lethal-record |archive-date=12 October 2013}}</ref> The furthest hit from an Excalibur ammunition by the United States Army was {{convert|30|km|mi|abbr=on}} in Iraq.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ M777A2 vs legacy M198<ref name="Goldman">{{cite web|last=Goldman|first=Harvey I.|title=LW155 Howitzer Towed Artillery Digitization|url=http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2007armaments/Goldman.pdf|work=NDIA Armaments Technology and Firepower Symposium 12 June 2007|publisher=dtic.mil|access-date=27 January 2013|date=12 June 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913140125/http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2007armaments/Goldman.pdf|archive-date=13 September 2012}}</ref>
|-
!
! M777A2
! M198
|-
| '''Weight'''
| {{convert|4200|kg|lb|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|16000|lb|kg|abbr=on|order=flip}}
|-
| '''Emplacement time'''
| 6 min 10 s
| 6 min 35 s
|-
| '''Displacement time'''
| 6 min 23 s
| 10 min 40 s
|-
| '''Number carried per C-130 Load'''
| 2
| 1
|-
| '''Crew complement'''
| 5
| 9
|}

==Variants==
[[File:XM1113 in flight.jpg|thumb|XM1113 extended range artillery round, shown here at a range demonstration, uses a rocket-assist motor]]

* '''M777''' – gun with optical fire control{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
* '''M777A1''' – digitization upgrades with the addition of an onboard power source, satellite global positioning, inertial navigation, radio, Gun Display Unit (GDU) and Section Chief Assembly (SCA).{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
* '''M777A2''' – Block 1A software upgrade. Addition of an Enhanced Portable Inductive Artillery Fuze Setter (EPIAFS) to enable [[M982 Excalibur|Excalibur]] and precision munition compatibility.<ref name="Goldman"/><ref>{{cite web|last1=Gooding|first1=Keith|last2=Kratzer|first2=David|title=PEO GCS's Digitized Towed Howitzer Supports the GWOT|url=http://asc.army.mil/docs/pubs/alt/2008/4_OctNovDec/articles/32_PEO_GCS's_Digitized_Towed_Howitzer_Supports_the_GWOT_200810.pdf|publisher=US Army Acquisition Support Center|work=Army Acquisition, Logistics, and Technology Magazine|access-date=27 January 2013|page=32|date=October–December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110232243/http://asc.army.mil/docs/pubs/alt/2008/4_OctNovDec/articles/32_PEO_GCS%27s_Digitized_Towed_Howitzer_Supports_the_GWOT_200810.pdf|archive-date=10 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* '''M777ER''' – Upgrade created by the Extended Range Cannon Artillery (ERCA) project to extend range from {{convert|30|to|70|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref>[https://www.armyrecognition.com/weapons_defence_industry_military_technology_uk/u.s._army_engineers_work_to_create_a_new_longer_m777_155mm_howitzer_under_the_name_m777er_13103162.html U.S. Army engineers work to create a new longer M777 155mm howitzer under the name M777ER] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325052123/https://www.armyrecognition.com/weapons_defence_industry_military_technology_uk/u.s._army_engineers_work_to_create_a_new_longer_m777_155mm_howitzer_under_the_name_m777er_13103162.html |date=25 March 2018 }}. ''Army Recognition''. 31 March 2016.</ref> Modified with a longer 58-caliber, {{cvt|30|ft|m|order=flip}} barrel and supercharged propellant firing the XM1113 [[rocket-assisted projectile]].<ref>[https://www.defensenews.com/land/2020/03/06/army-takes-40-mile-shots-from-extended-range-cannon-in-demo/ US Army takes 40-mile shots from extended-range cannon in demo]. ''Defense News''. 6 March 2020.</ref>

==Service history==
===Australia===
[[File:Australian soldiers from the 8-12 Field Regiment firing a M777 155mm howitzer.jpg|thumb|Australian soldiers firing an M777A2 during a training exercise in 2016]]
In 2008, the Australian Defence Force made a US [[Foreign Military Sales]] request for 57 M777A2s worth an estimated US$248m.<ref>{{cite web|title=Australia – M777A2 155MM Light-Weight Howitzers|url=http://www.dsca.osd.mil/PressReleases/36-b/2008/Australia_08-78.pdf|publisher=Defense Security Cooperation Agency|access-date=12 September 2012|date=17 July 2008|quote=WASHINGTON, July 17, 2008 – The Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress of a possible Foreign Military Sale to Australia of M777A2 155MM Light-Weight Howitzers as well as associated equipment and services. The total value, if all options are exercised, could be as high as $248 million.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915115922/http://www.dsca.osd.mil/PressReleases/36-b/2008/Australia_08-78.pdf|archive-date=15 September 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Subsequently, 35 guns were purchased for the Australian Army.<ref>{{cite news |date=29 October 2009 |title=Boost in firepower |page=2 |work=Army: The Soldiers' Newspaper |publisher=Department of Defence |issue=1224 |location=Canberra |url=https://www.defence.gov.au/Publications/NewsPapers/Army/editions/1224/1224.pdf |access-date=7 January 2020 |issn=0729-5685}}</ref> to re-equip the [[1st Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery]], the [[4th Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery]], and the [[8th/12th Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery]], to replace 155 mm M198s and 105 mm [[L118 light gun#L119|L119 Light Guns.]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} The first deliveries of M777A2 began in late 2010.<ref name="Bergmann">{{cite news|last=Bergmann|first=Kym|title=Push is on to bring out the big guns|newspaper=[[The Australian]]|publisher=News Ltd|date=23 October 2010|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/defence/push-is-on-to-bring-out-the-big-guns/story-e6frg8yo-1225940262119|access-date=4 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Kennedy|first1=Lt-Col Mitch|last2=Doran|first2=LCpl Mark|title=Changes in artillery|url=https://www.defence.gov.au/Publications/NewsPapers/Army/editions/1253/1253.pdf|work=Army: The Soldiers' Newspaper|issue=1253|publisher=Department of Defence|location=Canberra|issn=0729-5685|page=3|date=3 March 2011|access-date=7 January 2020}}</ref> An additional 19 guns will be bought directly from American production lines to enable a total of six batteries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Army to get more towed guns|url=http://www.news.com.au/breaking-news/national/army-to-get-more-towed-field-guns/story-e6frfku9-1226497153525|work=news.com.au|agency=AAP|access-date=16 October 2012|date=16 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016105843/http://www.news.com.au/breaking-news/national/army-to-get-more-towed-field-guns/story-e6frfku9-1226497153525|archive-date=16 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Concurrently, the Australian Army has acquired guided 155 mm munitions in the form of the [[M982 Excalibur]] and [[XM1156 Precision Guidance Kit]].<ref>[http://www.deagel.com/news/FMS-Australia-Requests-Precision-Guidance-Kits-for-155mm-Munitions_n000011806.aspx FMS: Australia Requests Precision Guidance Kits for 155mm Munitions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311080218/http://www.deagel.com/news/FMS-Australia-Requests-Precision-Guidance-Kits-for-155mm-Munitions_n000011806.aspx |date=11 March 2014 }} - Deagel.com, 12 August 2013</ref> In late April 2022, Australia announced that they would donate six of their M777 howitzers, with ammunition, to aid in the defence of Ukraine during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mitchell |first1=Alex |last2=Brown |first2=Andrew |title=Australia provides Ukraine extra support |url=https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7714577/australia-provides-ukraine-extra-support/ |access-date=27 April 2022 |work=The Canberra Times |date=27 April 2022}}</ref>

===Brazil===
In 2010, The [[Brazilian Navy]] evaluated the 155 mm M777 as a candidate to replace the six 155 mm [[M114 155 mm howitzer|M114A1]] howitzers of the [[Brazilian Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] branch.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.forte.jor.br/2010/09/19/marinha-do-brasil-interessada-no-obuseiro-m777-da-bae-systems/|title=Marinha do Brasil interessada no obuseiro M777 da BAE Systems|date=2010-09-19|website=Forças Terrestres - ForTe|language=pt|trans-title=Brazilian Navy interested on BAE Systems' M777 howitzer|access-date=2017-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630084333/http://www.forte.jor.br/2010/09/19/marinha-do-brasil-interessada-no-obuseiro-m777-da-bae-systems/|archive-date=30 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The successor to the M114 has not yet been chosen.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===Canada===
[[File:M777_Howitzer_Helmand_April2007.JPEG|thumb|right|Canadian soldiers fire an M777 at a forward operating base in the Helmand Province of Afghanistan, 7 April 2007.]]
In December 2005, 1st Regiment, [[Royal Canadian Horse Artillery]], conducted an inaugural firing of its first 155 mm M777 towed howitzers, for a total of six guns. The six guns delivered were supplied by the United States Marine Corps under a Foreign Military Sales (FMS) contract<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh/|title=FMS Contract Details|access-date=4 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115173004/http://www.army-technology.com/projects/ufh|archive-date=15 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|reason=domain on WP:BLACKLIST|date=July 2016}} between the U.S. and Canada. The Canadian guns were first fired by A Battery, 1 RCHA at CFB Shilo and then were deployed to Afghanistan in support of [[Operation Archer]], and were put into service in the Canadian theatre of operations around [[Kandahar]] in early 2006, this marked the first use of the M777 in combat operations. In the summer they made a significant contribution during the [[Battle of Panjwaii]] when a small number of rounds were used to huge effect on [[Taliban]] elements retreating from the battle area. Many of the 72 reported killed during the heaviest period of fighting were due to artillery fire from only two of these guns. In late fall of 2006, the Canadian M777 howitzers were equipped with the Digital Gun Management System (DGMS), which greatly improved accuracy and led to these guns being used for short range close support of Canadian and US ground forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afghanistannewscenter.com/news/2007/may/may92007.html|title=Afghanistan News May 9, 2007|publisher=afghanistannewscenter.com|access-date=11 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928114911/http://www.afghanistannewscenter.com/news/2007/may/may92007.html|archive-date=28 September 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> They proved so successful that an order for an additional six guns was placed with BAE. In May 2009, the Canadian government ordered a further 25 M777s, bringing the total to 37.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defense-aerospace.com/article-view/release/105619/bae-wins-%24118m-orders-for-m777-howitzer.html|title=BAE Wins $118m Orders for M777 Howitzer|publisher=defense-aerospace.com|access-date=4 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104235852/http://www.defense-aerospace.com/article-view/release/105619/bae-wins-%24118m-orders-for-m777-howitzer.html|archive-date=4 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/commun/ml-fe/article-eng.asp?id=5426|title=More howitzers on the way|publisher=forces.gc.ca|access-date=30 May 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622134530/http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/Commun/ml-fe/article-eng.asp?id=5426|archive-date=22 June 2013}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> The DGMS is also being improved with integrated communications.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/land-terre/news-nouvelles/story-reportage-eng.asp?id=5497|title=M777 equipped with new digital gun management system|publisher=forces.gc.ca|access-date=30 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529105748/http://www.army.forces.gc.ca/land-terre/news-nouvelles/story-reportage-eng.asp?id=5497|archive-date=29 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> In April 22, 2022 Canada reportedly sent four of their M777 howitzers, with ammunition, to Ukraine to aid in the defense of Ukraine during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref name="Canada M777">{{cite web |first=Murray |last=Brewster |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/ukraine-m777-howitzer-russia-heavy-artillery-1.6427762 |title=Canada sends four pieces of field artillery to Ukraine as country braces for renewed Russian attack |publisher=CBC News |date=2022-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Sarah |last=Ritchie |first2=Jordan |last2=Press |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/canada-has-sent-heavy-artillery-and-ammunition-to-ukraine-1.5872534 |title=Canada has sent heavy artillery and ammunition to Ukraine |publisher=The Canadian Press |date=2022-04-22}}</ref>

===India===
The [[Indian Army]] first announced plans to acquire 145 guns for {{INRConvert|30|b|0}},<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/US-okays-howitzers-worth-647-million-for-India/articleshow/5506969.cms |work=The Times of India |first1=Chidanand |last1=Rajghatta |title=US okays howitzers worth $647 million for India |date=28 January 2010 |access-date=30 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100130193304/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/US-okays-howitzers-worth-647-million-for-India/articleshow/5506969.cms |archive-date=30 January 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> but purchase plans were overtaken when the procurement process was restarted in July 2010. India's [[Ministry of Defence (India)|Ministry of Defence]] cleared the proposal for buying 145 guns for US$660 million on 11 May 2012 through the US Government's Foreign Military Sales (FMS) process.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globaldefence.net/defence-news/21762-india-orders-145-m777-ultra-light-howitzers-from-bae-systems.html|title=India Orders 145 M777 Ultra Light Howitzers From BAE Systems|author=HP|access-date=4 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105020731/http://www.globaldefence.net/defence-news/21762-india-orders-145-m777-ultra-light-howitzers-from-bae-systems.html|archive-date=5 November 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> This was put up before the [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]] for clearance and will subsequently be taken up by the [[Cabinet Committee on Security]] for final approval.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics/nation/india-clears-660-million-deal-for-artillery-guns/articleshow/13095688.cms|work=The Economic Times|title=India clears $660 million deal for artillery guns |date=11 May 2012}}</ref><ref>
{{cite news |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_india-to-buy-m777-howitzers-from-us_1687512 |work=DNA |title=Defence Ministry clears M777 howitzers procurement projects |date=11 May 2012 |access-date=12 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513214402/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_india-to-buy-m777-howitzers-from-us_1687512 |archive-date=13 May 2012 |url-status=live }}
</ref> On 2 August 2013, India requested the sale of 145 M777 howitzers for US$885 million.<ref>[http://www.deagel.com/news/FMS-India-Requests-Sale-of-145-M777-155mm-Light-Weight-Towed-Howitzers_n000011794.aspx FMS: India Requests Sale of 145 M777 155mm Light-Weight Towed Howitzers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130814001154/http://www.deagel.com/news/FMS-India-Requests-Sale-of-145-M777-155mm-Light-Weight-Towed-Howitzers_n000011794.aspx |date=14 August 2013 }} - Deagel.com, 7 August 2013</ref> On 24 February 2014 the purchase was again postponed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defensenews.com/article/20140224/DEFREG03/302240025 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140224210228/http://www.defensenews.com/article/20140224/DEFREG03/302240025 |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 February 2014 |title=India Postpones Purchase of 145 Ultra Light Howitzers |last1=Raghuvanshi |first1=Vivek |date=24 February 2014 |website=defensenews.com |publisher=Gannett Government Media |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> On 11 May 2014 the purchase was cleared by India's Ministry of Defence.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/india-buys-new-artillery-guns-27-years-after-bofors-209582 |title=India buys new artillery guns, 27 years after Bofors |date=11 May 2014 |access-date=26 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017144906/http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/india-buys-new-artillery-guns-27-years-after-bofors-209582 |archive-date=17 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 11 July 2014, the Government of India announced that it would not order the guns because of cost issues.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/article/40766/indian-mod-says-m777-buy-in-doubt-over-high-cost-offset-requirements |title=Indian MoD says M777 buy in doubt over high cost, offset requirements |date=13 July 2014 |access-date=12 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015225942/http://www.janes.com/article/40766/indian-mod-says-m777-buy-in-doubt-over-high-cost-offset-requirements |archive-date=15 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 22 November 2014, the selection process was restarted under the "[[Make In India]]" program.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Three-decades-on-defence-minister-clears-Rs-15750-crore-howitzer-projects/articleshow/45245771.cms |title=Three decades on, defence minister clears Rs 15,750 crore howitzer projects |last1=Pandit |first1=Rajat |date=23 November 2014 |work=The Times of India|publisher=TNN |access-date=22 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141126090010/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Three-decades-on-defence-minister-clears-Rs-15750-crore-howitzer-projects/articleshow/45245771.cms |archive-date=26 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 13 May 2015, the Ministry of Defence approved ₹29 billion (₹2,900 crore) to buy 145 M777 ultralight howitzers from the US.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://defencenews.in/defence-news-internal.aspx?id=ly/B44LoBP4= |title=New Aircraft Carrier, Brahmos Missiles, C-295 Planes & M-777 Howitzers all cleared for Purchase |last1=Govindan |first1=Adarsh |date=14 May 2015 |website=defencenews.in |publisher=TNN |access-date=13 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150519033229/http://www.defencenews.in/defence-news-internal.aspx?id=ly%2FB44LoBP4%3D |archive-date=19 May 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 15 December 2015, the Indian Ministry of Defence said it was keen on placing a follow-up order of 500 more M777 guns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/ministry-keen-to-purchase-500-more-howitzer-guns-from-bae-systems/article7987937.ece|title=Ministry keen to purchase 500 more Howitzer guns from BAE Systems|first=Nayanima|last=Basu|date=14 December 2015|website=The Hindu Businessline|access-date=30 May 2017}}</ref>

On 26 June 2016, it was announced that 145 guns will be purchased by India for US$750 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/india-clears-purchase-of-145-ultra-light-howitzer-guns-from-us/1/700866.html|title=India clears purchase of 145 ultra-light Howitzer guns from US|work=India Today|access-date=30 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511044221/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/india-clears-purchase-of-145-ultra-light-howitzer-guns-from-us/1/700866.html|archive-date=11 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> On 30 November 2016 the Indian government completed the deal to buy 145 howitzers from the US.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ssbinterviewtips.in/m777-howitzer-deal-inked-by-the-indian-government/637 |title=M777 howitzer deal inked by the Indian government |date=30 November 2016 |access-date=30 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201021609/http://www.ssbinterviewtips.in/m777-howitzer-deal-inked-by-the-indian-government/637 |archive-date=1 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> The deal was completed in December 2016.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lal|first1=Neeta|title=India Gets its Guns – 30 years late|url=http://www.asiasentinel.com/econ-business/india-guns-30-years-late/|access-date=21 December 2016|work=Asia Sentinel|date=19 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220220256/http://www.asiasentinel.com/econ-business/india-guns-30-years-late/|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Under the agreement, BAE Systems supplied 25 ready-built howitzers, while 120 guns were manufactured in India by Mahindra Defence Systems Limited.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Army's M777 regiment to get 3 made-in-India guns |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/m777-regiment-to-get-3-made-in-india-guns/story-xhNr4drnZCckqN3qErlfyK.html |website=Hindustan Times |access-date=13 November 2019 |language=en |date=13 November 2019}}</ref>

The Indian Army received its first shipment comprising two howitzers on 18 May 2017 in New Delhi from United States in ready to use condition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/army-gets-its-first-artillery-guns-three-decades-after-bofors-will-be-tested-at-pokhran-4661306/|title=Army gets its first artillery guns three decades after Bofors, will be tested at Pokhran today|date=18 May 2017|work=indianexpress|access-date=30 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170602130427/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/army-gets-its-first-artillery-guns-three-decades-after-bofors-will-be-tested-at-pokhran-4661306/|archive-date=2 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/army-gets-two-us-made-m777-ultra-light-howitzers/article18482205.ece|title=Two M777 Ultra-Light Howitzers arrive from U.S.|first=Dinakar|last=Peri|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=30 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518103659/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/army-gets-two-us-made-m777-ultra-light-howitzers/article18482205.ece|archive-date=18 May 2017|url-status=live|date=18 May 2017}}</ref> It was reported that on 2 September 2017, the barrel of one of the howitzers was damaged while firing during calibration trials.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/army-s-new-us-made-m777-howitzer-in-trouble-barrel-explodes-at-pokhran-range/story-FBr9a2voeSWrumBhZisFcO.html |title=Army's new US-made M777 howitzer in trouble, barrel explodes at Pokhran range |access-date=12 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912164656/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/army-s-new-us-made-m777-howitzer-in-trouble-barrel-explodes-at-pokhran-range/story-FBr9a2voeSWrumBhZisFcO.html |archive-date=12 September 2017 |url-status=live |date=12 September 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2017/sep/12/barrel-of-us-manufactured-howitzer-gun-explodes-during-indian-armys-calibration-trial-1656186.html |title=Barrel of US-manufactured Howitzer gun explodes during Indian army's calibration trial |access-date=12 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912174258/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2017/sep/12/barrel-of-us-manufactured-howitzer-gun-explodes-during-indian-armys-calibration-trial-1656186.html |archive-date=12 September 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Indian army used the M777 howitzer in the Himvijay exercise in Arunachal Pradesh which involved the newly raised integrated battle groups.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m-economictimes-com.cdn.ampproject.org/v/s/m.economictimes.com/news/defence/india-to-deploy-latest-american-weapon-systems-for-ex-himvijay-along-china-border/amp_articleshow/71108992.cms?usqp=mq331AQCKAE=&amp_js_v=0.1|title=India China: India to deploy latest American weapon systems for Ex-HimVijay along China border - The Economic Times|website=m-economictimes-com.cdn.ampproject.org|access-date=2019-10-14}}</ref>

A total of 7 artillery regiments are planned, each of 18 guns. The first regiment is planned to be raised by end-2020 with 15 guns supplied by BAE systems and three guns supplied by Mahindra Defense Systems Limited.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/m777-regiment-to-get-3-made-in-india-guns/story-xhNr4drnZCckqN3qErlfyK.html|title=Indian Army's M777 regiment to get 3 made-in-India guns - The Economic Times|website=m-economictimes-com.cdn.ampproject.org|access-date=2019-11-13|date=13 November 2019}}</ref>

In July 2020, in the wake of escalating tension with China in light of hostile Chinese posturing, particularly on the border between the Union Territory of Ladakh and Chinese-occupied Tibet, further purchases of Excalibur shells were announced by the Indian Ministry of Defence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://asiatimes.com/2020/07/border-clashes-prompt-india-to-fast-track-weapons-buys/|title = Border clashes prompt India to fast-track weapons buys|date = 7 July 2020}}</ref>

===Saudi Arabia===
In 2011, [[Saudi Arabia]] ordered 36 M777A2 155 mm towed howitzers from the United States, along with 17,136 rounds of high explosive (HE) ammunition and 2,304 rounds of longer range [[rocket-assisted projectile]]s (RAPs).{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

The Saudis purchased [[HMMWV]] vehicles to haul ammunition and carry the crews and their gear. However, they did not order any GPS-guided 155 mm Excalibur shells for their M777A2 guns.<ref name=Saudi>{{cite web|title=The Arabian Light|url=http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htart/20111007.aspx|date=7 October 2011|access-date=5 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110232112/http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htart/20111007.aspx|archive-date=10 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Ukraine===
In April 2022, during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in the [[Russo-Ukraine War]], the United States provided 90, Canada provided 4 and Australia provided 6 M777 howitzers with ammunition to the [[Armed Forces of Ukraine|Ukrainian armed forces]], to repel Russia.<ref name="Canada M777" /><ref>{{cite news |url= https://apnews.com/69f39ffb0c58c7fdbbf3154cca0a9230 |title= EXPLAINER: Why Washington is boosting heavy arms for Ukraine |author= Robert Burns |date= 22 April 2022 |agency= Associated Press |publisher= AP News }} </ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Mitchell |first1=Alex |last2=Brown |first2=Andrew |title=Australia provides Ukraine extra support |url=https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7714577/australia-provides-ukraine-extra-support/ |access-date=27 April 2022 |work=The Canberra Times |date=27 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fact Sheet on U.S. Security Assistance for Ukraine |url=https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3008717/fact-sheet-on-us-security-assistance-for-ukraine/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=U.S. Department of Defense |language=en-US}}</ref>

On 9 May 2022 Ukrainian journalist [[Yurii Butusov]] released a video showing presumably one of the first shots fired from a M777 howitzer in the East of Ukraine.<ref>{{YouTube|QieV3CMi9es|Первые выстрелы ВС Украины из американских гаубиц М777 по российским войскам на Востоке Украины.}}</ref>

===United States===

The M777 succeeded the [[M198 howitzer]] in the [[United States Marine Corps]] and [[United States Army]] in 2005. In 2014 the US military began fielding several upgrades to its M777 howitzers including new [[liquid crystal display]] units, software updates, improved power systems, and muzzle sensors for onboard ballistic computing. Future upgrades include a touchscreen Chief Section Display, a new Mission System Computer, and a digital radio.<ref name="PM Towed Artillery Systems">{{cite web|title=PM Towed Artillery Systems|url=http://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/pm-towed-artillery-systems/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105012411/http://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/pm-towed-artillery-systems/|archive-date=5 November 2014|access-date=4 November 2014|work=Defense Media Network}}</ref>

====Army====
[[File:Firing rounds with an M777 Howitzer Afghanistan 2009.jpg|right|thumb|Soldiers with Battery C, 1st Battalion, 321st Airborne Field Artillery Regiment, 18th Fires Brigade, [[82nd Airborne Division]], fire {{Nowrap|155 mm}} rounds using an M777 Howitzer weapons system, on Forward Operating Base Bostick, Afghanistan, 2009.]]

The [[18th Field Artillery Brigade]] (Airborne) at [[Fort Bragg]], North Carolina, was the initial Army test bed unit for the XM777 which included the 1st and 3rd Battalions of the [[321st Field Artillery Regiment]]. The initial prototypes were test by 1st Battalion, 377th Air Assault Regiment, in 1998 also a unit of the 18th Field Artillery Brigade. 2nd Platoon, Bravo Battery, 2nd Battalion, [[11th Field Artillery Regiment]] (2-11 FA), was the first US Army unit to fire the M777A in combat on {{Nowrap|2 January}} 2008 in support of [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]]. In June 2007, the M777 in its A2 configuration was assigned to the U.S. Army's 3-321 FA. It deployed to [[Afghanistan]] in support of [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in December 2007 in January 2008 making the unit the first U.S. Army unit to utilise the M777 in combat in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. In April 2008, the M777 was deployed for testing with [[8th Field Artillery Regiment|2-8 FA]] at [[Fort Wainwright]] in [[Fairbanks, Alaska]].<ref>[http://www.newsminer.com/news/2008/mar/27/alaska-brief-march-27/ "Alaska in Brief—March 27"] "Army to test new howitzer in Fairbanks", ''Fairbanks Daily News-Miner'', 27 March 2008. Accessed 27 March 2008.</ref> On 20 July 2008, at [[Camp Shelby]], Mississippi, [[108th Field Artillery Regiment|1-108 FA]], [[28th Infantry Division (United States)|28th Infantry Division]], [[Pennsylvania National Guard]], became the first field artillery unit of the [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]] to field and fire the M777. Two soldiers from [[321st Field Artillery Regiment|2-319 FA]] were killed from a breech explosion and other members of their gun crew were injured while attempting to fire a M777 at an ISIL mortar position in northern Iraq.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.stripes.com/news/2-us-soldiers-killed-in-artillery-mishap-in-iraq-identified-1.482836#.WZaAAulLfIU|title=2 US soldiers killed in artillery mishap in Iraq identified|access-date=18 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816013329/https://www.stripes.com/news/2-us-soldiers-killed-in-artillery-mishap-in-iraq-identified-1.482836#.WZaAAulLfIU|archive-date=16 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Multiple firing incidents have occurred during training with the M777 including a fatal one in February 2014 with 3-321 FA<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Latest-News-Wires/2014/0222/82nd-Airborne-paratrooper-dies-in-howitzer-explosion-at-Fort-Bragg|title=82nd Airborne paratrooper dies in howitzer explosion at Fort Bragg|agency=Associated Press|journal=The Christian Science Monitor|access-date=4 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105002911/http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Latest-News-Wires/2014/0222/82nd-Airborne-paratrooper-dies-in-howitzer-explosion-at-Fort-Bragg|archive-date=5 November 2014|url-status=live|date=22 February 2014}}</ref> and previously in 2011 with Marines from [[Camp Lejeune]] also at Fort Bragg.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wral.com/news/local/story/9271350/|title=Ten injured during artillery training at Fort Bragg|publisher=WRAL.com|access-date=4 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104224019/http://www.wral.com/news/local/story/9271350/|archive-date=4 November 2014|url-status=live|date=15 March 2011}}</ref>

In May 2017, the US Army revealed it was buying the Swedish [[Bofors 155 Bonus|BONUS]] round as an interim system as a result of the required phasing out of [[cluster munitions]] from artillery shells, complying with policy to achieve less than 1% [[unexploded ordnance]] from non-unitary explosives; the BONUS has two sensor-fused munitions deployed by a 155 mm carrier projectile that scan the ground for targets and fire [[explosively formed penetrator]]s down from the air. The system has been tested from the M777 howitzer.<ref>[http://www.military.com/daily-news/2017/05/02/army-concerned-over-ban-on-cluster-munitions-land-mines.html "Army Concerned Over Ban on Cluster Munitions, Land Mines"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806185246/http://www.military.com/daily-news/2017/05/02/army-concerned-over-ban-on-cluster-munitions-land-mines.html?ESRC=todayinmil.sm|date=6 August 2017}} Military.com, 2 May 2017</ref>

The [[3rd Cavalry Regiment (United States)|3rd Cavalry Regiment]] deployed multiple M777A2 guns to Firebase Saham in Iraq on the border with [[Syria]] from 8 November 2018 to April 2019 to support the [[Syrian Democratic Forces]] in the [[Battle of Baghuz Fawqani]], the ultimately successful operation to capture the [[Al-Baghuz Fawqani|final town]] held by [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.army.mil/article/215289/firebase_saham_a_day_in_the_life_of_joint_artillerymen_securing_the_iraq_border|title=Firebase Saham: A day in the life of joint-artillerymen securing the Iraq border|last=Welch|first=Jason|date=2018-12-18|website=www.army.mil|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419021415/https://www.army.mil/article/215289/firebase_saham_a_day_in_the_life_of_joint_artillerymen_securing_the_iraq_border|archive-date=19 April 2019|url-status=live|access-date=2019-04-19}}</ref>

====Marine Corps====
[[File:United States Marine Corps M777A2-155mm-howitzer.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|alt=Marines fire an M777A2 155 mm howitzer|Marines fire an M777A2 155 mm howitzer]]

In May 2005, [[3rd Battalion, 11th Marines]], based at [[Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms]], became the first Marine unit to begin fielding the new M777. 580 guns were supplied to the Marines, and 421 to the U.S. Army and National Guard.<ref name="deagel1">{{cite web |url=http://www.deagel.com/news/DoD-Orders-46-Additional-M777-Howitzers_n000008440.aspx |title=DoD Orders 46 Additional M777 Howitzers |publisher=Deagel.com |date=22 February 2011 |access-date=2012-07-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709004034/http://www.deagel.com/news/DoD-Orders-46-Additional-M777-Howitzers_n000008440.aspx |archive-date=9 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="autogenerated190">{{Cite web |url=http://asafm.army.mil/Documents/OfficeDocuments/Budget/BudgetMaterials/FY12/pforms//wtcv.pdf |title=page:190 |access-date=28 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110420084026/http://asafm.army.mil/Documents/OfficeDocuments/Budget/BudgetMaterials/FY12/pforms//wtcv.pdf |archive-date=20 April 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In March 2016, 200 Marines and four M777A2 howitzers from the [[26th Marine Expeditionary Unit]] set up [[Firebase Bell]], officially the Karasoar Counterfire Complex, near the Iraqi town of [[Makhmur, Iraq|Makhmour]], supporting the [[Iraqi Army]]'s [[Mosul offensive (2016)|Mosul offensive]]. The firebase was only {{convert|15|mi|km|order=flip}} from [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]]-controlled territory, and one Marine was killed in a rocket attack on 19 March, just days after arriving; direct attacks on the base dropped off in the following weeks as the Iraqis captured surrounding villages. The Marine howitzers fired every day in support of Iraqi maneuvers, using high explosive, smoke, and illumination rounds.<ref>[http://www.militarytimes.com/story/veterans/2016/04/07/near-isis-front-us-marine-artillerymen-fire-everyday/82748578/ "Near ISIS front, U.S. Marine artillerymen 'fire every day'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818022719/http://www.militarytimes.com/story/veterans/2016/04/07/near-isis-front-us-marine-artillerymen-fire-everyday/82748578/ |date=18 August 2016 }} ''Military Times'', 7 April 2016</ref> They were relieved by Army soldiers after roughly 60 days, after firing more than 2,000 rounds in 486 fire missions.<ref>[http://www.militarytimes.com/story/military/2016/06/30/marines-iraq-came-under-numerous-rocket-attacks-commander-says/86561736/ "Marines in Iraq came under 'numerous' rocket attacks, commander says"]{{Dead link|date=March 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ''Military Times'', 30 June 2016</ref>

In March 2017, the [[11th Marine Expeditionary Unit]] was deployed to Syria to provide artillery support with their M777s for forces seeking to eject ISIL forces from [[Raqqa]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2017/03/08/marines-have-arrived-in-syria-to-fire-artillery-in-the-fight-for-raqqa/|newspaper=The Washington Post|title=Marines have arrived in Syria to fire artillery in the fight for Raqqa|date=8 March 2017|access-date=9 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309004432/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2017/03/08/marines-have-arrived-in-syria-to-fire-artillery-in-the-fight-for-raqqa/|archive-date=9 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Combat history==
* [[Iraq War]]
* [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]]
* [[Military intervention against ISIL]]: Multiple M777A2 guns were deployed to Iraq on the border with [[Syria]] from 8 November 2018 to April 2019 to support the [[Syrian Democratic Forces]] in the [[Battle of Baghuz Fawqani]], the ultimately successful operation to capture the [[Al-Baghuz Fawqani|final town]] held by the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State group]]. They deployed to Firebase Saham, a base freshly constructed by the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] to provide fire support during the battle, especially during cloudy days when U.S. aircraft could not see to conduct airstrikes.<ref name=":1" />
*Sino - Indian border stand-off: The Indian Army has apparently deployed multiple artillery platforms, including the M777 howitzers, along the Line of Actual Control or the border with China where the PLA and the Indian Army have been engaged in a stand-off for many months now.
* [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]<ref name="m777">Caitlin M. Kenney & Kevin Baron [https://www.defenseone.com/threats/2022/04/how-much-can-us-howitzers-help-ukraine/366093/ (25 Apr 2022) How Much Can US Howitzers Help Ukraine?] Explainer</ref>

==Operators==
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2021}}


===Current operators===

;{{AUS}} ([[Australian Army]]): 48 systems (M777A2) previously 54 with 6 having been donated to Ukraine<ref name="Canberra Times">{{cite web |last1=Mitchell |first1=Alex |title=Australia provides Ukraine extra support |url=https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7714577/australia-provides-ukraine-extra-support/ |publisher=The Canberra Times |access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref>
;{{CAN}} ([[Canadian Army]]): 33 systems, previously 37 with 4 having been donated to Ukraine. The donated howitzers will be replenished.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Defence |first=National |date=2014-03-06 |title=Status Report on Transformational and Major Crown Projects - RPP 2014-15 |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/corporate/reports-publications/plans-priorities/2014-15/status-report-transformational-major-crown-projects.html |access-date=2022-04-18 |website=www.canada.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-04-22 |title=Canada announces artillery and other additional military aid for Ukraine |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/news/2022/04/canada-announces-artillery-and-other-additional-military-aid-for-ukraine.html |access-date=2022-05-02 |website=www.canada.ca}}</ref>
;{{IND}} ([[Indian Army]]): 89 systems in service<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/army-to-get-firepower-boost-in-mountains-with-more-m777-guns-101636896249075.html|title = Army to get firepower boost in mountains with more M777 guns|date = 14 November 2021}}.</ref> (a total of 145 systems were on order out of which all the remaining 120 systems are being built in India by Mahindra Defence under the "Make in India" program)
;{{KSA}}: 70 systems
;{{USA}}: 999 systems, 481 for the [[US Marine Corps]] and 518 for the [[US Army]] and [[Army National Guard]], were acquired. The US fields a "pure fleet" of M777A2 variants.<ref name="PM Towed Artillery Systems" /> In 2022 at least 90 of the US Marine Corps' systems were donated to Ukraine.<ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. Marine Corps M777 howitzers shipped to support Ukraine |url=https://www.dvidshub.net/image/7162397/us-marine-corps-m777-howitzers-shipped-support-ukraine |publisher=U.S. Marine Corps |access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref>
;{{flag|Ukraine}}: 100 systems (90<ref>{{Cite web |title=M777 Artillery Deliveries Should Help Ukraine in the Donbas, Says Official |url=https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3015463/m777-artillery-deliveries-should-help-ukraine-in-the-donbas-says-official/ |access-date=2022-05-01 |website=U.S. Department of Defense |language=en-US}}</ref> of which were donated by the United States<ref>{{Cite web |title=First American howitzers bound for Ukraine arrive in Europe as US troops begin training Ukrainians on the cannons |url=https://www.stripes.com/theaters/europe/2022-04-20/ukraine-russia-war-military-aid-howitzers-training-donbas-5747428.html |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Stars and Stripes |lang=en}}</ref> (along with 183,000<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fact Sheet on U.S. Security Assistance for Ukraine |url=https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3008717/fact-sheet-on-us-security-assistance-for-ukraine/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=U.S. Department of Defense |language=en-US}}</ref> 155 mm artillery rounds), 4 systems by Canada,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Defence |first=National |date=2022-04-22 |title=Canada announces artillery and other additional military aid for Ukraine |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/news/2022/04/canada-announces-artillery-and-other-additional-military-aid-for-ukraine.html |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.canada.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-22 |title=Canada sends four pieces of field artillery to Ukraine as it braces for renewed Russian attack |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/ukraine-m777-howitzer-russia-heavy-artillery-1.6427762 |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.cbc.ca}}</ref> and 6 systems by Australia,<ref name="Canberra Times" /> following the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]])<ref>{{Cite web|lang=fr|url=https://fr.euronews.com/2022/04/14/nouvelle-aide-militaire-de-800-millions-de-dollars-pour-kyiv|title=Nouvelle aide militaire de 800 millions de dollars pour Kyiv|website=euronews|date=2022-04-14|access-date=2022-04-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|lang=en-US|url=https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3007229/austin-to-host-meeting-in-germany-to-discuss-ukraines-long-term-defense-needs/|title=Austin to Host Meeting in Germany to Discuss Ukraine|website=U.S. Department of Defense|access-date=2022-04-21}}</ref>
;{{Flag|Colombia}}: The [[Colombian Naval Infantry]] will obtain M777 systems as part of a donation from the [[United States Marine Corps]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Defensa.com |date=2022-02-28 |title=La Infantería de Marina de Colombia se dotará de obuses M777 de 155 mm y vehículos anfibios del Cuerpo de Marines de los Estados Unidos-noticia defensa.com - Noticias Defensa defensa.com Colombia |url=https://www.defensa.com/colombia/infanteria-marina-colombia-dotara-obuses-m777-155-mm-vehiculos |access-date=2022-03-19 |website=Defensa.com |language=es}}</ref>

=== Potential operators ===
* {{flag|United Arab Emirates}}: On 5 May 2016, BAE Systems confirmed that it is working with Emirates Defense Technology (EDT) to develop a self-propelled version of the M777 howitzer for the [[Union Defence Force (UAE)|UAE Armed Forces]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Binnie|first1=Jeremy|title=BAE Systems looks to sell M777 to the UAE|url=http://www.janes.com/article/60097/bae-systems-looks-to-sell-m777s-to-the-uae|website=IHS Jane's 360|publisher=IHS Jane's|access-date=9 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510101455/http://www.janes.com/article/60097/bae-systems-looks-to-sell-m777s-to-the-uae|archive-date=10 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
File:US Navy 090719-N-0120A-634 An MH-53E Sea Stallion helicopter, assigned to the Air Combat Element of the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit, embarked aboard the forward-deployed amphibious assault ship USS Essex (LHD 2) lifts an M77.jpg|[[CH-53 Sea Stallion|Sea Stallion]] helicopter lifts an M777
File:Flares fired by M777 howitzers to illuminate during Operation Tora Arwa V in the Kandahar province Aug. 2 2009.jpg|Illumination rounds fired during Operation Tora Arwa V in the [[Kandahar Province]], Afghanistan
File:M777 Light Towed Howitzer 2.jpg|M777 in [[Logar Province]], Afghanistan
File:U.S. Soldiers with Alpha Battery, Field Artillery Squadron, 2nd Cavalry Regiment, prepare to tow an M777 155 mm howitzer during a decisive action training environment exercise at the Joint Multinational 121028-A-TF309-005.jpg|Towed configuration with the [[Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles|FMTV]] as the prime mover
File:M777 Light Towed Howitzer In operation.ogv|M777 Light Towed Howitzer in Operation in Logar Province, Afghanistan
File:3rd Cavalry Regiment m777 howitzer.jpg|U.S. Army [[3rd Cavalry Regiment (United States)|3rd Cavalry Regiment]] using the ramming staff to load ammunition during the [[military intervention against ISIL]] in [[Al-Qa'im (town)|al-Qa'im]], Iraq
</gallery>

==See also==

* [[152 mm howitzer 2A65]]
* [[AHS Krab]]
* [[List of howitzers]]
* [[SLWH Pegasus]]
* [[Norinco AH4 155 mm howitzer]]
* [[Cannon-launched guided projectile]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|M777 howitzer}}
* http://indiandefenceboard.com/threads/india-clears-660-mn-deal-for-artillery-guns.2375/
* [http:/
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/lw155.htm Global Security]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080405180156/http://www.sfu.ca/casr/bg-artillery-155mm-M777.htm Canadian American Strategic Review]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130216085342/http://www.dsca.osd.mil/PressReleases/36-b/2008/Canada_08-68.pdf 37 additional M777 for Canadian Forces ]

{{DEFAULTSORT:M777 Howitzer}}
[[Category:155 mm artillery]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Artillery of the United States]]
[[Category:BAE Systems weapons systems]]
[[Category:Howitzers]]
[[Category:Post–Cold War artillery of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Military equipment introduced in the 2000s]]

Akashic records

2022-04-17T11:53:44Z

Cuaxdon:

{{Short description|Term in theosophy and anthroposophy}}
{{Other uses|Akashic records (disambiguation)}}
{{multiple image
| footer=[[Rudolf Steiner]] and [[Edgar Cayce]] claimed access to the Akashic records
| image1=Steiner um 1905.jpg
| width1=160
| alt1=Rudolf Steiner
| image2=Cayce 1910.jpg
| width2=160
| alt2=Edgar Cayce
}}

In the religion of [[theosophy]] and the philosophical school called [[anthroposophy]], the '''Akashic records''' are a [[compendium]] of all universal events, thoughts, words, emotions and intent ever to have occurred in the past, present, or future in terms of all entities and life forms, not just human. They are believed by [[Theosophy|theosophists]] to be encoded in a non-physical plane of existence known as the [[mental plane]]. There are [[Anecdotal evidence|anecdotal]] accounts but there is no scientific evidence for the existence of the Akashic records.<ref>{{cite book |last= Ellwood |first= Robert S. |year=1996 |chapter= Theosophy |publisher= Prometheus Books |pages= 759–66 |isbn= 978-1-57392-021-6|title= The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal }}</ref><ref name="Regal 2009">{{cite book |last= Regal |first= Brian |author-link= Brian Regal |year= 2009 |title= Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia |publisher= Greenwood |page= 29 |isbn= 978-0-313-35507-3 |quote= Other than anecdotal eyewitness accounts, there is no evidence of the ability to astral project, the existence of other planes, or of the Akashic Record.}}</ref><ref name=Drury>{{cite book | url=https://www.questia.com/read/121381643 | title=Heaven: The Rise of Modern Western Magic | publisher=Oxford University Press |last= Drury |first= Nevill | year=2011 | location=New York | pages=308 | isbn=978-0-19-975100-6}}</ref>

''[[Akasha]]'' (''{{IAST|ākāśa}}'' {{lang|sa|आकाश}}) is the [[Sanskrit]] word for "[[Aether (classical element)|aether]]", "sky", or "atmosphere".<ref name="Rowell-India">{{cite book |last1=Rowell |first1=Lewis |title=Music and Musical Thought in Early India |date=1 January 1998 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226730332 |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XHxkvLUIENIC&q=%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Ba+translate+sanskrit&pg=PA48 |access-date=6 August 2019}}</ref>

==History==

===Theosophical Society===

The Sanskrit term ''akasha'' was introduced to the language of theosophy through [[H. P. Blavatsky]] (1831–1891), who characterized it as a sort of life force; she also referred to "indestructible tablets of the astral light" recording both the past and future of human thought and action, but she did not use the term "akashic".<ref name="brandt_hammer">{{cite book|first1=Katharina|last1=Brandt|first2=Olav|last2=Hammer|chapter=Rudolf Steiner and Theosophy|title=Handbook of the Theosophical Current|editor1-first=Olav|editor1-last=Hammer|editor2-first=Mikael|editor2-last=Rothstein|location= Leiden, NL; Boston|publisher=Brill|year= 2013|pages= [https://books.google.com/books?id=snZRetoB9yIC&pg=PA122 122–3] |isbn= 9789004235960 |ref={{Harvid|Hammer & Rothstein|2013}}}}</ref>
The notion of an akashic ''record'' was further disseminated by [[Alfred Percy Sinnett]] in his book [[Esoteric Buddhism (book)|''Esoteric Buddhism'']] (1883) when he cites [[Henry Steel Olcott]]'s ''A Buddhist Catechism'' (1881).<ref name="esoteric.buddhism">{{cite book|first=Alfred Percy|last=Sinnett|title=Esoteric Buddhism|page=127|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A_4LAAAAIAAJ&q=akasa&pg=PA127|year=1884|edition=5th|publisher=Houghton Mifflin}}</ref> Olcott wrote that "Buddha taught two things are eternal, viz, 'Akasa' and 'Nirvana': everything has come out of Akasa in obedience to a law of motion inherent in it, and, passes away. No thing ever comes out of nothing." Olcott further explains that "Early Buddhism, then, clearly held to a permanency of records in the Akasa and the potential capacity of man to read the same, when he was evoluted to the stage of true individual enlightenment."<ref>Olcott, Henry Steel. ''A Buddhist Catechism''. London: Allen Scott and Company, 1881. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pgBOAQAAIAAJ&dq=A%20Buddhist%20catechism%20olcott&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q=akasa&f=false 51–2], [https://books.google.com/books?id=pgBOAQAAIAAJ&dq=A%20Buddhist%20catechism%20olcott&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q=akasa&f=false 79].</ref>

By [[C. W. Leadbeater]]'s [[C. W. Leadbeater#Clairvoyance|''Clairvoyance'']] (1899) the association of the term with the idea was complete, and he identified the akashic records by name as something a [[clairvoyant]] could read.<ref name="brandt_hammer" />
In his 1913 ''[[Man: Whence, How and Whither, a Record of Clairvoyant Investigation|Man: Whence, How and Whither]]'', Leadbeater claims to record the history of [[Atlantis]] and other civilizations as well as the future society of [[Earth]] in the 28th century.<ref name="brandt_hammer" /><ref>{{cite book |last1= Besant |first1= Annie |last2= Leadbeater |first2= C.W. |title= Man: How, Whence, and Whither? |location= Adyar,Chennai, India |year= 1913 |publisher= Theosophical Publishing House}}</ref>

[[Alice A. Bailey]] wrote in her book ''Light of the Soul'' on ''The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali – Book 3 – Union achieved and its Results'' (1927):

{{quote|The akashic record is like an immense photographic film, registering all the desires and earth experiences of our planet. Those who perceive it will see pictured thereon: The life experiences of every human being since time began, the reactions to experience of the entire animal kingdom, the aggregation of the thought-forms of a [[karma|karmic nature]] (based on desire) of every human unit throughout time. Herein lies the great deception of the records. Only a trained occultist can distinguish between actual experience and those astral pictures created by imagination and keen desire.}}

===Rudolf Steiner===

The [[Austrian people|Austrian]] theosophist, and later founder of [[Anthroposophy]], [[Rudolf Steiner]] used the Akashic records concept mainly in a series of articles in his journal ''[[Lucifer-Gnosis]]'' from 1904 to 1908, where he wrote about [[Atlantis]] and [[Lemuria (continent)|Lemuria]], topics related to their purported history and civilization.<ref>''Aus der Akasha-Chronik''. Partial edition of the work in English:

* {{cite book |first= Rudolf |last= Steiner |title= The Submerged Continents of Atlantis and Lemuria, Their History and Civilization. Being Chapters from The Âkâshic Records |location= [[London]] |publisher= Theosophical Publishing Society |year= 1911}}
First complete English edition:

* {{cite book |first= Rudolf |last= Steiner |title= Cosmic Memory |location= [[Englewood, New Jersey]] |publisher= Rudolf Steiner Publications |year= 1959}}</ref> Besides this, he used the term in the title of lectures on a ''Fifth [[Gospel]]'' held in 1913 and 1914, shortly after the foundation of the [[Anthroposophical Society]] and Steiner's exclusion from the [[Theosophical Society Adyar]].<ref>{{cite book |first= Rudolf |last= Steiner |title= The Fifth Gospel. Investigation of the Akasha Chronicle. Five lectures given in Christiania, 1913 |location= London |publisher= Rudolf Steiner Publishing |year= 1950}}</ref>

===Other===

[[Edgar Cayce]] claimed to be able to access the Akashic records.<ref name="Regal 2009"/>

== See also ==
* [[Book of Life]]
* [[Chokhmah]]
* [[Collective unconscious]]
* [[Esoteric cosmology]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Theosophy series}}

[[Category:Anthroposophy]]
[[Category:Esoteric cosmology]]
[[Category:Theosophy]]
[[Category:Theosophical philosophical concepts]]

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-04-07T12:37:47Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[latin script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]] ([[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]] ([[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]] ([[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]] ([[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɛ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]] ([[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]] ([[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]] ([[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]] ([[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]] ([[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]] ([[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]] ([[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] ([[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]] ([[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ([[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]] ([[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]] ([[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]] ([[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] ([[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]] ([[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]] ([[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]] ([[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] ([[Yery|Ꙑ]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ꙑ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɨ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|<s>ı</s>]] ([[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ы]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-04-07T12:26:23Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[latin script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]] ([[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]] ([[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]] ([[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]] ([[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɛ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]] ([[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]] ([[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]] ([[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]] ([[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]] ([[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]] ([[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]] ([[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] ([[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]] ([[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ([[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]] ([[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]] ([[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]] ([[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] ([[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]] ([[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]] ([[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]] ([[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] ([[Yery|Ꙑ]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ꙑ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ƚ|ƚ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|<s>ı</s>]] ([[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ы]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-04-07T12:24:43Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[latin script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]] ([[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]] ([[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]] ([[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]] ([[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɛ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]] ([[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]] ([[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]] ([[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]] ([[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]] ([[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]] ([[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]] ([[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] ([[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]] ([[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ([[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]] ([[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]] ([[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]] ([[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] ([[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]] ([[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]] ([[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]] ([[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] ([[Yery|Ꙑ]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ꙑ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ƚ|ł]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|<s>ı</s>]] ([[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ы]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-03-26T13:19:04Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[latin script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]] ([[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]] ([[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]] ([[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]] ([[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɛ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]] ([[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]] ([[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]] ([[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]] ([[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]] ([[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]] ([[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]] ([[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] ([[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]] ([[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ([[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]] ([[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]] ([[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]] ([[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] ([[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]] ([[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]] ([[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]] ([[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] ([[Yery|Ꙑ]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ꙑ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɯ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ɯ]] ([[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ы]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-03-26T13:17:37Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[latin script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]] ([[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]] ([[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]] ([[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]] ([[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɛ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]] ([[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]] ([[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]] ([[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]] ([[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]] ([[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]] ([[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]] ([[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]] ([[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]] ([[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]] ([[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] ([[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]] ([[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ([[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]] ([[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]] ([[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]] ([[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] ([[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]] ([[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]] ([[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]] ([[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]| ([[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]] ([[Yery|Ꙑ]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ꙑ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ɯ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ɯ]] ([[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ы]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

Highgate Cemetery

2022-03-15T13:27:10Z

Cuaxdon: /* Gallery */

{{short description|Place of burial in north London, England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox cemetery
| name = Highgate Cemetery
| image = Highgate Cemetery East.JPG
| imagesize = 260
| caption = Highgate (East) Cemetery ({{circa}} 2010)
| map_type =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| established = 1839
| location = Swain's Lane, [[London]], [[N postcode area|N6 6PJ]]
| country = [[England]]
| coordinates = {{coord|51.567|-0.147|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| type =
| style =
| owner = Friends of Highgate Cemetery Trust
| size = {{convert|15|ha|acre}}
| graves = 53,000+
| interments = 170,000
| website = [https://www.highgatecemetery.org Highgate Cemetery]
| findagrave1 = 638894
| findagrave1_label = East
| findagrave2 = 638895
| findagrave2_label = West
| political =
}}

'''Highgate Cemetery''' is a place of burial in [[north London]], England. There are approximately 170,000 people buried in around 53,000 graves across the West and East Cemeteries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/index.php/faqs|website=Highgate Cemetery|publisher=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216041052/http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/index.php/faqs|archive-date=16 February 2013}}</ref> Highgate Cemetery is notable both for some of the people buried there as well as for its ''de facto'' status as a [[nature reserve]]. The Cemetery is designated Grade I on the [[Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England|Register of Historic Parks and Gardens]].<ref name=NHLEGarden>{{NHLE|num=1000810|desc=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 June 2017}}</ref> It is one of the [[Magnificent Seven, London|Magnificent Seven]] cemeteries in London.

==Location==
The [[cemetery]] comprises two sites, each on either side of Swains Lane in [[Highgate]], [[N postcode area|N6]], next to [[Waterlow Park]]. The main gate is located on Swains Lane just north of Oakshott Avenue. There is another disused gate on Chester Road. The cemetery is in the [[London Borough of Camden]]. The nearest public transport ([[Transport for London]]) is the C11 bus, Brookfield Park stop, or [[Archway tube station]].

==History and setting==
The cemetery in its original form{{snd}}the northwestern wooded area{{snd}}opened in 1839, as part of a plan to provide seven large, modern cemeteries, now known as the "[[Magnificent Seven, London|Magnificent Seven]]", around the outside of central London. The inner-city cemeteries, mostly the graveyards attached to individual churches, had long been unable to cope with the number of burials and were seen as a hazard to health and an undignified way to treat the dead. The initial design was by architect and entrepreneur [[Stephen Geary]].

On Monday 20 May 1839, Highgate (West) Cemetery was dedicated to [[James, son of Alphaeus|St. James]]<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://highgatecemetery.org/about/history|website=Highgate Cemetery|publisher=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170124082617/http://highgatecemetery.org/about/history|archive-date=24 January 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> by the Right Reverend [[Charles James Blomfield]], Lord [[Bishop of London]]. Fifteen acres were consecrated for the use of the [[Church of England]], and two acres set aside for [[English Dissenters|Dissenters]]. Rights of burial were sold for either limited period or in perpetuity. The first burial was Elizabeth Jackson of Little Windmill Street, [[Soho]], on 26 May.

Highgate, like the others of the Magnificent Seven, soon became a fashionable place for burials and was much admired and visited. The [[Victorian era|Victorian]] attitude to death and its presentation led to the creation of a wealth of [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] tombs and buildings. It occupies a spectacular south-facing hillside site slightly downhill from the top of the hill of Highgate itself, next to Waterlow Park. In 1854 a further 19 acres to the south east of the original area, across Swains Lane, was bought to form the eastern part of the cemetery which opened in 1860. Both sides of the Cemetery are still used today for burials.

The cemetery's grounds are full of trees, shrubbery and wildflowers, most of which have been planted and grown without human influence. The grounds are a haven for birds and small animals such as foxes.

Highgate Cemetery was featured in the popular media from the 1960s to the late 1980s for its so-called [[occult]] past, particularly as being the alleged site of the "[[Highgate Vampire]]".

==Friends of Highgate Cemetery==
The Cemetery is now owned and maintained by a charitable trust, the Friends of Highgate Cemetery Trust, which was set up in 1975 and acquired the freehold of both East and West Cemeteries by 1981. In 1984 it published ''Highgate Cemetery: Victorian Valhalla'' by [[John Gay (photographer)|John Gay]].<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/ | title = A Brief History of Highgate Cemetery}}</ref>

==West Cemetery==
[[File:Egyptian Avenue Highgate Cemetery.jpg|thumb|250px|Entrance to the Egyptian Avenue, West Cemetery]]
[[File:High-cemetery-circle.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Circle of Lebanon, West Cemetery]]
The Cemetery's grounds are full of trees, shrubbery and wildflowers, most of which have been planted and grown without human influence. The grounds are a haven for birds and small animals such as foxes. The Egyptian Avenue and the Circle of Lebanon (previously surmounted by a huge, 280 years old [[Lebanon Cedar|Cedar of Lebanon]], which had to be cut down and replaced in August 2019) feature tombs, vaults and winding paths dug into hillsides. The Egyptian Avenue and the Columbarium are Grade I [[listed building]]s.

===Notable West Cemetery interments===
* [[Henry Thomas Alken|Henry Alken]], painter, engraver and illustrator of sporting and coaching scenes
* [[Jane Arden (director)|Jane Arden]], Welsh-born film director, actor, screenwriter, playwright, songwriter, and poet
* [[John Atcheler]], ‘Horse slaughterer to [[Queen Victoria]]’
* [[Edward Hodges Baily]], sculptor
* [[Beryl Bainbridge]], author
* [[Abraham Dee Bartlett]], [[zoologist]], superintendent of the [[London Zoo]] known for selling the popular African elephant [[Jumbo]] to [[P. T. Barnum]]

* [[Julius Beer]] (and family members), owner of ''[[The Observer]]''.
* [[Francis Bedford (photographer)|Francis Bedford]], landscape photographer
* [[William Belt]], barrister and antiquarian, best known for his eccentric behaviour
* [[Mary Matilda Betham]], diarist, poet, woman of letters, and miniature portrait painter
* [[Eugenius Birch]], seaside architect and noted designer of promenade-piers
* [[Edward Blore]], architect known for his work on [[Buckingham Palace]] and [[Westminster Abbey]]
* [[Edwin Brett]], publisher and pioneer of serialised sensational weekly fiction and '[[penny dreadfuls]]'
* [[Jacob Bronowski]], scientist, creator of the television series ''[[The Ascent of Man]]''
* [[James Bunstone Bunning]], City Architect to the [[City of London]]
* [[Robert William Buss]], artist and illustrator
* [[Edward Dundas Butler]], translator and senior librarian at the [[British Library|Department of Printed Books, British Museum]]
* [[Edward Cardwell, 1st Viscount Cardwell]], prominent politician in the [[Peelite]] and [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] parties, best remembered for his tenure as [[Secretary of State for War]]
* [[William Benjamin Carpenter]], physician, invertebrate zoologist and physiologist
* [[J. Comyns Carr|Joseph William Comyns Carr]], drama and art critic, gallery director, author, poet, playwright and theatre manager
* [[John James Chalon]], Swiss painter
* [[Robert Caesar Childers]], [[Orientalism|scholar of the Orient]] and writer
* [[Edmund Chipp]], organist and composer
* [[Charles Chubb (businessman)|Charles Chubb]], lock and safe manufacturer
* [[Antoine Claudet]], pioneering early photographer, honoured by [[Queen Victoria]] as "Photographer-in-ordinary"
* [[John Cross (artist)|John Cross]], English artist
* [[Philip Conisbee]], art historian and curator
* [[Abraham Cooper]], animal and battle painter
* [[Thomas Frederick Cooper (watchmaker)|Thomas Frederick Cooper]], watchmaker
* [[John Copley, 1st Baron Lyndhurst|John Singleton Copley]], Lord Chancellor and son of the American painter [[John Singleton Copley]]
* [[Charles Cowper|Sir Charles Cowper]], Premier of [[New South Wales]], Australia
* [[Addison Cresswell]], comedians' agent and producer
* [[George Baden Crawley]], civil engineer and railway builder
* [[Charles Cruft (showman)|Charles Cruft]], founder of [[Crufts]] dog show
* [[Isaac Robert Cruikshank]], caricaturist, illustrator, portrait miniaturist and brother of [[George Cruikshank]]
* [[The Brothers Dalziel|George Dalziel]], engraver who with his siblings ran one of the most prolific Victorian engraving firms
* [[George Darnell]], schoolmaster and author of ''Darnell's Copybooks''
* [[David Devant]], theatrical magician
* [[Alfred Lamert Dickens]], the younger brother of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[Catherine Dickens]], wife of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[John Dickens|John]] and [[Elizabeth Dickens]], parents of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[Fanny Dickens]], elder sister of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[William Hepworth Dixon]], historian and traveller. Also active in organizing London's [[Great Exhibition]] of 1851
* The Druce family vault, one of whose members was (falsely) alleged to have been the [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland|5th Duke of Portland]].
* [[Herbert Benjamin Edwardes]], Administrator and soldier, known as the "Hero of Multan"
* [[Joseph Edwards (sculptor)]], Welsh sculptor
* [[Thomas Edwards (author)]], (Caerfallwch), Welsh author and lexicographer
* [[Ugo Ehiogu]], footballer
* [[James Harington Evans]], Baptist pastor of the John Street Chapel
* [[Michael Faraday]], chemist and physicist (with his wife Sarah), in the [[Dissenter]]s section
* [[Charles Drury Edward Fortnum]], art collector and benefactor of the [[Ashmolean Museum]]
* [[Lucian Freud]], painter, grandson of [[Sigmund Freud]], and elder brother of [[Clement Freud]]
* [[John Galsworthy]], author and [[Nobel Prize]] winner ([[cenotaph]], he was cremated and his ashes scattered)
* [[Stephen Geary]], architect (most notably of Highgate Cemetery)
* [[John Gibbons (ironmaster and art patron)|John Gibbons]], ironmaster and art patron
* [[Stella Gibbons]], novelist, author of ''[[Cold Comfort Farm]]''
* [[Margaret Gillies]], Scottish painter known for her miniature portraits, including of one of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[John William Griffith]], architect of [[Kensal Green Cemetery]]
* [[Henry Gray]], anatomist and surgeon,<ref>GRO Register of Deaths: JUN qtr 1861 1a 174 St Geo Han Sq – Henry Gray
*</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqSearch=%28Surname=%27gray%27%29&dsqPos=7 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415172415/http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqSearch=(Surname='gray')&dsqPos=7 |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2013 |title=DServe Archive Persons Show |publisher=.royalsociety.org |access-date=18 March 2013 }}</ref> author of ''[[Gray's Anatomy]]''.
* [[Radclyffe Hall]], author of ''[[The Well of Loneliness]]'' and other novels
* [[William Hall (publisher)|William Hall]], founder with [[Edward Chapman (publisher)|Edward Chapman]] of publishers [[Chapman & Hall]]
* [[Philip Harben]], English cook regarded as the first TV [[celebrity chef]]
* [[Charles Augustus Hartley|Sir Charles Augustus Hartley]], eminent British civil engineer, known as 'the father of the [[Danube]].'
* [[George Edwards Hering]], landscape painter
* [[Edwin Hill (engineer)|Edwin Hill]], older brother of [[Rowland Hill]] and inventor of the first [[letter scale]] and a mechanical system to make envelopes
* [[Frank Holl]], Royal portraitist
* [[James Holman]], 19th-century adventurer known as "the Blind Traveller"
* [[Anthony Home|Surgeon-General Sir Anthony Home]], [[Victoria Cross]] recipient from [[Indian Mutiny]]
* [[Theodore Hope]], British colonial administrator and writer
* [[William Hosking]], first Professor of Architecture at [[King's College London]] and architect of [[Abney Park Cemetery]]
* [[Bob Hoskins]], actor
* [[Georgiana Houghton]], British artist and spiritualist [[Mediumship|medium]]
* [[David Edward Hughes]], FRS, 19th-century electrical engineer and inventor
* [[William Henry Hunt (painter)|William Henry Hunt]], popular and widely collected painter of watercolours, nicknamed ‘Bird’s Nest’ Hunt
* [[Sir John Hutton]], publisher of ''[[Sporting Life (British newspaper)|Sporting Life]]'' and Chairman of the [[London County Council]]
* [[Georges Jacobi]], composer, conductor and musical director of the [[Alhambra Theatre]]
* [[Lisa Jardine]], historian
* [[Victor Kullberg]], one of the greatest marine clockmakers
* [[Thomas Landseer]], younger brother of Sir [[Edwin Landseer]] (there is a cenotaph, Edwin was buried in [[St Paul's Cathedral]])
* [[Peter Laurie|Sir Peter Laurie]], politician and [[Lord Mayor of London]]
* [[Douglas Lapraik]], shipowner and co-founder of [[HSBC]] and the [[Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels Group]]
* [[Henry Lee (Surgeon)|Henry Lee]], surgeon, [[pathologist]] and [[syphilologist]]
* [[Oswald Lewis]], [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|MP]] and younger son of [[John Lewis (department store founder)|John Lewis]], founder of the [[John Lewis (department store)|chain of department stores]]
* [[Robert Liston]], surgeon
* [[Alexander Litvinenko]], Russian dissident, murdered by poisoning in London
* [[Edward Lloyd (publisher)|Edward Lloyd]], influential newspaper publisher and founder of the ''[[Daily Chronicle]]''
* [[James Locke (draper)|James Locke]], a London draper credited with giving [[Tweed]] its name
* [[William Lovett]], [[Chartism|Chartist]]
* [[Samuel Lucas]], editor of the ''[[Morning Star (British newspaper)|Morning Star]]'', journalist and abolitionist
* [[John Maple (furniture maker)]] founder of the furniture makers [[Maple & Co.]]
* [[Hugh Matheson (industrialist)|Hugh Mackay Matheson]], industrialist and founder of [[Matheson & Company]] and the [[Rio Tinto Group]]
* [[Frederick Denison Maurice]], English Anglican theologian, prolific author and one of the founders of [[Christian socialism]]
* [[Michael Meacher]], academic and [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician
* [[George Michael]], singer, songwriter, music producer and philanthropist; buried beside his mother and sister
* [[Barbara Mills]], (ashes) first female Director of Public Prosecutions
* [[Frederick Akbar Mahomed]], internationally known British physician
* [[Jude Moraes]], landscape gardener, writer and broadcaster
* [[Nicholas Mosley]], novelist and biographer of his father, [[Oswald Mosley]]
* [[Edward Moxhay]], shoemaker, biscuit maker and property speculator, best known for his involvement in the landmark English land law case ''[[Tulk v Moxhay]]''
* Elizabeth de Munck, mother of celebrated soprano, [[Maria Caterina Rosalbina Caradori-Allan]] in grave with large carving of [[pelican]] in piety
* [[Walter Neurath]], Publisher and founder of [[Thames and Hudson]]
* [[Henry Newton (Winsor & Newton founder)|Henry Newton]], painter and co-founder of [[Winsor & Newton]]
* [[Samuel Noble]], English engraver, and minister of the [[The New Church (Swedenborgian)|New Church]]
* [[George Osbaldeston]], known as Squire Osbaldeston, sportsman, gambler and [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] (MP)
* [[Sherard Osborn]], Royal Navy admiral and Arctic explorer
* [[Frederick William Pavy]], [[physician]] and [[physiologist]]
* [[William Payne (pantomimist)|William Payne]], actor, dancer and [[Pantomime|pantomimist]]
* [[Thomas Ashburton Picken]], [[Watercolor painting|watercolourist]], [[Engraving|engraver]] and [[Lithography|lithographer]]
* [[Frances Polidori|Frances Polidori Rossetti]], mother of [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti|Dante Gabriel]], [[Christina Rossetti|Christina]] and William Michael Rossetti
* [[Samuel Phelps]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespearian]] actor and manager of [[Sadler's Wells Theatre]]
* [[James Robinson (dentist)|James Robinson]], dentist, first person to carry out [[general anaesthesia]] in Britain
* Peter Robinson, founder of the [[Peter Robinson (department store)|Peter Robinson department store]] at Oxford Circus, London
* [[William Charles Ross|Sir William Charles Ross]], portrait and [[portrait miniature]] painter
* [[Christina Rossetti]], poet
* [[Gabriele Rossetti]], Italian nationalist and scholar. Father of Christina and Dante Gabriel Rossetti
* [[William Michael Rossetti]], co-founder of the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]]
* [[Tom Sayers]], [[Boxing#History|pugilist]], his tomb is guarded by the stone image of his mastiff, Lion, who was chief mourner at his funeral
* [[Henry Young Darracott Scott]], responsible for the design and construction of the [[Royal Albert Hall]]
* [[Elizabeth Siddal]], wife and model of artist/poet [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and model for the painting ''[[Ophelia (painting)|Ophelia]]'' by [[John Everett Millais]]
* [[Jean Simmons]], actress
* [[William Simpson (artist)|William Simpson]], war artist and correspondent
* [[John Jackson Smale|Sir John Smale]], Chief Justice of Hong Kong
* [[Tom Smith (confectioner)|Tom Smith]], inventor of the [[Christmas cracker]]
* [[Charles Green Spencer]], pioneer aviator and balloon manufacturer
* [[Alfred Stevens (sculptor)|Alfred Stevens]], sculptor, painter and designer
* [[Walter Fryer Stocks]], prolific landscape painter
* [[Henry Knight Storks|Sir Henry Knight Storks]], soldier, MP, and colonial administrator
* [[Anna Swanwick]], author and [[feminist]] who assisted in the founding of [[Girton College, Cambridge]], and [[Somerville Hall]], Oxford
* [[Alfred Swaine Taylor]], toxicologist, forensic scientist, expert witness
* [[Frederick Tennyson]], poet, older brother of [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]
* [[Samuel Sanders Teulon]], prolific [[Gothic Revival]] architect
* [[Jeanette Threlfall]], [[hymnwriter]] and poet
* [[Charles Turner (engraver)|Charles Turner]], [[mezzotint]] engraver who collaborated with [[J. M. W. Turner]]
* [[Andrew Ure]], Scottish physician known for his [[galvanism]] experimentation, founder of the [[University of Strathclyde]]
* [[John Vandenhoff]], leading Victorian actor
* [[Henry Vaughan (art collector)|Henry Vaughan]], art collector who gave one of Britain's most popular paintings, [[John Constable]]'s ''[[The Hay Wain]]'' to the [[National Gallery]]
* [[Emilie Ashurst Venturi]], writer, translator and women's rights campaigner
* [[Arthur Waley]], translator and scholar of the Orient
* [[George Wallis]], First Keeper of the Fine Art Collection at the [[Victoria & Albert Museum]]
* [[Mary Warner]], actress and theatre manager
* [[Augusta Webster]], poet, dramatist, essayist, translator and advocate of [[women's suffrage]]
* [[Henry White (photographer)|Henry White]], lawyer and gifted [[landscape photographer]]
* [[Brodie McGhie Willcox]], founder of the [[P&O (company)|P&O Shipping Line]]
* [[Henry Willis]], foremost [[organ builder]] of the Victorian era
* [[Hugh Wilson (RAF officer)|Hugh Wilson]], RAF test pilot
* [[George Wombwell]], menagerie exhibitor
* [[Ellen Wood (author)|Ellen Wood]], author known as Mrs Henry Wood, there is also a plaque for her in [[Worcester Cathedral]]
* [[Adam Worth]], criminal mastermind. Possible inspiration for [[Sherlock Holmes]]' nemesis, [[Professor Moriarty]]; originally buried in a pauper's grave under the name Henry J. Raymond
* [[William Henry Wyatt|Sir William Henry Wyatt]], long-serving chairman of the [[Friern Hospital|Middlesex County Lunatic Asylum]] at Colney Hatch, Southgate
* [[Patrick Wymark]], actor
* [[Joseph Warren Zambra]], scientific instrument maker

==East Cemetery==
[[File:Grave of Karl Marx Highgate Cemetery in London 2016 (10).jpg|thumb|250px|[[Tomb of Karl Marx]], East Cemetery]]
Many famous or prominent people are buried in Highgate cemetery; the most famous burial is arguably that of [[Karl Marx]], whose tomb was the site of attempted bombings on 2 September 1965<ref>{{citation | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=XnIsAAAAIBAJ&pg=6238%2C1047342 | title = News}}</ref> and in 1970.<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.camdennewjournal.co.uk/111705/cn111705_11.htm | title = Camden New Journal | place = UK | contribution = Tomb raiders’ failed attack on Marx grave}}</ref> The [[tomb of Karl Marx]] is a Grade I [[listed building]] for reasons of historical importance.

===Notable East Cemetery interments===
* [[Douglas Adams]], author of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' and other novels
* [[Mehmet Aksoy (filmmaker)|Mehmet Aksoy]], press officer for the Kurdish [[People's Protection Units|YPG]], killed by ISIS in 2017<ref>{{Cite news|date=11 November 2017|title=Farewell to YPG's Mehmet Aksoy in London|work=ANF|url=https://anfenglish.com/women/farewell-to-ypg-s-mehmet-aksoy-in-london-23148}}</ref>
* [[Wilkie Bard]], popular [[vaudeville]] and [[music hall]] entertainer and recording artist
* [[Farzad Bazoft]], journalist, executed by [[Saddam Hussein]]'s regime
* [[Jeremy Beadle]], writer, television presenter and curator of oddities
* Adolf Beck, the [[Adolph Beck case]] was a celebrated case of mistaken identity
* [[Hercules Bellville]], American film producer
* [[Master Betty|William Betty]], popular child actor of the early nineteenth century
* [[Emily Blatchley]], pioneering [[Protestant]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[missionary]] to [[China]]
* [[Kate Booth]], English Salvationist and evangelist. Oldest daughter of [[William Booth|William]] and [[Catherine Booth]]. She was also known as ''la Maréchale''
* [[Frederick Broome]], colonial administrator of several British colonies. The Western Australian towns of [[Broome, Western Australia|Broome]] and [[Broomehill, Western Australia|Broomehill]] are named after him
* [[George Barclay Bruce]], world renown railway engineer and president of the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]]
* [[Lauder Brunton|Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton, 1st Baronet]], Scottish physician who is most-closely associated with the treatment of [[angina pectoris]]
* [[James Caird (politician)|James Caird]], Scottish agricultural writer and politician
* [[Patrick Caulfield]], painter and printmaker known for his [[pop art]] canvasses
* [[Douglas Cleverdon]], radio producer and bookseller
* [[William Kingdon Clifford]] (with his wife [[Lucy Clifford|Lucy]]), mathematician and philosopher
* [[Lucy Clifford|Lucy Lane Clifford]], novelist and journalist, wife of [[William Kingdon Clifford]]
* [[Yusuf Dadoo]], South African anti-apartheid activist
* [[Lewis Foreman Day]], influential artist in the [[Arts and Crafts movement]]
* [[Davison Dalziel, 1st Baron Dalziel of Wooler|Sir Davison Dalziel, Bt]], British newspaper owner and [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] politician. Massive mausoleum near the entrance.
* [[Elyse Dodgson]], theatre producer
* [[Fritz Dupre]], [[iron]] and [[manganese]] ore merchant, known as the "Manganese Ore King"
* [[Francis Elgar]], naval architect
* [[George Eliot]] (Mary Ann Evans – the name on the grave is Mary Ann Cross), novelist, common law wife of [[George Henry Lewes]] and buried next to him
* [[Edwin Wilkins Field]], lawyer who devoted much of his life to law reform
* [[Paul Foot (journalist)|Paul Foot]], campaigning journalist and nephew of former [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] leader [[Michael Foot]]
* [[Lydia Folger Fowler]], pioneering American physician and first American-born woman to earn a medical degree
* [[William Foyle]], co-founder of [[Foyles]]
* [[William Friese-Greene]], cinema pioneer and his son [[Claude Friese-Greene]]
* [[Lou Gish]], actress, daughter of Sheila Gish
* [[Sheila Gish]], actress
* [[Philip Gould, Baron Gould of Brookwood|Philip Gould]], British [[political consultant]], and former advertising [[corporate executive|executive]], closely linked to the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]
* [[Robert Grant (VC)|Robert Grant VC]], soldier and police constable
* [[Robert Edmond Grant]], Professor of [[Comparative Anatomy]] at [[University College London]] who gave his name to the [[Grant Museum of Zoology]]
* [[Charles Green (balloonist)|Charles Green]], the United Kingdom's most famous balloonist of the 19th century
* [[Leon Griffiths]], creator of [[Minder (TV series)|Minder]]
* [[Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)|Stuart Hall]], [[Jamaica]]n-born British [[Marxist]] [[sociologist]], [[culture theory|cultural theorist]], and [[political activist]]
* [[Harrison Hayter]], railway, harbour and dock engineer
* [[Mansoor Hekmat]], Communist leader and founder of the [[Worker-Communist Party of Iran]] and [[Worker-Communist Party of Iraq]]
* [[Eric Hobsbawm]], historian
* [[Austin Holyoake]], printer, publisher, freethinker and brother of the more widely known [[George Holyoake]]
* [[George Holyoake]], Birmingham-born social reformer and founder of the [[British co-operative movement|Cooperative Movement]]
* [[George Honey]], popular Victorian actor and comedian
* [[Alan Howard]], actor
* [[Leslie Hutchinson]], [[Cabaret]] star of the 20s and 30s
* [[Jabez Inwards]], popular Victorian [[Temperance movement|temperance]] lecturer and [[phrenologist]]
* [[Georges Jacobi]], composer and conductor
* [[Bert Jansch]], Scottish folk musician
* [[Claudia Jones]], Trinidadian born [[Communist]] and fighter for civil rights, founder of ''[[The West Indian Gazette]]'' and the [[Notting Hill Carnival]]<ref>{{cite web|first=Angela|last=Davis|title=Angela Davis praises CPUSA for its history "of militant struggle"|website=PeoplesWorld.org|url=https://www.peoplesworld.org/article/angela-davis-praises-cpusa-for-its-history-of-militant-struggle/|date=June 20, 2019|access-date=June 20, 2019}}</ref>
* [[George Goodwin Kilburne]], [[genre works|genre]] painter
* [[David Kirkaldy]], Scottish engineer and pioneer in materials testing
* [[Anatoly Kuznetsov]], Soviet writer
* [[Liza Lehmann]], operatic soprano and composer, daughter of [[Rudolf Lehmann (artist)|Rudolf Lehmann]]
* [[Rudolf Lehmann (artist)|Rudolf Lehmann]], portrait artist and father of [[Liza Lehmann]]
* [[George Henry Lewes]], English philosopher and critic, common law husband of [[George Eliot]] and buried next to her.
* [[Roger Lloyd-Pack]], British actor known for ''[[Only Fools and Horses]]'' and ''[[The Vicar of Dibley]]''
* [[John Lobb]], Society bootmaker
* [[Charles Lucy]], British artist, whose most notable painting was ''The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers''
* [[Haldane MacFall]], art critic, art historian, book illustrator and novelist
* [[Anna Mahler]], sculptress and daughter of [[Gustav Mahler]] and [[Alma Mahler|Alma Schindler]]
* [[Chris Martin (civil servant)|Chris Martin]], [[Principal Private Secretary to the Prime Minister]]
* [[James Martineau]], [[Christian philosophy|religious philosopher]] influential in the [[history of Unitarianism]]
* [[Tomb of Karl Marx|Karl Marx]], philosopher, historian, sociologist and economist (memorial after his reburial, with other family members)
* [[Frank Matcham]], theatre architect
* [[Carl Mayer]], Austro-German screenwriter of ''[[The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari]]'' and ''[[Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans]]''
* [[McKinnon Wood|Thomas MacKinnon Wood]], Liberal politician and [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
* [[Malcolm McLaren]], [[Punk subculture|punk]] impresario and original manager of the [[Sex Pistols]]
* [[Ralph Miliband]], [[left wing]] [[political theorist]], father of [[David Miliband]] and [[Ed Miliband]]
* [[Alan Milward]], influential historian
* [[William Henry Monk]], composer (of the music to ''[[Abide with Me]]'')
* [[Charles Morton (impresario)|Charles Morton]], [[music hall]] and [[theatre]] manager who became known as the ''Father of the Halls''
* [[Sidney Nolan]], Australian artist
* [[George Josiah Palmer]], founder and editor of ''[[Church Times]]''
* [[Charles J. Phipps]], theatre architect
* [[Tim Pigott-Smith]], actor
* [[Dachine Rainer]], poet and anarchist
* [[Corin Redgrave]], actor and political activist
* [[Bruce Reynolds]], criminal, mastermind of the [[Great Train Robbery (1963)]]
* [[Ralph Richardson]], actor
* [[George Richmond (painter)|George Richmond]], painter and portraitist
* [[José Carlos Rodrigues]], Brazilian journalist, financial expert, and philanthropist
* [[Ernestine Rose]], suffragist, abolitionist and freethinker
* [[James Samuel Risien Russell]], Guyanese-British physician, neurologist, professor of medicine, and professor of medical jurisprudence
* [[Raphael Samuel]], [[Marxist]] historian
* [[Anthony Shaffer (writer)|Anthony Shaffer]], playwright, screenwriter and novelist
* [[Peter Shaffer]], playwright and screenwriter
* [[Eyre Massey Shaw|Sir Eyre Massey Shaw]], first Chief Officer of the [[Metropolitan Fire Brigade (London)|Metropolitan Fire Brigade]]
* [[Alan Sillitoe]], English postmodern novelist, poet, and playwright
* [[James Smetham]], [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]] painter, engraver and follower of [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]]
* [[Donald Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal|Sir Donald Alexander Smith]], Canadian railway financier and diplomat
* [[Herbert Spencer]], [[evolutionary biologist]], sociologist, and [[laissez-faire]] economic philosopher
* [[Leslie Stephen|Sir Leslie Stephen]], critic, first editor of the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', father of [[Virginia Woolf]] and [[Vanessa Bell]]
* [[William Heath Strange]], physician and founder of the ''Hampstead General Hospital'', now the [[Royal Free Hospital]]
* [[Lucien Stryk]], American poet, teacher and translator of Zen poetry
* Sir [[George Thalben-Ball]], English organist, choirmaster and composer
* [[Bob Thoms]], the greatest Victorian cricket umpire
* [[James Thomson (poet, born 1834)|James Thomson]], Victorian poet, best known for [[The City of Dreadful Night|''The City of Dreadful Night'']]
* [[Storm Thorgerson]], graphic designer
* [[Malcolm Tierney]], actor
* [[Feliks Topolski]], Polish-born British expressionist painter
* [[Edward Truelove]], radical publisher and freethinker
* [[Peter Ucko]], influential English [[archaeology|archaeologist]]
* [[Max Wall]], comedian and entertainer
* [[Simon Ward]], actor
* [[Peter Cathcart Wason]], pioneering psychologist
* [[Lawrence Weaver|Sir Lawrence Weaver]], architectural writer, editor of Country Life and organiser of the [[British Empire Exhibition]]
* [[Opal Whiteley]], American writer
* [[Colin St John Wilson]], architect (most notably of the new [[British Library]] in London), lecturer and author
* [[Joseph Wolf]], natural history illustrator and pioneer in wildlife art
* [[Edward Richard Woodham]], survivor of the [[Charge of the Light Brigade]]
* [[Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington]], politician, social activist and consumer champion.

===Fireman’s corner===
A monument erected in the East Cemetery by widows and orphans of members of the [[London Fire Brigade]] in 1934. There are 97 firemen buried here. The monument is cared for by the Brigade's Welfare Section.

==War graves==
The cemetery contains the graves of 318 Commonwealth service personnel maintained and registered by the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]], in both the East and West Cemeteries, 259 from the [[First World War]] and 59 from the [[Second World War|Second]]. Those whose graves could not be marked by headstones are listed on a Screen Wall memorial erected near the [[Cross of Sacrifice]] in the west cemetery.<ref name=cwgc>{{cite web|title=Cemetery Details: Highgate Cemetery|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/41905/HIGHGATE%20CEMETERY|website=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|access-date=21 August 2014}}</ref>

==Visiting==
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2018}}
The Cemetery is open to the public every day. To cover running and maintenance costs, the charitable trust charges an entry fee. For entry only (called "self-guided") there are two ticket prices, East Cemetery only or for both East and West sides. For a small extra cost, there are regular guided tours, lasting approximately 75 minutes, of the West side throughout the week and the East side on Saturdays only.

==In popular culture==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2015}}
* Several of [[John Galsworthy]]'s ''[[The Forsyte Saga|Forsyte Saga]]'' novels refer to Highgate Cemetery as the last resting place of the Forsytes; for example, Chapter XI, "The Last of the Forsytes," in ''To Let'' (1921).
* Footage of Highgate appears in numerous British horror films, including ''[[Taste the Blood of Dracula]]'' (1970), ''[[Tales from the Crypt (film)|Tales from the Crypt]]'' (1972) and ''[[From Beyond the Grave]]'' (1974).
* In the BBC TV series ''[[Porridge (TV series)|Porridge]]'', Fletcher claims that his eldest daughter, Ingrid, was conceived on Karl Marx's tomb.
* Herbert Smith is shadowed through Highgate Cemetery in ''[[Visibility]]'', a murder/espionage/thriller by [[Boris Starling]].
* Highgate Cemetery is the sixth level of the ''[[Nightmare Creatures]]'' game.
* In [[Len Deighton]]'s alternative history novel ''[[SS-GB]]'' and its [[SS-GB (TV series)|TV adaptation]], a bomb is detonated in the tomb of [[Karl Marx]] when his remains are exhumed by [[Nazi Germany|German occupation forces]] to be presented to the [[Soviet Union]].
* [[Fred Vargas]]'s novel ''[[An Uncertain Place|Un lieu incertain]]'' starts in the cemetery.
* [[Barbara Hambly]]'s [[vampire]] novel, ''[[Those Who Hunt the Night]]'', has the main characters visiting Highgate at one point to examine the remains of a vampire who had taken over an abandoned tomb.
* Stated in the acknowledgments as the inspiration for the setting of [[Neil Gaiman]]'s ''[[The Graveyard Book]]''.
* [[Audrey Niffenegger]]'s book ''[[Her Fearful Symmetry]]'' (2009) is set around Highgate Cemetery; she acted as a tour guide there while researching the book.<ref name="Highgate Cemetery">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/oct/03/audrey-niffenegger-highgate-cemetery-novel|title=Audrey Niffenegger on Highgate Cemetery|last=Niffenegger|first=Audrey|date=3 October 2009|work=The Guardian|access-date=3 October 2009}}</ref>
* In the novel ''[[Double or Die]]'' (2007), a part of the ''[[Young Bond]]'' series, Ludwig and Wolfgang Smith plan to kill Bond in the cemetery.
* [[Tracy Chevalier]]'s book ''Falling Angels'' (2002) was set in and around Highgate Cemetery. The two main protagonists met there as children while their parents were visiting adjacent family graves and they continued to enjoy meeting up and playing there.
* The movie [[Hampstead (film)|''Hampstead'']] (2017) features a few scenes in the cemetery.
* The climax of a novel by [[John Steele (writer)|John Steele]], ''Seven Skins'' (2018), was set in the Egyptian Avenue and Circle of Lebanon, among other locations in the West Cemetery.
* The movie [[Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald|''Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald'']] (2018) features scenes towards the end of the film in the cemetery before the famous Cedar tree was removed.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon2.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon3.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon4.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon5.jpg
File:Highgate Cemetery 013.jpg
File:Carl Rosa.png|[[Carl Rosa]] grave
File:Sepulcro con ángel.jpg|thumb|Mary Nichols and The Sleeping Angel, Highgate Cemetery|alt=On the top of the grave lies a sleeping angel on a bed of clouds. ‘In Ever Loving Memory of Mary, the darling wife of Arthur Nichols and fondly loved mother of their only son Harold who fell asleep 7th May 1909. Also of Dennis Arthur Charles son of Harold and Winifred who died 28th April 1916 aged 15 months.’
File:Highgate Cemetery East 2.JPG|Highgate Cemetery East (2010)
File:Highgate grave.jpg|The grave of Caroline Tucker, Highgate Cemetery East<ref>Mémorial Find a Grave,"Caroline Tucker (1910-1994) - Mémorial Find a Grave"[https://fr.findagrave.com/memorial/55748745/caroline-tucker],Droits d’auteur © 2022 Find a Grave,retrieved 2022-03-15.</ref>
File:Highgate Cemetery - East - Bruce Reynolds 02.jpg|The grave of [[Bruce Reynolds]]
File:SayersTomb HighgateCemetery.JPG|The tomb of [[Tom Sayers]]
File:Patrick Caulfield Grave Highgate East Cemetery London 2016.jpg|The grave of [[Patrick Caulfield|Patrick Caulfield, RA]]
File:Mansoor Hekmat Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 04.jpg|The grave of [[Mansoor Hekmat]]
File:Grave of Anna Mahler Austrian sculpture, in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016.jpg|The grave of [[Anna Mahler]]
File:Yusuf Mohamed Dadoo Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 09.jpg|The grave of [[Yusuf Dadoo]]
File:Eric Hobsbawm Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 06.jpg|The grave of [[Eric Hobsbawm]]
File:Jeremy Beadle grave.jpg|The grave of [[Jeremy Beadle]]
File:WFGgrave.jpg|Grave of [[William Friese-Greene]] by [[Edwin Lutyens|Lutyens]], East Cemetery
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|http://highgatecemetery.org}}

{{Cemeteries in England}}
{{Cemeteries in London}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1839 establishments in England]]
[[Category:Anglican cemeteries in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Burials at Highgate Cemetery]]
[[Category:Cemeteries in London]]
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries in England]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in the London Borough of Camden]]
[[Category:Grade I listed monuments and memorials]]
[[Category:Grade I listed parks and gardens in London]]
[[Category:Highgate]]
[[Category:Parks and open spaces in the London Borough of Camden]]

Highgate Cemetery

2022-03-15T13:26:06Z

Cuaxdon: /* Gallery */

{{short description|Place of burial in north London, England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox cemetery
| name = Highgate Cemetery
| image = Highgate Cemetery East.JPG
| imagesize = 260
| caption = Highgate (East) Cemetery ({{circa}} 2010)
| map_type =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| established = 1839
| location = Swain's Lane, [[London]], [[N postcode area|N6 6PJ]]
| country = [[England]]
| coordinates = {{coord|51.567|-0.147|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| type =
| style =
| owner = Friends of Highgate Cemetery Trust
| size = {{convert|15|ha|acre}}
| graves = 53,000+
| interments = 170,000
| website = [https://www.highgatecemetery.org Highgate Cemetery]
| findagrave1 = 638894
| findagrave1_label = East
| findagrave2 = 638895
| findagrave2_label = West
| political =
}}

'''Highgate Cemetery''' is a place of burial in [[north London]], England. There are approximately 170,000 people buried in around 53,000 graves across the West and East Cemeteries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/index.php/faqs|website=Highgate Cemetery|publisher=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216041052/http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/index.php/faqs|archive-date=16 February 2013}}</ref> Highgate Cemetery is notable both for some of the people buried there as well as for its ''de facto'' status as a [[nature reserve]]. The Cemetery is designated Grade I on the [[Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England|Register of Historic Parks and Gardens]].<ref name=NHLEGarden>{{NHLE|num=1000810|desc=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 June 2017}}</ref> It is one of the [[Magnificent Seven, London|Magnificent Seven]] cemeteries in London.

==Location==
The [[cemetery]] comprises two sites, each on either side of Swains Lane in [[Highgate]], [[N postcode area|N6]], next to [[Waterlow Park]]. The main gate is located on Swains Lane just north of Oakshott Avenue. There is another disused gate on Chester Road. The cemetery is in the [[London Borough of Camden]]. The nearest public transport ([[Transport for London]]) is the C11 bus, Brookfield Park stop, or [[Archway tube station]].

==History and setting==
The cemetery in its original form{{snd}}the northwestern wooded area{{snd}}opened in 1839, as part of a plan to provide seven large, modern cemeteries, now known as the "[[Magnificent Seven, London|Magnificent Seven]]", around the outside of central London. The inner-city cemeteries, mostly the graveyards attached to individual churches, had long been unable to cope with the number of burials and were seen as a hazard to health and an undignified way to treat the dead. The initial design was by architect and entrepreneur [[Stephen Geary]].

On Monday 20 May 1839, Highgate (West) Cemetery was dedicated to [[James, son of Alphaeus|St. James]]<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://highgatecemetery.org/about/history|website=Highgate Cemetery|publisher=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170124082617/http://highgatecemetery.org/about/history|archive-date=24 January 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> by the Right Reverend [[Charles James Blomfield]], Lord [[Bishop of London]]. Fifteen acres were consecrated for the use of the [[Church of England]], and two acres set aside for [[English Dissenters|Dissenters]]. Rights of burial were sold for either limited period or in perpetuity. The first burial was Elizabeth Jackson of Little Windmill Street, [[Soho]], on 26 May.

Highgate, like the others of the Magnificent Seven, soon became a fashionable place for burials and was much admired and visited. The [[Victorian era|Victorian]] attitude to death and its presentation led to the creation of a wealth of [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] tombs and buildings. It occupies a spectacular south-facing hillside site slightly downhill from the top of the hill of Highgate itself, next to Waterlow Park. In 1854 a further 19 acres to the south east of the original area, across Swains Lane, was bought to form the eastern part of the cemetery which opened in 1860. Both sides of the Cemetery are still used today for burials.

The cemetery's grounds are full of trees, shrubbery and wildflowers, most of which have been planted and grown without human influence. The grounds are a haven for birds and small animals such as foxes.

Highgate Cemetery was featured in the popular media from the 1960s to the late 1980s for its so-called [[occult]] past, particularly as being the alleged site of the "[[Highgate Vampire]]".

==Friends of Highgate Cemetery==
The Cemetery is now owned and maintained by a charitable trust, the Friends of Highgate Cemetery Trust, which was set up in 1975 and acquired the freehold of both East and West Cemeteries by 1981. In 1984 it published ''Highgate Cemetery: Victorian Valhalla'' by [[John Gay (photographer)|John Gay]].<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/ | title = A Brief History of Highgate Cemetery}}</ref>

==West Cemetery==
[[File:Egyptian Avenue Highgate Cemetery.jpg|thumb|250px|Entrance to the Egyptian Avenue, West Cemetery]]
[[File:High-cemetery-circle.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Circle of Lebanon, West Cemetery]]
The Cemetery's grounds are full of trees, shrubbery and wildflowers, most of which have been planted and grown without human influence. The grounds are a haven for birds and small animals such as foxes. The Egyptian Avenue and the Circle of Lebanon (previously surmounted by a huge, 280 years old [[Lebanon Cedar|Cedar of Lebanon]], which had to be cut down and replaced in August 2019) feature tombs, vaults and winding paths dug into hillsides. The Egyptian Avenue and the Columbarium are Grade I [[listed building]]s.

===Notable West Cemetery interments===
* [[Henry Thomas Alken|Henry Alken]], painter, engraver and illustrator of sporting and coaching scenes
* [[Jane Arden (director)|Jane Arden]], Welsh-born film director, actor, screenwriter, playwright, songwriter, and poet
* [[John Atcheler]], ‘Horse slaughterer to [[Queen Victoria]]’
* [[Edward Hodges Baily]], sculptor
* [[Beryl Bainbridge]], author
* [[Abraham Dee Bartlett]], [[zoologist]], superintendent of the [[London Zoo]] known for selling the popular African elephant [[Jumbo]] to [[P. T. Barnum]]

* [[Julius Beer]] (and family members), owner of ''[[The Observer]]''.
* [[Francis Bedford (photographer)|Francis Bedford]], landscape photographer
* [[William Belt]], barrister and antiquarian, best known for his eccentric behaviour
* [[Mary Matilda Betham]], diarist, poet, woman of letters, and miniature portrait painter
* [[Eugenius Birch]], seaside architect and noted designer of promenade-piers
* [[Edward Blore]], architect known for his work on [[Buckingham Palace]] and [[Westminster Abbey]]
* [[Edwin Brett]], publisher and pioneer of serialised sensational weekly fiction and '[[penny dreadfuls]]'
* [[Jacob Bronowski]], scientist, creator of the television series ''[[The Ascent of Man]]''
* [[James Bunstone Bunning]], City Architect to the [[City of London]]
* [[Robert William Buss]], artist and illustrator
* [[Edward Dundas Butler]], translator and senior librarian at the [[British Library|Department of Printed Books, British Museum]]
* [[Edward Cardwell, 1st Viscount Cardwell]], prominent politician in the [[Peelite]] and [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] parties, best remembered for his tenure as [[Secretary of State for War]]
* [[William Benjamin Carpenter]], physician, invertebrate zoologist and physiologist
* [[J. Comyns Carr|Joseph William Comyns Carr]], drama and art critic, gallery director, author, poet, playwright and theatre manager
* [[John James Chalon]], Swiss painter
* [[Robert Caesar Childers]], [[Orientalism|scholar of the Orient]] and writer
* [[Edmund Chipp]], organist and composer
* [[Charles Chubb (businessman)|Charles Chubb]], lock and safe manufacturer
* [[Antoine Claudet]], pioneering early photographer, honoured by [[Queen Victoria]] as "Photographer-in-ordinary"
* [[John Cross (artist)|John Cross]], English artist
* [[Philip Conisbee]], art historian and curator
* [[Abraham Cooper]], animal and battle painter
* [[Thomas Frederick Cooper (watchmaker)|Thomas Frederick Cooper]], watchmaker
* [[John Copley, 1st Baron Lyndhurst|John Singleton Copley]], Lord Chancellor and son of the American painter [[John Singleton Copley]]
* [[Charles Cowper|Sir Charles Cowper]], Premier of [[New South Wales]], Australia
* [[Addison Cresswell]], comedians' agent and producer
* [[George Baden Crawley]], civil engineer and railway builder
* [[Charles Cruft (showman)|Charles Cruft]], founder of [[Crufts]] dog show
* [[Isaac Robert Cruikshank]], caricaturist, illustrator, portrait miniaturist and brother of [[George Cruikshank]]
* [[The Brothers Dalziel|George Dalziel]], engraver who with his siblings ran one of the most prolific Victorian engraving firms
* [[George Darnell]], schoolmaster and author of ''Darnell's Copybooks''
* [[David Devant]], theatrical magician
* [[Alfred Lamert Dickens]], the younger brother of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[Catherine Dickens]], wife of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[John Dickens|John]] and [[Elizabeth Dickens]], parents of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[Fanny Dickens]], elder sister of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[William Hepworth Dixon]], historian and traveller. Also active in organizing London's [[Great Exhibition]] of 1851
* The Druce family vault, one of whose members was (falsely) alleged to have been the [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland|5th Duke of Portland]].
* [[Herbert Benjamin Edwardes]], Administrator and soldier, known as the "Hero of Multan"
* [[Joseph Edwards (sculptor)]], Welsh sculptor
* [[Thomas Edwards (author)]], (Caerfallwch), Welsh author and lexicographer
* [[Ugo Ehiogu]], footballer
* [[James Harington Evans]], Baptist pastor of the John Street Chapel
* [[Michael Faraday]], chemist and physicist (with his wife Sarah), in the [[Dissenter]]s section
* [[Charles Drury Edward Fortnum]], art collector and benefactor of the [[Ashmolean Museum]]
* [[Lucian Freud]], painter, grandson of [[Sigmund Freud]], and elder brother of [[Clement Freud]]
* [[John Galsworthy]], author and [[Nobel Prize]] winner ([[cenotaph]], he was cremated and his ashes scattered)
* [[Stephen Geary]], architect (most notably of Highgate Cemetery)
* [[John Gibbons (ironmaster and art patron)|John Gibbons]], ironmaster and art patron
* [[Stella Gibbons]], novelist, author of ''[[Cold Comfort Farm]]''
* [[Margaret Gillies]], Scottish painter known for her miniature portraits, including of one of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[John William Griffith]], architect of [[Kensal Green Cemetery]]
* [[Henry Gray]], anatomist and surgeon,<ref>GRO Register of Deaths: JUN qtr 1861 1a 174 St Geo Han Sq – Henry Gray
*</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqSearch=%28Surname=%27gray%27%29&dsqPos=7 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415172415/http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqSearch=(Surname='gray')&dsqPos=7 |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2013 |title=DServe Archive Persons Show |publisher=.royalsociety.org |access-date=18 March 2013 }}</ref> author of ''[[Gray's Anatomy]]''.
* [[Radclyffe Hall]], author of ''[[The Well of Loneliness]]'' and other novels
* [[William Hall (publisher)|William Hall]], founder with [[Edward Chapman (publisher)|Edward Chapman]] of publishers [[Chapman & Hall]]
* [[Philip Harben]], English cook regarded as the first TV [[celebrity chef]]
* [[Charles Augustus Hartley|Sir Charles Augustus Hartley]], eminent British civil engineer, known as 'the father of the [[Danube]].'
* [[George Edwards Hering]], landscape painter
* [[Edwin Hill (engineer)|Edwin Hill]], older brother of [[Rowland Hill]] and inventor of the first [[letter scale]] and a mechanical system to make envelopes
* [[Frank Holl]], Royal portraitist
* [[James Holman]], 19th-century adventurer known as "the Blind Traveller"
* [[Anthony Home|Surgeon-General Sir Anthony Home]], [[Victoria Cross]] recipient from [[Indian Mutiny]]
* [[Theodore Hope]], British colonial administrator and writer
* [[William Hosking]], first Professor of Architecture at [[King's College London]] and architect of [[Abney Park Cemetery]]
* [[Bob Hoskins]], actor
* [[Georgiana Houghton]], British artist and spiritualist [[Mediumship|medium]]
* [[David Edward Hughes]], FRS, 19th-century electrical engineer and inventor
* [[William Henry Hunt (painter)|William Henry Hunt]], popular and widely collected painter of watercolours, nicknamed ‘Bird’s Nest’ Hunt
* [[Sir John Hutton]], publisher of ''[[Sporting Life (British newspaper)|Sporting Life]]'' and Chairman of the [[London County Council]]
* [[Georges Jacobi]], composer, conductor and musical director of the [[Alhambra Theatre]]
* [[Lisa Jardine]], historian
* [[Victor Kullberg]], one of the greatest marine clockmakers
* [[Thomas Landseer]], younger brother of Sir [[Edwin Landseer]] (there is a cenotaph, Edwin was buried in [[St Paul's Cathedral]])
* [[Peter Laurie|Sir Peter Laurie]], politician and [[Lord Mayor of London]]
* [[Douglas Lapraik]], shipowner and co-founder of [[HSBC]] and the [[Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels Group]]
* [[Henry Lee (Surgeon)|Henry Lee]], surgeon, [[pathologist]] and [[syphilologist]]
* [[Oswald Lewis]], [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|MP]] and younger son of [[John Lewis (department store founder)|John Lewis]], founder of the [[John Lewis (department store)|chain of department stores]]
* [[Robert Liston]], surgeon
* [[Alexander Litvinenko]], Russian dissident, murdered by poisoning in London
* [[Edward Lloyd (publisher)|Edward Lloyd]], influential newspaper publisher and founder of the ''[[Daily Chronicle]]''
* [[James Locke (draper)|James Locke]], a London draper credited with giving [[Tweed]] its name
* [[William Lovett]], [[Chartism|Chartist]]
* [[Samuel Lucas]], editor of the ''[[Morning Star (British newspaper)|Morning Star]]'', journalist and abolitionist
* [[John Maple (furniture maker)]] founder of the furniture makers [[Maple & Co.]]
* [[Hugh Matheson (industrialist)|Hugh Mackay Matheson]], industrialist and founder of [[Matheson & Company]] and the [[Rio Tinto Group]]
* [[Frederick Denison Maurice]], English Anglican theologian, prolific author and one of the founders of [[Christian socialism]]
* [[Michael Meacher]], academic and [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician
* [[George Michael]], singer, songwriter, music producer and philanthropist; buried beside his mother and sister
* [[Barbara Mills]], (ashes) first female Director of Public Prosecutions
* [[Frederick Akbar Mahomed]], internationally known British physician
* [[Jude Moraes]], landscape gardener, writer and broadcaster
* [[Nicholas Mosley]], novelist and biographer of his father, [[Oswald Mosley]]
* [[Edward Moxhay]], shoemaker, biscuit maker and property speculator, best known for his involvement in the landmark English land law case ''[[Tulk v Moxhay]]''
* Elizabeth de Munck, mother of celebrated soprano, [[Maria Caterina Rosalbina Caradori-Allan]] in grave with large carving of [[pelican]] in piety
* [[Walter Neurath]], Publisher and founder of [[Thames and Hudson]]
* [[Henry Newton (Winsor & Newton founder)|Henry Newton]], painter and co-founder of [[Winsor & Newton]]
* [[Samuel Noble]], English engraver, and minister of the [[The New Church (Swedenborgian)|New Church]]
* [[George Osbaldeston]], known as Squire Osbaldeston, sportsman, gambler and [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] (MP)
* [[Sherard Osborn]], Royal Navy admiral and Arctic explorer
* [[Frederick William Pavy]], [[physician]] and [[physiologist]]
* [[William Payne (pantomimist)|William Payne]], actor, dancer and [[Pantomime|pantomimist]]
* [[Thomas Ashburton Picken]], [[Watercolor painting|watercolourist]], [[Engraving|engraver]] and [[Lithography|lithographer]]
* [[Frances Polidori|Frances Polidori Rossetti]], mother of [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti|Dante Gabriel]], [[Christina Rossetti|Christina]] and William Michael Rossetti
* [[Samuel Phelps]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespearian]] actor and manager of [[Sadler's Wells Theatre]]
* [[James Robinson (dentist)|James Robinson]], dentist, first person to carry out [[general anaesthesia]] in Britain
* Peter Robinson, founder of the [[Peter Robinson (department store)|Peter Robinson department store]] at Oxford Circus, London
* [[William Charles Ross|Sir William Charles Ross]], portrait and [[portrait miniature]] painter
* [[Christina Rossetti]], poet
* [[Gabriele Rossetti]], Italian nationalist and scholar. Father of Christina and Dante Gabriel Rossetti
* [[William Michael Rossetti]], co-founder of the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]]
* [[Tom Sayers]], [[Boxing#History|pugilist]], his tomb is guarded by the stone image of his mastiff, Lion, who was chief mourner at his funeral
* [[Henry Young Darracott Scott]], responsible for the design and construction of the [[Royal Albert Hall]]
* [[Elizabeth Siddal]], wife and model of artist/poet [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and model for the painting ''[[Ophelia (painting)|Ophelia]]'' by [[John Everett Millais]]
* [[Jean Simmons]], actress
* [[William Simpson (artist)|William Simpson]], war artist and correspondent
* [[John Jackson Smale|Sir John Smale]], Chief Justice of Hong Kong
* [[Tom Smith (confectioner)|Tom Smith]], inventor of the [[Christmas cracker]]
* [[Charles Green Spencer]], pioneer aviator and balloon manufacturer
* [[Alfred Stevens (sculptor)|Alfred Stevens]], sculptor, painter and designer
* [[Walter Fryer Stocks]], prolific landscape painter
* [[Henry Knight Storks|Sir Henry Knight Storks]], soldier, MP, and colonial administrator
* [[Anna Swanwick]], author and [[feminist]] who assisted in the founding of [[Girton College, Cambridge]], and [[Somerville Hall]], Oxford
* [[Alfred Swaine Taylor]], toxicologist, forensic scientist, expert witness
* [[Frederick Tennyson]], poet, older brother of [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]
* [[Samuel Sanders Teulon]], prolific [[Gothic Revival]] architect
* [[Jeanette Threlfall]], [[hymnwriter]] and poet
* [[Charles Turner (engraver)|Charles Turner]], [[mezzotint]] engraver who collaborated with [[J. M. W. Turner]]
* [[Andrew Ure]], Scottish physician known for his [[galvanism]] experimentation, founder of the [[University of Strathclyde]]
* [[John Vandenhoff]], leading Victorian actor
* [[Henry Vaughan (art collector)|Henry Vaughan]], art collector who gave one of Britain's most popular paintings, [[John Constable]]'s ''[[The Hay Wain]]'' to the [[National Gallery]]
* [[Emilie Ashurst Venturi]], writer, translator and women's rights campaigner
* [[Arthur Waley]], translator and scholar of the Orient
* [[George Wallis]], First Keeper of the Fine Art Collection at the [[Victoria & Albert Museum]]
* [[Mary Warner]], actress and theatre manager
* [[Augusta Webster]], poet, dramatist, essayist, translator and advocate of [[women's suffrage]]
* [[Henry White (photographer)|Henry White]], lawyer and gifted [[landscape photographer]]
* [[Brodie McGhie Willcox]], founder of the [[P&O (company)|P&O Shipping Line]]
* [[Henry Willis]], foremost [[organ builder]] of the Victorian era
* [[Hugh Wilson (RAF officer)|Hugh Wilson]], RAF test pilot
* [[George Wombwell]], menagerie exhibitor
* [[Ellen Wood (author)|Ellen Wood]], author known as Mrs Henry Wood, there is also a plaque for her in [[Worcester Cathedral]]
* [[Adam Worth]], criminal mastermind. Possible inspiration for [[Sherlock Holmes]]' nemesis, [[Professor Moriarty]]; originally buried in a pauper's grave under the name Henry J. Raymond
* [[William Henry Wyatt|Sir William Henry Wyatt]], long-serving chairman of the [[Friern Hospital|Middlesex County Lunatic Asylum]] at Colney Hatch, Southgate
* [[Patrick Wymark]], actor
* [[Joseph Warren Zambra]], scientific instrument maker

==East Cemetery==
[[File:Grave of Karl Marx Highgate Cemetery in London 2016 (10).jpg|thumb|250px|[[Tomb of Karl Marx]], East Cemetery]]
Many famous or prominent people are buried in Highgate cemetery; the most famous burial is arguably that of [[Karl Marx]], whose tomb was the site of attempted bombings on 2 September 1965<ref>{{citation | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=XnIsAAAAIBAJ&pg=6238%2C1047342 | title = News}}</ref> and in 1970.<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.camdennewjournal.co.uk/111705/cn111705_11.htm | title = Camden New Journal | place = UK | contribution = Tomb raiders’ failed attack on Marx grave}}</ref> The [[tomb of Karl Marx]] is a Grade I [[listed building]] for reasons of historical importance.

===Notable East Cemetery interments===
* [[Douglas Adams]], author of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' and other novels
* [[Mehmet Aksoy (filmmaker)|Mehmet Aksoy]], press officer for the Kurdish [[People's Protection Units|YPG]], killed by ISIS in 2017<ref>{{Cite news|date=11 November 2017|title=Farewell to YPG's Mehmet Aksoy in London|work=ANF|url=https://anfenglish.com/women/farewell-to-ypg-s-mehmet-aksoy-in-london-23148}}</ref>
* [[Wilkie Bard]], popular [[vaudeville]] and [[music hall]] entertainer and recording artist
* [[Farzad Bazoft]], journalist, executed by [[Saddam Hussein]]'s regime
* [[Jeremy Beadle]], writer, television presenter and curator of oddities
* Adolf Beck, the [[Adolph Beck case]] was a celebrated case of mistaken identity
* [[Hercules Bellville]], American film producer
* [[Master Betty|William Betty]], popular child actor of the early nineteenth century
* [[Emily Blatchley]], pioneering [[Protestant]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[missionary]] to [[China]]
* [[Kate Booth]], English Salvationist and evangelist. Oldest daughter of [[William Booth|William]] and [[Catherine Booth]]. She was also known as ''la Maréchale''
* [[Frederick Broome]], colonial administrator of several British colonies. The Western Australian towns of [[Broome, Western Australia|Broome]] and [[Broomehill, Western Australia|Broomehill]] are named after him
* [[George Barclay Bruce]], world renown railway engineer and president of the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]]
* [[Lauder Brunton|Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton, 1st Baronet]], Scottish physician who is most-closely associated with the treatment of [[angina pectoris]]
* [[James Caird (politician)|James Caird]], Scottish agricultural writer and politician
* [[Patrick Caulfield]], painter and printmaker known for his [[pop art]] canvasses
* [[Douglas Cleverdon]], radio producer and bookseller
* [[William Kingdon Clifford]] (with his wife [[Lucy Clifford|Lucy]]), mathematician and philosopher
* [[Lucy Clifford|Lucy Lane Clifford]], novelist and journalist, wife of [[William Kingdon Clifford]]
* [[Yusuf Dadoo]], South African anti-apartheid activist
* [[Lewis Foreman Day]], influential artist in the [[Arts and Crafts movement]]
* [[Davison Dalziel, 1st Baron Dalziel of Wooler|Sir Davison Dalziel, Bt]], British newspaper owner and [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] politician. Massive mausoleum near the entrance.
* [[Elyse Dodgson]], theatre producer
* [[Fritz Dupre]], [[iron]] and [[manganese]] ore merchant, known as the "Manganese Ore King"
* [[Francis Elgar]], naval architect
* [[George Eliot]] (Mary Ann Evans – the name on the grave is Mary Ann Cross), novelist, common law wife of [[George Henry Lewes]] and buried next to him
* [[Edwin Wilkins Field]], lawyer who devoted much of his life to law reform
* [[Paul Foot (journalist)|Paul Foot]], campaigning journalist and nephew of former [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] leader [[Michael Foot]]
* [[Lydia Folger Fowler]], pioneering American physician and first American-born woman to earn a medical degree
* [[William Foyle]], co-founder of [[Foyles]]
* [[William Friese-Greene]], cinema pioneer and his son [[Claude Friese-Greene]]
* [[Lou Gish]], actress, daughter of Sheila Gish
* [[Sheila Gish]], actress
* [[Philip Gould, Baron Gould of Brookwood|Philip Gould]], British [[political consultant]], and former advertising [[corporate executive|executive]], closely linked to the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]
* [[Robert Grant (VC)|Robert Grant VC]], soldier and police constable
* [[Robert Edmond Grant]], Professor of [[Comparative Anatomy]] at [[University College London]] who gave his name to the [[Grant Museum of Zoology]]
* [[Charles Green (balloonist)|Charles Green]], the United Kingdom's most famous balloonist of the 19th century
* [[Leon Griffiths]], creator of [[Minder (TV series)|Minder]]
* [[Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)|Stuart Hall]], [[Jamaica]]n-born British [[Marxist]] [[sociologist]], [[culture theory|cultural theorist]], and [[political activist]]
* [[Harrison Hayter]], railway, harbour and dock engineer
* [[Mansoor Hekmat]], Communist leader and founder of the [[Worker-Communist Party of Iran]] and [[Worker-Communist Party of Iraq]]
* [[Eric Hobsbawm]], historian
* [[Austin Holyoake]], printer, publisher, freethinker and brother of the more widely known [[George Holyoake]]
* [[George Holyoake]], Birmingham-born social reformer and founder of the [[British co-operative movement|Cooperative Movement]]
* [[George Honey]], popular Victorian actor and comedian
* [[Alan Howard]], actor
* [[Leslie Hutchinson]], [[Cabaret]] star of the 20s and 30s
* [[Jabez Inwards]], popular Victorian [[Temperance movement|temperance]] lecturer and [[phrenologist]]
* [[Georges Jacobi]], composer and conductor
* [[Bert Jansch]], Scottish folk musician
* [[Claudia Jones]], Trinidadian born [[Communist]] and fighter for civil rights, founder of ''[[The West Indian Gazette]]'' and the [[Notting Hill Carnival]]<ref>{{cite web|first=Angela|last=Davis|title=Angela Davis praises CPUSA for its history "of militant struggle"|website=PeoplesWorld.org|url=https://www.peoplesworld.org/article/angela-davis-praises-cpusa-for-its-history-of-militant-struggle/|date=June 20, 2019|access-date=June 20, 2019}}</ref>
* [[George Goodwin Kilburne]], [[genre works|genre]] painter
* [[David Kirkaldy]], Scottish engineer and pioneer in materials testing
* [[Anatoly Kuznetsov]], Soviet writer
* [[Liza Lehmann]], operatic soprano and composer, daughter of [[Rudolf Lehmann (artist)|Rudolf Lehmann]]
* [[Rudolf Lehmann (artist)|Rudolf Lehmann]], portrait artist and father of [[Liza Lehmann]]
* [[George Henry Lewes]], English philosopher and critic, common law husband of [[George Eliot]] and buried next to her.
* [[Roger Lloyd-Pack]], British actor known for ''[[Only Fools and Horses]]'' and ''[[The Vicar of Dibley]]''
* [[John Lobb]], Society bootmaker
* [[Charles Lucy]], British artist, whose most notable painting was ''The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers''
* [[Haldane MacFall]], art critic, art historian, book illustrator and novelist
* [[Anna Mahler]], sculptress and daughter of [[Gustav Mahler]] and [[Alma Mahler|Alma Schindler]]
* [[Chris Martin (civil servant)|Chris Martin]], [[Principal Private Secretary to the Prime Minister]]
* [[James Martineau]], [[Christian philosophy|religious philosopher]] influential in the [[history of Unitarianism]]
* [[Tomb of Karl Marx|Karl Marx]], philosopher, historian, sociologist and economist (memorial after his reburial, with other family members)
* [[Frank Matcham]], theatre architect
* [[Carl Mayer]], Austro-German screenwriter of ''[[The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari]]'' and ''[[Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans]]''
* [[McKinnon Wood|Thomas MacKinnon Wood]], Liberal politician and [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
* [[Malcolm McLaren]], [[Punk subculture|punk]] impresario and original manager of the [[Sex Pistols]]
* [[Ralph Miliband]], [[left wing]] [[political theorist]], father of [[David Miliband]] and [[Ed Miliband]]
* [[Alan Milward]], influential historian
* [[William Henry Monk]], composer (of the music to ''[[Abide with Me]]'')
* [[Charles Morton (impresario)|Charles Morton]], [[music hall]] and [[theatre]] manager who became known as the ''Father of the Halls''
* [[Sidney Nolan]], Australian artist
* [[George Josiah Palmer]], founder and editor of ''[[Church Times]]''
* [[Charles J. Phipps]], theatre architect
* [[Tim Pigott-Smith]], actor
* [[Dachine Rainer]], poet and anarchist
* [[Corin Redgrave]], actor and political activist
* [[Bruce Reynolds]], criminal, mastermind of the [[Great Train Robbery (1963)]]
* [[Ralph Richardson]], actor
* [[George Richmond (painter)|George Richmond]], painter and portraitist
* [[José Carlos Rodrigues]], Brazilian journalist, financial expert, and philanthropist
* [[Ernestine Rose]], suffragist, abolitionist and freethinker
* [[James Samuel Risien Russell]], Guyanese-British physician, neurologist, professor of medicine, and professor of medical jurisprudence
* [[Raphael Samuel]], [[Marxist]] historian
* [[Anthony Shaffer (writer)|Anthony Shaffer]], playwright, screenwriter and novelist
* [[Peter Shaffer]], playwright and screenwriter
* [[Eyre Massey Shaw|Sir Eyre Massey Shaw]], first Chief Officer of the [[Metropolitan Fire Brigade (London)|Metropolitan Fire Brigade]]
* [[Alan Sillitoe]], English postmodern novelist, poet, and playwright
* [[James Smetham]], [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]] painter, engraver and follower of [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]]
* [[Donald Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal|Sir Donald Alexander Smith]], Canadian railway financier and diplomat
* [[Herbert Spencer]], [[evolutionary biologist]], sociologist, and [[laissez-faire]] economic philosopher
* [[Leslie Stephen|Sir Leslie Stephen]], critic, first editor of the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', father of [[Virginia Woolf]] and [[Vanessa Bell]]
* [[William Heath Strange]], physician and founder of the ''Hampstead General Hospital'', now the [[Royal Free Hospital]]
* [[Lucien Stryk]], American poet, teacher and translator of Zen poetry
* Sir [[George Thalben-Ball]], English organist, choirmaster and composer
* [[Bob Thoms]], the greatest Victorian cricket umpire
* [[James Thomson (poet, born 1834)|James Thomson]], Victorian poet, best known for [[The City of Dreadful Night|''The City of Dreadful Night'']]
* [[Storm Thorgerson]], graphic designer
* [[Malcolm Tierney]], actor
* [[Feliks Topolski]], Polish-born British expressionist painter
* [[Edward Truelove]], radical publisher and freethinker
* [[Peter Ucko]], influential English [[archaeology|archaeologist]]
* [[Max Wall]], comedian and entertainer
* [[Simon Ward]], actor
* [[Peter Cathcart Wason]], pioneering psychologist
* [[Lawrence Weaver|Sir Lawrence Weaver]], architectural writer, editor of Country Life and organiser of the [[British Empire Exhibition]]
* [[Opal Whiteley]], American writer
* [[Colin St John Wilson]], architect (most notably of the new [[British Library]] in London), lecturer and author
* [[Joseph Wolf]], natural history illustrator and pioneer in wildlife art
* [[Edward Richard Woodham]], survivor of the [[Charge of the Light Brigade]]
* [[Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington]], politician, social activist and consumer champion.

===Fireman’s corner===
A monument erected in the East Cemetery by widows and orphans of members of the [[London Fire Brigade]] in 1934. There are 97 firemen buried here. The monument is cared for by the Brigade's Welfare Section.

==War graves==
The cemetery contains the graves of 318 Commonwealth service personnel maintained and registered by the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]], in both the East and West Cemeteries, 259 from the [[First World War]] and 59 from the [[Second World War|Second]]. Those whose graves could not be marked by headstones are listed on a Screen Wall memorial erected near the [[Cross of Sacrifice]] in the west cemetery.<ref name=cwgc>{{cite web|title=Cemetery Details: Highgate Cemetery|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/41905/HIGHGATE%20CEMETERY|website=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|access-date=21 August 2014}}</ref>

==Visiting==
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2018}}
The Cemetery is open to the public every day. To cover running and maintenance costs, the charitable trust charges an entry fee. For entry only (called "self-guided") there are two ticket prices, East Cemetery only or for both East and West sides. For a small extra cost, there are regular guided tours, lasting approximately 75 minutes, of the West side throughout the week and the East side on Saturdays only.

==In popular culture==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2015}}
* Several of [[John Galsworthy]]'s ''[[The Forsyte Saga|Forsyte Saga]]'' novels refer to Highgate Cemetery as the last resting place of the Forsytes; for example, Chapter XI, "The Last of the Forsytes," in ''To Let'' (1921).
* Footage of Highgate appears in numerous British horror films, including ''[[Taste the Blood of Dracula]]'' (1970), ''[[Tales from the Crypt (film)|Tales from the Crypt]]'' (1972) and ''[[From Beyond the Grave]]'' (1974).
* In the BBC TV series ''[[Porridge (TV series)|Porridge]]'', Fletcher claims that his eldest daughter, Ingrid, was conceived on Karl Marx's tomb.
* Herbert Smith is shadowed through Highgate Cemetery in ''[[Visibility]]'', a murder/espionage/thriller by [[Boris Starling]].
* Highgate Cemetery is the sixth level of the ''[[Nightmare Creatures]]'' game.
* In [[Len Deighton]]'s alternative history novel ''[[SS-GB]]'' and its [[SS-GB (TV series)|TV adaptation]], a bomb is detonated in the tomb of [[Karl Marx]] when his remains are exhumed by [[Nazi Germany|German occupation forces]] to be presented to the [[Soviet Union]].
* [[Fred Vargas]]'s novel ''[[An Uncertain Place|Un lieu incertain]]'' starts in the cemetery.
* [[Barbara Hambly]]'s [[vampire]] novel, ''[[Those Who Hunt the Night]]'', has the main characters visiting Highgate at one point to examine the remains of a vampire who had taken over an abandoned tomb.
* Stated in the acknowledgments as the inspiration for the setting of [[Neil Gaiman]]'s ''[[The Graveyard Book]]''.
* [[Audrey Niffenegger]]'s book ''[[Her Fearful Symmetry]]'' (2009) is set around Highgate Cemetery; she acted as a tour guide there while researching the book.<ref name="Highgate Cemetery">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/oct/03/audrey-niffenegger-highgate-cemetery-novel|title=Audrey Niffenegger on Highgate Cemetery|last=Niffenegger|first=Audrey|date=3 October 2009|work=The Guardian|access-date=3 October 2009}}</ref>
* In the novel ''[[Double or Die]]'' (2007), a part of the ''[[Young Bond]]'' series, Ludwig and Wolfgang Smith plan to kill Bond in the cemetery.
* [[Tracy Chevalier]]'s book ''Falling Angels'' (2002) was set in and around Highgate Cemetery. The two main protagonists met there as children while their parents were visiting adjacent family graves and they continued to enjoy meeting up and playing there.
* The movie [[Hampstead (film)|''Hampstead'']] (2017) features a few scenes in the cemetery.
* The climax of a novel by [[John Steele (writer)|John Steele]], ''Seven Skins'' (2018), was set in the Egyptian Avenue and Circle of Lebanon, among other locations in the West Cemetery.
* The movie [[Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald|''Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald'']] (2018) features scenes towards the end of the film in the cemetery before the famous Cedar tree was removed.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon2.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon3.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon4.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon5.jpg
File:Highgate Cemetery 013.jpg
File:Carl Rosa.png|[[Carl Rosa]] grave
File:Sepulcro con ángel.jpg|thumb|Mary Nichols and The Sleeping Angel, Highgate Cemetery|alt=On the top of the grave lies a sleeping angel on a bed of clouds. ‘In Ever Loving Memory of Mary, the darling wife of Arthur Nichols and fondly loved mother of their only son Harold who fell asleep 7th May 1909. Also of Dennis Arthur Charles son of Harold and Winifred who died 28th April 1916 aged 15 months.’
File:Highgate Cemetery East 2.JPG|Highgate Cemetery East (2010)
File:Highgate grave.jpg|Caroline Tucker grave, Highgate Cemetery East<ref>Mémorial Find a Grave,"Caroline Tucker (1910-1994) - Mémorial Find a Grave"[https://fr.findagrave.com/memorial/55748745/caroline-tucker],Droits d’auteur © 2022 Find a Grave,retrieved 2022-03-15.</ref>
File:Highgate Cemetery - East - Bruce Reynolds 02.jpg|The grave of [[Bruce Reynolds]]
File:SayersTomb HighgateCemetery.JPG|The tomb of [[Tom Sayers]]
File:Patrick Caulfield Grave Highgate East Cemetery London 2016.jpg|The grave of [[Patrick Caulfield|Patrick Caulfield, RA]]
File:Mansoor Hekmat Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 04.jpg|The grave of [[Mansoor Hekmat]]
File:Grave of Anna Mahler Austrian sculpture, in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016.jpg|The grave of [[Anna Mahler]]
File:Yusuf Mohamed Dadoo Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 09.jpg|The grave of [[Yusuf Dadoo]]
File:Eric Hobsbawm Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 06.jpg|The grave of [[Eric Hobsbawm]]
File:Jeremy Beadle grave.jpg|The grave of [[Jeremy Beadle]]
File:WFGgrave.jpg|Grave of [[William Friese-Greene]] by [[Edwin Lutyens|Lutyens]], East Cemetery
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|http://highgatecemetery.org}}

{{Cemeteries in England}}
{{Cemeteries in London}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1839 establishments in England]]
[[Category:Anglican cemeteries in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Burials at Highgate Cemetery]]
[[Category:Cemeteries in London]]
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries in England]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in the London Borough of Camden]]
[[Category:Grade I listed monuments and memorials]]
[[Category:Grade I listed parks and gardens in London]]
[[Category:Highgate]]
[[Category:Parks and open spaces in the London Borough of Camden]]

Highgate Cemetery

2022-03-15T13:24:35Z

Cuaxdon: /* Gallery */

{{short description|Place of burial in north London, England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox cemetery
| name = Highgate Cemetery
| image = Highgate Cemetery East.JPG
| imagesize = 260
| caption = Highgate (East) Cemetery ({{circa}} 2010)
| map_type =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| established = 1839
| location = Swain's Lane, [[London]], [[N postcode area|N6 6PJ]]
| country = [[England]]
| coordinates = {{coord|51.567|-0.147|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| type =
| style =
| owner = Friends of Highgate Cemetery Trust
| size = {{convert|15|ha|acre}}
| graves = 53,000+
| interments = 170,000
| website = [https://www.highgatecemetery.org Highgate Cemetery]
| findagrave1 = 638894
| findagrave1_label = East
| findagrave2 = 638895
| findagrave2_label = West
| political =
}}

'''Highgate Cemetery''' is a place of burial in [[north London]], England. There are approximately 170,000 people buried in around 53,000 graves across the West and East Cemeteries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/index.php/faqs|website=Highgate Cemetery|publisher=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216041052/http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/index.php/faqs|archive-date=16 February 2013}}</ref> Highgate Cemetery is notable both for some of the people buried there as well as for its ''de facto'' status as a [[nature reserve]]. The Cemetery is designated Grade I on the [[Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England|Register of Historic Parks and Gardens]].<ref name=NHLEGarden>{{NHLE|num=1000810|desc=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 June 2017}}</ref> It is one of the [[Magnificent Seven, London|Magnificent Seven]] cemeteries in London.

==Location==
The [[cemetery]] comprises two sites, each on either side of Swains Lane in [[Highgate]], [[N postcode area|N6]], next to [[Waterlow Park]]. The main gate is located on Swains Lane just north of Oakshott Avenue. There is another disused gate on Chester Road. The cemetery is in the [[London Borough of Camden]]. The nearest public transport ([[Transport for London]]) is the C11 bus, Brookfield Park stop, or [[Archway tube station]].

==History and setting==
The cemetery in its original form{{snd}}the northwestern wooded area{{snd}}opened in 1839, as part of a plan to provide seven large, modern cemeteries, now known as the "[[Magnificent Seven, London|Magnificent Seven]]", around the outside of central London. The inner-city cemeteries, mostly the graveyards attached to individual churches, had long been unable to cope with the number of burials and were seen as a hazard to health and an undignified way to treat the dead. The initial design was by architect and entrepreneur [[Stephen Geary]].

On Monday 20 May 1839, Highgate (West) Cemetery was dedicated to [[James, son of Alphaeus|St. James]]<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://highgatecemetery.org/about/history|website=Highgate Cemetery|publisher=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170124082617/http://highgatecemetery.org/about/history|archive-date=24 January 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> by the Right Reverend [[Charles James Blomfield]], Lord [[Bishop of London]]. Fifteen acres were consecrated for the use of the [[Church of England]], and two acres set aside for [[English Dissenters|Dissenters]]. Rights of burial were sold for either limited period or in perpetuity. The first burial was Elizabeth Jackson of Little Windmill Street, [[Soho]], on 26 May.

Highgate, like the others of the Magnificent Seven, soon became a fashionable place for burials and was much admired and visited. The [[Victorian era|Victorian]] attitude to death and its presentation led to the creation of a wealth of [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] tombs and buildings. It occupies a spectacular south-facing hillside site slightly downhill from the top of the hill of Highgate itself, next to Waterlow Park. In 1854 a further 19 acres to the south east of the original area, across Swains Lane, was bought to form the eastern part of the cemetery which opened in 1860. Both sides of the Cemetery are still used today for burials.

The cemetery's grounds are full of trees, shrubbery and wildflowers, most of which have been planted and grown without human influence. The grounds are a haven for birds and small animals such as foxes.

Highgate Cemetery was featured in the popular media from the 1960s to the late 1980s for its so-called [[occult]] past, particularly as being the alleged site of the "[[Highgate Vampire]]".

==Friends of Highgate Cemetery==
The Cemetery is now owned and maintained by a charitable trust, the Friends of Highgate Cemetery Trust, which was set up in 1975 and acquired the freehold of both East and West Cemeteries by 1981. In 1984 it published ''Highgate Cemetery: Victorian Valhalla'' by [[John Gay (photographer)|John Gay]].<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/ | title = A Brief History of Highgate Cemetery}}</ref>

==West Cemetery==
[[File:Egyptian Avenue Highgate Cemetery.jpg|thumb|250px|Entrance to the Egyptian Avenue, West Cemetery]]
[[File:High-cemetery-circle.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Circle of Lebanon, West Cemetery]]
The Cemetery's grounds are full of trees, shrubbery and wildflowers, most of which have been planted and grown without human influence. The grounds are a haven for birds and small animals such as foxes. The Egyptian Avenue and the Circle of Lebanon (previously surmounted by a huge, 280 years old [[Lebanon Cedar|Cedar of Lebanon]], which had to be cut down and replaced in August 2019) feature tombs, vaults and winding paths dug into hillsides. The Egyptian Avenue and the Columbarium are Grade I [[listed building]]s.

===Notable West Cemetery interments===
* [[Henry Thomas Alken|Henry Alken]], painter, engraver and illustrator of sporting and coaching scenes
* [[Jane Arden (director)|Jane Arden]], Welsh-born film director, actor, screenwriter, playwright, songwriter, and poet
* [[John Atcheler]], ‘Horse slaughterer to [[Queen Victoria]]’
* [[Edward Hodges Baily]], sculptor
* [[Beryl Bainbridge]], author
* [[Abraham Dee Bartlett]], [[zoologist]], superintendent of the [[London Zoo]] known for selling the popular African elephant [[Jumbo]] to [[P. T. Barnum]]

* [[Julius Beer]] (and family members), owner of ''[[The Observer]]''.
* [[Francis Bedford (photographer)|Francis Bedford]], landscape photographer
* [[William Belt]], barrister and antiquarian, best known for his eccentric behaviour
* [[Mary Matilda Betham]], diarist, poet, woman of letters, and miniature portrait painter
* [[Eugenius Birch]], seaside architect and noted designer of promenade-piers
* [[Edward Blore]], architect known for his work on [[Buckingham Palace]] and [[Westminster Abbey]]
* [[Edwin Brett]], publisher and pioneer of serialised sensational weekly fiction and '[[penny dreadfuls]]'
* [[Jacob Bronowski]], scientist, creator of the television series ''[[The Ascent of Man]]''
* [[James Bunstone Bunning]], City Architect to the [[City of London]]
* [[Robert William Buss]], artist and illustrator
* [[Edward Dundas Butler]], translator and senior librarian at the [[British Library|Department of Printed Books, British Museum]]
* [[Edward Cardwell, 1st Viscount Cardwell]], prominent politician in the [[Peelite]] and [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] parties, best remembered for his tenure as [[Secretary of State for War]]
* [[William Benjamin Carpenter]], physician, invertebrate zoologist and physiologist
* [[J. Comyns Carr|Joseph William Comyns Carr]], drama and art critic, gallery director, author, poet, playwright and theatre manager
* [[John James Chalon]], Swiss painter
* [[Robert Caesar Childers]], [[Orientalism|scholar of the Orient]] and writer
* [[Edmund Chipp]], organist and composer
* [[Charles Chubb (businessman)|Charles Chubb]], lock and safe manufacturer
* [[Antoine Claudet]], pioneering early photographer, honoured by [[Queen Victoria]] as "Photographer-in-ordinary"
* [[John Cross (artist)|John Cross]], English artist
* [[Philip Conisbee]], art historian and curator
* [[Abraham Cooper]], animal and battle painter
* [[Thomas Frederick Cooper (watchmaker)|Thomas Frederick Cooper]], watchmaker
* [[John Copley, 1st Baron Lyndhurst|John Singleton Copley]], Lord Chancellor and son of the American painter [[John Singleton Copley]]
* [[Charles Cowper|Sir Charles Cowper]], Premier of [[New South Wales]], Australia
* [[Addison Cresswell]], comedians' agent and producer
* [[George Baden Crawley]], civil engineer and railway builder
* [[Charles Cruft (showman)|Charles Cruft]], founder of [[Crufts]] dog show
* [[Isaac Robert Cruikshank]], caricaturist, illustrator, portrait miniaturist and brother of [[George Cruikshank]]
* [[The Brothers Dalziel|George Dalziel]], engraver who with his siblings ran one of the most prolific Victorian engraving firms
* [[George Darnell]], schoolmaster and author of ''Darnell's Copybooks''
* [[David Devant]], theatrical magician
* [[Alfred Lamert Dickens]], the younger brother of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[Catherine Dickens]], wife of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[John Dickens|John]] and [[Elizabeth Dickens]], parents of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[Fanny Dickens]], elder sister of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[William Hepworth Dixon]], historian and traveller. Also active in organizing London's [[Great Exhibition]] of 1851
* The Druce family vault, one of whose members was (falsely) alleged to have been the [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland|5th Duke of Portland]].
* [[Herbert Benjamin Edwardes]], Administrator and soldier, known as the "Hero of Multan"
* [[Joseph Edwards (sculptor)]], Welsh sculptor
* [[Thomas Edwards (author)]], (Caerfallwch), Welsh author and lexicographer
* [[Ugo Ehiogu]], footballer
* [[James Harington Evans]], Baptist pastor of the John Street Chapel
* [[Michael Faraday]], chemist and physicist (with his wife Sarah), in the [[Dissenter]]s section
* [[Charles Drury Edward Fortnum]], art collector and benefactor of the [[Ashmolean Museum]]
* [[Lucian Freud]], painter, grandson of [[Sigmund Freud]], and elder brother of [[Clement Freud]]
* [[John Galsworthy]], author and [[Nobel Prize]] winner ([[cenotaph]], he was cremated and his ashes scattered)
* [[Stephen Geary]], architect (most notably of Highgate Cemetery)
* [[John Gibbons (ironmaster and art patron)|John Gibbons]], ironmaster and art patron
* [[Stella Gibbons]], novelist, author of ''[[Cold Comfort Farm]]''
* [[Margaret Gillies]], Scottish painter known for her miniature portraits, including of one of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[John William Griffith]], architect of [[Kensal Green Cemetery]]
* [[Henry Gray]], anatomist and surgeon,<ref>GRO Register of Deaths: JUN qtr 1861 1a 174 St Geo Han Sq – Henry Gray
*</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqSearch=%28Surname=%27gray%27%29&dsqPos=7 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415172415/http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqSearch=(Surname='gray')&dsqPos=7 |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2013 |title=DServe Archive Persons Show |publisher=.royalsociety.org |access-date=18 March 2013 }}</ref> author of ''[[Gray's Anatomy]]''.
* [[Radclyffe Hall]], author of ''[[The Well of Loneliness]]'' and other novels
* [[William Hall (publisher)|William Hall]], founder with [[Edward Chapman (publisher)|Edward Chapman]] of publishers [[Chapman & Hall]]
* [[Philip Harben]], English cook regarded as the first TV [[celebrity chef]]
* [[Charles Augustus Hartley|Sir Charles Augustus Hartley]], eminent British civil engineer, known as 'the father of the [[Danube]].'
* [[George Edwards Hering]], landscape painter
* [[Edwin Hill (engineer)|Edwin Hill]], older brother of [[Rowland Hill]] and inventor of the first [[letter scale]] and a mechanical system to make envelopes
* [[Frank Holl]], Royal portraitist
* [[James Holman]], 19th-century adventurer known as "the Blind Traveller"
* [[Anthony Home|Surgeon-General Sir Anthony Home]], [[Victoria Cross]] recipient from [[Indian Mutiny]]
* [[Theodore Hope]], British colonial administrator and writer
* [[William Hosking]], first Professor of Architecture at [[King's College London]] and architect of [[Abney Park Cemetery]]
* [[Bob Hoskins]], actor
* [[Georgiana Houghton]], British artist and spiritualist [[Mediumship|medium]]
* [[David Edward Hughes]], FRS, 19th-century electrical engineer and inventor
* [[William Henry Hunt (painter)|William Henry Hunt]], popular and widely collected painter of watercolours, nicknamed ‘Bird’s Nest’ Hunt
* [[Sir John Hutton]], publisher of ''[[Sporting Life (British newspaper)|Sporting Life]]'' and Chairman of the [[London County Council]]
* [[Georges Jacobi]], composer, conductor and musical director of the [[Alhambra Theatre]]
* [[Lisa Jardine]], historian
* [[Victor Kullberg]], one of the greatest marine clockmakers
* [[Thomas Landseer]], younger brother of Sir [[Edwin Landseer]] (there is a cenotaph, Edwin was buried in [[St Paul's Cathedral]])
* [[Peter Laurie|Sir Peter Laurie]], politician and [[Lord Mayor of London]]
* [[Douglas Lapraik]], shipowner and co-founder of [[HSBC]] and the [[Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels Group]]
* [[Henry Lee (Surgeon)|Henry Lee]], surgeon, [[pathologist]] and [[syphilologist]]
* [[Oswald Lewis]], [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|MP]] and younger son of [[John Lewis (department store founder)|John Lewis]], founder of the [[John Lewis (department store)|chain of department stores]]
* [[Robert Liston]], surgeon
* [[Alexander Litvinenko]], Russian dissident, murdered by poisoning in London
* [[Edward Lloyd (publisher)|Edward Lloyd]], influential newspaper publisher and founder of the ''[[Daily Chronicle]]''
* [[James Locke (draper)|James Locke]], a London draper credited with giving [[Tweed]] its name
* [[William Lovett]], [[Chartism|Chartist]]
* [[Samuel Lucas]], editor of the ''[[Morning Star (British newspaper)|Morning Star]]'', journalist and abolitionist
* [[John Maple (furniture maker)]] founder of the furniture makers [[Maple & Co.]]
* [[Hugh Matheson (industrialist)|Hugh Mackay Matheson]], industrialist and founder of [[Matheson & Company]] and the [[Rio Tinto Group]]
* [[Frederick Denison Maurice]], English Anglican theologian, prolific author and one of the founders of [[Christian socialism]]
* [[Michael Meacher]], academic and [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician
* [[George Michael]], singer, songwriter, music producer and philanthropist; buried beside his mother and sister
* [[Barbara Mills]], (ashes) first female Director of Public Prosecutions
* [[Frederick Akbar Mahomed]], internationally known British physician
* [[Jude Moraes]], landscape gardener, writer and broadcaster
* [[Nicholas Mosley]], novelist and biographer of his father, [[Oswald Mosley]]
* [[Edward Moxhay]], shoemaker, biscuit maker and property speculator, best known for his involvement in the landmark English land law case ''[[Tulk v Moxhay]]''
* Elizabeth de Munck, mother of celebrated soprano, [[Maria Caterina Rosalbina Caradori-Allan]] in grave with large carving of [[pelican]] in piety
* [[Walter Neurath]], Publisher and founder of [[Thames and Hudson]]
* [[Henry Newton (Winsor & Newton founder)|Henry Newton]], painter and co-founder of [[Winsor & Newton]]
* [[Samuel Noble]], English engraver, and minister of the [[The New Church (Swedenborgian)|New Church]]
* [[George Osbaldeston]], known as Squire Osbaldeston, sportsman, gambler and [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] (MP)
* [[Sherard Osborn]], Royal Navy admiral and Arctic explorer
* [[Frederick William Pavy]], [[physician]] and [[physiologist]]
* [[William Payne (pantomimist)|William Payne]], actor, dancer and [[Pantomime|pantomimist]]
* [[Thomas Ashburton Picken]], [[Watercolor painting|watercolourist]], [[Engraving|engraver]] and [[Lithography|lithographer]]
* [[Frances Polidori|Frances Polidori Rossetti]], mother of [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti|Dante Gabriel]], [[Christina Rossetti|Christina]] and William Michael Rossetti
* [[Samuel Phelps]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespearian]] actor and manager of [[Sadler's Wells Theatre]]
* [[James Robinson (dentist)|James Robinson]], dentist, first person to carry out [[general anaesthesia]] in Britain
* Peter Robinson, founder of the [[Peter Robinson (department store)|Peter Robinson department store]] at Oxford Circus, London
* [[William Charles Ross|Sir William Charles Ross]], portrait and [[portrait miniature]] painter
* [[Christina Rossetti]], poet
* [[Gabriele Rossetti]], Italian nationalist and scholar. Father of Christina and Dante Gabriel Rossetti
* [[William Michael Rossetti]], co-founder of the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]]
* [[Tom Sayers]], [[Boxing#History|pugilist]], his tomb is guarded by the stone image of his mastiff, Lion, who was chief mourner at his funeral
* [[Henry Young Darracott Scott]], responsible for the design and construction of the [[Royal Albert Hall]]
* [[Elizabeth Siddal]], wife and model of artist/poet [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and model for the painting ''[[Ophelia (painting)|Ophelia]]'' by [[John Everett Millais]]
* [[Jean Simmons]], actress
* [[William Simpson (artist)|William Simpson]], war artist and correspondent
* [[John Jackson Smale|Sir John Smale]], Chief Justice of Hong Kong
* [[Tom Smith (confectioner)|Tom Smith]], inventor of the [[Christmas cracker]]
* [[Charles Green Spencer]], pioneer aviator and balloon manufacturer
* [[Alfred Stevens (sculptor)|Alfred Stevens]], sculptor, painter and designer
* [[Walter Fryer Stocks]], prolific landscape painter
* [[Henry Knight Storks|Sir Henry Knight Storks]], soldier, MP, and colonial administrator
* [[Anna Swanwick]], author and [[feminist]] who assisted in the founding of [[Girton College, Cambridge]], and [[Somerville Hall]], Oxford
* [[Alfred Swaine Taylor]], toxicologist, forensic scientist, expert witness
* [[Frederick Tennyson]], poet, older brother of [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]
* [[Samuel Sanders Teulon]], prolific [[Gothic Revival]] architect
* [[Jeanette Threlfall]], [[hymnwriter]] and poet
* [[Charles Turner (engraver)|Charles Turner]], [[mezzotint]] engraver who collaborated with [[J. M. W. Turner]]
* [[Andrew Ure]], Scottish physician known for his [[galvanism]] experimentation, founder of the [[University of Strathclyde]]
* [[John Vandenhoff]], leading Victorian actor
* [[Henry Vaughan (art collector)|Henry Vaughan]], art collector who gave one of Britain's most popular paintings, [[John Constable]]'s ''[[The Hay Wain]]'' to the [[National Gallery]]
* [[Emilie Ashurst Venturi]], writer, translator and women's rights campaigner
* [[Arthur Waley]], translator and scholar of the Orient
* [[George Wallis]], First Keeper of the Fine Art Collection at the [[Victoria & Albert Museum]]
* [[Mary Warner]], actress and theatre manager
* [[Augusta Webster]], poet, dramatist, essayist, translator and advocate of [[women's suffrage]]
* [[Henry White (photographer)|Henry White]], lawyer and gifted [[landscape photographer]]
* [[Brodie McGhie Willcox]], founder of the [[P&O (company)|P&O Shipping Line]]
* [[Henry Willis]], foremost [[organ builder]] of the Victorian era
* [[Hugh Wilson (RAF officer)|Hugh Wilson]], RAF test pilot
* [[George Wombwell]], menagerie exhibitor
* [[Ellen Wood (author)|Ellen Wood]], author known as Mrs Henry Wood, there is also a plaque for her in [[Worcester Cathedral]]
* [[Adam Worth]], criminal mastermind. Possible inspiration for [[Sherlock Holmes]]' nemesis, [[Professor Moriarty]]; originally buried in a pauper's grave under the name Henry J. Raymond
* [[William Henry Wyatt|Sir William Henry Wyatt]], long-serving chairman of the [[Friern Hospital|Middlesex County Lunatic Asylum]] at Colney Hatch, Southgate
* [[Patrick Wymark]], actor
* [[Joseph Warren Zambra]], scientific instrument maker

==East Cemetery==
[[File:Grave of Karl Marx Highgate Cemetery in London 2016 (10).jpg|thumb|250px|[[Tomb of Karl Marx]], East Cemetery]]
Many famous or prominent people are buried in Highgate cemetery; the most famous burial is arguably that of [[Karl Marx]], whose tomb was the site of attempted bombings on 2 September 1965<ref>{{citation | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=XnIsAAAAIBAJ&pg=6238%2C1047342 | title = News}}</ref> and in 1970.<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.camdennewjournal.co.uk/111705/cn111705_11.htm | title = Camden New Journal | place = UK | contribution = Tomb raiders’ failed attack on Marx grave}}</ref> The [[tomb of Karl Marx]] is a Grade I [[listed building]] for reasons of historical importance.

===Notable East Cemetery interments===
* [[Douglas Adams]], author of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' and other novels
* [[Mehmet Aksoy (filmmaker)|Mehmet Aksoy]], press officer for the Kurdish [[People's Protection Units|YPG]], killed by ISIS in 2017<ref>{{Cite news|date=11 November 2017|title=Farewell to YPG's Mehmet Aksoy in London|work=ANF|url=https://anfenglish.com/women/farewell-to-ypg-s-mehmet-aksoy-in-london-23148}}</ref>
* [[Wilkie Bard]], popular [[vaudeville]] and [[music hall]] entertainer and recording artist
* [[Farzad Bazoft]], journalist, executed by [[Saddam Hussein]]'s regime
* [[Jeremy Beadle]], writer, television presenter and curator of oddities
* Adolf Beck, the [[Adolph Beck case]] was a celebrated case of mistaken identity
* [[Hercules Bellville]], American film producer
* [[Master Betty|William Betty]], popular child actor of the early nineteenth century
* [[Emily Blatchley]], pioneering [[Protestant]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[missionary]] to [[China]]
* [[Kate Booth]], English Salvationist and evangelist. Oldest daughter of [[William Booth|William]] and [[Catherine Booth]]. She was also known as ''la Maréchale''
* [[Frederick Broome]], colonial administrator of several British colonies. The Western Australian towns of [[Broome, Western Australia|Broome]] and [[Broomehill, Western Australia|Broomehill]] are named after him
* [[George Barclay Bruce]], world renown railway engineer and president of the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]]
* [[Lauder Brunton|Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton, 1st Baronet]], Scottish physician who is most-closely associated with the treatment of [[angina pectoris]]
* [[James Caird (politician)|James Caird]], Scottish agricultural writer and politician
* [[Patrick Caulfield]], painter and printmaker known for his [[pop art]] canvasses
* [[Douglas Cleverdon]], radio producer and bookseller
* [[William Kingdon Clifford]] (with his wife [[Lucy Clifford|Lucy]]), mathematician and philosopher
* [[Lucy Clifford|Lucy Lane Clifford]], novelist and journalist, wife of [[William Kingdon Clifford]]
* [[Yusuf Dadoo]], South African anti-apartheid activist
* [[Lewis Foreman Day]], influential artist in the [[Arts and Crafts movement]]
* [[Davison Dalziel, 1st Baron Dalziel of Wooler|Sir Davison Dalziel, Bt]], British newspaper owner and [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] politician. Massive mausoleum near the entrance.
* [[Elyse Dodgson]], theatre producer
* [[Fritz Dupre]], [[iron]] and [[manganese]] ore merchant, known as the "Manganese Ore King"
* [[Francis Elgar]], naval architect
* [[George Eliot]] (Mary Ann Evans – the name on the grave is Mary Ann Cross), novelist, common law wife of [[George Henry Lewes]] and buried next to him
* [[Edwin Wilkins Field]], lawyer who devoted much of his life to law reform
* [[Paul Foot (journalist)|Paul Foot]], campaigning journalist and nephew of former [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] leader [[Michael Foot]]
* [[Lydia Folger Fowler]], pioneering American physician and first American-born woman to earn a medical degree
* [[William Foyle]], co-founder of [[Foyles]]
* [[William Friese-Greene]], cinema pioneer and his son [[Claude Friese-Greene]]
* [[Lou Gish]], actress, daughter of Sheila Gish
* [[Sheila Gish]], actress
* [[Philip Gould, Baron Gould of Brookwood|Philip Gould]], British [[political consultant]], and former advertising [[corporate executive|executive]], closely linked to the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]
* [[Robert Grant (VC)|Robert Grant VC]], soldier and police constable
* [[Robert Edmond Grant]], Professor of [[Comparative Anatomy]] at [[University College London]] who gave his name to the [[Grant Museum of Zoology]]
* [[Charles Green (balloonist)|Charles Green]], the United Kingdom's most famous balloonist of the 19th century
* [[Leon Griffiths]], creator of [[Minder (TV series)|Minder]]
* [[Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)|Stuart Hall]], [[Jamaica]]n-born British [[Marxist]] [[sociologist]], [[culture theory|cultural theorist]], and [[political activist]]
* [[Harrison Hayter]], railway, harbour and dock engineer
* [[Mansoor Hekmat]], Communist leader and founder of the [[Worker-Communist Party of Iran]] and [[Worker-Communist Party of Iraq]]
* [[Eric Hobsbawm]], historian
* [[Austin Holyoake]], printer, publisher, freethinker and brother of the more widely known [[George Holyoake]]
* [[George Holyoake]], Birmingham-born social reformer and founder of the [[British co-operative movement|Cooperative Movement]]
* [[George Honey]], popular Victorian actor and comedian
* [[Alan Howard]], actor
* [[Leslie Hutchinson]], [[Cabaret]] star of the 20s and 30s
* [[Jabez Inwards]], popular Victorian [[Temperance movement|temperance]] lecturer and [[phrenologist]]
* [[Georges Jacobi]], composer and conductor
* [[Bert Jansch]], Scottish folk musician
* [[Claudia Jones]], Trinidadian born [[Communist]] and fighter for civil rights, founder of ''[[The West Indian Gazette]]'' and the [[Notting Hill Carnival]]<ref>{{cite web|first=Angela|last=Davis|title=Angela Davis praises CPUSA for its history "of militant struggle"|website=PeoplesWorld.org|url=https://www.peoplesworld.org/article/angela-davis-praises-cpusa-for-its-history-of-militant-struggle/|date=June 20, 2019|access-date=June 20, 2019}}</ref>
* [[George Goodwin Kilburne]], [[genre works|genre]] painter
* [[David Kirkaldy]], Scottish engineer and pioneer in materials testing
* [[Anatoly Kuznetsov]], Soviet writer
* [[Liza Lehmann]], operatic soprano and composer, daughter of [[Rudolf Lehmann (artist)|Rudolf Lehmann]]
* [[Rudolf Lehmann (artist)|Rudolf Lehmann]], portrait artist and father of [[Liza Lehmann]]
* [[George Henry Lewes]], English philosopher and critic, common law husband of [[George Eliot]] and buried next to her.
* [[Roger Lloyd-Pack]], British actor known for ''[[Only Fools and Horses]]'' and ''[[The Vicar of Dibley]]''
* [[John Lobb]], Society bootmaker
* [[Charles Lucy]], British artist, whose most notable painting was ''The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers''
* [[Haldane MacFall]], art critic, art historian, book illustrator and novelist
* [[Anna Mahler]], sculptress and daughter of [[Gustav Mahler]] and [[Alma Mahler|Alma Schindler]]
* [[Chris Martin (civil servant)|Chris Martin]], [[Principal Private Secretary to the Prime Minister]]
* [[James Martineau]], [[Christian philosophy|religious philosopher]] influential in the [[history of Unitarianism]]
* [[Tomb of Karl Marx|Karl Marx]], philosopher, historian, sociologist and economist (memorial after his reburial, with other family members)
* [[Frank Matcham]], theatre architect
* [[Carl Mayer]], Austro-German screenwriter of ''[[The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari]]'' and ''[[Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans]]''
* [[McKinnon Wood|Thomas MacKinnon Wood]], Liberal politician and [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
* [[Malcolm McLaren]], [[Punk subculture|punk]] impresario and original manager of the [[Sex Pistols]]
* [[Ralph Miliband]], [[left wing]] [[political theorist]], father of [[David Miliband]] and [[Ed Miliband]]
* [[Alan Milward]], influential historian
* [[William Henry Monk]], composer (of the music to ''[[Abide with Me]]'')
* [[Charles Morton (impresario)|Charles Morton]], [[music hall]] and [[theatre]] manager who became known as the ''Father of the Halls''
* [[Sidney Nolan]], Australian artist
* [[George Josiah Palmer]], founder and editor of ''[[Church Times]]''
* [[Charles J. Phipps]], theatre architect
* [[Tim Pigott-Smith]], actor
* [[Dachine Rainer]], poet and anarchist
* [[Corin Redgrave]], actor and political activist
* [[Bruce Reynolds]], criminal, mastermind of the [[Great Train Robbery (1963)]]
* [[Ralph Richardson]], actor
* [[George Richmond (painter)|George Richmond]], painter and portraitist
* [[José Carlos Rodrigues]], Brazilian journalist, financial expert, and philanthropist
* [[Ernestine Rose]], suffragist, abolitionist and freethinker
* [[James Samuel Risien Russell]], Guyanese-British physician, neurologist, professor of medicine, and professor of medical jurisprudence
* [[Raphael Samuel]], [[Marxist]] historian
* [[Anthony Shaffer (writer)|Anthony Shaffer]], playwright, screenwriter and novelist
* [[Peter Shaffer]], playwright and screenwriter
* [[Eyre Massey Shaw|Sir Eyre Massey Shaw]], first Chief Officer of the [[Metropolitan Fire Brigade (London)|Metropolitan Fire Brigade]]
* [[Alan Sillitoe]], English postmodern novelist, poet, and playwright
* [[James Smetham]], [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]] painter, engraver and follower of [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]]
* [[Donald Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal|Sir Donald Alexander Smith]], Canadian railway financier and diplomat
* [[Herbert Spencer]], [[evolutionary biologist]], sociologist, and [[laissez-faire]] economic philosopher
* [[Leslie Stephen|Sir Leslie Stephen]], critic, first editor of the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', father of [[Virginia Woolf]] and [[Vanessa Bell]]
* [[William Heath Strange]], physician and founder of the ''Hampstead General Hospital'', now the [[Royal Free Hospital]]
* [[Lucien Stryk]], American poet, teacher and translator of Zen poetry
* Sir [[George Thalben-Ball]], English organist, choirmaster and composer
* [[Bob Thoms]], the greatest Victorian cricket umpire
* [[James Thomson (poet, born 1834)|James Thomson]], Victorian poet, best known for [[The City of Dreadful Night|''The City of Dreadful Night'']]
* [[Storm Thorgerson]], graphic designer
* [[Malcolm Tierney]], actor
* [[Feliks Topolski]], Polish-born British expressionist painter
* [[Edward Truelove]], radical publisher and freethinker
* [[Peter Ucko]], influential English [[archaeology|archaeologist]]
* [[Max Wall]], comedian and entertainer
* [[Simon Ward]], actor
* [[Peter Cathcart Wason]], pioneering psychologist
* [[Lawrence Weaver|Sir Lawrence Weaver]], architectural writer, editor of Country Life and organiser of the [[British Empire Exhibition]]
* [[Opal Whiteley]], American writer
* [[Colin St John Wilson]], architect (most notably of the new [[British Library]] in London), lecturer and author
* [[Joseph Wolf]], natural history illustrator and pioneer in wildlife art
* [[Edward Richard Woodham]], survivor of the [[Charge of the Light Brigade]]
* [[Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington]], politician, social activist and consumer champion.

===Fireman’s corner===
A monument erected in the East Cemetery by widows and orphans of members of the [[London Fire Brigade]] in 1934. There are 97 firemen buried here. The monument is cared for by the Brigade's Welfare Section.

==War graves==
The cemetery contains the graves of 318 Commonwealth service personnel maintained and registered by the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]], in both the East and West Cemeteries, 259 from the [[First World War]] and 59 from the [[Second World War|Second]]. Those whose graves could not be marked by headstones are listed on a Screen Wall memorial erected near the [[Cross of Sacrifice]] in the west cemetery.<ref name=cwgc>{{cite web|title=Cemetery Details: Highgate Cemetery|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/41905/HIGHGATE%20CEMETERY|website=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|access-date=21 August 2014}}</ref>

==Visiting==
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2018}}
The Cemetery is open to the public every day. To cover running and maintenance costs, the charitable trust charges an entry fee. For entry only (called "self-guided") there are two ticket prices, East Cemetery only or for both East and West sides. For a small extra cost, there are regular guided tours, lasting approximately 75 minutes, of the West side throughout the week and the East side on Saturdays only.

==In popular culture==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2015}}
* Several of [[John Galsworthy]]'s ''[[The Forsyte Saga|Forsyte Saga]]'' novels refer to Highgate Cemetery as the last resting place of the Forsytes; for example, Chapter XI, "The Last of the Forsytes," in ''To Let'' (1921).
* Footage of Highgate appears in numerous British horror films, including ''[[Taste the Blood of Dracula]]'' (1970), ''[[Tales from the Crypt (film)|Tales from the Crypt]]'' (1972) and ''[[From Beyond the Grave]]'' (1974).
* In the BBC TV series ''[[Porridge (TV series)|Porridge]]'', Fletcher claims that his eldest daughter, Ingrid, was conceived on Karl Marx's tomb.
* Herbert Smith is shadowed through Highgate Cemetery in ''[[Visibility]]'', a murder/espionage/thriller by [[Boris Starling]].
* Highgate Cemetery is the sixth level of the ''[[Nightmare Creatures]]'' game.
* In [[Len Deighton]]'s alternative history novel ''[[SS-GB]]'' and its [[SS-GB (TV series)|TV adaptation]], a bomb is detonated in the tomb of [[Karl Marx]] when his remains are exhumed by [[Nazi Germany|German occupation forces]] to be presented to the [[Soviet Union]].
* [[Fred Vargas]]'s novel ''[[An Uncertain Place|Un lieu incertain]]'' starts in the cemetery.
* [[Barbara Hambly]]'s [[vampire]] novel, ''[[Those Who Hunt the Night]]'', has the main characters visiting Highgate at one point to examine the remains of a vampire who had taken over an abandoned tomb.
* Stated in the acknowledgments as the inspiration for the setting of [[Neil Gaiman]]'s ''[[The Graveyard Book]]''.
* [[Audrey Niffenegger]]'s book ''[[Her Fearful Symmetry]]'' (2009) is set around Highgate Cemetery; she acted as a tour guide there while researching the book.<ref name="Highgate Cemetery">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/oct/03/audrey-niffenegger-highgate-cemetery-novel|title=Audrey Niffenegger on Highgate Cemetery|last=Niffenegger|first=Audrey|date=3 October 2009|work=The Guardian|access-date=3 October 2009}}</ref>
* In the novel ''[[Double or Die]]'' (2007), a part of the ''[[Young Bond]]'' series, Ludwig and Wolfgang Smith plan to kill Bond in the cemetery.
* [[Tracy Chevalier]]'s book ''Falling Angels'' (2002) was set in and around Highgate Cemetery. The two main protagonists met there as children while their parents were visiting adjacent family graves and they continued to enjoy meeting up and playing there.
* The movie [[Hampstead (film)|''Hampstead'']] (2017) features a few scenes in the cemetery.
* The climax of a novel by [[John Steele (writer)|John Steele]], ''Seven Skins'' (2018), was set in the Egyptian Avenue and Circle of Lebanon, among other locations in the West Cemetery.
* The movie [[Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald|''Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald'']] (2018) features scenes towards the end of the film in the cemetery before the famous Cedar tree was removed.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon2.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon3.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon4.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon5.jpg
File:Highgate Cemetery 013.jpg
File:Carl Rosa.png|[[Carl Rosa]] grave
File:Sepulcro con ángel.jpg|thumb|Mary Nichols and The Sleeping Angel, Highgate Cemetery|alt=On the top of the grave lies a sleeping angel on a bed of clouds. ‘In Ever Loving Memory of Mary, the darling wife of Arthur Nichols and fondly loved mother of their only son Harold who fell asleep 7th May 1909. Also of Dennis Arthur Charles son of Harold and Winifred who died 28th April 1916 aged 15 months.’
File:Highgate Cemetery East 2.JPG|Highgate Cemetery East (2010)
File:Highgate grave.jpg|Caroline Tucker, Highgate Cemetery East<ref>Mémorial Find a Grave,"Caroline Tucker (1910-1994) - Mémorial Find a Grave"[https://fr.findagrave.com/memorial/55748745/caroline-tucker],Droits d’auteur © 2022 Find a Grave,retrieved 2022-03-15.</ref>
File:Highgate Cemetery - East - Bruce Reynolds 02.jpg|The grave of [[Bruce Reynolds]]
File:SayersTomb HighgateCemetery.JPG|The tomb of [[Tom Sayers]]
File:Patrick Caulfield Grave Highgate East Cemetery London 2016.jpg|The grave of [[Patrick Caulfield|Patrick Caulfield, RA]]
File:Mansoor Hekmat Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 04.jpg|The grave of [[Mansoor Hekmat]]
File:Grave of Anna Mahler Austrian sculpture, in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016.jpg|The grave of [[Anna Mahler]]
File:Yusuf Mohamed Dadoo Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 09.jpg|The grave of [[Yusuf Dadoo]]
File:Eric Hobsbawm Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 06.jpg|The grave of [[Eric Hobsbawm]]
File:Jeremy Beadle grave.jpg|The grave of [[Jeremy Beadle]]
File:WFGgrave.jpg|Grave of [[William Friese-Greene]] by [[Edwin Lutyens|Lutyens]], East Cemetery
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|http://highgatecemetery.org}}

{{Cemeteries in England}}
{{Cemeteries in London}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1839 establishments in England]]
[[Category:Anglican cemeteries in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Burials at Highgate Cemetery]]
[[Category:Cemeteries in London]]
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries in England]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in the London Borough of Camden]]
[[Category:Grade I listed monuments and memorials]]
[[Category:Grade I listed parks and gardens in London]]
[[Category:Highgate]]
[[Category:Parks and open spaces in the London Borough of Camden]]

Highgate Cemetery

2022-03-15T13:19:01Z

Cuaxdon: /* Gallery */

{{short description|Place of burial in north London, England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox cemetery
| name = Highgate Cemetery
| image = Highgate Cemetery East.JPG
| imagesize = 260
| caption = Highgate (East) Cemetery ({{circa}} 2010)
| map_type =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| established = 1839
| location = Swain's Lane, [[London]], [[N postcode area|N6 6PJ]]
| country = [[England]]
| coordinates = {{coord|51.567|-0.147|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| type =
| style =
| owner = Friends of Highgate Cemetery Trust
| size = {{convert|15|ha|acre}}
| graves = 53,000+
| interments = 170,000
| website = [https://www.highgatecemetery.org Highgate Cemetery]
| findagrave1 = 638894
| findagrave1_label = East
| findagrave2 = 638895
| findagrave2_label = West
| political =
}}

'''Highgate Cemetery''' is a place of burial in [[north London]], England. There are approximately 170,000 people buried in around 53,000 graves across the West and East Cemeteries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/index.php/faqs|website=Highgate Cemetery|publisher=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216041052/http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/index.php/faqs|archive-date=16 February 2013}}</ref> Highgate Cemetery is notable both for some of the people buried there as well as for its ''de facto'' status as a [[nature reserve]]. The Cemetery is designated Grade I on the [[Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England|Register of Historic Parks and Gardens]].<ref name=NHLEGarden>{{NHLE|num=1000810|desc=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 June 2017}}</ref> It is one of the [[Magnificent Seven, London|Magnificent Seven]] cemeteries in London.

==Location==
The [[cemetery]] comprises two sites, each on either side of Swains Lane in [[Highgate]], [[N postcode area|N6]], next to [[Waterlow Park]]. The main gate is located on Swains Lane just north of Oakshott Avenue. There is another disused gate on Chester Road. The cemetery is in the [[London Borough of Camden]]. The nearest public transport ([[Transport for London]]) is the C11 bus, Brookfield Park stop, or [[Archway tube station]].

==History and setting==
The cemetery in its original form{{snd}}the northwestern wooded area{{snd}}opened in 1839, as part of a plan to provide seven large, modern cemeteries, now known as the "[[Magnificent Seven, London|Magnificent Seven]]", around the outside of central London. The inner-city cemeteries, mostly the graveyards attached to individual churches, had long been unable to cope with the number of burials and were seen as a hazard to health and an undignified way to treat the dead. The initial design was by architect and entrepreneur [[Stephen Geary]].

On Monday 20 May 1839, Highgate (West) Cemetery was dedicated to [[James, son of Alphaeus|St. James]]<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://highgatecemetery.org/about/history|website=Highgate Cemetery|publisher=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170124082617/http://highgatecemetery.org/about/history|archive-date=24 January 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> by the Right Reverend [[Charles James Blomfield]], Lord [[Bishop of London]]. Fifteen acres were consecrated for the use of the [[Church of England]], and two acres set aside for [[English Dissenters|Dissenters]]. Rights of burial were sold for either limited period or in perpetuity. The first burial was Elizabeth Jackson of Little Windmill Street, [[Soho]], on 26 May.

Highgate, like the others of the Magnificent Seven, soon became a fashionable place for burials and was much admired and visited. The [[Victorian era|Victorian]] attitude to death and its presentation led to the creation of a wealth of [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] tombs and buildings. It occupies a spectacular south-facing hillside site slightly downhill from the top of the hill of Highgate itself, next to Waterlow Park. In 1854 a further 19 acres to the south east of the original area, across Swains Lane, was bought to form the eastern part of the cemetery which opened in 1860. Both sides of the Cemetery are still used today for burials.

The cemetery's grounds are full of trees, shrubbery and wildflowers, most of which have been planted and grown without human influence. The grounds are a haven for birds and small animals such as foxes.

Highgate Cemetery was featured in the popular media from the 1960s to the late 1980s for its so-called [[occult]] past, particularly as being the alleged site of the "[[Highgate Vampire]]".

==Friends of Highgate Cemetery==
The Cemetery is now owned and maintained by a charitable trust, the Friends of Highgate Cemetery Trust, which was set up in 1975 and acquired the freehold of both East and West Cemeteries by 1981. In 1984 it published ''Highgate Cemetery: Victorian Valhalla'' by [[John Gay (photographer)|John Gay]].<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/ | title = A Brief History of Highgate Cemetery}}</ref>

==West Cemetery==
[[File:Egyptian Avenue Highgate Cemetery.jpg|thumb|250px|Entrance to the Egyptian Avenue, West Cemetery]]
[[File:High-cemetery-circle.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Circle of Lebanon, West Cemetery]]
The Cemetery's grounds are full of trees, shrubbery and wildflowers, most of which have been planted and grown without human influence. The grounds are a haven for birds and small animals such as foxes. The Egyptian Avenue and the Circle of Lebanon (previously surmounted by a huge, 280 years old [[Lebanon Cedar|Cedar of Lebanon]], which had to be cut down and replaced in August 2019) feature tombs, vaults and winding paths dug into hillsides. The Egyptian Avenue and the Columbarium are Grade I [[listed building]]s.

===Notable West Cemetery interments===
* [[Henry Thomas Alken|Henry Alken]], painter, engraver and illustrator of sporting and coaching scenes
* [[Jane Arden (director)|Jane Arden]], Welsh-born film director, actor, screenwriter, playwright, songwriter, and poet
* [[John Atcheler]], ‘Horse slaughterer to [[Queen Victoria]]’
* [[Edward Hodges Baily]], sculptor
* [[Beryl Bainbridge]], author
* [[Abraham Dee Bartlett]], [[zoologist]], superintendent of the [[London Zoo]] known for selling the popular African elephant [[Jumbo]] to [[P. T. Barnum]]

* [[Julius Beer]] (and family members), owner of ''[[The Observer]]''.
* [[Francis Bedford (photographer)|Francis Bedford]], landscape photographer
* [[William Belt]], barrister and antiquarian, best known for his eccentric behaviour
* [[Mary Matilda Betham]], diarist, poet, woman of letters, and miniature portrait painter
* [[Eugenius Birch]], seaside architect and noted designer of promenade-piers
* [[Edward Blore]], architect known for his work on [[Buckingham Palace]] and [[Westminster Abbey]]
* [[Edwin Brett]], publisher and pioneer of serialised sensational weekly fiction and '[[penny dreadfuls]]'
* [[Jacob Bronowski]], scientist, creator of the television series ''[[The Ascent of Man]]''
* [[James Bunstone Bunning]], City Architect to the [[City of London]]
* [[Robert William Buss]], artist and illustrator
* [[Edward Dundas Butler]], translator and senior librarian at the [[British Library|Department of Printed Books, British Museum]]
* [[Edward Cardwell, 1st Viscount Cardwell]], prominent politician in the [[Peelite]] and [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] parties, best remembered for his tenure as [[Secretary of State for War]]
* [[William Benjamin Carpenter]], physician, invertebrate zoologist and physiologist
* [[J. Comyns Carr|Joseph William Comyns Carr]], drama and art critic, gallery director, author, poet, playwright and theatre manager
* [[John James Chalon]], Swiss painter
* [[Robert Caesar Childers]], [[Orientalism|scholar of the Orient]] and writer
* [[Edmund Chipp]], organist and composer
* [[Charles Chubb (businessman)|Charles Chubb]], lock and safe manufacturer
* [[Antoine Claudet]], pioneering early photographer, honoured by [[Queen Victoria]] as "Photographer-in-ordinary"
* [[John Cross (artist)|John Cross]], English artist
* [[Philip Conisbee]], art historian and curator
* [[Abraham Cooper]], animal and battle painter
* [[Thomas Frederick Cooper (watchmaker)|Thomas Frederick Cooper]], watchmaker
* [[John Copley, 1st Baron Lyndhurst|John Singleton Copley]], Lord Chancellor and son of the American painter [[John Singleton Copley]]
* [[Charles Cowper|Sir Charles Cowper]], Premier of [[New South Wales]], Australia
* [[Addison Cresswell]], comedians' agent and producer
* [[George Baden Crawley]], civil engineer and railway builder
* [[Charles Cruft (showman)|Charles Cruft]], founder of [[Crufts]] dog show
* [[Isaac Robert Cruikshank]], caricaturist, illustrator, portrait miniaturist and brother of [[George Cruikshank]]
* [[The Brothers Dalziel|George Dalziel]], engraver who with his siblings ran one of the most prolific Victorian engraving firms
* [[George Darnell]], schoolmaster and author of ''Darnell's Copybooks''
* [[David Devant]], theatrical magician
* [[Alfred Lamert Dickens]], the younger brother of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[Catherine Dickens]], wife of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[John Dickens|John]] and [[Elizabeth Dickens]], parents of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[Fanny Dickens]], elder sister of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[William Hepworth Dixon]], historian and traveller. Also active in organizing London's [[Great Exhibition]] of 1851
* The Druce family vault, one of whose members was (falsely) alleged to have been the [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland|5th Duke of Portland]].
* [[Herbert Benjamin Edwardes]], Administrator and soldier, known as the "Hero of Multan"
* [[Joseph Edwards (sculptor)]], Welsh sculptor
* [[Thomas Edwards (author)]], (Caerfallwch), Welsh author and lexicographer
* [[Ugo Ehiogu]], footballer
* [[James Harington Evans]], Baptist pastor of the John Street Chapel
* [[Michael Faraday]], chemist and physicist (with his wife Sarah), in the [[Dissenter]]s section
* [[Charles Drury Edward Fortnum]], art collector and benefactor of the [[Ashmolean Museum]]
* [[Lucian Freud]], painter, grandson of [[Sigmund Freud]], and elder brother of [[Clement Freud]]
* [[John Galsworthy]], author and [[Nobel Prize]] winner ([[cenotaph]], he was cremated and his ashes scattered)
* [[Stephen Geary]], architect (most notably of Highgate Cemetery)
* [[John Gibbons (ironmaster and art patron)|John Gibbons]], ironmaster and art patron
* [[Stella Gibbons]], novelist, author of ''[[Cold Comfort Farm]]''
* [[Margaret Gillies]], Scottish painter known for her miniature portraits, including of one of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[John William Griffith]], architect of [[Kensal Green Cemetery]]
* [[Henry Gray]], anatomist and surgeon,<ref>GRO Register of Deaths: JUN qtr 1861 1a 174 St Geo Han Sq – Henry Gray
*</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqSearch=%28Surname=%27gray%27%29&dsqPos=7 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415172415/http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqSearch=(Surname='gray')&dsqPos=7 |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2013 |title=DServe Archive Persons Show |publisher=.royalsociety.org |access-date=18 March 2013 }}</ref> author of ''[[Gray's Anatomy]]''.
* [[Radclyffe Hall]], author of ''[[The Well of Loneliness]]'' and other novels
* [[William Hall (publisher)|William Hall]], founder with [[Edward Chapman (publisher)|Edward Chapman]] of publishers [[Chapman & Hall]]
* [[Philip Harben]], English cook regarded as the first TV [[celebrity chef]]
* [[Charles Augustus Hartley|Sir Charles Augustus Hartley]], eminent British civil engineer, known as 'the father of the [[Danube]].'
* [[George Edwards Hering]], landscape painter
* [[Edwin Hill (engineer)|Edwin Hill]], older brother of [[Rowland Hill]] and inventor of the first [[letter scale]] and a mechanical system to make envelopes
* [[Frank Holl]], Royal portraitist
* [[James Holman]], 19th-century adventurer known as "the Blind Traveller"
* [[Anthony Home|Surgeon-General Sir Anthony Home]], [[Victoria Cross]] recipient from [[Indian Mutiny]]
* [[Theodore Hope]], British colonial administrator and writer
* [[William Hosking]], first Professor of Architecture at [[King's College London]] and architect of [[Abney Park Cemetery]]
* [[Bob Hoskins]], actor
* [[Georgiana Houghton]], British artist and spiritualist [[Mediumship|medium]]
* [[David Edward Hughes]], FRS, 19th-century electrical engineer and inventor
* [[William Henry Hunt (painter)|William Henry Hunt]], popular and widely collected painter of watercolours, nicknamed ‘Bird’s Nest’ Hunt
* [[Sir John Hutton]], publisher of ''[[Sporting Life (British newspaper)|Sporting Life]]'' and Chairman of the [[London County Council]]
* [[Georges Jacobi]], composer, conductor and musical director of the [[Alhambra Theatre]]
* [[Lisa Jardine]], historian
* [[Victor Kullberg]], one of the greatest marine clockmakers
* [[Thomas Landseer]], younger brother of Sir [[Edwin Landseer]] (there is a cenotaph, Edwin was buried in [[St Paul's Cathedral]])
* [[Peter Laurie|Sir Peter Laurie]], politician and [[Lord Mayor of London]]
* [[Douglas Lapraik]], shipowner and co-founder of [[HSBC]] and the [[Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels Group]]
* [[Henry Lee (Surgeon)|Henry Lee]], surgeon, [[pathologist]] and [[syphilologist]]
* [[Oswald Lewis]], [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|MP]] and younger son of [[John Lewis (department store founder)|John Lewis]], founder of the [[John Lewis (department store)|chain of department stores]]
* [[Robert Liston]], surgeon
* [[Alexander Litvinenko]], Russian dissident, murdered by poisoning in London
* [[Edward Lloyd (publisher)|Edward Lloyd]], influential newspaper publisher and founder of the ''[[Daily Chronicle]]''
* [[James Locke (draper)|James Locke]], a London draper credited with giving [[Tweed]] its name
* [[William Lovett]], [[Chartism|Chartist]]
* [[Samuel Lucas]], editor of the ''[[Morning Star (British newspaper)|Morning Star]]'', journalist and abolitionist
* [[John Maple (furniture maker)]] founder of the furniture makers [[Maple & Co.]]
* [[Hugh Matheson (industrialist)|Hugh Mackay Matheson]], industrialist and founder of [[Matheson & Company]] and the [[Rio Tinto Group]]
* [[Frederick Denison Maurice]], English Anglican theologian, prolific author and one of the founders of [[Christian socialism]]
* [[Michael Meacher]], academic and [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician
* [[George Michael]], singer, songwriter, music producer and philanthropist; buried beside his mother and sister
* [[Barbara Mills]], (ashes) first female Director of Public Prosecutions
* [[Frederick Akbar Mahomed]], internationally known British physician
* [[Jude Moraes]], landscape gardener, writer and broadcaster
* [[Nicholas Mosley]], novelist and biographer of his father, [[Oswald Mosley]]
* [[Edward Moxhay]], shoemaker, biscuit maker and property speculator, best known for his involvement in the landmark English land law case ''[[Tulk v Moxhay]]''
* Elizabeth de Munck, mother of celebrated soprano, [[Maria Caterina Rosalbina Caradori-Allan]] in grave with large carving of [[pelican]] in piety
* [[Walter Neurath]], Publisher and founder of [[Thames and Hudson]]
* [[Henry Newton (Winsor & Newton founder)|Henry Newton]], painter and co-founder of [[Winsor & Newton]]
* [[Samuel Noble]], English engraver, and minister of the [[The New Church (Swedenborgian)|New Church]]
* [[George Osbaldeston]], known as Squire Osbaldeston, sportsman, gambler and [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] (MP)
* [[Sherard Osborn]], Royal Navy admiral and Arctic explorer
* [[Frederick William Pavy]], [[physician]] and [[physiologist]]
* [[William Payne (pantomimist)|William Payne]], actor, dancer and [[Pantomime|pantomimist]]
* [[Thomas Ashburton Picken]], [[Watercolor painting|watercolourist]], [[Engraving|engraver]] and [[Lithography|lithographer]]
* [[Frances Polidori|Frances Polidori Rossetti]], mother of [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti|Dante Gabriel]], [[Christina Rossetti|Christina]] and William Michael Rossetti
* [[Samuel Phelps]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespearian]] actor and manager of [[Sadler's Wells Theatre]]
* [[James Robinson (dentist)|James Robinson]], dentist, first person to carry out [[general anaesthesia]] in Britain
* Peter Robinson, founder of the [[Peter Robinson (department store)|Peter Robinson department store]] at Oxford Circus, London
* [[William Charles Ross|Sir William Charles Ross]], portrait and [[portrait miniature]] painter
* [[Christina Rossetti]], poet
* [[Gabriele Rossetti]], Italian nationalist and scholar. Father of Christina and Dante Gabriel Rossetti
* [[William Michael Rossetti]], co-founder of the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]]
* [[Tom Sayers]], [[Boxing#History|pugilist]], his tomb is guarded by the stone image of his mastiff, Lion, who was chief mourner at his funeral
* [[Henry Young Darracott Scott]], responsible for the design and construction of the [[Royal Albert Hall]]
* [[Elizabeth Siddal]], wife and model of artist/poet [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and model for the painting ''[[Ophelia (painting)|Ophelia]]'' by [[John Everett Millais]]
* [[Jean Simmons]], actress
* [[William Simpson (artist)|William Simpson]], war artist and correspondent
* [[John Jackson Smale|Sir John Smale]], Chief Justice of Hong Kong
* [[Tom Smith (confectioner)|Tom Smith]], inventor of the [[Christmas cracker]]
* [[Charles Green Spencer]], pioneer aviator and balloon manufacturer
* [[Alfred Stevens (sculptor)|Alfred Stevens]], sculptor, painter and designer
* [[Walter Fryer Stocks]], prolific landscape painter
* [[Henry Knight Storks|Sir Henry Knight Storks]], soldier, MP, and colonial administrator
* [[Anna Swanwick]], author and [[feminist]] who assisted in the founding of [[Girton College, Cambridge]], and [[Somerville Hall]], Oxford
* [[Alfred Swaine Taylor]], toxicologist, forensic scientist, expert witness
* [[Frederick Tennyson]], poet, older brother of [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]
* [[Samuel Sanders Teulon]], prolific [[Gothic Revival]] architect
* [[Jeanette Threlfall]], [[hymnwriter]] and poet
* [[Charles Turner (engraver)|Charles Turner]], [[mezzotint]] engraver who collaborated with [[J. M. W. Turner]]
* [[Andrew Ure]], Scottish physician known for his [[galvanism]] experimentation, founder of the [[University of Strathclyde]]
* [[John Vandenhoff]], leading Victorian actor
* [[Henry Vaughan (art collector)|Henry Vaughan]], art collector who gave one of Britain's most popular paintings, [[John Constable]]'s ''[[The Hay Wain]]'' to the [[National Gallery]]
* [[Emilie Ashurst Venturi]], writer, translator and women's rights campaigner
* [[Arthur Waley]], translator and scholar of the Orient
* [[George Wallis]], First Keeper of the Fine Art Collection at the [[Victoria & Albert Museum]]
* [[Mary Warner]], actress and theatre manager
* [[Augusta Webster]], poet, dramatist, essayist, translator and advocate of [[women's suffrage]]
* [[Henry White (photographer)|Henry White]], lawyer and gifted [[landscape photographer]]
* [[Brodie McGhie Willcox]], founder of the [[P&O (company)|P&O Shipping Line]]
* [[Henry Willis]], foremost [[organ builder]] of the Victorian era
* [[Hugh Wilson (RAF officer)|Hugh Wilson]], RAF test pilot
* [[George Wombwell]], menagerie exhibitor
* [[Ellen Wood (author)|Ellen Wood]], author known as Mrs Henry Wood, there is also a plaque for her in [[Worcester Cathedral]]
* [[Adam Worth]], criminal mastermind. Possible inspiration for [[Sherlock Holmes]]' nemesis, [[Professor Moriarty]]; originally buried in a pauper's grave under the name Henry J. Raymond
* [[William Henry Wyatt|Sir William Henry Wyatt]], long-serving chairman of the [[Friern Hospital|Middlesex County Lunatic Asylum]] at Colney Hatch, Southgate
* [[Patrick Wymark]], actor
* [[Joseph Warren Zambra]], scientific instrument maker

==East Cemetery==
[[File:Grave of Karl Marx Highgate Cemetery in London 2016 (10).jpg|thumb|250px|[[Tomb of Karl Marx]], East Cemetery]]
Many famous or prominent people are buried in Highgate cemetery; the most famous burial is arguably that of [[Karl Marx]], whose tomb was the site of attempted bombings on 2 September 1965<ref>{{citation | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=XnIsAAAAIBAJ&pg=6238%2C1047342 | title = News}}</ref> and in 1970.<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.camdennewjournal.co.uk/111705/cn111705_11.htm | title = Camden New Journal | place = UK | contribution = Tomb raiders’ failed attack on Marx grave}}</ref> The [[tomb of Karl Marx]] is a Grade I [[listed building]] for reasons of historical importance.

===Notable East Cemetery interments===
* [[Douglas Adams]], author of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' and other novels
* [[Mehmet Aksoy (filmmaker)|Mehmet Aksoy]], press officer for the Kurdish [[People's Protection Units|YPG]], killed by ISIS in 2017<ref>{{Cite news|date=11 November 2017|title=Farewell to YPG's Mehmet Aksoy in London|work=ANF|url=https://anfenglish.com/women/farewell-to-ypg-s-mehmet-aksoy-in-london-23148}}</ref>
* [[Wilkie Bard]], popular [[vaudeville]] and [[music hall]] entertainer and recording artist
* [[Farzad Bazoft]], journalist, executed by [[Saddam Hussein]]'s regime
* [[Jeremy Beadle]], writer, television presenter and curator of oddities
* Adolf Beck, the [[Adolph Beck case]] was a celebrated case of mistaken identity
* [[Hercules Bellville]], American film producer
* [[Master Betty|William Betty]], popular child actor of the early nineteenth century
* [[Emily Blatchley]], pioneering [[Protestant]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[missionary]] to [[China]]
* [[Kate Booth]], English Salvationist and evangelist. Oldest daughter of [[William Booth|William]] and [[Catherine Booth]]. She was also known as ''la Maréchale''
* [[Frederick Broome]], colonial administrator of several British colonies. The Western Australian towns of [[Broome, Western Australia|Broome]] and [[Broomehill, Western Australia|Broomehill]] are named after him
* [[George Barclay Bruce]], world renown railway engineer and president of the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]]
* [[Lauder Brunton|Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton, 1st Baronet]], Scottish physician who is most-closely associated with the treatment of [[angina pectoris]]
* [[James Caird (politician)|James Caird]], Scottish agricultural writer and politician
* [[Patrick Caulfield]], painter and printmaker known for his [[pop art]] canvasses
* [[Douglas Cleverdon]], radio producer and bookseller
* [[William Kingdon Clifford]] (with his wife [[Lucy Clifford|Lucy]]), mathematician and philosopher
* [[Lucy Clifford|Lucy Lane Clifford]], novelist and journalist, wife of [[William Kingdon Clifford]]
* [[Yusuf Dadoo]], South African anti-apartheid activist
* [[Lewis Foreman Day]], influential artist in the [[Arts and Crafts movement]]
* [[Davison Dalziel, 1st Baron Dalziel of Wooler|Sir Davison Dalziel, Bt]], British newspaper owner and [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] politician. Massive mausoleum near the entrance.
* [[Elyse Dodgson]], theatre producer
* [[Fritz Dupre]], [[iron]] and [[manganese]] ore merchant, known as the "Manganese Ore King"
* [[Francis Elgar]], naval architect
* [[George Eliot]] (Mary Ann Evans – the name on the grave is Mary Ann Cross), novelist, common law wife of [[George Henry Lewes]] and buried next to him
* [[Edwin Wilkins Field]], lawyer who devoted much of his life to law reform
* [[Paul Foot (journalist)|Paul Foot]], campaigning journalist and nephew of former [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] leader [[Michael Foot]]
* [[Lydia Folger Fowler]], pioneering American physician and first American-born woman to earn a medical degree
* [[William Foyle]], co-founder of [[Foyles]]
* [[William Friese-Greene]], cinema pioneer and his son [[Claude Friese-Greene]]
* [[Lou Gish]], actress, daughter of Sheila Gish
* [[Sheila Gish]], actress
* [[Philip Gould, Baron Gould of Brookwood|Philip Gould]], British [[political consultant]], and former advertising [[corporate executive|executive]], closely linked to the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]
* [[Robert Grant (VC)|Robert Grant VC]], soldier and police constable
* [[Robert Edmond Grant]], Professor of [[Comparative Anatomy]] at [[University College London]] who gave his name to the [[Grant Museum of Zoology]]
* [[Charles Green (balloonist)|Charles Green]], the United Kingdom's most famous balloonist of the 19th century
* [[Leon Griffiths]], creator of [[Minder (TV series)|Minder]]
* [[Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)|Stuart Hall]], [[Jamaica]]n-born British [[Marxist]] [[sociologist]], [[culture theory|cultural theorist]], and [[political activist]]
* [[Harrison Hayter]], railway, harbour and dock engineer
* [[Mansoor Hekmat]], Communist leader and founder of the [[Worker-Communist Party of Iran]] and [[Worker-Communist Party of Iraq]]
* [[Eric Hobsbawm]], historian
* [[Austin Holyoake]], printer, publisher, freethinker and brother of the more widely known [[George Holyoake]]
* [[George Holyoake]], Birmingham-born social reformer and founder of the [[British co-operative movement|Cooperative Movement]]
* [[George Honey]], popular Victorian actor and comedian
* [[Alan Howard]], actor
* [[Leslie Hutchinson]], [[Cabaret]] star of the 20s and 30s
* [[Jabez Inwards]], popular Victorian [[Temperance movement|temperance]] lecturer and [[phrenologist]]
* [[Georges Jacobi]], composer and conductor
* [[Bert Jansch]], Scottish folk musician
* [[Claudia Jones]], Trinidadian born [[Communist]] and fighter for civil rights, founder of ''[[The West Indian Gazette]]'' and the [[Notting Hill Carnival]]<ref>{{cite web|first=Angela|last=Davis|title=Angela Davis praises CPUSA for its history "of militant struggle"|website=PeoplesWorld.org|url=https://www.peoplesworld.org/article/angela-davis-praises-cpusa-for-its-history-of-militant-struggle/|date=June 20, 2019|access-date=June 20, 2019}}</ref>
* [[George Goodwin Kilburne]], [[genre works|genre]] painter
* [[David Kirkaldy]], Scottish engineer and pioneer in materials testing
* [[Anatoly Kuznetsov]], Soviet writer
* [[Liza Lehmann]], operatic soprano and composer, daughter of [[Rudolf Lehmann (artist)|Rudolf Lehmann]]
* [[Rudolf Lehmann (artist)|Rudolf Lehmann]], portrait artist and father of [[Liza Lehmann]]
* [[George Henry Lewes]], English philosopher and critic, common law husband of [[George Eliot]] and buried next to her.
* [[Roger Lloyd-Pack]], British actor known for ''[[Only Fools and Horses]]'' and ''[[The Vicar of Dibley]]''
* [[John Lobb]], Society bootmaker
* [[Charles Lucy]], British artist, whose most notable painting was ''The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers''
* [[Haldane MacFall]], art critic, art historian, book illustrator and novelist
* [[Anna Mahler]], sculptress and daughter of [[Gustav Mahler]] and [[Alma Mahler|Alma Schindler]]
* [[Chris Martin (civil servant)|Chris Martin]], [[Principal Private Secretary to the Prime Minister]]
* [[James Martineau]], [[Christian philosophy|religious philosopher]] influential in the [[history of Unitarianism]]
* [[Tomb of Karl Marx|Karl Marx]], philosopher, historian, sociologist and economist (memorial after his reburial, with other family members)
* [[Frank Matcham]], theatre architect
* [[Carl Mayer]], Austro-German screenwriter of ''[[The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari]]'' and ''[[Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans]]''
* [[McKinnon Wood|Thomas MacKinnon Wood]], Liberal politician and [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
* [[Malcolm McLaren]], [[Punk subculture|punk]] impresario and original manager of the [[Sex Pistols]]
* [[Ralph Miliband]], [[left wing]] [[political theorist]], father of [[David Miliband]] and [[Ed Miliband]]
* [[Alan Milward]], influential historian
* [[William Henry Monk]], composer (of the music to ''[[Abide with Me]]'')
* [[Charles Morton (impresario)|Charles Morton]], [[music hall]] and [[theatre]] manager who became known as the ''Father of the Halls''
* [[Sidney Nolan]], Australian artist
* [[George Josiah Palmer]], founder and editor of ''[[Church Times]]''
* [[Charles J. Phipps]], theatre architect
* [[Tim Pigott-Smith]], actor
* [[Dachine Rainer]], poet and anarchist
* [[Corin Redgrave]], actor and political activist
* [[Bruce Reynolds]], criminal, mastermind of the [[Great Train Robbery (1963)]]
* [[Ralph Richardson]], actor
* [[George Richmond (painter)|George Richmond]], painter and portraitist
* [[José Carlos Rodrigues]], Brazilian journalist, financial expert, and philanthropist
* [[Ernestine Rose]], suffragist, abolitionist and freethinker
* [[James Samuel Risien Russell]], Guyanese-British physician, neurologist, professor of medicine, and professor of medical jurisprudence
* [[Raphael Samuel]], [[Marxist]] historian
* [[Anthony Shaffer (writer)|Anthony Shaffer]], playwright, screenwriter and novelist
* [[Peter Shaffer]], playwright and screenwriter
* [[Eyre Massey Shaw|Sir Eyre Massey Shaw]], first Chief Officer of the [[Metropolitan Fire Brigade (London)|Metropolitan Fire Brigade]]
* [[Alan Sillitoe]], English postmodern novelist, poet, and playwright
* [[James Smetham]], [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]] painter, engraver and follower of [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]]
* [[Donald Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal|Sir Donald Alexander Smith]], Canadian railway financier and diplomat
* [[Herbert Spencer]], [[evolutionary biologist]], sociologist, and [[laissez-faire]] economic philosopher
* [[Leslie Stephen|Sir Leslie Stephen]], critic, first editor of the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', father of [[Virginia Woolf]] and [[Vanessa Bell]]
* [[William Heath Strange]], physician and founder of the ''Hampstead General Hospital'', now the [[Royal Free Hospital]]
* [[Lucien Stryk]], American poet, teacher and translator of Zen poetry
* Sir [[George Thalben-Ball]], English organist, choirmaster and composer
* [[Bob Thoms]], the greatest Victorian cricket umpire
* [[James Thomson (poet, born 1834)|James Thomson]], Victorian poet, best known for [[The City of Dreadful Night|''The City of Dreadful Night'']]
* [[Storm Thorgerson]], graphic designer
* [[Malcolm Tierney]], actor
* [[Feliks Topolski]], Polish-born British expressionist painter
* [[Edward Truelove]], radical publisher and freethinker
* [[Peter Ucko]], influential English [[archaeology|archaeologist]]
* [[Max Wall]], comedian and entertainer
* [[Simon Ward]], actor
* [[Peter Cathcart Wason]], pioneering psychologist
* [[Lawrence Weaver|Sir Lawrence Weaver]], architectural writer, editor of Country Life and organiser of the [[British Empire Exhibition]]
* [[Opal Whiteley]], American writer
* [[Colin St John Wilson]], architect (most notably of the new [[British Library]] in London), lecturer and author
* [[Joseph Wolf]], natural history illustrator and pioneer in wildlife art
* [[Edward Richard Woodham]], survivor of the [[Charge of the Light Brigade]]
* [[Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington]], politician, social activist and consumer champion.

===Fireman’s corner===
A monument erected in the East Cemetery by widows and orphans of members of the [[London Fire Brigade]] in 1934. There are 97 firemen buried here. The monument is cared for by the Brigade's Welfare Section.

==War graves==
The cemetery contains the graves of 318 Commonwealth service personnel maintained and registered by the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]], in both the East and West Cemeteries, 259 from the [[First World War]] and 59 from the [[Second World War|Second]]. Those whose graves could not be marked by headstones are listed on a Screen Wall memorial erected near the [[Cross of Sacrifice]] in the west cemetery.<ref name=cwgc>{{cite web|title=Cemetery Details: Highgate Cemetery|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/41905/HIGHGATE%20CEMETERY|website=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|access-date=21 August 2014}}</ref>

==Visiting==
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2018}}
The Cemetery is open to the public every day. To cover running and maintenance costs, the charitable trust charges an entry fee. For entry only (called "self-guided") there are two ticket prices, East Cemetery only or for both East and West sides. For a small extra cost, there are regular guided tours, lasting approximately 75 minutes, of the West side throughout the week and the East side on Saturdays only.

==In popular culture==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2015}}
* Several of [[John Galsworthy]]'s ''[[The Forsyte Saga|Forsyte Saga]]'' novels refer to Highgate Cemetery as the last resting place of the Forsytes; for example, Chapter XI, "The Last of the Forsytes," in ''To Let'' (1921).
* Footage of Highgate appears in numerous British horror films, including ''[[Taste the Blood of Dracula]]'' (1970), ''[[Tales from the Crypt (film)|Tales from the Crypt]]'' (1972) and ''[[From Beyond the Grave]]'' (1974).
* In the BBC TV series ''[[Porridge (TV series)|Porridge]]'', Fletcher claims that his eldest daughter, Ingrid, was conceived on Karl Marx's tomb.
* Herbert Smith is shadowed through Highgate Cemetery in ''[[Visibility]]'', a murder/espionage/thriller by [[Boris Starling]].
* Highgate Cemetery is the sixth level of the ''[[Nightmare Creatures]]'' game.
* In [[Len Deighton]]'s alternative history novel ''[[SS-GB]]'' and its [[SS-GB (TV series)|TV adaptation]], a bomb is detonated in the tomb of [[Karl Marx]] when his remains are exhumed by [[Nazi Germany|German occupation forces]] to be presented to the [[Soviet Union]].
* [[Fred Vargas]]'s novel ''[[An Uncertain Place|Un lieu incertain]]'' starts in the cemetery.
* [[Barbara Hambly]]'s [[vampire]] novel, ''[[Those Who Hunt the Night]]'', has the main characters visiting Highgate at one point to examine the remains of a vampire who had taken over an abandoned tomb.
* Stated in the acknowledgments as the inspiration for the setting of [[Neil Gaiman]]'s ''[[The Graveyard Book]]''.
* [[Audrey Niffenegger]]'s book ''[[Her Fearful Symmetry]]'' (2009) is set around Highgate Cemetery; she acted as a tour guide there while researching the book.<ref name="Highgate Cemetery">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/oct/03/audrey-niffenegger-highgate-cemetery-novel|title=Audrey Niffenegger on Highgate Cemetery|last=Niffenegger|first=Audrey|date=3 October 2009|work=The Guardian|access-date=3 October 2009}}</ref>
* In the novel ''[[Double or Die]]'' (2007), a part of the ''[[Young Bond]]'' series, Ludwig and Wolfgang Smith plan to kill Bond in the cemetery.
* [[Tracy Chevalier]]'s book ''Falling Angels'' (2002) was set in and around Highgate Cemetery. The two main protagonists met there as children while their parents were visiting adjacent family graves and they continued to enjoy meeting up and playing there.
* The movie [[Hampstead (film)|''Hampstead'']] (2017) features a few scenes in the cemetery.
* The climax of a novel by [[John Steele (writer)|John Steele]], ''Seven Skins'' (2018), was set in the Egyptian Avenue and Circle of Lebanon, among other locations in the West Cemetery.
* The movie [[Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald|''Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald'']] (2018) features scenes towards the end of the film in the cemetery before the famous Cedar tree was removed.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon2.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon3.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon4.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon5.jpg
File:Highgate Cemetery 013.jpg
File:Carl Rosa.png|[[Carl Rosa]] grave
File:Sepulcro con ángel.jpg|thumb|Mary Nichols and The Sleeping Angel, Highgate Cemetery|alt=On the top of the grave lies a sleeping angel on a bed of clouds. ‘In Ever Loving Memory of Mary, the darling wife of Arthur Nichols and fondly loved mother of their only son Harold who fell asleep 7th May 1909. Also of Dennis Arthur Charles son of Harold and Winifred who died 28th April 1916 aged 15 months.’
File:Highgate Cemetery East 2.JPG|Highgate Cemetery East (2010)
File:Highgate grave.jpg|Caroline Tucker; A wife, mother and grandmother, Highgate Cemetery East<ref>Mémorial Find a Grave,"Caroline Tucker (1910-1994) - Mémorial Find a Grave"[https://fr.findagrave.com/memorial/55748745/caroline-tucker],Droits d’auteur © 2022 Find a Grave,retrieved 2022-03-15.</ref>
File:Highgate Cemetery - East - Bruce Reynolds 02.jpg|The grave of [[Bruce Reynolds]]
File:SayersTomb HighgateCemetery.JPG|The tomb of [[Tom Sayers]]
File:Patrick Caulfield Grave Highgate East Cemetery London 2016.jpg|The grave of [[Patrick Caulfield|Patrick Caulfield, RA]]
File:Mansoor Hekmat Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 04.jpg|The grave of [[Mansoor Hekmat]]
File:Grave of Anna Mahler Austrian sculpture, in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016.jpg|The grave of [[Anna Mahler]]
File:Yusuf Mohamed Dadoo Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 09.jpg|The grave of [[Yusuf Dadoo]]
File:Eric Hobsbawm Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 06.jpg|The grave of [[Eric Hobsbawm]]
File:Jeremy Beadle grave.jpg|The grave of [[Jeremy Beadle]]
File:WFGgrave.jpg|Grave of [[William Friese-Greene]] by [[Edwin Lutyens|Lutyens]], East Cemetery
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|http://highgatecemetery.org}}

{{Cemeteries in England}}
{{Cemeteries in London}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1839 establishments in England]]
[[Category:Anglican cemeteries in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Burials at Highgate Cemetery]]
[[Category:Cemeteries in London]]
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries in England]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in the London Borough of Camden]]
[[Category:Grade I listed monuments and memorials]]
[[Category:Grade I listed parks and gardens in London]]
[[Category:Highgate]]
[[Category:Parks and open spaces in the London Borough of Camden]]

Highgate Cemetery

2022-03-15T12:42:57Z

Cuaxdon: /* Gallery */ correct

{{short description|Place of burial in north London, England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox cemetery
| name = Highgate Cemetery
| image = Highgate Cemetery East.JPG
| imagesize = 260
| caption = Highgate (East) Cemetery ({{circa}} 2010)
| map_type =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| established = 1839
| location = Swain's Lane, [[London]], [[N postcode area|N6 6PJ]]
| country = [[England]]
| coordinates = {{coord|51.567|-0.147|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| type =
| style =
| owner = Friends of Highgate Cemetery Trust
| size = {{convert|15|ha|acre}}
| graves = 53,000+
| interments = 170,000
| website = [https://www.highgatecemetery.org Highgate Cemetery]
| findagrave1 = 638894
| findagrave1_label = East
| findagrave2 = 638895
| findagrave2_label = West
| political =
}}

'''Highgate Cemetery''' is a place of burial in [[north London]], England. There are approximately 170,000 people buried in around 53,000 graves across the West and East Cemeteries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/index.php/faqs|website=Highgate Cemetery|publisher=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216041052/http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/index.php/faqs|archive-date=16 February 2013}}</ref> Highgate Cemetery is notable both for some of the people buried there as well as for its ''de facto'' status as a [[nature reserve]]. The Cemetery is designated Grade I on the [[Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England|Register of Historic Parks and Gardens]].<ref name=NHLEGarden>{{NHLE|num=1000810|desc=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 June 2017}}</ref> It is one of the [[Magnificent Seven, London|Magnificent Seven]] cemeteries in London.

==Location==
The [[cemetery]] comprises two sites, each on either side of Swains Lane in [[Highgate]], [[N postcode area|N6]], next to [[Waterlow Park]]. The main gate is located on Swains Lane just north of Oakshott Avenue. There is another disused gate on Chester Road. The cemetery is in the [[London Borough of Camden]]. The nearest public transport ([[Transport for London]]) is the C11 bus, Brookfield Park stop, or [[Archway tube station]].

==History and setting==
The cemetery in its original form{{snd}}the northwestern wooded area{{snd}}opened in 1839, as part of a plan to provide seven large, modern cemeteries, now known as the "[[Magnificent Seven, London|Magnificent Seven]]", around the outside of central London. The inner-city cemeteries, mostly the graveyards attached to individual churches, had long been unable to cope with the number of burials and were seen as a hazard to health and an undignified way to treat the dead. The initial design was by architect and entrepreneur [[Stephen Geary]].

On Monday 20 May 1839, Highgate (West) Cemetery was dedicated to [[James, son of Alphaeus|St. James]]<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://highgatecemetery.org/about/history|website=Highgate Cemetery|publisher=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170124082617/http://highgatecemetery.org/about/history|archive-date=24 January 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> by the Right Reverend [[Charles James Blomfield]], Lord [[Bishop of London]]. Fifteen acres were consecrated for the use of the [[Church of England]], and two acres set aside for [[English Dissenters|Dissenters]]. Rights of burial were sold for either limited period or in perpetuity. The first burial was Elizabeth Jackson of Little Windmill Street, [[Soho]], on 26 May.

Highgate, like the others of the Magnificent Seven, soon became a fashionable place for burials and was much admired and visited. The [[Victorian era|Victorian]] attitude to death and its presentation led to the creation of a wealth of [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] tombs and buildings. It occupies a spectacular south-facing hillside site slightly downhill from the top of the hill of Highgate itself, next to Waterlow Park. In 1854 a further 19 acres to the south east of the original area, across Swains Lane, was bought to form the eastern part of the cemetery which opened in 1860. Both sides of the Cemetery are still used today for burials.

The cemetery's grounds are full of trees, shrubbery and wildflowers, most of which have been planted and grown without human influence. The grounds are a haven for birds and small animals such as foxes.

Highgate Cemetery was featured in the popular media from the 1960s to the late 1980s for its so-called [[occult]] past, particularly as being the alleged site of the "[[Highgate Vampire]]".

==Friends of Highgate Cemetery==
The Cemetery is now owned and maintained by a charitable trust, the Friends of Highgate Cemetery Trust, which was set up in 1975 and acquired the freehold of both East and West Cemeteries by 1981. In 1984 it published ''Highgate Cemetery: Victorian Valhalla'' by [[John Gay (photographer)|John Gay]].<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/ | title = A Brief History of Highgate Cemetery}}</ref>

==West Cemetery==
[[File:Egyptian Avenue Highgate Cemetery.jpg|thumb|250px|Entrance to the Egyptian Avenue, West Cemetery]]
[[File:High-cemetery-circle.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Circle of Lebanon, West Cemetery]]
The Cemetery's grounds are full of trees, shrubbery and wildflowers, most of which have been planted and grown without human influence. The grounds are a haven for birds and small animals such as foxes. The Egyptian Avenue and the Circle of Lebanon (previously surmounted by a huge, 280 years old [[Lebanon Cedar|Cedar of Lebanon]], which had to be cut down and replaced in August 2019) feature tombs, vaults and winding paths dug into hillsides. The Egyptian Avenue and the Columbarium are Grade I [[listed building]]s.

===Notable West Cemetery interments===
* [[Henry Thomas Alken|Henry Alken]], painter, engraver and illustrator of sporting and coaching scenes
* [[Jane Arden (director)|Jane Arden]], Welsh-born film director, actor, screenwriter, playwright, songwriter, and poet
* [[John Atcheler]], ‘Horse slaughterer to [[Queen Victoria]]’
* [[Edward Hodges Baily]], sculptor
* [[Beryl Bainbridge]], author
* [[Abraham Dee Bartlett]], [[zoologist]], superintendent of the [[London Zoo]] known for selling the popular African elephant [[Jumbo]] to [[P. T. Barnum]]

* [[Julius Beer]] (and family members), owner of ''[[The Observer]]''.
* [[Francis Bedford (photographer)|Francis Bedford]], landscape photographer
* [[William Belt]], barrister and antiquarian, best known for his eccentric behaviour
* [[Mary Matilda Betham]], diarist, poet, woman of letters, and miniature portrait painter
* [[Eugenius Birch]], seaside architect and noted designer of promenade-piers
* [[Edward Blore]], architect known for his work on [[Buckingham Palace]] and [[Westminster Abbey]]
* [[Edwin Brett]], publisher and pioneer of serialised sensational weekly fiction and '[[penny dreadfuls]]'
* [[Jacob Bronowski]], scientist, creator of the television series ''[[The Ascent of Man]]''
* [[James Bunstone Bunning]], City Architect to the [[City of London]]
* [[Robert William Buss]], artist and illustrator
* [[Edward Dundas Butler]], translator and senior librarian at the [[British Library|Department of Printed Books, British Museum]]
* [[Edward Cardwell, 1st Viscount Cardwell]], prominent politician in the [[Peelite]] and [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] parties, best remembered for his tenure as [[Secretary of State for War]]
* [[William Benjamin Carpenter]], physician, invertebrate zoologist and physiologist
* [[J. Comyns Carr|Joseph William Comyns Carr]], drama and art critic, gallery director, author, poet, playwright and theatre manager
* [[John James Chalon]], Swiss painter
* [[Robert Caesar Childers]], [[Orientalism|scholar of the Orient]] and writer
* [[Edmund Chipp]], organist and composer
* [[Charles Chubb (businessman)|Charles Chubb]], lock and safe manufacturer
* [[Antoine Claudet]], pioneering early photographer, honoured by [[Queen Victoria]] as "Photographer-in-ordinary"
* [[John Cross (artist)|John Cross]], English artist
* [[Philip Conisbee]], art historian and curator
* [[Abraham Cooper]], animal and battle painter
* [[Thomas Frederick Cooper (watchmaker)|Thomas Frederick Cooper]], watchmaker
* [[John Copley, 1st Baron Lyndhurst|John Singleton Copley]], Lord Chancellor and son of the American painter [[John Singleton Copley]]
* [[Charles Cowper|Sir Charles Cowper]], Premier of [[New South Wales]], Australia
* [[Addison Cresswell]], comedians' agent and producer
* [[George Baden Crawley]], civil engineer and railway builder
* [[Charles Cruft (showman)|Charles Cruft]], founder of [[Crufts]] dog show
* [[Isaac Robert Cruikshank]], caricaturist, illustrator, portrait miniaturist and brother of [[George Cruikshank]]
* [[The Brothers Dalziel|George Dalziel]], engraver who with his siblings ran one of the most prolific Victorian engraving firms
* [[George Darnell]], schoolmaster and author of ''Darnell's Copybooks''
* [[David Devant]], theatrical magician
* [[Alfred Lamert Dickens]], the younger brother of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[Catherine Dickens]], wife of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[John Dickens|John]] and [[Elizabeth Dickens]], parents of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[Fanny Dickens]], elder sister of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[William Hepworth Dixon]], historian and traveller. Also active in organizing London's [[Great Exhibition]] of 1851
* The Druce family vault, one of whose members was (falsely) alleged to have been the [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland|5th Duke of Portland]].
* [[Herbert Benjamin Edwardes]], Administrator and soldier, known as the "Hero of Multan"
* [[Joseph Edwards (sculptor)]], Welsh sculptor
* [[Thomas Edwards (author)]], (Caerfallwch), Welsh author and lexicographer
* [[Ugo Ehiogu]], footballer
* [[James Harington Evans]], Baptist pastor of the John Street Chapel
* [[Michael Faraday]], chemist and physicist (with his wife Sarah), in the [[Dissenter]]s section
* [[Charles Drury Edward Fortnum]], art collector and benefactor of the [[Ashmolean Museum]]
* [[Lucian Freud]], painter, grandson of [[Sigmund Freud]], and elder brother of [[Clement Freud]]
* [[John Galsworthy]], author and [[Nobel Prize]] winner ([[cenotaph]], he was cremated and his ashes scattered)
* [[Stephen Geary]], architect (most notably of Highgate Cemetery)
* [[John Gibbons (ironmaster and art patron)|John Gibbons]], ironmaster and art patron
* [[Stella Gibbons]], novelist, author of ''[[Cold Comfort Farm]]''
* [[Margaret Gillies]], Scottish painter known for her miniature portraits, including of one of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[John William Griffith]], architect of [[Kensal Green Cemetery]]
* [[Henry Gray]], anatomist and surgeon,<ref>GRO Register of Deaths: JUN qtr 1861 1a 174 St Geo Han Sq – Henry Gray
*</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqSearch=%28Surname=%27gray%27%29&dsqPos=7 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415172415/http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqSearch=(Surname='gray')&dsqPos=7 |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2013 |title=DServe Archive Persons Show |publisher=.royalsociety.org |access-date=18 March 2013 }}</ref> author of ''[[Gray's Anatomy]]''.
* [[Radclyffe Hall]], author of ''[[The Well of Loneliness]]'' and other novels
* [[William Hall (publisher)|William Hall]], founder with [[Edward Chapman (publisher)|Edward Chapman]] of publishers [[Chapman & Hall]]
* [[Philip Harben]], English cook regarded as the first TV [[celebrity chef]]
* [[Charles Augustus Hartley|Sir Charles Augustus Hartley]], eminent British civil engineer, known as 'the father of the [[Danube]].'
* [[George Edwards Hering]], landscape painter
* [[Edwin Hill (engineer)|Edwin Hill]], older brother of [[Rowland Hill]] and inventor of the first [[letter scale]] and a mechanical system to make envelopes
* [[Frank Holl]], Royal portraitist
* [[James Holman]], 19th-century adventurer known as "the Blind Traveller"
* [[Anthony Home|Surgeon-General Sir Anthony Home]], [[Victoria Cross]] recipient from [[Indian Mutiny]]
* [[Theodore Hope]], British colonial administrator and writer
* [[William Hosking]], first Professor of Architecture at [[King's College London]] and architect of [[Abney Park Cemetery]]
* [[Bob Hoskins]], actor
* [[Georgiana Houghton]], British artist and spiritualist [[Mediumship|medium]]
* [[David Edward Hughes]], FRS, 19th-century electrical engineer and inventor
* [[William Henry Hunt (painter)|William Henry Hunt]], popular and widely collected painter of watercolours, nicknamed ‘Bird’s Nest’ Hunt
* [[Sir John Hutton]], publisher of ''[[Sporting Life (British newspaper)|Sporting Life]]'' and Chairman of the [[London County Council]]
* [[Georges Jacobi]], composer, conductor and musical director of the [[Alhambra Theatre]]
* [[Lisa Jardine]], historian
* [[Victor Kullberg]], one of the greatest marine clockmakers
* [[Thomas Landseer]], younger brother of Sir [[Edwin Landseer]] (there is a cenotaph, Edwin was buried in [[St Paul's Cathedral]])
* [[Peter Laurie|Sir Peter Laurie]], politician and [[Lord Mayor of London]]
* [[Douglas Lapraik]], shipowner and co-founder of [[HSBC]] and the [[Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels Group]]
* [[Henry Lee (Surgeon)|Henry Lee]], surgeon, [[pathologist]] and [[syphilologist]]
* [[Oswald Lewis]], [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|MP]] and younger son of [[John Lewis (department store founder)|John Lewis]], founder of the [[John Lewis (department store)|chain of department stores]]
* [[Robert Liston]], surgeon
* [[Alexander Litvinenko]], Russian dissident, murdered by poisoning in London
* [[Edward Lloyd (publisher)|Edward Lloyd]], influential newspaper publisher and founder of the ''[[Daily Chronicle]]''
* [[James Locke (draper)|James Locke]], a London draper credited with giving [[Tweed]] its name
* [[William Lovett]], [[Chartism|Chartist]]
* [[Samuel Lucas]], editor of the ''[[Morning Star (British newspaper)|Morning Star]]'', journalist and abolitionist
* [[John Maple (furniture maker)]] founder of the furniture makers [[Maple & Co.]]
* [[Hugh Matheson (industrialist)|Hugh Mackay Matheson]], industrialist and founder of [[Matheson & Company]] and the [[Rio Tinto Group]]
* [[Frederick Denison Maurice]], English Anglican theologian, prolific author and one of the founders of [[Christian socialism]]
* [[Michael Meacher]], academic and [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician
* [[George Michael]], singer, songwriter, music producer and philanthropist; buried beside his mother and sister
* [[Barbara Mills]], (ashes) first female Director of Public Prosecutions
* [[Frederick Akbar Mahomed]], internationally known British physician
* [[Jude Moraes]], landscape gardener, writer and broadcaster
* [[Nicholas Mosley]], novelist and biographer of his father, [[Oswald Mosley]]
* [[Edward Moxhay]], shoemaker, biscuit maker and property speculator, best known for his involvement in the landmark English land law case ''[[Tulk v Moxhay]]''
* Elizabeth de Munck, mother of celebrated soprano, [[Maria Caterina Rosalbina Caradori-Allan]] in grave with large carving of [[pelican]] in piety
* [[Walter Neurath]], Publisher and founder of [[Thames and Hudson]]
* [[Henry Newton (Winsor & Newton founder)|Henry Newton]], painter and co-founder of [[Winsor & Newton]]
* [[Samuel Noble]], English engraver, and minister of the [[The New Church (Swedenborgian)|New Church]]
* [[George Osbaldeston]], known as Squire Osbaldeston, sportsman, gambler and [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] (MP)
* [[Sherard Osborn]], Royal Navy admiral and Arctic explorer
* [[Frederick William Pavy]], [[physician]] and [[physiologist]]
* [[William Payne (pantomimist)|William Payne]], actor, dancer and [[Pantomime|pantomimist]]
* [[Thomas Ashburton Picken]], [[Watercolor painting|watercolourist]], [[Engraving|engraver]] and [[Lithography|lithographer]]
* [[Frances Polidori|Frances Polidori Rossetti]], mother of [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti|Dante Gabriel]], [[Christina Rossetti|Christina]] and William Michael Rossetti
* [[Samuel Phelps]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespearian]] actor and manager of [[Sadler's Wells Theatre]]
* [[James Robinson (dentist)|James Robinson]], dentist, first person to carry out [[general anaesthesia]] in Britain
* Peter Robinson, founder of the [[Peter Robinson (department store)|Peter Robinson department store]] at Oxford Circus, London
* [[William Charles Ross|Sir William Charles Ross]], portrait and [[portrait miniature]] painter
* [[Christina Rossetti]], poet
* [[Gabriele Rossetti]], Italian nationalist and scholar. Father of Christina and Dante Gabriel Rossetti
* [[William Michael Rossetti]], co-founder of the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]]
* [[Tom Sayers]], [[Boxing#History|pugilist]], his tomb is guarded by the stone image of his mastiff, Lion, who was chief mourner at his funeral
* [[Henry Young Darracott Scott]], responsible for the design and construction of the [[Royal Albert Hall]]
* [[Elizabeth Siddal]], wife and model of artist/poet [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and model for the painting ''[[Ophelia (painting)|Ophelia]]'' by [[John Everett Millais]]
* [[Jean Simmons]], actress
* [[William Simpson (artist)|William Simpson]], war artist and correspondent
* [[John Jackson Smale|Sir John Smale]], Chief Justice of Hong Kong
* [[Tom Smith (confectioner)|Tom Smith]], inventor of the [[Christmas cracker]]
* [[Charles Green Spencer]], pioneer aviator and balloon manufacturer
* [[Alfred Stevens (sculptor)|Alfred Stevens]], sculptor, painter and designer
* [[Walter Fryer Stocks]], prolific landscape painter
* [[Henry Knight Storks|Sir Henry Knight Storks]], soldier, MP, and colonial administrator
* [[Anna Swanwick]], author and [[feminist]] who assisted in the founding of [[Girton College, Cambridge]], and [[Somerville Hall]], Oxford
* [[Alfred Swaine Taylor]], toxicologist, forensic scientist, expert witness
* [[Frederick Tennyson]], poet, older brother of [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]
* [[Samuel Sanders Teulon]], prolific [[Gothic Revival]] architect
* [[Jeanette Threlfall]], [[hymnwriter]] and poet
* [[Charles Turner (engraver)|Charles Turner]], [[mezzotint]] engraver who collaborated with [[J. M. W. Turner]]
* [[Andrew Ure]], Scottish physician known for his [[galvanism]] experimentation, founder of the [[University of Strathclyde]]
* [[John Vandenhoff]], leading Victorian actor
* [[Henry Vaughan (art collector)|Henry Vaughan]], art collector who gave one of Britain's most popular paintings, [[John Constable]]'s ''[[The Hay Wain]]'' to the [[National Gallery]]
* [[Emilie Ashurst Venturi]], writer, translator and women's rights campaigner
* [[Arthur Waley]], translator and scholar of the Orient
* [[George Wallis]], First Keeper of the Fine Art Collection at the [[Victoria & Albert Museum]]
* [[Mary Warner]], actress and theatre manager
* [[Augusta Webster]], poet, dramatist, essayist, translator and advocate of [[women's suffrage]]
* [[Henry White (photographer)|Henry White]], lawyer and gifted [[landscape photographer]]
* [[Brodie McGhie Willcox]], founder of the [[P&O (company)|P&O Shipping Line]]
* [[Henry Willis]], foremost [[organ builder]] of the Victorian era
* [[Hugh Wilson (RAF officer)|Hugh Wilson]], RAF test pilot
* [[George Wombwell]], menagerie exhibitor
* [[Ellen Wood (author)|Ellen Wood]], author known as Mrs Henry Wood, there is also a plaque for her in [[Worcester Cathedral]]
* [[Adam Worth]], criminal mastermind. Possible inspiration for [[Sherlock Holmes]]' nemesis, [[Professor Moriarty]]; originally buried in a pauper's grave under the name Henry J. Raymond
* [[William Henry Wyatt|Sir William Henry Wyatt]], long-serving chairman of the [[Friern Hospital|Middlesex County Lunatic Asylum]] at Colney Hatch, Southgate
* [[Patrick Wymark]], actor
* [[Joseph Warren Zambra]], scientific instrument maker

==East Cemetery==
[[File:Grave of Karl Marx Highgate Cemetery in London 2016 (10).jpg|thumb|250px|[[Tomb of Karl Marx]], East Cemetery]]
Many famous or prominent people are buried in Highgate cemetery; the most famous burial is arguably that of [[Karl Marx]], whose tomb was the site of attempted bombings on 2 September 1965<ref>{{citation | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=XnIsAAAAIBAJ&pg=6238%2C1047342 | title = News}}</ref> and in 1970.<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.camdennewjournal.co.uk/111705/cn111705_11.htm | title = Camden New Journal | place = UK | contribution = Tomb raiders’ failed attack on Marx grave}}</ref> The [[tomb of Karl Marx]] is a Grade I [[listed building]] for reasons of historical importance.

===Notable East Cemetery interments===
* [[Douglas Adams]], author of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' and other novels
* [[Mehmet Aksoy (filmmaker)|Mehmet Aksoy]], press officer for the Kurdish [[People's Protection Units|YPG]], killed by ISIS in 2017<ref>{{Cite news|date=11 November 2017|title=Farewell to YPG's Mehmet Aksoy in London|work=ANF|url=https://anfenglish.com/women/farewell-to-ypg-s-mehmet-aksoy-in-london-23148}}</ref>
* [[Wilkie Bard]], popular [[vaudeville]] and [[music hall]] entertainer and recording artist
* [[Farzad Bazoft]], journalist, executed by [[Saddam Hussein]]'s regime
* [[Jeremy Beadle]], writer, television presenter and curator of oddities
* Adolf Beck, the [[Adolph Beck case]] was a celebrated case of mistaken identity
* [[Hercules Bellville]], American film producer
* [[Master Betty|William Betty]], popular child actor of the early nineteenth century
* [[Emily Blatchley]], pioneering [[Protestant]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[missionary]] to [[China]]
* [[Kate Booth]], English Salvationist and evangelist. Oldest daughter of [[William Booth|William]] and [[Catherine Booth]]. She was also known as ''la Maréchale''
* [[Frederick Broome]], colonial administrator of several British colonies. The Western Australian towns of [[Broome, Western Australia|Broome]] and [[Broomehill, Western Australia|Broomehill]] are named after him
* [[George Barclay Bruce]], world renown railway engineer and president of the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]]
* [[Lauder Brunton|Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton, 1st Baronet]], Scottish physician who is most-closely associated with the treatment of [[angina pectoris]]
* [[James Caird (politician)|James Caird]], Scottish agricultural writer and politician
* [[Patrick Caulfield]], painter and printmaker known for his [[pop art]] canvasses
* [[Douglas Cleverdon]], radio producer and bookseller
* [[William Kingdon Clifford]] (with his wife [[Lucy Clifford|Lucy]]), mathematician and philosopher
* [[Lucy Clifford|Lucy Lane Clifford]], novelist and journalist, wife of [[William Kingdon Clifford]]
* [[Yusuf Dadoo]], South African anti-apartheid activist
* [[Lewis Foreman Day]], influential artist in the [[Arts and Crafts movement]]
* [[Davison Dalziel, 1st Baron Dalziel of Wooler|Sir Davison Dalziel, Bt]], British newspaper owner and [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] politician. Massive mausoleum near the entrance.
* [[Elyse Dodgson]], theatre producer
* [[Fritz Dupre]], [[iron]] and [[manganese]] ore merchant, known as the "Manganese Ore King"
* [[Francis Elgar]], naval architect
* [[George Eliot]] (Mary Ann Evans – the name on the grave is Mary Ann Cross), novelist, common law wife of [[George Henry Lewes]] and buried next to him
* [[Edwin Wilkins Field]], lawyer who devoted much of his life to law reform
* [[Paul Foot (journalist)|Paul Foot]], campaigning journalist and nephew of former [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] leader [[Michael Foot]]
* [[Lydia Folger Fowler]], pioneering American physician and first American-born woman to earn a medical degree
* [[William Foyle]], co-founder of [[Foyles]]
* [[William Friese-Greene]], cinema pioneer and his son [[Claude Friese-Greene]]
* [[Lou Gish]], actress, daughter of Sheila Gish
* [[Sheila Gish]], actress
* [[Philip Gould, Baron Gould of Brookwood|Philip Gould]], British [[political consultant]], and former advertising [[corporate executive|executive]], closely linked to the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]
* [[Robert Grant (VC)|Robert Grant VC]], soldier and police constable
* [[Robert Edmond Grant]], Professor of [[Comparative Anatomy]] at [[University College London]] who gave his name to the [[Grant Museum of Zoology]]
* [[Charles Green (balloonist)|Charles Green]], the United Kingdom's most famous balloonist of the 19th century
* [[Leon Griffiths]], creator of [[Minder (TV series)|Minder]]
* [[Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)|Stuart Hall]], [[Jamaica]]n-born British [[Marxist]] [[sociologist]], [[culture theory|cultural theorist]], and [[political activist]]
* [[Harrison Hayter]], railway, harbour and dock engineer
* [[Mansoor Hekmat]], Communist leader and founder of the [[Worker-Communist Party of Iran]] and [[Worker-Communist Party of Iraq]]
* [[Eric Hobsbawm]], historian
* [[Austin Holyoake]], printer, publisher, freethinker and brother of the more widely known [[George Holyoake]]
* [[George Holyoake]], Birmingham-born social reformer and founder of the [[British co-operative movement|Cooperative Movement]]
* [[George Honey]], popular Victorian actor and comedian
* [[Alan Howard]], actor
* [[Leslie Hutchinson]], [[Cabaret]] star of the 20s and 30s
* [[Jabez Inwards]], popular Victorian [[Temperance movement|temperance]] lecturer and [[phrenologist]]
* [[Georges Jacobi]], composer and conductor
* [[Bert Jansch]], Scottish folk musician
* [[Claudia Jones]], Trinidadian born [[Communist]] and fighter for civil rights, founder of ''[[The West Indian Gazette]]'' and the [[Notting Hill Carnival]]<ref>{{cite web|first=Angela|last=Davis|title=Angela Davis praises CPUSA for its history "of militant struggle"|website=PeoplesWorld.org|url=https://www.peoplesworld.org/article/angela-davis-praises-cpusa-for-its-history-of-militant-struggle/|date=June 20, 2019|access-date=June 20, 2019}}</ref>
* [[George Goodwin Kilburne]], [[genre works|genre]] painter
* [[David Kirkaldy]], Scottish engineer and pioneer in materials testing
* [[Anatoly Kuznetsov]], Soviet writer
* [[Liza Lehmann]], operatic soprano and composer, daughter of [[Rudolf Lehmann (artist)|Rudolf Lehmann]]
* [[Rudolf Lehmann (artist)|Rudolf Lehmann]], portrait artist and father of [[Liza Lehmann]]
* [[George Henry Lewes]], English philosopher and critic, common law husband of [[George Eliot]] and buried next to her.
* [[Roger Lloyd-Pack]], British actor known for ''[[Only Fools and Horses]]'' and ''[[The Vicar of Dibley]]''
* [[John Lobb]], Society bootmaker
* [[Charles Lucy]], British artist, whose most notable painting was ''The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers''
* [[Haldane MacFall]], art critic, art historian, book illustrator and novelist
* [[Anna Mahler]], sculptress and daughter of [[Gustav Mahler]] and [[Alma Mahler|Alma Schindler]]
* [[Chris Martin (civil servant)|Chris Martin]], [[Principal Private Secretary to the Prime Minister]]
* [[James Martineau]], [[Christian philosophy|religious philosopher]] influential in the [[history of Unitarianism]]
* [[Tomb of Karl Marx|Karl Marx]], philosopher, historian, sociologist and economist (memorial after his reburial, with other family members)
* [[Frank Matcham]], theatre architect
* [[Carl Mayer]], Austro-German screenwriter of ''[[The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari]]'' and ''[[Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans]]''
* [[McKinnon Wood|Thomas MacKinnon Wood]], Liberal politician and [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
* [[Malcolm McLaren]], [[Punk subculture|punk]] impresario and original manager of the [[Sex Pistols]]
* [[Ralph Miliband]], [[left wing]] [[political theorist]], father of [[David Miliband]] and [[Ed Miliband]]
* [[Alan Milward]], influential historian
* [[William Henry Monk]], composer (of the music to ''[[Abide with Me]]'')
* [[Charles Morton (impresario)|Charles Morton]], [[music hall]] and [[theatre]] manager who became known as the ''Father of the Halls''
* [[Sidney Nolan]], Australian artist
* [[George Josiah Palmer]], founder and editor of ''[[Church Times]]''
* [[Charles J. Phipps]], theatre architect
* [[Tim Pigott-Smith]], actor
* [[Dachine Rainer]], poet and anarchist
* [[Corin Redgrave]], actor and political activist
* [[Bruce Reynolds]], criminal, mastermind of the [[Great Train Robbery (1963)]]
* [[Ralph Richardson]], actor
* [[George Richmond (painter)|George Richmond]], painter and portraitist
* [[José Carlos Rodrigues]], Brazilian journalist, financial expert, and philanthropist
* [[Ernestine Rose]], suffragist, abolitionist and freethinker
* [[James Samuel Risien Russell]], Guyanese-British physician, neurologist, professor of medicine, and professor of medical jurisprudence
* [[Raphael Samuel]], [[Marxist]] historian
* [[Anthony Shaffer (writer)|Anthony Shaffer]], playwright, screenwriter and novelist
* [[Peter Shaffer]], playwright and screenwriter
* [[Eyre Massey Shaw|Sir Eyre Massey Shaw]], first Chief Officer of the [[Metropolitan Fire Brigade (London)|Metropolitan Fire Brigade]]
* [[Alan Sillitoe]], English postmodern novelist, poet, and playwright
* [[James Smetham]], [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]] painter, engraver and follower of [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]]
* [[Donald Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal|Sir Donald Alexander Smith]], Canadian railway financier and diplomat
* [[Herbert Spencer]], [[evolutionary biologist]], sociologist, and [[laissez-faire]] economic philosopher
* [[Leslie Stephen|Sir Leslie Stephen]], critic, first editor of the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', father of [[Virginia Woolf]] and [[Vanessa Bell]]
* [[William Heath Strange]], physician and founder of the ''Hampstead General Hospital'', now the [[Royal Free Hospital]]
* [[Lucien Stryk]], American poet, teacher and translator of Zen poetry
* Sir [[George Thalben-Ball]], English organist, choirmaster and composer
* [[Bob Thoms]], the greatest Victorian cricket umpire
* [[James Thomson (poet, born 1834)|James Thomson]], Victorian poet, best known for [[The City of Dreadful Night|''The City of Dreadful Night'']]
* [[Storm Thorgerson]], graphic designer
* [[Malcolm Tierney]], actor
* [[Feliks Topolski]], Polish-born British expressionist painter
* [[Edward Truelove]], radical publisher and freethinker
* [[Peter Ucko]], influential English [[archaeology|archaeologist]]
* [[Max Wall]], comedian and entertainer
* [[Simon Ward]], actor
* [[Peter Cathcart Wason]], pioneering psychologist
* [[Lawrence Weaver|Sir Lawrence Weaver]], architectural writer, editor of Country Life and organiser of the [[British Empire Exhibition]]
* [[Opal Whiteley]], American writer
* [[Colin St John Wilson]], architect (most notably of the new [[British Library]] in London), lecturer and author
* [[Joseph Wolf]], natural history illustrator and pioneer in wildlife art
* [[Edward Richard Woodham]], survivor of the [[Charge of the Light Brigade]]
* [[Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington]], politician, social activist and consumer champion.

===Fireman’s corner===
A monument erected in the East Cemetery by widows and orphans of members of the [[London Fire Brigade]] in 1934. There are 97 firemen buried here. The monument is cared for by the Brigade's Welfare Section.

==War graves==
The cemetery contains the graves of 318 Commonwealth service personnel maintained and registered by the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]], in both the East and West Cemeteries, 259 from the [[First World War]] and 59 from the [[Second World War|Second]]. Those whose graves could not be marked by headstones are listed on a Screen Wall memorial erected near the [[Cross of Sacrifice]] in the west cemetery.<ref name=cwgc>{{cite web|title=Cemetery Details: Highgate Cemetery|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/41905/HIGHGATE%20CEMETERY|website=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|access-date=21 August 2014}}</ref>

==Visiting==
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2018}}
The Cemetery is open to the public every day. To cover running and maintenance costs, the charitable trust charges an entry fee. For entry only (called "self-guided") there are two ticket prices, East Cemetery only or for both East and West sides. For a small extra cost, there are regular guided tours, lasting approximately 75 minutes, of the West side throughout the week and the East side on Saturdays only.

==In popular culture==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2015}}
* Several of [[John Galsworthy]]'s ''[[The Forsyte Saga|Forsyte Saga]]'' novels refer to Highgate Cemetery as the last resting place of the Forsytes; for example, Chapter XI, "The Last of the Forsytes," in ''To Let'' (1921).
* Footage of Highgate appears in numerous British horror films, including ''[[Taste the Blood of Dracula]]'' (1970), ''[[Tales from the Crypt (film)|Tales from the Crypt]]'' (1972) and ''[[From Beyond the Grave]]'' (1974).
* In the BBC TV series ''[[Porridge (TV series)|Porridge]]'', Fletcher claims that his eldest daughter, Ingrid, was conceived on Karl Marx's tomb.
* Herbert Smith is shadowed through Highgate Cemetery in ''[[Visibility]]'', a murder/espionage/thriller by [[Boris Starling]].
* Highgate Cemetery is the sixth level of the ''[[Nightmare Creatures]]'' game.
* In [[Len Deighton]]'s alternative history novel ''[[SS-GB]]'' and its [[SS-GB (TV series)|TV adaptation]], a bomb is detonated in the tomb of [[Karl Marx]] when his remains are exhumed by [[Nazi Germany|German occupation forces]] to be presented to the [[Soviet Union]].
* [[Fred Vargas]]'s novel ''[[An Uncertain Place|Un lieu incertain]]'' starts in the cemetery.
* [[Barbara Hambly]]'s [[vampire]] novel, ''[[Those Who Hunt the Night]]'', has the main characters visiting Highgate at one point to examine the remains of a vampire who had taken over an abandoned tomb.
* Stated in the acknowledgments as the inspiration for the setting of [[Neil Gaiman]]'s ''[[The Graveyard Book]]''.
* [[Audrey Niffenegger]]'s book ''[[Her Fearful Symmetry]]'' (2009) is set around Highgate Cemetery; she acted as a tour guide there while researching the book.<ref name="Highgate Cemetery">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/oct/03/audrey-niffenegger-highgate-cemetery-novel|title=Audrey Niffenegger on Highgate Cemetery|last=Niffenegger|first=Audrey|date=3 October 2009|work=The Guardian|access-date=3 October 2009}}</ref>
* In the novel ''[[Double or Die]]'' (2007), a part of the ''[[Young Bond]]'' series, Ludwig and Wolfgang Smith plan to kill Bond in the cemetery.
* [[Tracy Chevalier]]'s book ''Falling Angels'' (2002) was set in and around Highgate Cemetery. The two main protagonists met there as children while their parents were visiting adjacent family graves and they continued to enjoy meeting up and playing there.
* The movie [[Hampstead (film)|''Hampstead'']] (2017) features a few scenes in the cemetery.
* The climax of a novel by [[John Steele (writer)|John Steele]], ''Seven Skins'' (2018), was set in the Egyptian Avenue and Circle of Lebanon, among other locations in the West Cemetery.
* The movie [[Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald|''Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald'']] (2018) features scenes towards the end of the film in the cemetery before the famous Cedar tree was removed.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon2.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon3.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon4.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon5.jpg
File:Highgate Cemetery 013.jpg
File:Carl Rosa.png|[[Carl Rosa]] grave
File:Sepulcro con ángel.jpg|thumb|Mary Nichols and The Sleeping Angel, Highgate Cemetery|alt=On the top of the grave lies a sleeping angel on a bed of clouds. ‘In Ever Loving Memory of Mary, the darling wife of Arthur Nichols and fondly loved mother of their only son Harold who fell asleep 7th May 1909. Also of Dennis Arthur Charles son of Harold and Winifred who died 28th April 1916 aged 15 months.’
File:Highgate Cemetery East 2.JPG|Highgate Cemetery East (2010)
File:Highgate grave.jpg
File:Highgate Cemetery - East - Bruce Reynolds 02.jpg|The grave of [[Bruce Reynolds]]
File:SayersTomb HighgateCemetery.JPG|The tomb of [[Tom Sayers]]
File:Patrick Caulfield Grave Highgate East Cemetery London 2016.jpg|The grave of [[Patrick Caulfield|Patrick Caulfield, RA]]
File:Mansoor Hekmat Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 04.jpg|The grave of [[Mansoor Hekmat]]
File:Grave of Anna Mahler Austrian sculpture, in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016.jpg|The grave of [[Anna Mahler]]
File:Yusuf Mohamed Dadoo Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 09.jpg|The grave of [[Yusuf Dadoo]]
File:Eric Hobsbawm Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 06.jpg|The grave of [[Eric Hobsbawm]]
File:Jeremy Beadle grave.jpg|The grave of [[Jeremy Beadle]]
File:WFGgrave.jpg|Grave of [[William Friese-Greene]] by [[Edwin Lutyens|Lutyens]], East Cemetery
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|http://highgatecemetery.org}}

{{Cemeteries in England}}
{{Cemeteries in London}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1839 establishments in England]]
[[Category:Anglican cemeteries in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Burials at Highgate Cemetery]]
[[Category:Cemeteries in London]]
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries in England]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in the London Borough of Camden]]
[[Category:Grade I listed monuments and memorials]]
[[Category:Grade I listed parks and gardens in London]]
[[Category:Highgate]]
[[Category:Parks and open spaces in the London Borough of Camden]]

Highgate Cemetery

2022-03-15T12:40:21Z

Cuaxdon: /* Gallery */

{{short description|Place of burial in north London, England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox cemetery
| name = Highgate Cemetery
| image = Highgate Cemetery East.JPG
| imagesize = 260
| caption = Highgate (East) Cemetery ({{circa}} 2010)
| map_type =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| established = 1839
| location = Swain's Lane, [[London]], [[N postcode area|N6 6PJ]]
| country = [[England]]
| coordinates = {{coord|51.567|-0.147|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| type =
| style =
| owner = Friends of Highgate Cemetery Trust
| size = {{convert|15|ha|acre}}
| graves = 53,000+
| interments = 170,000
| website = [https://www.highgatecemetery.org Highgate Cemetery]
| findagrave1 = 638894
| findagrave1_label = East
| findagrave2 = 638895
| findagrave2_label = West
| political =
}}

'''Highgate Cemetery''' is a place of burial in [[north London]], England. There are approximately 170,000 people buried in around 53,000 graves across the West and East Cemeteries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/index.php/faqs|website=Highgate Cemetery|publisher=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216041052/http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/index.php/faqs|archive-date=16 February 2013}}</ref> Highgate Cemetery is notable both for some of the people buried there as well as for its ''de facto'' status as a [[nature reserve]]. The Cemetery is designated Grade I on the [[Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England|Register of Historic Parks and Gardens]].<ref name=NHLEGarden>{{NHLE|num=1000810|desc=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 June 2017}}</ref> It is one of the [[Magnificent Seven, London|Magnificent Seven]] cemeteries in London.

==Location==
The [[cemetery]] comprises two sites, each on either side of Swains Lane in [[Highgate]], [[N postcode area|N6]], next to [[Waterlow Park]]. The main gate is located on Swains Lane just north of Oakshott Avenue. There is another disused gate on Chester Road. The cemetery is in the [[London Borough of Camden]]. The nearest public transport ([[Transport for London]]) is the C11 bus, Brookfield Park stop, or [[Archway tube station]].

==History and setting==
The cemetery in its original form{{snd}}the northwestern wooded area{{snd}}opened in 1839, as part of a plan to provide seven large, modern cemeteries, now known as the "[[Magnificent Seven, London|Magnificent Seven]]", around the outside of central London. The inner-city cemeteries, mostly the graveyards attached to individual churches, had long been unable to cope with the number of burials and were seen as a hazard to health and an undignified way to treat the dead. The initial design was by architect and entrepreneur [[Stephen Geary]].

On Monday 20 May 1839, Highgate (West) Cemetery was dedicated to [[James, son of Alphaeus|St. James]]<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://highgatecemetery.org/about/history|website=Highgate Cemetery|publisher=Highgate Cemetery|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170124082617/http://highgatecemetery.org/about/history|archive-date=24 January 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> by the Right Reverend [[Charles James Blomfield]], Lord [[Bishop of London]]. Fifteen acres were consecrated for the use of the [[Church of England]], and two acres set aside for [[English Dissenters|Dissenters]]. Rights of burial were sold for either limited period or in perpetuity. The first burial was Elizabeth Jackson of Little Windmill Street, [[Soho]], on 26 May.

Highgate, like the others of the Magnificent Seven, soon became a fashionable place for burials and was much admired and visited. The [[Victorian era|Victorian]] attitude to death and its presentation led to the creation of a wealth of [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] tombs and buildings. It occupies a spectacular south-facing hillside site slightly downhill from the top of the hill of Highgate itself, next to Waterlow Park. In 1854 a further 19 acres to the south east of the original area, across Swains Lane, was bought to form the eastern part of the cemetery which opened in 1860. Both sides of the Cemetery are still used today for burials.

The cemetery's grounds are full of trees, shrubbery and wildflowers, most of which have been planted and grown without human influence. The grounds are a haven for birds and small animals such as foxes.

Highgate Cemetery was featured in the popular media from the 1960s to the late 1980s for its so-called [[occult]] past, particularly as being the alleged site of the "[[Highgate Vampire]]".

==Friends of Highgate Cemetery==
The Cemetery is now owned and maintained by a charitable trust, the Friends of Highgate Cemetery Trust, which was set up in 1975 and acquired the freehold of both East and West Cemeteries by 1981. In 1984 it published ''Highgate Cemetery: Victorian Valhalla'' by [[John Gay (photographer)|John Gay]].<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.highgate-cemetery.org/ | title = A Brief History of Highgate Cemetery}}</ref>

==West Cemetery==
[[File:Egyptian Avenue Highgate Cemetery.jpg|thumb|250px|Entrance to the Egyptian Avenue, West Cemetery]]
[[File:High-cemetery-circle.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Circle of Lebanon, West Cemetery]]
The Cemetery's grounds are full of trees, shrubbery and wildflowers, most of which have been planted and grown without human influence. The grounds are a haven for birds and small animals such as foxes. The Egyptian Avenue and the Circle of Lebanon (previously surmounted by a huge, 280 years old [[Lebanon Cedar|Cedar of Lebanon]], which had to be cut down and replaced in August 2019) feature tombs, vaults and winding paths dug into hillsides. The Egyptian Avenue and the Columbarium are Grade I [[listed building]]s.

===Notable West Cemetery interments===
* [[Henry Thomas Alken|Henry Alken]], painter, engraver and illustrator of sporting and coaching scenes
* [[Jane Arden (director)|Jane Arden]], Welsh-born film director, actor, screenwriter, playwright, songwriter, and poet
* [[John Atcheler]], ‘Horse slaughterer to [[Queen Victoria]]’
* [[Edward Hodges Baily]], sculptor
* [[Beryl Bainbridge]], author
* [[Abraham Dee Bartlett]], [[zoologist]], superintendent of the [[London Zoo]] known for selling the popular African elephant [[Jumbo]] to [[P. T. Barnum]]

* [[Julius Beer]] (and family members), owner of ''[[The Observer]]''.
* [[Francis Bedford (photographer)|Francis Bedford]], landscape photographer
* [[William Belt]], barrister and antiquarian, best known for his eccentric behaviour
* [[Mary Matilda Betham]], diarist, poet, woman of letters, and miniature portrait painter
* [[Eugenius Birch]], seaside architect and noted designer of promenade-piers
* [[Edward Blore]], architect known for his work on [[Buckingham Palace]] and [[Westminster Abbey]]
* [[Edwin Brett]], publisher and pioneer of serialised sensational weekly fiction and '[[penny dreadfuls]]'
* [[Jacob Bronowski]], scientist, creator of the television series ''[[The Ascent of Man]]''
* [[James Bunstone Bunning]], City Architect to the [[City of London]]
* [[Robert William Buss]], artist and illustrator
* [[Edward Dundas Butler]], translator and senior librarian at the [[British Library|Department of Printed Books, British Museum]]
* [[Edward Cardwell, 1st Viscount Cardwell]], prominent politician in the [[Peelite]] and [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] parties, best remembered for his tenure as [[Secretary of State for War]]
* [[William Benjamin Carpenter]], physician, invertebrate zoologist and physiologist
* [[J. Comyns Carr|Joseph William Comyns Carr]], drama and art critic, gallery director, author, poet, playwright and theatre manager
* [[John James Chalon]], Swiss painter
* [[Robert Caesar Childers]], [[Orientalism|scholar of the Orient]] and writer
* [[Edmund Chipp]], organist and composer
* [[Charles Chubb (businessman)|Charles Chubb]], lock and safe manufacturer
* [[Antoine Claudet]], pioneering early photographer, honoured by [[Queen Victoria]] as "Photographer-in-ordinary"
* [[John Cross (artist)|John Cross]], English artist
* [[Philip Conisbee]], art historian and curator
* [[Abraham Cooper]], animal and battle painter
* [[Thomas Frederick Cooper (watchmaker)|Thomas Frederick Cooper]], watchmaker
* [[John Copley, 1st Baron Lyndhurst|John Singleton Copley]], Lord Chancellor and son of the American painter [[John Singleton Copley]]
* [[Charles Cowper|Sir Charles Cowper]], Premier of [[New South Wales]], Australia
* [[Addison Cresswell]], comedians' agent and producer
* [[George Baden Crawley]], civil engineer and railway builder
* [[Charles Cruft (showman)|Charles Cruft]], founder of [[Crufts]] dog show
* [[Isaac Robert Cruikshank]], caricaturist, illustrator, portrait miniaturist and brother of [[George Cruikshank]]
* [[The Brothers Dalziel|George Dalziel]], engraver who with his siblings ran one of the most prolific Victorian engraving firms
* [[George Darnell]], schoolmaster and author of ''Darnell's Copybooks''
* [[David Devant]], theatrical magician
* [[Alfred Lamert Dickens]], the younger brother of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[Catherine Dickens]], wife of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[John Dickens|John]] and [[Elizabeth Dickens]], parents of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[Fanny Dickens]], elder sister of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[William Hepworth Dixon]], historian and traveller. Also active in organizing London's [[Great Exhibition]] of 1851
* The Druce family vault, one of whose members was (falsely) alleged to have been the [[William Cavendish-Scott-Bentinck, 5th Duke of Portland|5th Duke of Portland]].
* [[Herbert Benjamin Edwardes]], Administrator and soldier, known as the "Hero of Multan"
* [[Joseph Edwards (sculptor)]], Welsh sculptor
* [[Thomas Edwards (author)]], (Caerfallwch), Welsh author and lexicographer
* [[Ugo Ehiogu]], footballer
* [[James Harington Evans]], Baptist pastor of the John Street Chapel
* [[Michael Faraday]], chemist and physicist (with his wife Sarah), in the [[Dissenter]]s section
* [[Charles Drury Edward Fortnum]], art collector and benefactor of the [[Ashmolean Museum]]
* [[Lucian Freud]], painter, grandson of [[Sigmund Freud]], and elder brother of [[Clement Freud]]
* [[John Galsworthy]], author and [[Nobel Prize]] winner ([[cenotaph]], he was cremated and his ashes scattered)
* [[Stephen Geary]], architect (most notably of Highgate Cemetery)
* [[John Gibbons (ironmaster and art patron)|John Gibbons]], ironmaster and art patron
* [[Stella Gibbons]], novelist, author of ''[[Cold Comfort Farm]]''
* [[Margaret Gillies]], Scottish painter known for her miniature portraits, including of one of [[Charles Dickens]]
* [[John William Griffith]], architect of [[Kensal Green Cemetery]]
* [[Henry Gray]], anatomist and surgeon,<ref>GRO Register of Deaths: JUN qtr 1861 1a 174 St Geo Han Sq – Henry Gray
*</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqSearch=%28Surname=%27gray%27%29&dsqPos=7 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415172415/http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqSearch=(Surname='gray')&dsqPos=7 |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2013 |title=DServe Archive Persons Show |publisher=.royalsociety.org |access-date=18 March 2013 }}</ref> author of ''[[Gray's Anatomy]]''.
* [[Radclyffe Hall]], author of ''[[The Well of Loneliness]]'' and other novels
* [[William Hall (publisher)|William Hall]], founder with [[Edward Chapman (publisher)|Edward Chapman]] of publishers [[Chapman & Hall]]
* [[Philip Harben]], English cook regarded as the first TV [[celebrity chef]]
* [[Charles Augustus Hartley|Sir Charles Augustus Hartley]], eminent British civil engineer, known as 'the father of the [[Danube]].'
* [[George Edwards Hering]], landscape painter
* [[Edwin Hill (engineer)|Edwin Hill]], older brother of [[Rowland Hill]] and inventor of the first [[letter scale]] and a mechanical system to make envelopes
* [[Frank Holl]], Royal portraitist
* [[James Holman]], 19th-century adventurer known as "the Blind Traveller"
* [[Anthony Home|Surgeon-General Sir Anthony Home]], [[Victoria Cross]] recipient from [[Indian Mutiny]]
* [[Theodore Hope]], British colonial administrator and writer
* [[William Hosking]], first Professor of Architecture at [[King's College London]] and architect of [[Abney Park Cemetery]]
* [[Bob Hoskins]], actor
* [[Georgiana Houghton]], British artist and spiritualist [[Mediumship|medium]]
* [[David Edward Hughes]], FRS, 19th-century electrical engineer and inventor
* [[William Henry Hunt (painter)|William Henry Hunt]], popular and widely collected painter of watercolours, nicknamed ‘Bird’s Nest’ Hunt
* [[Sir John Hutton]], publisher of ''[[Sporting Life (British newspaper)|Sporting Life]]'' and Chairman of the [[London County Council]]
* [[Georges Jacobi]], composer, conductor and musical director of the [[Alhambra Theatre]]
* [[Lisa Jardine]], historian
* [[Victor Kullberg]], one of the greatest marine clockmakers
* [[Thomas Landseer]], younger brother of Sir [[Edwin Landseer]] (there is a cenotaph, Edwin was buried in [[St Paul's Cathedral]])
* [[Peter Laurie|Sir Peter Laurie]], politician and [[Lord Mayor of London]]
* [[Douglas Lapraik]], shipowner and co-founder of [[HSBC]] and the [[Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels Group]]
* [[Henry Lee (Surgeon)|Henry Lee]], surgeon, [[pathologist]] and [[syphilologist]]
* [[Oswald Lewis]], [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|MP]] and younger son of [[John Lewis (department store founder)|John Lewis]], founder of the [[John Lewis (department store)|chain of department stores]]
* [[Robert Liston]], surgeon
* [[Alexander Litvinenko]], Russian dissident, murdered by poisoning in London
* [[Edward Lloyd (publisher)|Edward Lloyd]], influential newspaper publisher and founder of the ''[[Daily Chronicle]]''
* [[James Locke (draper)|James Locke]], a London draper credited with giving [[Tweed]] its name
* [[William Lovett]], [[Chartism|Chartist]]
* [[Samuel Lucas]], editor of the ''[[Morning Star (British newspaper)|Morning Star]]'', journalist and abolitionist
* [[John Maple (furniture maker)]] founder of the furniture makers [[Maple & Co.]]
* [[Hugh Matheson (industrialist)|Hugh Mackay Matheson]], industrialist and founder of [[Matheson & Company]] and the [[Rio Tinto Group]]
* [[Frederick Denison Maurice]], English Anglican theologian, prolific author and one of the founders of [[Christian socialism]]
* [[Michael Meacher]], academic and [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician
* [[George Michael]], singer, songwriter, music producer and philanthropist; buried beside his mother and sister
* [[Barbara Mills]], (ashes) first female Director of Public Prosecutions
* [[Frederick Akbar Mahomed]], internationally known British physician
* [[Jude Moraes]], landscape gardener, writer and broadcaster
* [[Nicholas Mosley]], novelist and biographer of his father, [[Oswald Mosley]]
* [[Edward Moxhay]], shoemaker, biscuit maker and property speculator, best known for his involvement in the landmark English land law case ''[[Tulk v Moxhay]]''
* Elizabeth de Munck, mother of celebrated soprano, [[Maria Caterina Rosalbina Caradori-Allan]] in grave with large carving of [[pelican]] in piety
* [[Walter Neurath]], Publisher and founder of [[Thames and Hudson]]
* [[Henry Newton (Winsor & Newton founder)|Henry Newton]], painter and co-founder of [[Winsor & Newton]]
* [[Samuel Noble]], English engraver, and minister of the [[The New Church (Swedenborgian)|New Church]]
* [[George Osbaldeston]], known as Squire Osbaldeston, sportsman, gambler and [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] (MP)
* [[Sherard Osborn]], Royal Navy admiral and Arctic explorer
* [[Frederick William Pavy]], [[physician]] and [[physiologist]]
* [[William Payne (pantomimist)|William Payne]], actor, dancer and [[Pantomime|pantomimist]]
* [[Thomas Ashburton Picken]], [[Watercolor painting|watercolourist]], [[Engraving|engraver]] and [[Lithography|lithographer]]
* [[Frances Polidori|Frances Polidori Rossetti]], mother of [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti|Dante Gabriel]], [[Christina Rossetti|Christina]] and William Michael Rossetti
* [[Samuel Phelps]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespearian]] actor and manager of [[Sadler's Wells Theatre]]
* [[James Robinson (dentist)|James Robinson]], dentist, first person to carry out [[general anaesthesia]] in Britain
* Peter Robinson, founder of the [[Peter Robinson (department store)|Peter Robinson department store]] at Oxford Circus, London
* [[William Charles Ross|Sir William Charles Ross]], portrait and [[portrait miniature]] painter
* [[Christina Rossetti]], poet
* [[Gabriele Rossetti]], Italian nationalist and scholar. Father of Christina and Dante Gabriel Rossetti
* [[William Michael Rossetti]], co-founder of the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]]
* [[Tom Sayers]], [[Boxing#History|pugilist]], his tomb is guarded by the stone image of his mastiff, Lion, who was chief mourner at his funeral
* [[Henry Young Darracott Scott]], responsible for the design and construction of the [[Royal Albert Hall]]
* [[Elizabeth Siddal]], wife and model of artist/poet [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and model for the painting ''[[Ophelia (painting)|Ophelia]]'' by [[John Everett Millais]]
* [[Jean Simmons]], actress
* [[William Simpson (artist)|William Simpson]], war artist and correspondent
* [[John Jackson Smale|Sir John Smale]], Chief Justice of Hong Kong
* [[Tom Smith (confectioner)|Tom Smith]], inventor of the [[Christmas cracker]]
* [[Charles Green Spencer]], pioneer aviator and balloon manufacturer
* [[Alfred Stevens (sculptor)|Alfred Stevens]], sculptor, painter and designer
* [[Walter Fryer Stocks]], prolific landscape painter
* [[Henry Knight Storks|Sir Henry Knight Storks]], soldier, MP, and colonial administrator
* [[Anna Swanwick]], author and [[feminist]] who assisted in the founding of [[Girton College, Cambridge]], and [[Somerville Hall]], Oxford
* [[Alfred Swaine Taylor]], toxicologist, forensic scientist, expert witness
* [[Frederick Tennyson]], poet, older brother of [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]
* [[Samuel Sanders Teulon]], prolific [[Gothic Revival]] architect
* [[Jeanette Threlfall]], [[hymnwriter]] and poet
* [[Charles Turner (engraver)|Charles Turner]], [[mezzotint]] engraver who collaborated with [[J. M. W. Turner]]
* [[Andrew Ure]], Scottish physician known for his [[galvanism]] experimentation, founder of the [[University of Strathclyde]]
* [[John Vandenhoff]], leading Victorian actor
* [[Henry Vaughan (art collector)|Henry Vaughan]], art collector who gave one of Britain's most popular paintings, [[John Constable]]'s ''[[The Hay Wain]]'' to the [[National Gallery]]
* [[Emilie Ashurst Venturi]], writer, translator and women's rights campaigner
* [[Arthur Waley]], translator and scholar of the Orient
* [[George Wallis]], First Keeper of the Fine Art Collection at the [[Victoria & Albert Museum]]
* [[Mary Warner]], actress and theatre manager
* [[Augusta Webster]], poet, dramatist, essayist, translator and advocate of [[women's suffrage]]
* [[Henry White (photographer)|Henry White]], lawyer and gifted [[landscape photographer]]
* [[Brodie McGhie Willcox]], founder of the [[P&O (company)|P&O Shipping Line]]
* [[Henry Willis]], foremost [[organ builder]] of the Victorian era
* [[Hugh Wilson (RAF officer)|Hugh Wilson]], RAF test pilot
* [[George Wombwell]], menagerie exhibitor
* [[Ellen Wood (author)|Ellen Wood]], author known as Mrs Henry Wood, there is also a plaque for her in [[Worcester Cathedral]]
* [[Adam Worth]], criminal mastermind. Possible inspiration for [[Sherlock Holmes]]' nemesis, [[Professor Moriarty]]; originally buried in a pauper's grave under the name Henry J. Raymond
* [[William Henry Wyatt|Sir William Henry Wyatt]], long-serving chairman of the [[Friern Hospital|Middlesex County Lunatic Asylum]] at Colney Hatch, Southgate
* [[Patrick Wymark]], actor
* [[Joseph Warren Zambra]], scientific instrument maker

==East Cemetery==
[[File:Grave of Karl Marx Highgate Cemetery in London 2016 (10).jpg|thumb|250px|[[Tomb of Karl Marx]], East Cemetery]]
Many famous or prominent people are buried in Highgate cemetery; the most famous burial is arguably that of [[Karl Marx]], whose tomb was the site of attempted bombings on 2 September 1965<ref>{{citation | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=XnIsAAAAIBAJ&pg=6238%2C1047342 | title = News}}</ref> and in 1970.<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.camdennewjournal.co.uk/111705/cn111705_11.htm | title = Camden New Journal | place = UK | contribution = Tomb raiders’ failed attack on Marx grave}}</ref> The [[tomb of Karl Marx]] is a Grade I [[listed building]] for reasons of historical importance.

===Notable East Cemetery interments===
* [[Douglas Adams]], author of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' and other novels
* [[Mehmet Aksoy (filmmaker)|Mehmet Aksoy]], press officer for the Kurdish [[People's Protection Units|YPG]], killed by ISIS in 2017<ref>{{Cite news|date=11 November 2017|title=Farewell to YPG's Mehmet Aksoy in London|work=ANF|url=https://anfenglish.com/women/farewell-to-ypg-s-mehmet-aksoy-in-london-23148}}</ref>
* [[Wilkie Bard]], popular [[vaudeville]] and [[music hall]] entertainer and recording artist
* [[Farzad Bazoft]], journalist, executed by [[Saddam Hussein]]'s regime
* [[Jeremy Beadle]], writer, television presenter and curator of oddities
* Adolf Beck, the [[Adolph Beck case]] was a celebrated case of mistaken identity
* [[Hercules Bellville]], American film producer
* [[Master Betty|William Betty]], popular child actor of the early nineteenth century
* [[Emily Blatchley]], pioneering [[Protestant]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[missionary]] to [[China]]
* [[Kate Booth]], English Salvationist and evangelist. Oldest daughter of [[William Booth|William]] and [[Catherine Booth]]. She was also known as ''la Maréchale''
* [[Frederick Broome]], colonial administrator of several British colonies. The Western Australian towns of [[Broome, Western Australia|Broome]] and [[Broomehill, Western Australia|Broomehill]] are named after him
* [[George Barclay Bruce]], world renown railway engineer and president of the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]]
* [[Lauder Brunton|Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton, 1st Baronet]], Scottish physician who is most-closely associated with the treatment of [[angina pectoris]]
* [[James Caird (politician)|James Caird]], Scottish agricultural writer and politician
* [[Patrick Caulfield]], painter and printmaker known for his [[pop art]] canvasses
* [[Douglas Cleverdon]], radio producer and bookseller
* [[William Kingdon Clifford]] (with his wife [[Lucy Clifford|Lucy]]), mathematician and philosopher
* [[Lucy Clifford|Lucy Lane Clifford]], novelist and journalist, wife of [[William Kingdon Clifford]]
* [[Yusuf Dadoo]], South African anti-apartheid activist
* [[Lewis Foreman Day]], influential artist in the [[Arts and Crafts movement]]
* [[Davison Dalziel, 1st Baron Dalziel of Wooler|Sir Davison Dalziel, Bt]], British newspaper owner and [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] politician. Massive mausoleum near the entrance.
* [[Elyse Dodgson]], theatre producer
* [[Fritz Dupre]], [[iron]] and [[manganese]] ore merchant, known as the "Manganese Ore King"
* [[Francis Elgar]], naval architect
* [[George Eliot]] (Mary Ann Evans – the name on the grave is Mary Ann Cross), novelist, common law wife of [[George Henry Lewes]] and buried next to him
* [[Edwin Wilkins Field]], lawyer who devoted much of his life to law reform
* [[Paul Foot (journalist)|Paul Foot]], campaigning journalist and nephew of former [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] leader [[Michael Foot]]
* [[Lydia Folger Fowler]], pioneering American physician and first American-born woman to earn a medical degree
* [[William Foyle]], co-founder of [[Foyles]]
* [[William Friese-Greene]], cinema pioneer and his son [[Claude Friese-Greene]]
* [[Lou Gish]], actress, daughter of Sheila Gish
* [[Sheila Gish]], actress
* [[Philip Gould, Baron Gould of Brookwood|Philip Gould]], British [[political consultant]], and former advertising [[corporate executive|executive]], closely linked to the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]
* [[Robert Grant (VC)|Robert Grant VC]], soldier and police constable
* [[Robert Edmond Grant]], Professor of [[Comparative Anatomy]] at [[University College London]] who gave his name to the [[Grant Museum of Zoology]]
* [[Charles Green (balloonist)|Charles Green]], the United Kingdom's most famous balloonist of the 19th century
* [[Leon Griffiths]], creator of [[Minder (TV series)|Minder]]
* [[Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)|Stuart Hall]], [[Jamaica]]n-born British [[Marxist]] [[sociologist]], [[culture theory|cultural theorist]], and [[political activist]]
* [[Harrison Hayter]], railway, harbour and dock engineer
* [[Mansoor Hekmat]], Communist leader and founder of the [[Worker-Communist Party of Iran]] and [[Worker-Communist Party of Iraq]]
* [[Eric Hobsbawm]], historian
* [[Austin Holyoake]], printer, publisher, freethinker and brother of the more widely known [[George Holyoake]]
* [[George Holyoake]], Birmingham-born social reformer and founder of the [[British co-operative movement|Cooperative Movement]]
* [[George Honey]], popular Victorian actor and comedian
* [[Alan Howard]], actor
* [[Leslie Hutchinson]], [[Cabaret]] star of the 20s and 30s
* [[Jabez Inwards]], popular Victorian [[Temperance movement|temperance]] lecturer and [[phrenologist]]
* [[Georges Jacobi]], composer and conductor
* [[Bert Jansch]], Scottish folk musician
* [[Claudia Jones]], Trinidadian born [[Communist]] and fighter for civil rights, founder of ''[[The West Indian Gazette]]'' and the [[Notting Hill Carnival]]<ref>{{cite web|first=Angela|last=Davis|title=Angela Davis praises CPUSA for its history "of militant struggle"|website=PeoplesWorld.org|url=https://www.peoplesworld.org/article/angela-davis-praises-cpusa-for-its-history-of-militant-struggle/|date=June 20, 2019|access-date=June 20, 2019}}</ref>
* [[George Goodwin Kilburne]], [[genre works|genre]] painter
* [[David Kirkaldy]], Scottish engineer and pioneer in materials testing
* [[Anatoly Kuznetsov]], Soviet writer
* [[Liza Lehmann]], operatic soprano and composer, daughter of [[Rudolf Lehmann (artist)|Rudolf Lehmann]]
* [[Rudolf Lehmann (artist)|Rudolf Lehmann]], portrait artist and father of [[Liza Lehmann]]
* [[George Henry Lewes]], English philosopher and critic, common law husband of [[George Eliot]] and buried next to her.
* [[Roger Lloyd-Pack]], British actor known for ''[[Only Fools and Horses]]'' and ''[[The Vicar of Dibley]]''
* [[John Lobb]], Society bootmaker
* [[Charles Lucy]], British artist, whose most notable painting was ''The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers''
* [[Haldane MacFall]], art critic, art historian, book illustrator and novelist
* [[Anna Mahler]], sculptress and daughter of [[Gustav Mahler]] and [[Alma Mahler|Alma Schindler]]
* [[Chris Martin (civil servant)|Chris Martin]], [[Principal Private Secretary to the Prime Minister]]
* [[James Martineau]], [[Christian philosophy|religious philosopher]] influential in the [[history of Unitarianism]]
* [[Tomb of Karl Marx|Karl Marx]], philosopher, historian, sociologist and economist (memorial after his reburial, with other family members)
* [[Frank Matcham]], theatre architect
* [[Carl Mayer]], Austro-German screenwriter of ''[[The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari]]'' and ''[[Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans]]''
* [[McKinnon Wood|Thomas MacKinnon Wood]], Liberal politician and [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
* [[Malcolm McLaren]], [[Punk subculture|punk]] impresario and original manager of the [[Sex Pistols]]
* [[Ralph Miliband]], [[left wing]] [[political theorist]], father of [[David Miliband]] and [[Ed Miliband]]
* [[Alan Milward]], influential historian
* [[William Henry Monk]], composer (of the music to ''[[Abide with Me]]'')
* [[Charles Morton (impresario)|Charles Morton]], [[music hall]] and [[theatre]] manager who became known as the ''Father of the Halls''
* [[Sidney Nolan]], Australian artist
* [[George Josiah Palmer]], founder and editor of ''[[Church Times]]''
* [[Charles J. Phipps]], theatre architect
* [[Tim Pigott-Smith]], actor
* [[Dachine Rainer]], poet and anarchist
* [[Corin Redgrave]], actor and political activist
* [[Bruce Reynolds]], criminal, mastermind of the [[Great Train Robbery (1963)]]
* [[Ralph Richardson]], actor
* [[George Richmond (painter)|George Richmond]], painter and portraitist
* [[José Carlos Rodrigues]], Brazilian journalist, financial expert, and philanthropist
* [[Ernestine Rose]], suffragist, abolitionist and freethinker
* [[James Samuel Risien Russell]], Guyanese-British physician, neurologist, professor of medicine, and professor of medical jurisprudence
* [[Raphael Samuel]], [[Marxist]] historian
* [[Anthony Shaffer (writer)|Anthony Shaffer]], playwright, screenwriter and novelist
* [[Peter Shaffer]], playwright and screenwriter
* [[Eyre Massey Shaw|Sir Eyre Massey Shaw]], first Chief Officer of the [[Metropolitan Fire Brigade (London)|Metropolitan Fire Brigade]]
* [[Alan Sillitoe]], English postmodern novelist, poet, and playwright
* [[James Smetham]], [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]] painter, engraver and follower of [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]]
* [[Donald Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal|Sir Donald Alexander Smith]], Canadian railway financier and diplomat
* [[Herbert Spencer]], [[evolutionary biologist]], sociologist, and [[laissez-faire]] economic philosopher
* [[Leslie Stephen|Sir Leslie Stephen]], critic, first editor of the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', father of [[Virginia Woolf]] and [[Vanessa Bell]]
* [[William Heath Strange]], physician and founder of the ''Hampstead General Hospital'', now the [[Royal Free Hospital]]
* [[Lucien Stryk]], American poet, teacher and translator of Zen poetry
* Sir [[George Thalben-Ball]], English organist, choirmaster and composer
* [[Bob Thoms]], the greatest Victorian cricket umpire
* [[James Thomson (poet, born 1834)|James Thomson]], Victorian poet, best known for [[The City of Dreadful Night|''The City of Dreadful Night'']]
* [[Storm Thorgerson]], graphic designer
* [[Malcolm Tierney]], actor
* [[Feliks Topolski]], Polish-born British expressionist painter
* [[Edward Truelove]], radical publisher and freethinker
* [[Peter Ucko]], influential English [[archaeology|archaeologist]]
* [[Max Wall]], comedian and entertainer
* [[Simon Ward]], actor
* [[Peter Cathcart Wason]], pioneering psychologist
* [[Lawrence Weaver|Sir Lawrence Weaver]], architectural writer, editor of Country Life and organiser of the [[British Empire Exhibition]]
* [[Opal Whiteley]], American writer
* [[Colin St John Wilson]], architect (most notably of the new [[British Library]] in London), lecturer and author
* [[Joseph Wolf]], natural history illustrator and pioneer in wildlife art
* [[Edward Richard Woodham]], survivor of the [[Charge of the Light Brigade]]
* [[Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington]], politician, social activist and consumer champion.

===Fireman’s corner===
A monument erected in the East Cemetery by widows and orphans of members of the [[London Fire Brigade]] in 1934. There are 97 firemen buried here. The monument is cared for by the Brigade's Welfare Section.

==War graves==
The cemetery contains the graves of 318 Commonwealth service personnel maintained and registered by the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]], in both the East and West Cemeteries, 259 from the [[First World War]] and 59 from the [[Second World War|Second]]. Those whose graves could not be marked by headstones are listed on a Screen Wall memorial erected near the [[Cross of Sacrifice]] in the west cemetery.<ref name=cwgc>{{cite web|title=Cemetery Details: Highgate Cemetery|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/41905/HIGHGATE%20CEMETERY|website=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|access-date=21 August 2014}}</ref>

==Visiting==
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2018}}
The Cemetery is open to the public every day. To cover running and maintenance costs, the charitable trust charges an entry fee. For entry only (called "self-guided") there are two ticket prices, East Cemetery only or for both East and West sides. For a small extra cost, there are regular guided tours, lasting approximately 75 minutes, of the West side throughout the week and the East side on Saturdays only.

==In popular culture==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2015}}
* Several of [[John Galsworthy]]'s ''[[The Forsyte Saga|Forsyte Saga]]'' novels refer to Highgate Cemetery as the last resting place of the Forsytes; for example, Chapter XI, "The Last of the Forsytes," in ''To Let'' (1921).
* Footage of Highgate appears in numerous British horror films, including ''[[Taste the Blood of Dracula]]'' (1970), ''[[Tales from the Crypt (film)|Tales from the Crypt]]'' (1972) and ''[[From Beyond the Grave]]'' (1974).
* In the BBC TV series ''[[Porridge (TV series)|Porridge]]'', Fletcher claims that his eldest daughter, Ingrid, was conceived on Karl Marx's tomb.
* Herbert Smith is shadowed through Highgate Cemetery in ''[[Visibility]]'', a murder/espionage/thriller by [[Boris Starling]].
* Highgate Cemetery is the sixth level of the ''[[Nightmare Creatures]]'' game.
* In [[Len Deighton]]'s alternative history novel ''[[SS-GB]]'' and its [[SS-GB (TV series)|TV adaptation]], a bomb is detonated in the tomb of [[Karl Marx]] when his remains are exhumed by [[Nazi Germany|German occupation forces]] to be presented to the [[Soviet Union]].
* [[Fred Vargas]]'s novel ''[[An Uncertain Place|Un lieu incertain]]'' starts in the cemetery.
* [[Barbara Hambly]]'s [[vampire]] novel, ''[[Those Who Hunt the Night]]'', has the main characters visiting Highgate at one point to examine the remains of a vampire who had taken over an abandoned tomb.
* Stated in the acknowledgments as the inspiration for the setting of [[Neil Gaiman]]'s ''[[The Graveyard Book]]''.
* [[Audrey Niffenegger]]'s book ''[[Her Fearful Symmetry]]'' (2009) is set around Highgate Cemetery; she acted as a tour guide there while researching the book.<ref name="Highgate Cemetery">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2009/oct/03/audrey-niffenegger-highgate-cemetery-novel|title=Audrey Niffenegger on Highgate Cemetery|last=Niffenegger|first=Audrey|date=3 October 2009|work=The Guardian|access-date=3 October 2009}}</ref>
* In the novel ''[[Double or Die]]'' (2007), a part of the ''[[Young Bond]]'' series, Ludwig and Wolfgang Smith plan to kill Bond in the cemetery.
* [[Tracy Chevalier]]'s book ''Falling Angels'' (2002) was set in and around Highgate Cemetery. The two main protagonists met there as children while their parents were visiting adjacent family graves and they continued to enjoy meeting up and playing there.
* The movie [[Hampstead (film)|''Hampstead'']] (2017) features a few scenes in the cemetery.
* The climax of a novel by [[John Steele (writer)|John Steele]], ''Seven Skins'' (2018), was set in the Egyptian Avenue and Circle of Lebanon, among other locations in the West Cemetery.
* The movie [[Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald|''Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald'']] (2018) features scenes towards the end of the film in the cemetery before the famous Cedar tree was removed.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon2.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon3.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon4.jpg
File:HighgateCemeteryLondon5.jpg
File:Highgate Cemetery 013.jpg
File:Carl Rosa.png|[[Carl Rosa]] grave
File:Sepulcro con ángel.jpg|thumb|Mary Nichols and The Sleeping Angel, Highgate Cemetery|alt=On the top of the grave lies a sleeping angel on a bed of clouds. ‘In Ever Loving Memory of Mary, the darling wife of Arthur Nichols and fondly loved mother of their only son Harold who fell asleep 7th May 1909. Also of Dennis Arthur Charles son of Harold and Winifred who died 28th April 1916 aged 15 months.’
File:Highgate Cemetery East 2.JPG|Highgate Cemetery East (2010)
File:Highgate grave.jpg
File:Highgate Cemetery - East - Bruce Reynolds 02.jpg|The grave of [[Bruce Reynolds]]
File:SayersTomb HighgateCemetery.JPG|The tomb of [[Tom Sayers]]
File:Patrick Caulfield Grave Highgate East Cemetery London 2016.jpg|The grave of [[Patrick Caulfield|Patrick Caulfield, RA]]
File:Mansoor Hekmat Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 04.jpg|The grave of [[Mansoor Hekmat]]
File:Grave of Anna Mahler Austrian sculpture, in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016.jpg|The grave of [[Anna Mahler]]
File:Yusuf Mohamed Dadoo Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 09.jpg|The grave of [[Yusuf Dadoo]]
File:Eric Hobsbawm Grave in Highgate East Cemetery in London 2016 06.jpg|The grave of [[Eric Hobsbawm]]
File:Jeremy Beadle grave.jpg|The grave of [[Jeremy Beadle]]
File:WFGgrave.jpg|{{le|Lutyens|Edwin Lutyens}} sóo siat-kè ê {{le|William Friese-Greene|William Friese-Greene}} tsi bōng-thah, East Cemetery
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|http://highgatecemetery.org}}

{{Cemeteries in England}}
{{Cemeteries in London}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1839 establishments in England]]
[[Category:Anglican cemeteries in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Burials at Highgate Cemetery]]
[[Category:Cemeteries in London]]
[[Category:Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries in England]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in the London Borough of Camden]]
[[Category:Grade I listed monuments and memorials]]
[[Category:Grade I listed parks and gardens in London]]
[[Category:Highgate]]
[[Category:Parks and open spaces in the London Borough of Camden]]

Taiwanese Hokkien

2022-03-13T13:18:35Z

Cuaxdon:

{{short description|Variety of a language dialect}}
{{redirect|Taiwanese language|other languages spoken in Taiwan|Languages of Taiwan|the aboriginal languages of Taiwan|Formosan languages|other uses|Taiwanese language (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Taiwanese
| nativename = Taigi/Taigu, Taiwanese
| pronunciation = {{hideH|title="Tâi-gí / Tâi-gú" }}
{{IPA|[tai˧˩ gi˥˩]}} / {{IPA|[tai˧˩ gu˥˩]}} (dialect) 
{{hideF}}
| states = [[Taiwan]]
| region =
| speakers = 13.5 million
| date = 2017
| ref = <ref>{{e24|nan}}</ref>
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2 = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
| fam3 = [[Min Chinese|Min]]
| fam4 = [[Hoklo]]
| fam5 = [[Choan-Chiang]]
| script = [[Han characters]] (在來字), [[Latin script]] ([[pe̍h ōe jī]])
| nation = {{TWN}}{{efn|National language in [[Taiwan]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aedu/201812250018.aspx|title=Draft national language development act clears legislative floor|website=focustaiwan.tw }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://tw.news.appledaily.com/politics/realtime/20181225/1489328/ |title=立院三讀《國家語言發展法》公廣集團可設台語電視台 |website=ltn.com.tw|date=25 December 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://tw.news.yahoo.com/amphtml/%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E6%B3%95-%E7%AB%8B%E9%99%A2%E4%B8%89%E8%AE%80-%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E5%BE%97%E8%A8%AD%E5%8F%B0%E8%AA%9E%E5%B0%88%E5%B1%AC%E9%A0%BB%E9%81%93-062038323.html |title=《國家語言發展法》立院三讀！政府得設台語專屬頻道 |website=ltn.com.tw}}</ref> also statutory status in Taiwan as one of the languages for public transport announcements<ref>[[:zh:s:大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法|大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法]]</ref> and for the [[naturalization]] test.<ref>Article 6 of the [http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 Standards for Identification of Basic Language Abilities and General Knowledge of the Rights and Duties of Naturalized Citizens] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725175658/http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 |date=25 July 2017 }}</ref>}}
| agency = [[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education in Taiwan]] and relevant NGOs in Taiwan
| isoexception = dialect
| lingua = 79-AAA-jh
| map = Home usage of Taiwanese by district in Taiwan gradient map (2010).svg
| mapcaption = Proportion of residents aged 6 or older using Hokkien at home in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen & Matsu in 2010<ref>Table 6: Languages used at home for the resident nationals aged 6 years and over by gender and age, [http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm 2010 Population and Housing Census] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222005446/http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm |date=22 February 2015 }}, Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics (DGBAS), ROC (Taiwan).</ref>
| notice = IPA
}}

'''Taiwanwe''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi-oân ōe; [[Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn|tâilô]]: Tâiuânuē) , also known as '''Taigi/Taigu''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi gí/Tâi gú; tâilô: Tâi-gí/Tâi-gú),{{efn|native lang|tw|name=word1}}<ref name="taigi">{{cite web|title=Taigi與台語|url=https://talk.ltn.com.tw/amp/article/paper/1309601|access-date=10 August 2019|work=Liberty Times|date=10 August 2019}}</ref> '''Hoklo''' called by Hakka people, <ref>{{cite web|last=Lee|first=Jack Tsen-Ta|date=28 April 2015|orig-year=2004|url=http://www.mysmu.edu/faculty/jacklee/singlish_H.htm#Hokkien|title=Hokkien|work=A Dictionary of Singlish and Singapore English|access-date=22 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="taiwansnapshot">{{cite web|url=https://www.taiwan.gov.tw/images/content/ts.JPG|title=TAIWAN SNAPSHOT|access-date=15 March 2020|quote=Languages Mandarin (Chinese), Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, Austronesian languages}}</ref> is a variety of the [[Hoklo]] language spoken natively by about 70%+ of the [[population of Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=TW |title=Taiwan |website=[[Ethnologue]]|quote=Principal languages}}</ref> It is spoken by the [[Taiwanese people]], who descended from immigrants from southern [[Fujian]] during the [[Beng dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book |contribution=Taiwan's Evolving Identity |first=June Teufel |last=Dreyer |pages=4–10 |title=The Evolution of a Taiwanese National Identity |location=Washington |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Institute for Scholars |year=2003 |series=Asia Program Special Report |volume=114 |access-date=12 August 2016 |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325100938/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]] (pe̍h ōe jī) romanization is a [[orthography]] for Taiwanwe.

Taiwanwe is generally similar to spoken [[Emng dialect]], [[Choanchiu dialect]], and [[Chiangchiu dialect]] (branches of [[Hoklo]]), as well as their dialectal forms used in [[Southeast Asia]]. It is [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with [[Emng dialect]] on the mainland, with the dialect of the mouth of the [[Jiulong River]] (九龍) immediately to the west, and with [[Philippine Hokkien]] to the south, spoken altogether by about 3 million people.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210919021444/https://raw.githubusercontent.com/KIRINPUTRA/reclassifying-ISO-639-3-nan/main/Reclassifying_ISO_639-3_%5Bnan%5D__An_Empirical_Approach_to_Mutual_Intelligibility_and_Ethnolinguistic_Distinctions.pdf Reclassifying ISO 639-3 [nan]: An Empirical Approach to Mutual Intelligibility and Ethnolinguistic Distinctions]</ref> The mass popularity of [[Hokkien entertainment media]] from Taiwan has given [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prominence]] to the Taiwanese variety of Hokkien, especially since the 1980s.

==Classification==
Taiwanese is a branched-off variety of [[Hokkien]], a group of [[Southern Min]] language. Like many [[Min Chinese|Min]] varieties, it has distinct [[literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|literary and colloquial layers]] of vocabulary, often associated with formal and informal [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]]s respectively. The literary layer can be traced to the late [[Tang dynasty]] and can thus be related to [[Middle Chinese]]. In contrast, the colloquial layers of Min varieties are believed to have branched from the mainstream of Chinese around the time of the [[Han dynasty]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mei|first=Tsu-lin|year=1970|title=Tones and Prosody in Middle Chinese and The Origin of The Rising Tone|journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|volume=30|pages=86–110|doi=10.2307/2718766|jstor=2718766}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| chapter = The Mǐn dialects in historical perspective
| given = Jerry | surname = Norman
| title = Languages and Dialects of China
| editor-given = William S.-Y. | editor-surname = Wang
| pages = 325–360
| series = ''Journal of Chinese Linguistics'' Monograph Series | volume = 3
| publisher = Chinese University Press | year = 1991b
| issue = 3 | jstor = 23827042 | oclc = 600555701
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| surname = Ting | given = Pang-Hsin
| title = Derivation time of colloquial Min from Archaic Chinese
| journal = Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology
| year = 1983 | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 1–14
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| title = Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
| given1 = William H. | surname1 = Baxter | author-link = William H. Baxter
| given2 = Laurent | surname2 = Sagart | author-link2 = Laurent Sagart
| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-994537-5
| year = 2014
| pages = 33, 79
}}</ref>

Regional variations within Taiwanese may be traced back to Hokkien variants spoken in Southern Fujian, specifically those from [[Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou]], then later [[Amoy]]. Taiwanese also contains loanwords from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and the native [[Formosan languages]]. Recent work by scholars such as [https://web.archive.org/web/20041022000504/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/lou-ek-ki/kongpah-oat.htm Ekki Lu], [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081002014759/http://203.64.42.21/iug/ungian/poj/siausit/2002/2002pojgth/lunbun/a1-sakai.pdf Toru Sakai] (酒井亨 ''Sakai Tōru''), and Lí Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040915015640/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/li-khin-hoann/phok-su/phok-su.htm LEXICAL CHANGE AND VARIATION IN TAIWANESE LITERARY TEXTS, 1916–1998 -- A COMPUTER-ASSISTED CORPUS ANALYSIS]</ref> (also known as Tavokan Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}} or Chin-An Li), based on former research by scholars such as [[Ong Iok-tek|Ông Io̍k-tek]], has gone so far as to associate part of the basic vocabulary of the colloquial Taiwanese with the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] and [[Tai languages|Tai]] language families; however, such claims are controversial.

The literary form of Hokkien once flourished in [[Fujian]] and was brought to Taiwan by early emigrants. ''[[Tale of the Lychee Mirror]]'', a manuscript for a series of plays published during the [[Ming dynasty]] in 1566, is one of the earliest known works. This form of the language is now largely extinct. However, literary readings of the numbers are used in certain contexts such as reciting telephone numbers (see [[Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters]]).{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

== History and formation ==
{{see also|Hokkien#History}}

===Spread of Hokkien to Taiwan===
During the [[Yuan dynasty]], [[Quanzhou]] became a major international port for trade with the outside world.<ref>[http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 教育部，歷史文化學習網，《重要貿易港口－泉州》] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725194653/http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 |date=25 July 2011 }}</ref> From that period onwards, many people from the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions (southern Fujian) started to emigrate overseas due to political and economic reasons. One of the destinations of the emigrants is the relatively undeveloped island of [[Formosa]], starting around 1600. They brought with them their native language, Hokkien.

During the late [[Ming dynasty]], the political chaos pushed more migrants from southern Fujian and eastern [[Guangdong]] to Taiwan. The earliest immigrants involved in Taiwan's development included [[Chinese pirates|pirate-merchants]] {{Interlanguage link multi|Chinese Peter|zh|3=顏思齊|WD=}} and [[Zheng Zhilong]]. In 1621, Chinese Peter and his forces, hailing from [[Zhangzhou]], occupied ''Ponkan'' (modern-day [[Beigang, Yunlin]]) and started to develop ''Tirosen'' (modern-day [[Chiayi City|Chiayi]]). After the death of Peter and another pirate, [[Li Dan (pirate)|Li Dan]] of Quanzhou, Zheng sought to dominate the [[Taiwan Strait|Strait of Taiwan]]. By 1628, he had grown so powerful that the Ming court bestowed him the official title, "Patrolling Admiral".<ref>{{cite book|author1-link=Tonio Andrade |last=Andrade |first=Tonio |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century |publisher=Columbia University Press |chapter=Chapter 2: A Scramble for Influence |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade02.html |year=2005 |at=§20-1}}</ref>

In 1624, the number of Chinese in the island was about 25,000.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=13}} During the reign of [[Chongzhen Emperor]] (1627–1644), there were frequent droughts in the Fujian region. Zheng and a Chinese official suggested sending victims to Taiwan and provide "for each person three [[tael]]s of silver and for each three people one ox".{{sfnp|Andrade|2005|loc=§26}} Although this plan was never carried out, the Zheng family maintained an interest in Taiwan that would have dire consequences for the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]], who ruled Taiwan as [[Dutch Formosa]] at the time.

===Development and divergence===
In 1624 and 1626, the Dutch and Spanish forces occupied the [[Tainan]] and [[Keelung]] areas, respectively. During the 40 years of [[Dutch Formosa|Dutch colonial rule of Taiwan]], many [[Han Chinese]] from the [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Hakka culture|Hakka]] regions of mainland China were recruited to help develop Taiwan. Because of intermingling with [[Siraya people]] as well as Dutch colonial rule, the Hokkien dialects started to deviate from the original Hokkien spoken in mainland China.

In the 1661 [[Siege of Fort Zeelandia]], Chinese general [[Koxinga]] expelled the Dutch and established the [[Kingdom of Tungning]]. Koxinga originated from the Quanzhou region. [[Chen Yonghua]], who was in charge of establishing the education system of Tungning, also originated from Quanzhou. Because most of the soldiers he brought to Taiwan came from Quanzhou, the [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Hokkien on the island at the time was the [[Quanzhou dialect]].

In 1683, Chinese admiral [[Shi Lang]] attacked Taiwan in the [[Battle of Penghu]], ending the Tungning era and beginning [[Taiwan under Qing rule|Qing dynasty rule]] (until 1895). In the following years, in order to prevent people from rebelling, the Qing court instituted a ban on migration to Taiwan,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} especially the migration of [[Hakka people]] from [[Guangdong]] province, which led Hokkien to become the most spoken language in Taiwan.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

In the first decades of the 18th century, the linguistic differences between the Qing imperial bureaucrats and the commoners were recorded by the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]-speaking first Imperial [[High commissioner|High Commissioner]] to Taiwan (1722), [[Huang Shujing]]:
{{cquote|In this place, the language is as [[birdcall]] – totally unintelligible! For example: for the surname [[Liu|Liú]], they say 'Lâu'; for [[Chen (surname)|Chén]], 'Tân'; [[Zhuang (surname)|Zhuāng]], 'Chng'; and [[Zhang (surname)|Zhāng]] is 'Tioⁿ'. My deputy’s surname [[Wu (surname)|Wú]] becomes 'Ngô͘'. My surname [[Huang (surname)|Huáng]] does not even have a proper vowel: it is 'N̂g' here! It is difficult to make sense of this. 
({{lang|zh-Hant|郡中鴃舌鳥語，全不可曉。如：劉呼「澇」、陳呼「澹」、莊呼「曾」、張呼「丟」。余與吳待御兩姓，吳呼作「襖」，黃則無音，厄影切，更為難省。}})|||''Records from the mission to Taiwan and its Strait'', Volume II: "On the area around [[Fort Provintia]], [[Tainan]]" (臺海使槎錄卷二赤嵌筆談)}}
The tone of Huang's message [[Foretelling|foretold]] the uneasy relationships between different [[Speech community|language communities]] and colonial establishments over the next few centuries.

The ban on migration to Taiwan was relaxed sometime after 1722 (and was completely removed in 1874). During the 200 years of Qing dynasty rule, thousands of immigrants from [[Fujian]] arrived yearly; the population was over one million in the middle of the 18th century.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=561}} Civil unrest and armed conflicts were frequent. In addition to resistance against governments (both Chinese and later Japanese), [[Ethnic conflict|battles between ethnic groups]] were also significant: the belligerents usually grouped around the language they used. History has recorded battles between [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] speakers and Hokkien speakers, between these and the [[Taiwanese aborigine|aborigines]], and even between those who spoke different variants of Hokkien.

In the early 20th century, the [[Hoklo people]] in Taiwan could be categorized as originating from [[Xiamen]], [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Zhangpu County|Zhangpu]].{{clarify|reason=Zhangpu is part of Zhangzhou|date=August 2020}}{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=591}} People from the former two areas (Quanzhou-speaking) were dominant in the north of the island and along the west coast,<ref>"especially in the cities of Koro (Aulang), Taiko (Taika), Giubato (Gumatau), Gosei (Goche), Tokatsukutsu (Thawkakut), and Rokko (Lokiang)." (modern-day [[Houlong, Miaoli|Houlong]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]], [[Qingshui District|Qingshui]], [[Wuqi District|Wuqi]], [[Longjing District|Longjing]], and Lukang, respectively.) {{harvp|Davidson|1903|p=591}}</ref> whereas people from the latter two areas ([[Zhangzhou dialect|Zhangzhou]]-speaking) were dominant in the south and perhaps the central plains as well.

Although there were conflicts between Quanzhou- and Zhangzhou-speakers in Taiwan historically, their gradual [[intermingling]] led to the mixture of the two [[Accent (sociolinguistics)|accents]]. Apart from [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang city]] and [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan County]], which have preserved their original Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents respectively, almost every region of Taiwan now speaks a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien.{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} A similar phenomenon occurred in [[Xiamen]] (Amoy) after 1842, when the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien displaced the Quanzhou dialect to yield the modern [[Amoy dialect]].<ref>泉州旅游信息网，[http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm 泉州方言文化] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301121345/http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm |date=1 March 2007 }}</ref>

During the [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese colonial rule of Taiwan]], Taiwan began to hold Amoy Hokkien as its standard pronunciation; the Japanese called this mixture {{nihongo|'''Taiwanese'''|臺灣語|Taiwango}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Iûⁿ |first1=Ún-giân |last2=Tiuⁿ |first2=Ha̍k-khiam |last3=Lu |first3=Bichhin |script-title=zh:台語文運動訪談暨史料彙編 |language=zh |date=2008-03-01 |publisher=國史館 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789860132946 |oclc=813921186}}</ref>

Due to the influx of Japanese loanwords before 1945 and the political separation after 1949,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} Amoy Hokkien and Taiwanese began to [[Linguistic divergence|diverge]] slightly.

===Modern times===
[[File:Proportion of Taiwanese Language Used in House.svg|thumb|350px|Proportion of languages used at home by residents aged 6 or over in Taiwan in 2010, sorted by birth year.<ref name="housing census">Sources: http://www.dgbas.gov.tw/public/data/dgbas04/bc6/census022%28final%29.html 2010 population and housing census by DGBAS, [[Executive Yuan]].</ref> The chart shows the tendency that speech communities of [[Languages of Taiwan#Other languages|Taiwanese local languages]] are shifting to speak [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]].]]
Later, in the 20th century, the conceptualization of Taiwanese is more controversial than most variations of Chinese because at one time it marked a clear division between the Mainlanders who [[KMT retreat to Taiwan in 1949|arrived in 1949]] and the pre-existing majority native Taiwanese. Although the political and linguistic divisions between the two groups have blurred considerably, the political issues surrounding Taiwanese have been more controversial and sensitive than for other [[varieties of Chinese]].

After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], due to military defeat to the Japanese, the [[Qing dynasty]] ceded [[Taiwan]] to Japan, causing contact with the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions of mainland China to stop. During Japanese rule, Japanese became an official language in Taiwan, and Taiwanese began to absorb large number of Japanese loanwords into its language. Examples of such loanwords (some which had in turn been borrowed from English) include ''piān-só͘'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|便所}}|benjo|"toilet"}}, ''phêng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|坪}}|[[tsubo]]|"[[pyeong]]", an areal measurement}} (see also [[Taiwanese units of measurement]]), ''ga-suh'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|瓦斯}}|gasu|"gas"}}, ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|オートバイ}}|ōtobai|"autobicycle", motorcycle}}. All of these caused Taiwanese to deviate from Hokkien used elsewhere.

During [[Kōminka movement (Taiwan)|Kōminka]] of the late Japanese colonial period, the [[Japanese language]] appeared in every corner of Taiwan. The [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] beginning in 1937 brought stricter measures into force, and along with the outlawing of [[Chinese language romanization in Taiwan|romanized Taiwanese]], various publications were prohibited and Confucian-style private schools which taught [[Classical Chinese]] with [[Literary language|literary]] Southern Min pronunciation – were closed down in 1939.{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=135}} Taiwanese thus was reduced to a common [[Vernacular|daily language]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ang |first1=Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣方言之旅 |date=1991 |publisher=前衛出版社 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789579512312}}</ref> In 1937 the colonial government introduced a concept called "National Language Family" ({{linktext|国語}}{{linktext|の}}{{linktext|家)}}, which meant that families that proved that they adopted Japanese as their daily language enjoyed benefits such as greater access to education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw/ischool/publish_page/106/?cid=4897|title=Hui-Wen High School Taichung, Introduction to the Kominka period|work=www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw}}</ref>

After the handover of Taiwan to the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] in 1945, there was brief cultural exchange with mainland China followed by further oppression. The [[Chinese Civil War]] resulted in another political separation when the [[Kuomintang]] (Chinese Nationalist Party) government [[Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan|retreated to Taiwan following their defeat by the communists]] in 1949. The influx of two million soldiers and civilians caused the population of Taiwan to increase from 6 million to 8 million. The government subsequently promoted [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] while suppressing, but short of banning, the use of written Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] (e.g. [[pe̍h-oē-jī]], a phonetic rendering of spoken Hokkien using the Latin alphabet) as part of its general policy of political repression.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lin |first=Alvin |issue=89 |title=Writing Taiwanese: The Development of Modern Written Taiwanese |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp089_taiwanese.pdf |year=1999 |oclc=41879041 }}</ref> In 1964 the use of spoken Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] or [[Hakka]] in schools or in official settings was forbidden; violations of the prohibition in schools often resulted in physical punishments, fines, or humiliation.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Linguistic capital in Taiwan: The KMT's Mandarin language policy and its perceived impact on language practices of bilingual Mandarin and Tai-gi speakers |last=Sandel |first=Todd L. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |journal=Language in Society |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=523–551 |doi=10.1017/S0047404503324030 |jstor=4169285 |s2cid=145703339 }}</ref>

Only after the lifting of [[Martial law in Taiwan|martial law]] in 1987 and the [[mother tongue]] movement in the 1990s did Taiwan see a true [[Language revitalization|revival]] in the Taiwanese language. Today, there are a large number of Taiwanese scholars dedicated to researching the language. Despite this, according to census data the number of people speaking Taiwanese continued to drop.<ref name="housing census"/>

The history of Taiwanese and its interaction with Mandarin is complex and at times controversial, even regarding its name. The language has no official name in Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |title=中華民國文化部-國家語言發展法 |url=https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |website=www.moc.gov.tw |access-date=24 October 2019 |language=zh |date=10 October 2008 |quote=《國家語言發展法》並未以法律明列各固有族群之語言名稱，即是尊重各族群使用者慣常使用之命名權。 |archive-date=2 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402055541/https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some dislike the name "Taiwanese" as they feel that it belittles other languages spoken on the island such as Mandarin, [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], and the [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]]. Others prefer the names [[Southern Min]], Minnan or Hokkien as this views Taiwanese as a form of the Chinese variety spoken in [[Fujian]] province in [[mainland China]]. Others dislike those names for precisely the same reason.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} In the [[American Community Survey]] run by the [[United States Census Bureau]], Taiwanese was referred to as "Formosan" from 2012 to 2015 and as "Min Nan Chinese" since 2016.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2018/demo/SEHSD-WP2018-31.pdf | title=American Community Survey Redesign of Language-Spoken-at-Home Data | date=2016 | first=Christine P. | last=Gambino | work=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{Commons category|Taiwanese Hokkien}}
{{see also|Help:IPA/Taiwanese Hokkien}}
[[Phonology|Phonologically]], Hokkien is a [[tonal language]] with extensive [[tone sandhi]] rules. [[Syllable]]s consist maximally of an initial [[consonant]], a [[vowel]], a final consonant, and a tone.

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|- style="font-size: 90%;"
|+Initials
!colspan=2|
!colspan=2| [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo -palatal]]
!colspan=2| [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
!colspan=2| [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|m}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|m ㄇ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|n}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|n ㄋ
|colspan=2|
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ŋ}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ng ㄫ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! voiced
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|b}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|b ㆠ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɡ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|g ㆣ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|p}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|p ㄅ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|t}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|t ㄉ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|k}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|k ㄍ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[pʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ph ㄆ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|th ㄊ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[kʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|kh ㄎ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! voiced
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dz}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|j ㆡ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dʑ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|j(i) ㆢ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! tenuis
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ts}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ch, ts ㄗ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|tɕ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ch(i), ts(i) ㄐ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! aspirated
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tsʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh, tsh ㄘ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tɕʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh(i), tsh(i) ㄑ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|s}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|s ㄙ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɕ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|si ㄒ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|h}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|h ㄏ
|-
!colspan=2| [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|l}}'''~'''{{IPAblink|ɾ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|l ㄌ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|}
{|class=wikitable
|+Finals
! !![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]!![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]!![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- align=center
![[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|'''{{IPA|[m]}}''' -m||'''{{IPA|[n]}}''' -n||'''{{IPA|[ŋ]}}''' -ng||'''{{IPAblink|◌̃}}''' -ⁿ
|- align=center
![[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
|'''{{IPA|[p̚]}}''' -p ㆴ||'''{{IPA|[t̚]}}''' -t ㆵ||'''{{IPA|[k̚]}}''' -k ㆶ||'''{{IPAblink|ʔ}}''' -h ㆷ
|}

Unlike many other varieties of Chinese such as Mandarin and [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]], there are no native [[labiodental]] phonemes (i.e., {{IPAblink|f}}).

# Coronal affricates and fricatives become [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] before {{IPA|/i/}}, that is, {{IPA|/dzi/}}, {{IPA|/tsi/}}, {{IPA|/tsʰi/}}, and {{IPA|/si/}} are pronounced {{IPA|[dʑi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕʰi]}}, and {{IPA|[ɕi]}}.
# The consonant {{IPA|/dz/}} may be realized as a fricative; that is, as {{IPA|[z]}} in most environments and {{IPA|[ʑ]}} before {{IPA|/i/}}.
# The [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] plosives ({{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}) become the corresponding fricatives ({{IPAblink|β}} and {{IPAblink|ɣ}}) in some phonetic contexts. This is similar to [[begadkefat]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and a similar [[Allophone|allophony]] of intervocalic [[plosive consonants]] and their fricatives in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].

=== Vowels ===
Taiwanese has the following [[vowel]]s:
{|class=wikitable
|-
!rowspan=2| !!colspan=2|[[Front vowel|Front]]!!colspan=2|[[Central vowel|Central]]!!colspan=2|[[Back vowel|Back]]
!rowspan=5| !!colspan=2 rowspan=2|[[Syllabic consonant]]
|- align=center
!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]
|- align=center
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|'''{{IPAblink|i}}''' i ㄧ||'''{{IPA|[ĩ]}}''' iⁿ ㆪ
| ||
|'''{{IPAblink|u}}''' u ㄨ||'''{{IPA|[ũ]}}''' uⁿ ㆫ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[m̩]}}''' m ㆬ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[ŋ̍]}}''' ng ㆭ
|- align=center
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|'''{{IPAblink|e}}''' e ㆤ||'''{{IPA|[ẽ]}}''' eⁿ ㆥ
|'''{{IPAblink|ə}} ~ {{IPAblink|o}}''' o ㄜ, ㄛ||
|'''{{IPAblink|ɔ}}''' o͘ ㆦ||'''{{IPA|[ɔ̃]}}''' oⁿ ㆧ
|- align=center
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| || ||'''{{IPAblink|ä|a}}''' a ㄚ||'''{{IPA|[ã]}}''' aⁿ ㆩ|| ||
|}

The vowel {{angle bracket|o}} is akin to a [[schwa]]; in contrast, {{angle bracket|[[o͘]]}} (with dot) is a more [[Vowel height|open vowel]]. In addition, there are several [[diphthong]]s and [[triphthong]]s (for example, {{angle bracket|iau}}). The consonants {{angle bracket|m}} and {{angle bracket|ng}} can function as a [[Nucleus (syllable)|syllabic nucleus]] and are therefore included here as vowels. The vowels may be either plain or [[Nasal vowel|nasal]]: {{angle bracket|a}} is non-nasal, and {{angle bracket|aⁿ}} is the same vowel with concurrent nasal articulation. This is similar to [[French language|French]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Polish language|Polish]], and many other languages.

There are two pronunciations of vowel {{angle bracket|o}}. In the south (e.g., [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]) it is {{IPA|[ə]}}; in the north (e.g., [[Taipei]]) it is {{IPA|[o]}}. Due to development of transportation and communication, both pronunciations are common and acceptable throughout the country.

{{IPAblink|i}} is a diphthong [<nowiki/>[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]][[Mid central vowel|ə]]] before -k or -ng (POJ: ek, eng), and is slightly shortened and retracted before -p or -t to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-front unrounded vowel|í̞]]]. Similarly, {{IPAblink|u}} is slightly shortened and retracted before -t or -n to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-back rounded vowel|ʊ]]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Tâigí Phonics 3 - Single Vowels - YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Muv_Rx7OXg0 |url-status=dead|access-date=2021-02-06|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref>

=== Tones ===
[[Image:Taiwanese tones.png|thumb|right|Taiwanese tones, close to Taipei values.]]
In the traditional analysis, there are eight "tones", [[tone number|numbered]] from 1 to 8. Strictly speaking, there are only 3 [[Tone level]]. But as in other Sinitic languages, the two kinds of stopped syllables are considered also to be tones and assigned numbers 4 and 8. In Taiwanese tone 6 has merged into tone 7, and thus duplicated in the count. Here the eight tones are shown, following the traditional tone class categorization, named after the tones of [[Middle Sinitic]]:
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Taiwanese tones{{sfnp|Wu|2000|p=2691}}
|-
! Tone number !! Name !! POJ accent !! Pitch in Taipei !! Description !! Pitch in Tainan !! Description
|-
| 1 || yin level (陰平) || a || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥]}}''' (55) || high || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˦]}}''' (44) || high
|-
| 2 || yin rising (陰上) || á || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˩]}}''' (51) || falling || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˧]}}''' (53) || high falling
|-
| 3 || yin departing (陰去) || à || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧˩]}}''' to '''{{IPA|[˨˩]}}''' (21) || low falling || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩]}}''' (11) || low
|-
| 4 || yin entering (陰入) || ah || '''{{IPA|[āʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˧˨]}}''' (2) || mid stopped || '''{{IPA|[àʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˨˩]}}''' (2) || low stopped
|-
| 5 || yang level (陽平) || â || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩˦ ~ a˨˦]}}''' (24) || rising || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨˦]}}''' (25) || rising
|-
| 7 (6) || yang departing and yang rising (陽去與陽上) || ā || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧]}}''' (33) || mid || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨]}}''' (22) || mid
|-
| 8 || yang entering (陽入) || a̍h || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˦]}}''' (4) || high stopped || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˥]}}''' (5) || high stopped
|}

{{Listen|filename=Taiwanese-8Tones.ogg|title=Eight tones of Taiwanese|description=Demonstration of the tones of Taiwanese: 衫 ''saⁿ, 短 té, 褲, khò͘, 闊 khoah, 人 lâng, 矮 é, 鼻 phīⁿ, 直 ti̍t''. Tone sandhi rules do not apply in this sentence. (This demonstration is popular but misleading in the use of ''矮 é'' as an example for tone 6. In dialects that distinguish tones 6 and 7, ''矮 é'' belongs to tone 2, and most words of tone 6 merges into tone 7 in Taiwanese.)}}

See (for one example) the modern phonological analysis in {{harvp|Chiung|2003}}, which challenges these notions.

For tones 4 and 8, a final consonant {{angle bracket|p}}, {{angle bracket|t}}, or {{angle bracket|k}} may appear. When this happens, it is impossible for the syllable to be nasal. Indeed, these are the counterpart to the nasal final consonants {{angle bracket|m}}, {{angle bracket|n}}, and {{angle bracket|ng}}, respectively, in other tones. However, it is possible to have a nasal 4th or 8th tone syllable such as {{angle bracket|siahⁿ}}, as long as there is no final consonant other than {{angle bracket|h}}.

In the dialect spoken near the northern coast of Taiwan, there is no distinction between tones number 8 and number 4 – both are pronounced as if they follow the [[tone sandhi]] rules of tone number 4.

Tone number 0, typically written with two consecutive hyphens (--a) or a point (·a) before the syllable with this tone, is used to mark [[enclitic]]s denoting the extent of a verb action, the end of a noun phrase, etc. A frequent use of this tone is to denote a question, such as in "Chia̍h pá ·bōe?", literally meaning 'Have you eaten yet?’. This is realized by speaking the syllable with either a low-falling tone (3) or a low stop (4). The syllable prior to the {{angle bracket|·}} maintains its original tone.

=== Syllabic structure ===
A [[syllable]] requires a vowel (or diphthong or [[triphthong]]) to appear in the middle. All consonants can appear at the initial position. The consonants {{angle bracket|p, t, k}} and {{angle bracket|m, n, ng}} (and some consider {{angle bracket|h}}) may appear at the end of a syllable. Therefore, it is possible to have syllables such as {{angle bracket|ngiau}} ("(to) tickle") and {{angle bracket|thng}} ("soup").

=== Tone sandhi ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Tone Sandhi 01.svg|thumbnail|right|Schema of the tone sandhi rules in Taiwanese.]]
Taiwanese has extremely extensive [[tone sandhi]] (tone-changing) rules: in an utterance, only the last syllable pronounced is not affected by the rules.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uegu.blogspot.com/2015/01/blog-post_16.html|script-title=zh:台語好多聲|trans-title=The Many Tones of Taiwanese|author=麻瓜先生|date=January 2015|quote={{lang|zh-tw|台語裡有個變調系統，細說分明需要時間，但最大的規則就是「最後一個字不要變！其他變變變！」}}|access-date=21 March 2019}}</ref> What an ‘[[utterance]]’ (or ‘[[intonational phrase]]’) is, in the context of this language, is an ongoing topic for linguistic research, but some general rules apply:<ref name="Lin2015">{{cite book|author=Philip T. Lin|title=Taiwanese Grammar: A Concise Reference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlExBwAAQBAJ|date=31 January 2015|publisher=Greenhorn Media|isbn=978-0-9963982-1-3}}</ref>

The following syllables are unaffected by tone sandhi:
* The final syllable in a [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]], [[noun]] (including single syllable nouns, but not [[pronoun]]s), number, time phrase (i.e., today, tomorrow, etc.), spatial [[preposition]] (i.e., on, under), or [[question word]] (i.e., who, what, how).
* The syllable immediately preceding the [[possessive particle]] 的 (ê) or a neutralized tone. In POJ, this is the syllable before a double hyphen, e.g., 王先生 (Ông—sian-siⁿ)
* Some common [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] markers: 了 (liáu), 好 (hó), 完 (oân), 煞 (soah)

==== Normal tone sandhi ====
The following rules, listed in the traditional pedagogical mnemonic order, govern the pronunciation of tone on each of the syllables affected (that is, all but those described according to the rules listed above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''3''' ([[Quanzhou]]/Taipei speech) or '''7''' ([[Zhangzhou]]/Tainan speech).
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Normal tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻³ / tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻³ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜖]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻³ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜖]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

==== Double tone sandhi ====
There are a number of a single syllable words that undergo double tone sandhi, that is, they follow the tone change rule twice and are pronounced according to the second tone change. These syllables are almost always a 4th tone ending in '''-h''', and include the words 卜 (beh), 甲 (kah), 閣 (koh), 即 (chiah), as well as the 3rd tone verb 去 khì. As a result of following the tone change rule twice, these syllables are all pronounced as tone number '''1'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Double tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 4 || kah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kaʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kaʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || khi³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kʰi˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kʰi˩꜓]}}
|}

==== Before the -á suffix ====
{{Wiktionary pipe|仔#Usage notes|the rules for tone sandhi before '仔' (-á) with examples}}
Apart from the normal tone sandhi rules described above, there are two special cases where a different set of tone sandhi apply.<ref>Iunn Un-gian. "A Study on Implementation of Southern-Min Taiwanese Tone Sandhi System." (2005). https://aclweb.org/anthology/Y/Y05/Y05-1011.pdf</ref> In a noun with the noun [[suffix]] '{{linktext|lang=zh|仔}}' ({{linktext|á}}), the penultimate syllable is governed by the following rules:
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''' or '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''. (same as double)

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Tone sandhi before -á (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜕]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜓]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|}

==== In triplicated adjectives ====
Finally, in the case of single-syllable adjective [[triplication]] (for added emphasis), the first syllable is governed by the following rules (the second syllable follows the normal tone sandhi rules above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Triplicated tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

See {{harvp|Tiuⁿ|2001}}, {{harvp|Chiung|2003}} and the work of Robert L. Cheng (鄭良偉; Tēⁿ Liông-úi)<ref>{{cite web |date=2003 |publisher=Center for Chinese Studies, University of Hawaii |title=Robert L. Cheng |url=http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070624085539/http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-date=2007-06-24}}</ref> for modern linguistic approaches to tones and tone sandhi in Taiwanese.

== Lexicon ==
Modern linguistic studies (by Robert L. Cheng and Chin-An Li, for example) estimate that most (75% to 90%) Taiwanese [[word]]s have [[cognate]]s in other Sinitic languages. [[False friend]]s do exist; for example, ''cháu'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|走}}) means "to run" in Taiwanese, whereas the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] cognate, ''zǒu'', means "to walk". Moreover, cognates may have different [[Part of speech|lexical categories]]; for example, the [[morpheme]] ''phīⁿ'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|鼻}}) means not only "nose" (a noun, as in Mandarin ''bí'') but also "to smell" (a verb, unlike Mandarin).

Among the apparently cognate-less words are many basic words with properties that contrast with similar-meaning words of pan-Chinese derivation. Often the former group lacks a standard Han character, and the words are variously considered colloquial, intimate, vulgar, uncultured, or more concrete in meaning than the pan-Chinese synonym. Some examples: ''lâng'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|人}}, person, concrete) vs. ''jîn'' (人, person, abstract); ''{{linktext|cha-bó͘}}'' ({{linktext|查某}}, woman) vs. ''lú jîn'' (女人, woman, literary). Unlike the [[English language#Vocabulary|English Germanic/Latin contrast]], however, the two groups of Taiwanese words cannot be as strongly attributed to the influences of two disparate linguistic sources.

Extensive contact with the [[Japanese language]] has left a legacy of Japanese [[loanwords]], with 172 recorded in the Ministry of Education's ''[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_wailaici.jsp |script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典-外來詞 |year=2011 |trans-title=Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan - Loanwords |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |language=zh |access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref> Although a very small percentage of the vocabulary, their usage tends to be high-frequency because of their relevance to modern society and popular culture. Examples are: ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||オートバイ|ōtobai|"autobike"/motorcycle}} and ''pháng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|パン}}|pan|"[[bread]]", itself a loanword from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]}}. [[Grammatical particle]]s borrowed from Japanese, notably ''te̍k'' from {{nihongo4||的|teki}} and ''ka'' from {{nihongo4||か|ka}}, show up in the Taiwanese of older speakers.

Taiwanese pronouns are collectivized through [[nasalization]]. For example, ''i'' (he/she/it) and ''goá'' (I) become ''in'' (they) and ''goán'' (we), respectively. The ''-n'' thus represents a subsyllabic [[morpheme]].

Unlike English, Taiwanese has two [[first person plural|first-person plural]] pronouns. This distinction is called [[Clusivity|inclusive]], which includes the [[Interlocutor (linguistics)|addressee]], and exclusive, which excludes the addressee. Thus, ''goán'' means ''we excluding you'', while ''lán'' means ''we including you'' (similar to [[pluralis auctoris]]). The inclusive ''lán'' may be used to express politeness or solidarity, as in the example of a speaker asking a stranger "Where do we live?" while implicitly asking "Where do ''you'' live?".

== Syntax ==
{{Listen|filename=Tai JintianDaoJiaKanWo.ogg|title=Kin-ná jit hit ê cha-bó͘ gín-á lâi góan tau khòaⁿ góa.|description=An audio sample for a simple sentence, meaning "Today that little girl came to our house to see me".}}
The [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is similar to southern sinitic languages such as [[Hakka]] and [[Yue]]. The [[subject–verb–object]] sequence is typical as in, for example, [[Mandarin Chinese]], but [[subject–object–verb]] or the [[passive voice]] (with the sequence [[object–subject–verb]]) is possible with particles. Take a simple sentence for example: 'I hold you.' The words involved are: ''goá'' ('I' or 'me'), ''phō'' ('to hold'), ''lí'' ('you').
* Subject–verb–object (typical sequence): The sentence in the typical sequence would be: ''Goá phō lí.'' ('I hold you.')
* Subject–''kā''–object–verb: Another sentence of roughly equivalent meaning is ''Goá kā lí phō'', with the slight connotation of 'I take you and hold' or 'I get to you and hold'.
* Object ''hō͘'' subject–verb (the passive voice): Then, ''Lí hō͘ goá phō'' means the same thing but in the [[passive voice]], with the connotation of 'You allow yourself to be held by me' or 'You make yourself available for my holding'.

With this, more complicated sentences can be constructed: ''Goá kā chúi hō͘ lí lim'' ('I give water for you to drink': ''chúi'' means 'water'; ''lim'' is 'to drink').

This article can only give a few very simple examples on the syntax, for flavour. Linguistic work on the [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is still a (quite nascent) scholarly topic being explored.

== Scripts and orthographies ==
{{Main|Written Hokkien}}

[[File:Holo bunhak chokphin.JPG|thumb|right|A selection of literary works (original and translated) in Taiwanese, in several orthographies.]]

Until the late 19th century, Taiwanese speakers wrote mostly in [[Classical Sinitic]]|date=June 2015}}. Among many systems of writing Taiwanewe using Latin characters, the most used is called [[pe̍h oē jī]] (POJ) and was developed in the 19th century. (For additional romanized systems, see references in "Orthography in Latin characters", below.) Nonetheless, Taiwanese speakers nowadays most commonly write in Chinese Mandarin, though many of the same characters are also used to write Taiwanese.

=== Han characters ===
In most cases, Taiwanese speakers write using the [[writing system|script]] called [[Han characters]] as in Mandarin, although there are a number of special characters which are unique to Taiwanwe and which are sometimes used in informal writing. Where Han characters are used, they are not always etymological or genetic; the borrowing of similar-sounding or similar-meaning characters is a common practice. Bilingual speakers of both Mandarin and Taiwanese sometimes attempt to represent the sounds by adopting similar-sounding Mandarin Han characters. For example, the Han characters of the [[Profanity|vulgar slang]] 'khoàⁿ sáⁿ-siâu' ({{linktext|lang=zh|看|三小}}, substituted for the etymologically correct {{linktext|lang=zh|看|省屑}}, meaning 'What the hell are you looking at?’) has very little meaning in Mandarin and may not be readily understood by a Taiwanese monolingual, as knowledge of Mandarin character readings is required to fully decipher it.

In 2007, the [[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|Ministry of Education]] in Taiwan published the first list of [[Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters]], a list of 300 Han characters standardized for the use of writing Taiwanese and implemented the teaching of them in schools.<ref>[http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm 教育部公布閩南語300字推薦用字　卡拉OK用字也被選用 (Ministry of Education in Taiwan announces 300 recommended Hokkien words, Karaoke words are also selected)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724212916/http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm |date=24 July 2011 }}; [http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 「臺灣閩南語推薦用字（第1批）」已公布於網站，歡迎各界使用 (Announcement of recommended words for Taiwanese Hokkien)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718144143/http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 |date=18 July 2011 }}</ref> In 2008, the ministry published a second list of 100 characters, and in 2009 added 300 more, giving a total of 700 standardized characters used to write uniquely Taiwanese words.

However, these "recommended Han characters" are totally different from old Taiwanese Han characters. Hence, the policy of RoC is seen as cultural destruction again.

=== Orthography in Latin characters ===
[[Image:Kauhoe.jpg|thumb|right|An issue of the ''[[Taiwan Church News]]'', first published by Presbyterian missionaries in 1885. This was the first printed newspaper in Taiwan, and was written in Taiwanese, in the Latin orthography pe̍h oē jī.]]

There are several Latin-based orthographies, the oldest being [[Pe̍h oē jī]] (POJ, meaning "vernacular writing"), developed in the 19th century. [[Taiwanese Minnan Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī, Tâi-Bân-Lô) and [[Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet]] (TLPA) are two later adaptations of POJ. Other 20th-century innovations include [[Daighi tongiong pingim]] (DT), [[Ganvsig daiuuan bhanlam ghiw tongiong pingimv]] (GDT), [[Modern Literal Taiwanese]] (MLT), [[Simplified MLT]] (SMLT), [[Phofsit Daibuun]] (PSDB). The last four employ [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] [[spelling]] to indicate tone without use of [[diacritic]] symbols, but letters instead.

In POJ, the traditional list of letters is
:a b ch chh e g h i j k kh l m n ng o o͘ p ph s t th (ts) u
Twenty-four in all, including the obsolete {{angle bracket|ts}}, which was used to represent the modern {{angle bracket|ch}} at some places. The additional necessities are the nasal symbol {{angle bracket|ⁿ}}  (superscript {{angle bracket|n}}; the uppercase form {{angle bracket|N}} is sometimes used in [[all caps]] texts,<ref>Tè Khái-sū (1999) [https://archive.org/details/Tpsurvey Writing Latinized Taiwanese Languages with Unicode]</ref> such as book titles or section headings), and the tonal [[diacritic]]s.
POJ was developed first by [[Presbyterian]] [[missionaries]] and later by the indigenous [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]]; they have been active in promoting the language since the late 19th century. Recently there has been an increase in texts using a mixed orthography of Han characters and romanization, although these texts remain uncommon.

In 2006, the [[National Languages Committee]] (Ministry of Education, Republic of China) proposed [[Taiwanese Minnan Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī pheng-im, Tâi-Bân-Lô). This alphabet reconciles two orthographies, TLPA and POJ.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tlh.de-han.org/untong/2006/0929TaiLo.pdf|title=臺灣閩南語羅馬字拼音方案 (Orthographic system for the Minnan language in Taiwan, 'Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī pheng-im')}}</ref> The changes for the consonants involved using {{angle bracket|ts}} for POJ's {{angle bracket|ch}} (reverting to the orthography in the 19th century), and {{angle bracket|tsh}} for {{angle bracket|chh}}. For the vowels, {{angle bracket|o͘}} could optionally represented as {{angle bracket|oo}}. The nasal mark {{angle bracket|ⁿ}} could also be represented optionally as {{angle bracket|nn}}. The rest of the alphabet, most notably the use of diacritics to mark the tones, appeared to keep to the POJ tradition. One of the aims of this compromise was to curb any increase of 'market share' for Daighi tongiong pingim/Tongyong Pinyin.<ref>[http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf 教育部國語推行委員會: 關於閩南語拼音整合工作相關問題說帖 (National Languages Committee: On the integration of Minnan orthographies), 2006-10-16] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128050052/http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf |date=28 November 2007 }}</ref> It is unclear whether the community will adopt this new agreement.

=== Orthographies in kana and in bopomofo ===
[[Image:Japanese-Taiwanese Dictionary.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese–Taiwanese Dictionary, using the orthography in kana]]
{{Main|Taiwanese kana|Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols}}
There was an orthography of Taiwanese based on the [[Kana|Japanese kana]] during [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese rule]]. The [[Kuomintang]] government also tried to introduce an orthography in [[bopomofo]].

===Comparison of orthographies===
Here the different orthographies are compared:
{{POJtable}}

=== Computing ===
[[File:Pa-khek-le Kau-hoe.jpg|thumb|right|Pe̍h-ōe-jī inscription at a church in [[Tainan|Tâi-lâm]] commemorating [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]].]]

Many [[keyboard layout]]s and [[Chinese input methods for computers|input methods]] for entering either Latin or Han characters in Taiwanese are available. Some of them are free-of-charge, some commercial.

The [[Min Nan]] dialect group is registered per {{IETF RFC|3066}} as [https://www.iana.org/assignments/lang-tags/zh-min-nan zh-min-nan].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evertype.com/standards/iso639/iana-lang-assignments.html|title=Evertype|website=www.evertype.com}}</ref> Taiwanese Min Nan can be represented as 'zh-min-nan-TW'.

When writing Taiwanese in Han characters, some writers create 'new' characters when they consider it is impossible to use directly or borrow existing ones; this corresponds to similar practices in character usage in [[Written Cantonese|Cantonese]], [[chu nom|Vietnamese chữ nôm]], [[Hanja|Korean hanja]] and [[Kanji|Japanese kanji]]. These are usually not encoded in [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal Character Set]]), thus creating problems in computer processing.

All Latin characters required by pe̍h-oē-jī can be represented using [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal character set]]), using precomposed or combining (diacritics) characters.

{{Main|O͘}}
Prior to June 2004, the vowel {{IPA|[ɔ]}} akin to but more open than ⟨o⟩, written with a 'dot above right', was not encoded. The usual workaround was to use the (stand-alone; spacing) character ‘[[Interpunct|middle dot]]’ (U+00B7, ⟨·⟩) or less commonly the combining character 'dot above' (U+0307). As these are far from ideal, since 1997 proposals have been submitted to the ISO/IEC [[working group]] in charge of ISO/IEC 10646 – namely, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070628163947/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/wg2/ ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2] – to encode a new combining character 'dot above right'. This is now officially assigned to U+0358 (see documents [http://www.evertype.com/standards/la/taioan.html N1593], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311082219/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2507 N2507], [https://web.archive.org/web/20060928065416/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2628 N2628],
[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2699 N2699], and [http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/sc2/wg2/docs/N2770r.pdf N2770]). Font support has followed: for example, in [[Charis SIL]].

== Sociolinguistics ==
=== Regional variations ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Map.svg|thumb|right|Distribution of Hokkien dialects in Taiwan:<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ang Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin | script-title = zh:台灣的語種分布與分區 |title=Táiwān de yǔzhǒng fēnbù yǔ fēnqū |trans-title=The Distribution and Regionalization of Varieties in Taiwan | publisher = [[Academia Sinica]] |year=2013 |journal=Language and Linguistics |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=315–369|language=zh-hant |url=http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/14.2/LL14.2-04-Ang%20121227.pdf}} Map 5, p. 355.</ref>
{{legend|#ff8080|Quanzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#8080ff|Zhangzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#ff80ff|Both Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects}}
]]


The [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Taiwanese is the southern speech found in [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]. Other major variants are the northern speech, the central speech (near [[Taichung]] and the port town of [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]), and the northern (northeastern) coastal speech (dominant in [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan]]).

The distinguishing feature of the coastal speech is the use of the vowel {{angle bracket|uiⁿ}} in place of {{angle bracket|ng}}. The northern speech is distinguished by the absence of the [[#Tones|8th tone]], and some vowel exchanges (for example, {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, {{angle bracket|e}} and {{angle bracket|oe}}). The central speech has an additional vowel {{IPA|[ɨ]}} or {{IPA|[ø]}} between {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, which may be represented as {{angle bracket|ö}}. There are also a number of other pronunciation and lexical differences between the Taiwanese variants; the online Ministry of Education dictionary specifies these to a resolution of eight regions on Taiwan proper, in addition to [[Kinmen]] and [[Penghu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho|script-title=zh:方言差"語音差異表|trans-title=Table of Pronunciation Differences|year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho_p|script-title=zh:方言差"詞彙差異表|trans-title=Table of Vocabulary Differences |year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref>

Concerning the fifth (rising) tone in normal sandhi patterns, the Quanzhou/Coastal/Northern dialects change to seventh (mid level) tone, whereas the Zhangzhou/"Mixed"/Southern dialects change to third (low falling) tone.

Certain new north–south distinctions have appeared in recent decades.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}<ref>{{Cite journal|author1-link=Jack C. Richards|last=Richards|first=Jack C.|date=1977-01-01|title=Variation in Singapore English|jstor=43135170|journal=Interlanguage Studies Bulletin|volume=2|issue=2|pages=131–151}}</ref> The fourth and eighth tones tend to be reversed in the north and south.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/resources/PronouncingTaiwanese.html|title=Jordan: Pronouncing Romanized Taiwanese Hokkien|website=pages.ucsd.edu}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2016}}

====Quanzhou–Zhangzhou inclinations====

[[Hokkien]] immigrants to Taiwan originated from [[Quanzhou]] prefecture (44.8%) and [[Zhangzhou]] prefecture (35.2%).{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} The original phonology from these regions was spread around Taiwan during the immigration process. With the advanced development of transportation and greater mobility of the Taiwanese population, Taiwanese speech has steered itself towards a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech, known as ''Chiang–Chôan-lām'' (漳泉濫, in Mandarin ''Zhāng–Quán làn'').{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} Due to different proportion of mixture, some regions are inclined more towards Quanzhou accent, while others are inclined more towards Zhangzhou accent.

In general, Quanzhou accent is more common along the coastal region and is known as the ''hái-kháu'' accent; Zhangzhou accent is more common within the mountainous region of Taiwan and is known as the ''lāi-po͘'' accent. The regional variation within Taiwanese may be attributed to variations in the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents and/or lexicons. It ranges from Lukang accent (based on Quanzhou accent) on one end, to the northern coastal [[Yilan City|Yilan]] accent (based on Zhangzhou accent) on another end. Tainan, Kaohsiung and Taitung accents, on the other hand, are closest to the prestige accent.

'''<center>Variations in Taiwanese Hokkien accents</center>'''

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|-
! style="background:#FFA000; color:black" | [[Quanzhou]] accent
|-
| style="background:#fc0;"| [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]
|-
| style="background:#fc6;"| [[Penghu]], [[Taixi, Yunlin|Taixi]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]]—[[Budai, Chiayi|Budai]] coastal region (''hái-kháu'')
|-
| style="background:#fc9;"| [[Taipei]], [[Hsinchu]] (very similar to [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcc;"| [[Chiayi]]—[[Kaohsiung]] surrounding
area, [[Taitung City|Taitung]] (prestige accent, [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent mixed [[Zhangzhou]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcf;"| [[Taichung Basin|Taichung]], [[Changhua City|Changhua]]—[[Yunlin County|Yunlin]] inland area, [[Taoyuan, Taiwan|North Taoyuan]](''lāi-po͘'')
|-
| style="background:#c9f;"| [[Yilan City|Yilan]]
|-
! style= "background:#BBA1CB; color:black" | [[Zhangzhou]] accent
|}

====Recent terminological distinctions====
Recent research has found a need for new terminology of Taiwanese dialects, mainly because the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects in Taiwan developed independently from those in Fujian. Thus, some scholars (i.e., Klöter, following {{lang|zh-tw|董忠司}}) have divided Taiwanese into five subdialects, based on geographic region:{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=4}}
#''hái-kháu'' ({{lang|zh-tw|海口腔}}): west coast, based on what was formerly referred to as Quanzhou dialect (represented by the Lukang accent)
#''phian-hái'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏海腔}}): coastal (represented by the Nanliao ({{lang|zh-tw|南寮}}) accent)
#''lāi-po͘'' ({{lang|zh-tw|內埔腔}}): western inner plain, mountain regions, based on the Zhangzhou dialect (represented by the Yilan accent)
#''phian-lāi'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏內腔}}): interior (represented by the [[Taibao]] accent)
#''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}): common accents (represented by the Taipei (spec. [[Datong District, Taipei|Datong]]) accent in the north and the Tainan accent in the south)
Both ''phian-hái'' and ''phian-lāi'' are intermediate dialects between ''hái-kháu'' and ''lāi-po͘'', these also known as ''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}) or "{{lang|zh-tw|不泉不漳}}". In some ways this mixed dialect is similar to the Amoy dialect, which itself is a blend of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The common dialect refers to that which can be heard on radio, television, official announcements, etc.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

=== Fluency ===
A great majority of people in Taiwan can speak both [[Mandarin Chinese]] and Taiwanese although the degree of fluency varies widely.<ref name="housing census" /> There are however small but significant numbers of people in Taiwan, mainly but not exclusively [[Hakka people|Hakka]] and [[waishengren|Mainlanders]], who cannot speak Taiwanese fluently. A shrinking percentage of the population, mainly people born before the 1950s, cannot speak Mandarin at all, or learned to speak Mandarin later in life, though some of these speak Japanese fluently. Urban, working-class Hakkas as well as younger, southern-Taiwan Mainlanders tend to have better, even native-like fluency. Approximately half of the Hakka in Taiwan do speak Taiwanese. There are many families of mixed Hakka, Hoklo, and [[Taiwanese aborigines|Aboriginal]] bloodlines. There is, however, a large percentage of people in Taiwan, regardless of their background, whose ability to understand and read written Taiwanese is greater than their ability to speak it. This is the case with some singers who can sing Taiwanese songs with native-like proficiency, but can neither speak nor understand the language.

Which variant is used depends strongly on the context, and in general people will use Mandarin in more formal situations and Taiwanese in more informal situations. Taiwanese tends to get used more in [[rural]] areas, while Mandarin is used more in [[urban area|urban]] settings. Older people tend to use Taiwanese, while younger people tend to use Mandarin. In the broadcast media where Mandarin is used in many genres, [[soap opera]], [[variety show]]s, and even some news programs can also be found in Taiwanese.

=== Sociolinguistics and gender ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2011}}
Taiwanese is also perceived by some to have a slight masculine leaning, making it more popular among the males of the younger population. It is sometimes perceived as "unladylike" when spoken by the females of the younger population.

=== Special literary and art forms ===

''Chhit-jī-á'' (literally, "that which has seven syllables") is a [[poetry|poetic]] [[meter (poetry)|meter]] where each verse has 7 syllables.

There is a special form of [[music]]al/[[drama]]tic performance ''koa-á-hì'': the [[Taiwanese opera]]; the subject matter is usually a [[history|historical event]]. A similar form ''pò͘-tē-hì'' ([[glove puppetry]]) is also unique and has been elaborated in the past two decades into impressive [[television|televised]] spectacles.

See [[Taiwanese cuisine]] for names of several local dishes.

===Bible translations===
[[File:Bibles in Taiwanese.jpg|thumb|right|A collection of translations of the Bible in Taiwanese. Top left, ''Today’s Taiwanese'' version; top right, the Red-Cover Bible; bottom, Barclay's translation.]]

As with many other languages, the [[Chinese Bible Translations|translations of the Bible]] in Taiwanese marked milestones in the standardization attempts of the language and its orthography.

The first translation of the Bible in Amoy or Taiwanese in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography was by the first missionary to Taiwan, [[James Laidlaw Maxwell]], with the New Testament ''Lán ê Kiù-chú Iâ-so͘ Ki-tok ê Sin-iok'' published in 1873 and the Old Testament ''Kū-iok ê Sèng Keng'' in 1884.

[[File:Taiwanese Bible Chim-gian 1933.jpg|thumb|left|A copy of Barclay's Amoy translation, opened to the Proverbs.]]

The next translation of the Bible in Taiwanese or Amoy was by the missionary to Taiwan, [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]], carried out in Fujian and Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/native.htm |script-title=zh:本土聖經 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=zh }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm |script-title=ja:書評『聖經－－台語漢字本』 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=ja |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080120005258/http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm|archive-date=20 January 2008}}</ref> A New Testament translation was completed and published in 1916. The resulting work containing the Old and the New Testaments, in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography, was completed in 1930 and published in 1933 as the Amoy Romanized Bible ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|links=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]]. 2000 copies of the Amoy Romanized Bible were confiscated by the Taiwan Garrison from the Bible Society of Taiwan in 1975. This edition was later transliterated into Han characters and published as {{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=聖經台語漢字本|poj=Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|labels=no|scase=}} [[:zh-min-nan:Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]] in 1996.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://tailo.fhl.net/Godspeak/Godspeak26.html |title=台語信望愛 - 4.1.4 《台語漢字本》|website=tailo.fhl.net |language=zh-TW }}</ref>

[[File:Ang-phoe Seng-keng te-571-bin.jpg|thumb|right|A page from the Red-Cover Bible.]]

The Ko-Tân ([[Kerygma]]) Colloquial Taiwanese Version of the New Testament (''Sin-iok'') in pe̍h-ōe-jī, also known as the {{Interlanguage link|Red Cover Bible|zh-min-nan|Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|WD=}} ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), was published in 1973 as an ecumenical effort between the Protestant [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the Roman Catholic mission [[Maryknoll]]. This translation used a more modern vocabulary (somewhat influenced by Mandarin), and reflected the central Taiwan dialect, as the Maryknoll mission was based near [[Taichung|Tâi-tiong]]. It was soon confiscated by the Kuomintang government (which objected to the use of Latin orthography) in 1975. The copies of the ecumenical NT are now available on the online stores.

A translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Today's Taiwanese Romanized Version" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|labels=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]], containing only the New Testament, again in pe̍h-ōe-jī, was published in 2008<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peopo.org/chuniok/post/12934|title=現代台語新約羅馬字聖經出版感謝e話|website=www.peopo.org }}</ref> as a collaboration between the [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the [[Bible Society in Taiwan]]. A translation of the Old Testament, following the same principle, is being prepared.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/translation/Taiwanese.htm|title=台語聖經|website=www.biblesociety-tw.org|language=zh-TW}}</ref>{{Outdated inline|date=December 2018|reason=2018 status not stated|?=yes}}

Another translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Common Taiwanese Bible" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Choân-bîn Tâi-gí Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), with versions of pe̍h-ōe-jī, Han characters and Ruby version (both Han characters and pe̍h-ōe-jī) was published in 2015, available in printed and online.

=== Politics ===
[[File:Banning of POJ.gif|thumb|right|A decree (1955) banning the use of Pe̍h-ōe-jī, a Latin orthography for Taiwanese, in church.]]
Until the 1980s, the use of Taiwanese, along with all [[Varieties of Chinese|varieties]] other than [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]], was discouraged by the [[Kuomintang]] through measures such as banning its use in schools and limiting the amount of Taiwanese broadcast on electronic media. These measures were removed by the 1990s, and Taiwanese became an emblem of [[Taiwanese localization movement|localization]]. Mandarin remains the predominant language of education, although there is a "mother tongue" language requirement in Taiwanese schools which can be satisfied with student's choice of mother tongue: Taiwanese, Hakka, or [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]].

Although the use of Taiwanese over Mandarin was historically part of the [[Taiwan independence movement]], the linkage between politics and language is not as strong as it once was. Some fluency in Taiwanese is desirable for political office in Taiwan for both independence and unificationist politicians. At the same time even some supporters of Taiwan independence have played down its connection with Taiwanese in order to gain the support of the [[waishengren|Mainlander]]s and [[Hakka people]].

[[James Soong]] restricted the use of Taiwanese and other local tongues in broadcasting while serving as Director of the [[Government Information Office]] earlier in his career, but later became one of the first politicians of Mainlander origin to use Taiwanese in semi-formal occasions.{{synthesis inline|date=August 2016}} Since then, politicians opposed to Taiwanese independence have used it frequently in rallies, even when they are not native speakers. Conversely, politicians who have traditionally been identified with Taiwan independence have used Mandarin on formal occasions and semi-formal occasions such as press conferences. An example of the latter is former President [[Chen Shui-bian]] who uses Mandarin in all official state speeches, but uses mainly Taiwanese in political rallies and some informal state occasions such as New Year greetings. The current [[President of Taiwan]] and of the ([[Democratic Progressive Party|DPP]]), [[Tsai Ing-wen]] has been criticized by her supporters for not using Taiwanese in speeches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5dPfuafUb?url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-date=28 December 2008 |script-title=zh:蔡英文不說台語高雄人涼了半截 |trans-title=Tsai Ing-wen doesn't speak Taiwanese; The people in Kaohsiung feel half-disappointed |language=zh |access-date=12 October 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Former President [[Ma Ying-jeou]] spoke in Taiwanese during his 2008 [[Double Ten Day]] speech when he was talking about the state of the [[Economy of Taiwan|economy in Taiwan]].

In the early 21st century, there are few differences in language usage between the [[Chinese unification|pro-reuinification]] leaning [[Pan-Blue Coalition]] and the [[Taiwan independence movement|independence]] leaning [[Pan-Green Coalition]]. Both tend to use Taiwanese at political rallies and sometimes in informal interviews, and both tend to use Mandarin at formal press conferences and official state functions. Both also tend to use more Mandarin in [[Northern Taiwan]] and more Taiwanese in [[Southern Taiwan]]. However, at official party gatherings (as opposed to both Mandarin-leaning state functions and Taiwanese-leaning party rallies), the DPP tends to use Taiwanese while KMT and [[PFP (Taiwan)|PFP]] tend to use Mandarin. The [[Taiwan Solidarity Union]], which advocates a strong line on Taiwan independence, tends to use Taiwanese even in formal press conferences. In speaking, politicians will frequently [[Code-switching|code switch]]. In writing, almost everyone uses [[written vernacular Chinese|vernacular Mandarin]] which is further from Taiwanese, and the use of semi-alphabetic writing or even [[Tng-lang-ji|colloquial Taiwanese characters]] is rare.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=An investigation of written Taiwanese|url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/11520|date=2005|degree=MA|language=en-US|first=Katsuhiro J.|last=Ota|publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa|hdl=10125/11520}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Mair|first=Victor|title=Taiwanese, Mandarin, and Taiwan's language situation|url=http://pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|access-date=2020-08-06|website=pinyin.info}}</ref>

In 2002, the Taiwan Solidarity Union, a party with about 10% of the [[Legislative Yuan]] seats at the time, suggested making Taiwanese a second official language.<ref>{{cite news |author=Lin Mei-chun |title=Hokkien should be given official status, says TSU |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2002/03/10/0000127068 |work=Taipei Times|date=10 March 2002 |page=1 }}</ref> This proposal encountered strong opposition not only from Mainlander groups but also from Hakka and aboriginal groups who felt that it would slight their home languages, as well as others including [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]] who objected to the proposal on logistical grounds and on the grounds that it would increase ethnic tensions. Because of these objections, support for this measure is lukewarm among moderate Taiwan independence supporters, and the proposal did not pass.

In 2003, there was a controversy when parts of the civil service examination for judges were written in characters used only in Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite news|author=Ko Shu-ling|title=Control Yuan sets rules for future examinations |page=2 |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2004/09/20/2003203606 |work=Taipei Times|date=20 September 2004}}</ref> After strong objections, these questions were not used in scoring. As with the official-language controversy, objections to the use of Taiwanese came not only from Mainlander groups, but also Hoklo, Hakka and aborigines. The [[Control Yuan]] later created a rule that only allowed Standard Mandarin characters on civil service exams. According to public opinion surveys in 2008, more people supported making English a second official language than Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Gijsen, Johan |author2=Liu Yu-Chang |chapter=Chapter 8: The Quest for a New Civic and Linguistic Identity: Mandarin and English Encroachment upon the Taiwanese Language |title=Critical Perspectives on Language and Discourse in the New World Order|editor1-last=Abdullah|editor1-first=Faiz Sathi|editor2-last=Abdullah|editor2-first=Mardziah Hayati|editor3-last=Hoon|editor3-first=Tan Bee|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge Scholars|location=Newcastle|isbn=9781847183408|page=156}}</ref>

In 2017, aboriginal languages were given official status in Taiwan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aipl/201707190019.aspx|title=President lauds efforts in transitional justice for indigenous people|publisher=Focus Taiwan|access-date=19 July 2017}}</ref> as was the [[Taiwanese Hakka|Hakka language]].<ref name="hakkaofficial">{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2017/12/30/2003684894|title=Hakka made an official language|last1=Cheng|first1=Hung-ta|last2=Chung|first2=Jake|date=30 December 2017|work=[[Taipei Times]]}}</ref> {{As of|2018}}, English is planned to become an official language in Taiwan,<ref name="English status">{{Cite news|url=https://www.hongkongfp.com/2018/08/31/taiwan-make-english-official-language-next-year-says-official/|title=Taiwan to make English an official language next year, says official {{!}} Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|date=2018-08-31|work=Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|access-date=2018-09-05|language=en-GB}}</ref> although this has not happened as of mid-2020. Taiwanese is required for some activities but not others. For further information, see [[Languages of Taiwan]].

===Mother tongue movement===
[[Taiwanese localization movement|Taiwanization]] developed in the 1990s into a ‘[[mother tongue]] revival movement' aiming to save, preserve, and develop the local ethnic culture and language of Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, and aborigines. The effort to [[Language revitalization|save declining languages]] has since allowed them to revive and flourish. In 1993, Taiwan became the first country in the world to implement the teaching of Taiwanese in schools. By 2001, Taiwanese languages such as Taiwanese, Hakka, and aboriginal languages were taught in all Taiwanese schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhu.edu.tw/~society/e-j/45/45-16.htm|author=許嘉文|date=15 March 2005|language=zh|script-title=zh:台灣鄉土教育發展史|trans-title=The education history of local Taiwanese languages}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} Since the 2000s, elementary school students are required to take a class in either Taiwanese, Hakka or aboriginal languages.{{sfnp|Lin|2002}}{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} In junior high this is usually an available [[Course (education)#Elective and required courses|elective]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ey.gov.tw/AnnoucePage2.aspx|title=行政院全球資訊網|website=www.ey.gov.tw|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref> Taiwan also has its own [[Taiwan literature movement|literary circle]] whereby Hokkien poets and writers compose poetry and literature in Taiwanese on a regular basis.

As a result of the mother tongue movement, Taiwan has emerged as a significant cultural hub for Hokkien in the world in the 21st century. It also plans to be the major export center for [[Hokkien culture]] worldwide in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npf.org.tw/11/4118|title=馬英九 {{!}} 馬蕭文化政策 {{!}} 國家政策研究基金會 {{!}} 公共政策的理性思辯與對話平台！|website=國家政策研究基金會|language=zh-TW|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref>

=== Television ===

{{Expand Chinese|section=yes|date=August 2020}}

* [[Lady Rainicorn]] for ''[[Adventure Time]]'' broadcast by [[Cartoon Network (Taiwanese TV channel)|Cartoon Network Taiwan]] used Taiwanese for [[Li Hanfei]] ({{lang|zh-tw|李涵菲}})

==Scholarship==
Klöter's ''Written Taiwanese'' (cited below) has been described as "the most comprehensive English-language study of written Taiwanese".{{sfnp|Snow|2004|p=261}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Taiwan|Languages}}
* [[Languages of Taiwan]]
* [[Min Nan Wikipedia]]
* [[Speak Hokkien Campaign]]
* [[Taiwanese literature movement]]
* [[:nan:Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng|Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng]] (Taiwanese Test) {{in lang|nan}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

=== Words in native languages ===
{{notelist-ur}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Cited sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Ang |first=Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣河佬語聲調研究 |year=1987 |edition=4 |publisher=自立晚報 |location = Taipei |language= zh-Hant |isbn=9789575960353 |oclc=813713530 }}
* {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=James W. |author-link=James W. Davidson |title = The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : history, people, resources, and commercial prospects : tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions |year=1903 |publisher=Macmillan |url = https://archive.org/details/islandofformosap00davi |location=London and New York |ol=6931635M |oclc=1887893 }}
* {{cite book |last = Klöter |first = Henning |title=Written Taiwanese |year = 2005 |publisher=Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |isbn=9783447050937 }}
* {{cite book |last = Snow |first = D. |title=Cantonese as Written Language: The Growth of a Written Chinese Vernacular |year = 2004 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |location=Hong Kong |isbn=9789622097094 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wu |first=Soli |author-link = :zh-min-nan:Ngô͘ Siú-lé |year=2000 |script-title = zh:國臺對照活用辭典 |trans-title=Mandarin-Taiwanese Comparative Living Dictionary |language = zh-TW, zh-min-nan |publisher=Yuan-Liou |location=Taipei |isbn=9789573240884 |oclc = 45990089 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==

===Books and other material===
(As English language material on Taiwanese learning is limited, Japanese and German books are also listed here.)
; English textbooks & dictionaries
* {{cite book |author=李勤岸 |trans-title=Harvard Taiwanese 101 |script-title=zh:哈佛臺語101 |translator-last1=Yeh |translator-first1=Chieh-Ting |translator-last2=Lee |translator-first2=Marian |publisher=開朗 |place=Tainan |year=2005 |isbn=9789868160811 |language=en,zh |type=paperback & CD }}
* Su-chu Wu, Bodman, Nicholas C.: Spoken Taiwanese with cassette(s), 1980/2001, {{ISBN|0-87950-461-7}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-460-9}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-462-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |author-link=William Campbell (missionary) |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1913 |publisher=Taiwan Church Press |location=[[Tainan]] |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000072254844;view=1up;seq=28 |oclc=867068660}}
**{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1923 |edition=2nd |orig-year=1913 |publisher=Fukuin Print. Co. |location=Yokohama |oclc=43655590 |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015056044533;view=1up;seq=1 |postscript=(with preface by Thomas Barclay)}}
* Iâu Chèng-to: Cheng-soán Pe̍h-oē-jī (Concise Colloquial Writing). Tainan, Taiwan: Jîn-kong (an imprint of the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan). 1992.
* Tân, K. T: A Chinese-English Dictionary: Taiwan Dialect. Taipei: Southern Materials Center. 1978.
* Maryknoll Language Service Center: English-Amoy Dictionary. Taichung, Taiwan: Maryknoll Fathers. 1979.

; Japanese publications
* Higuchi, Yasushi (樋口靖 ''Higuchi Yasushi''): 台湾語会話, 2000, {{ISBN|4-497-20004-3}} (Good and yet concise introduction to the Taiwanese language in Japanese; CD: {{ISBN|4-497-20006-X}})
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''): はじめての台湾語, 2003, {{ISBN|4-7569-0665-6}} (Introduction to Taiwanese [and Mandarin]; in Japanese).
* Zheng, Zhenghao (鄭正浩 ''Zhèng Zhènghào''): 台湾語基本単語2000, 1996, {{ISBN|4-87615-697-2}} (Basic vocabulary in Taiwanese 2000; in Japanese).
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''), Chen Fenghui (陳豐惠 ''Chén Fēnghuì''), Kaori Takao (たかおかおり ''Takao Kaori''), 2006, 絵でわかる台湾語会話. {{ISBN|978-4-7569-0991-6}} (Conversations in Taiwanese [and Mandarin] with illustrations; in Japanese).
;Others
* Katharina Sommer, Xie Shu-Kai: Taiwanisch Wort für Wort, 2004, {{ISBN|3-89416-348-8}} (Taiwanese for travellers, in German. CD: {{ISBN|3-8317-6094-2}})

; Articles and other resources
*{{cite journal|last=Chiung |first=Wi-vun Taiffalo |date=2003 |title=Tone Change in Taiwanese: Age and Geographic Factors |journal=University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics |volume=8 |issue=1 |url=http://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl/vol8/iss1/5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303035733/http://uibun.twl.ncku.edu.tw/chuliau/lunsoat/english/tchange/tonechange-v.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite journal |last=LÎM |first=Chùn-io̍k |year=2014 |title=The Common Taiwanese Bible: A Means of Seeking to Affirm the Selfhood and Integrity of Taiwanese and Their Language |journal=Journal of Taiwanese Vernacular |volume=6 |number=2 |pages=106–9 |doi=10.6621/JTV.2014.0602.05
}}
*{{cite web |last=Tan-Tenn |first=Henry H. |date=2001 |title=Taiwanese learning resources |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050418075331/http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf |archive-date=2005-04-18 |url=http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf}}
*{{cite book |last=Tiuⁿ |first=Jū-hông |year=2001 |trans-title=Principles of Pe̍h-oē-jī or the Taiwanese Orthography: an introduction to its sound-symbol correspondences and related issues |script-title=zh:白話字基本論 : 臺語文對應&相關的議題淺說 |language=zh |place=Taipei |publisher=Crane |isbn=957-2053-07-8 }}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=zh-min-nan}}
; On the language
*{{cite web |last=Cannings |first=Michael |url=http://tailingua.com/ |title=Introducing the Taiwanese Language |website=Tailingua}}
* [http://johangijsen.blogspot.com/ Blog on the Taiwanese language and language education in Taiwan]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|title=How to Forget Your Mother Tongue and Remember Your National Language|last=Mair|first=Victor H. |author-link=Victor H. Mair |date=2003 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania|access-date=2 July 2011}}
* [[wikt:Appendix:Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists|Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists]]

; Dictionaries
*{{cite web|script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 |trans-title=[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]] |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index.html |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |date=2011 |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |script-title=zh:台語-華語線頂辭典 |trans-title=Taiwanese-Mandarin Online Dictionary |language=nan-tw, zh, en |url=http://210.240.194.97/iug/Ungian/soannteng/chil/Taihoa.asp }}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |url=http://210.240.194.97/TG/jitian/tgjt.asp |script-title=zh:台語線頂字典 |trans-title=Taiwanese Online Character Dictionary |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |script-title=zh:臺灣本土語言互譯及語音合成系統 |trans-title=Taiwanese languages translation and speech synthesis system |language=zh, nan-tw, hak |url=http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008180132/http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |archive-date=8 October 2006}}
* {{cite web |website=Maryknoll Language Service Center |url=http://taiwanesedictionary.org/ |title=Maryknoll Taiwanese-English Dictionary and English-Amoy Dictionary}}

; Learning aids
* [http://taiwanesegrammar.wordpress.com/ Intermediate Taiwanese grammar (as a blog)]
* [http://taiwanesevocabulary.wordpress.com/ Taiwanese vocabulary: word of the day (blog)]
* [http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/lang/taiwanese/ Taiwanese teaching material]: Nursery rhymes and songs in Han characters and romanization w/ recordings in MP3
* [http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe Travlang (language resources for travellers): Hō-ló-oē] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518234153/http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe |date=18 May 2017 }}
*[http://speaktaiwanese.com/spoken-hokkien/ ''Spoken Hokkien''] - a beginner's e-textbook, with audio, for English-speaking learners of conversational Taiwanese.
* {{cite web |url=http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |title=Daiwanway - Tutorial, dictionary, and stories in Taiwanese. Uses a unique romanization system, different from Pe̍h-oē-jī. Includes sound files |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429232228/http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |archive-date=2007-04-29}}

; Other
* [http://www.dmoz.org/World/Taiwanese/ Open Directory (dmoz): World: Taiwanese]
{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}
{{Southern Min Languages}}
{{Min Chinese}}
{{Chinese language}}

[[Category:Languages of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Hokkien-language dialects]]
[[Category:Taiwanese culture]]

Taiwanese Hokkien

2022-03-13T13:18:02Z

Cuaxdon:

{{short description|Variety of a language dialect}}
{{redirect|Taiwanese language|other languages spoken in Taiwan|Languages of Taiwan|the aboriginal languages of Taiwan|Formosan languages|other uses|Taiwanese language (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Taiwanese
| nativename = Taigi/Taigu, Taiwanese
| pronunciation = {{hideH|title="Tâi-gí / Tâi-gú" }}
{{IPA|[tai˧˩ gi˥˩]}} / {{IPA|[tai˧˩ gu˥˩]}} (dialect) 
{{hideF}}
| states = [[Taiwan]]
| region =
| speakers = 13.5 million
| date = 2017
| ref = <ref>{{e24|nan}}</ref>
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2 = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
| fam3 = [[Min Chinese|Min]]
| fam4 = [[Hoklo]]
| fam5 = [[Choan-Chiang]]
| script = [[Han characters]] (在來字), [[Latin script]] ([[pe̍h ōe jī]])
| nation = {{TWN}}{{efn|National language in [[Taiwan]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aedu/201812250018.aspx|title=Draft national language development act clears legislative floor|website=focustaiwan.tw }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://tw.news.appledaily.com/politics/realtime/20181225/1489328/ |title=立院三讀《國家語言發展法》公廣集團可設台語電視台 |website=ltn.com.tw|date=25 December 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://tw.news.yahoo.com/amphtml/%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E6%B3%95-%E7%AB%8B%E9%99%A2%E4%B8%89%E8%AE%80-%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E5%BE%97%E8%A8%AD%E5%8F%B0%E8%AA%9E%E5%B0%88%E5%B1%AC%E9%A0%BB%E9%81%93-062038323.html |title=《國家語言發展法》立院三讀！政府得設台語專屬頻道 |website=ltn.com.tw}}</ref> also statutory status in Taiwan as one of the languages for public transport announcements<ref>[[:zh:s:大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法|大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法]]</ref> and for the [[naturalization]] test.<ref>Article 6 of the [http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 Standards for Identification of Basic Language Abilities and General Knowledge of the Rights and Duties of Naturalized Citizens] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725175658/http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 |date=25 July 2017 }}</ref>}}
| agency = [[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education in Taiwan]] and relevant NGOs in Taiwan
| isoexception = dialect
| lingua = 79-AAA-jh
| map = Home usage of Taiwanese by district in Taiwan gradient map (2010).svg
| mapcaption = Proportion of residents aged 6 or older using Hokkien at home in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen & Matsu in 2010<ref>Table 6: Languages used at home for the resident nationals aged 6 years and over by gender and age, [http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm 2010 Population and Housing Census] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222005446/http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm |date=22 February 2015 }}, Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics (DGBAS), ROC (Taiwan).</ref>
| notice = IPA
}}

'''Taiwanwe''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi-oân ōe; [[Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn|tâilô]]: Tâi-uân-uē) , also known as '''Taigi/Taigu''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi gí/Tâi gú; tâilô: Tâi-gí/Tâi-gú),{{efn|native lang|tw|name=word1}}<ref name="taigi">{{cite web|title=Taigi與台語|url=https://talk.ltn.com.tw/amp/article/paper/1309601|access-date=10 August 2019|work=Liberty Times|date=10 August 2019}}</ref> '''Hoklo''' called by Hakka people, <ref>{{cite web|last=Lee|first=Jack Tsen-Ta|date=28 April 2015|orig-year=2004|url=http://www.mysmu.edu/faculty/jacklee/singlish_H.htm#Hokkien|title=Hokkien|work=A Dictionary of Singlish and Singapore English|access-date=22 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="taiwansnapshot">{{cite web|url=https://www.taiwan.gov.tw/images/content/ts.JPG|title=TAIWAN SNAPSHOT|access-date=15 March 2020|quote=Languages Mandarin (Chinese), Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, Austronesian languages}}</ref> is a variety of the [[Hoklo]] language spoken natively by about 70%+ of the [[population of Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=TW |title=Taiwan |website=[[Ethnologue]]|quote=Principal languages}}</ref> It is spoken by the [[Taiwanese people]], who descended from immigrants from southern [[Fujian]] during the [[Beng dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book |contribution=Taiwan's Evolving Identity |first=June Teufel |last=Dreyer |pages=4–10 |title=The Evolution of a Taiwanese National Identity |location=Washington |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Institute for Scholars |year=2003 |series=Asia Program Special Report |volume=114 |access-date=12 August 2016 |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325100938/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]] (pe̍h ōe jī) romanization is a [[orthography]] for Taiwanwe.

Taiwanwe is generally similar to spoken [[Emng dialect]], [[Choanchiu dialect]], and [[Chiangchiu dialect]] (branches of [[Hoklo]]), as well as their dialectal forms used in [[Southeast Asia]]. It is [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with [[Emng dialect]] on the mainland, with the dialect of the mouth of the [[Jiulong River]] (九龍) immediately to the west, and with [[Philippine Hokkien]] to the south, spoken altogether by about 3 million people.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210919021444/https://raw.githubusercontent.com/KIRINPUTRA/reclassifying-ISO-639-3-nan/main/Reclassifying_ISO_639-3_%5Bnan%5D__An_Empirical_Approach_to_Mutual_Intelligibility_and_Ethnolinguistic_Distinctions.pdf Reclassifying ISO 639-3 [nan]: An Empirical Approach to Mutual Intelligibility and Ethnolinguistic Distinctions]</ref> The mass popularity of [[Hokkien entertainment media]] from Taiwan has given [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prominence]] to the Taiwanese variety of Hokkien, especially since the 1980s.

==Classification==
Taiwanese is a branched-off variety of [[Hokkien]], a group of [[Southern Min]] language. Like many [[Min Chinese|Min]] varieties, it has distinct [[literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|literary and colloquial layers]] of vocabulary, often associated with formal and informal [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]]s respectively. The literary layer can be traced to the late [[Tang dynasty]] and can thus be related to [[Middle Chinese]]. In contrast, the colloquial layers of Min varieties are believed to have branched from the mainstream of Chinese around the time of the [[Han dynasty]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mei|first=Tsu-lin|year=1970|title=Tones and Prosody in Middle Chinese and The Origin of The Rising Tone|journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|volume=30|pages=86–110|doi=10.2307/2718766|jstor=2718766}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| chapter = The Mǐn dialects in historical perspective
| given = Jerry | surname = Norman
| title = Languages and Dialects of China
| editor-given = William S.-Y. | editor-surname = Wang
| pages = 325–360
| series = ''Journal of Chinese Linguistics'' Monograph Series | volume = 3
| publisher = Chinese University Press | year = 1991b
| issue = 3 | jstor = 23827042 | oclc = 600555701
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| surname = Ting | given = Pang-Hsin
| title = Derivation time of colloquial Min from Archaic Chinese
| journal = Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology
| year = 1983 | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 1–14
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| title = Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
| given1 = William H. | surname1 = Baxter | author-link = William H. Baxter
| given2 = Laurent | surname2 = Sagart | author-link2 = Laurent Sagart
| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-994537-5
| year = 2014
| pages = 33, 79
}}</ref>

Regional variations within Taiwanese may be traced back to Hokkien variants spoken in Southern Fujian, specifically those from [[Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou]], then later [[Amoy]]. Taiwanese also contains loanwords from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and the native [[Formosan languages]]. Recent work by scholars such as [https://web.archive.org/web/20041022000504/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/lou-ek-ki/kongpah-oat.htm Ekki Lu], [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081002014759/http://203.64.42.21/iug/ungian/poj/siausit/2002/2002pojgth/lunbun/a1-sakai.pdf Toru Sakai] (酒井亨 ''Sakai Tōru''), and Lí Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040915015640/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/li-khin-hoann/phok-su/phok-su.htm LEXICAL CHANGE AND VARIATION IN TAIWANESE LITERARY TEXTS, 1916–1998 -- A COMPUTER-ASSISTED CORPUS ANALYSIS]</ref> (also known as Tavokan Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}} or Chin-An Li), based on former research by scholars such as [[Ong Iok-tek|Ông Io̍k-tek]], has gone so far as to associate part of the basic vocabulary of the colloquial Taiwanese with the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] and [[Tai languages|Tai]] language families; however, such claims are controversial.

The literary form of Hokkien once flourished in [[Fujian]] and was brought to Taiwan by early emigrants. ''[[Tale of the Lychee Mirror]]'', a manuscript for a series of plays published during the [[Ming dynasty]] in 1566, is one of the earliest known works. This form of the language is now largely extinct. However, literary readings of the numbers are used in certain contexts such as reciting telephone numbers (see [[Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters]]).{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

== History and formation ==
{{see also|Hokkien#History}}

===Spread of Hokkien to Taiwan===
During the [[Yuan dynasty]], [[Quanzhou]] became a major international port for trade with the outside world.<ref>[http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 教育部，歷史文化學習網，《重要貿易港口－泉州》] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725194653/http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 |date=25 July 2011 }}</ref> From that period onwards, many people from the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions (southern Fujian) started to emigrate overseas due to political and economic reasons. One of the destinations of the emigrants is the relatively undeveloped island of [[Formosa]], starting around 1600. They brought with them their native language, Hokkien.

During the late [[Ming dynasty]], the political chaos pushed more migrants from southern Fujian and eastern [[Guangdong]] to Taiwan. The earliest immigrants involved in Taiwan's development included [[Chinese pirates|pirate-merchants]] {{Interlanguage link multi|Chinese Peter|zh|3=顏思齊|WD=}} and [[Zheng Zhilong]]. In 1621, Chinese Peter and his forces, hailing from [[Zhangzhou]], occupied ''Ponkan'' (modern-day [[Beigang, Yunlin]]) and started to develop ''Tirosen'' (modern-day [[Chiayi City|Chiayi]]). After the death of Peter and another pirate, [[Li Dan (pirate)|Li Dan]] of Quanzhou, Zheng sought to dominate the [[Taiwan Strait|Strait of Taiwan]]. By 1628, he had grown so powerful that the Ming court bestowed him the official title, "Patrolling Admiral".<ref>{{cite book|author1-link=Tonio Andrade |last=Andrade |first=Tonio |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century |publisher=Columbia University Press |chapter=Chapter 2: A Scramble for Influence |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade02.html |year=2005 |at=§20-1}}</ref>

In 1624, the number of Chinese in the island was about 25,000.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=13}} During the reign of [[Chongzhen Emperor]] (1627–1644), there were frequent droughts in the Fujian region. Zheng and a Chinese official suggested sending victims to Taiwan and provide "for each person three [[tael]]s of silver and for each three people one ox".{{sfnp|Andrade|2005|loc=§26}} Although this plan was never carried out, the Zheng family maintained an interest in Taiwan that would have dire consequences for the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]], who ruled Taiwan as [[Dutch Formosa]] at the time.

===Development and divergence===
In 1624 and 1626, the Dutch and Spanish forces occupied the [[Tainan]] and [[Keelung]] areas, respectively. During the 40 years of [[Dutch Formosa|Dutch colonial rule of Taiwan]], many [[Han Chinese]] from the [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Hakka culture|Hakka]] regions of mainland China were recruited to help develop Taiwan. Because of intermingling with [[Siraya people]] as well as Dutch colonial rule, the Hokkien dialects started to deviate from the original Hokkien spoken in mainland China.

In the 1661 [[Siege of Fort Zeelandia]], Chinese general [[Koxinga]] expelled the Dutch and established the [[Kingdom of Tungning]]. Koxinga originated from the Quanzhou region. [[Chen Yonghua]], who was in charge of establishing the education system of Tungning, also originated from Quanzhou. Because most of the soldiers he brought to Taiwan came from Quanzhou, the [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Hokkien on the island at the time was the [[Quanzhou dialect]].

In 1683, Chinese admiral [[Shi Lang]] attacked Taiwan in the [[Battle of Penghu]], ending the Tungning era and beginning [[Taiwan under Qing rule|Qing dynasty rule]] (until 1895). In the following years, in order to prevent people from rebelling, the Qing court instituted a ban on migration to Taiwan,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} especially the migration of [[Hakka people]] from [[Guangdong]] province, which led Hokkien to become the most spoken language in Taiwan.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

In the first decades of the 18th century, the linguistic differences between the Qing imperial bureaucrats and the commoners were recorded by the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]-speaking first Imperial [[High commissioner|High Commissioner]] to Taiwan (1722), [[Huang Shujing]]:
{{cquote|In this place, the language is as [[birdcall]] – totally unintelligible! For example: for the surname [[Liu|Liú]], they say 'Lâu'; for [[Chen (surname)|Chén]], 'Tân'; [[Zhuang (surname)|Zhuāng]], 'Chng'; and [[Zhang (surname)|Zhāng]] is 'Tioⁿ'. My deputy’s surname [[Wu (surname)|Wú]] becomes 'Ngô͘'. My surname [[Huang (surname)|Huáng]] does not even have a proper vowel: it is 'N̂g' here! It is difficult to make sense of this. 
({{lang|zh-Hant|郡中鴃舌鳥語，全不可曉。如：劉呼「澇」、陳呼「澹」、莊呼「曾」、張呼「丟」。余與吳待御兩姓，吳呼作「襖」，黃則無音，厄影切，更為難省。}})|||''Records from the mission to Taiwan and its Strait'', Volume II: "On the area around [[Fort Provintia]], [[Tainan]]" (臺海使槎錄卷二赤嵌筆談)}}
The tone of Huang's message [[Foretelling|foretold]] the uneasy relationships between different [[Speech community|language communities]] and colonial establishments over the next few centuries.

The ban on migration to Taiwan was relaxed sometime after 1722 (and was completely removed in 1874). During the 200 years of Qing dynasty rule, thousands of immigrants from [[Fujian]] arrived yearly; the population was over one million in the middle of the 18th century.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=561}} Civil unrest and armed conflicts were frequent. In addition to resistance against governments (both Chinese and later Japanese), [[Ethnic conflict|battles between ethnic groups]] were also significant: the belligerents usually grouped around the language they used. History has recorded battles between [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] speakers and Hokkien speakers, between these and the [[Taiwanese aborigine|aborigines]], and even between those who spoke different variants of Hokkien.

In the early 20th century, the [[Hoklo people]] in Taiwan could be categorized as originating from [[Xiamen]], [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Zhangpu County|Zhangpu]].{{clarify|reason=Zhangpu is part of Zhangzhou|date=August 2020}}{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=591}} People from the former two areas (Quanzhou-speaking) were dominant in the north of the island and along the west coast,<ref>"especially in the cities of Koro (Aulang), Taiko (Taika), Giubato (Gumatau), Gosei (Goche), Tokatsukutsu (Thawkakut), and Rokko (Lokiang)." (modern-day [[Houlong, Miaoli|Houlong]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]], [[Qingshui District|Qingshui]], [[Wuqi District|Wuqi]], [[Longjing District|Longjing]], and Lukang, respectively.) {{harvp|Davidson|1903|p=591}}</ref> whereas people from the latter two areas ([[Zhangzhou dialect|Zhangzhou]]-speaking) were dominant in the south and perhaps the central plains as well.

Although there were conflicts between Quanzhou- and Zhangzhou-speakers in Taiwan historically, their gradual [[intermingling]] led to the mixture of the two [[Accent (sociolinguistics)|accents]]. Apart from [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang city]] and [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan County]], which have preserved their original Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents respectively, almost every region of Taiwan now speaks a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien.{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} A similar phenomenon occurred in [[Xiamen]] (Amoy) after 1842, when the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien displaced the Quanzhou dialect to yield the modern [[Amoy dialect]].<ref>泉州旅游信息网，[http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm 泉州方言文化] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301121345/http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm |date=1 March 2007 }}</ref>

During the [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese colonial rule of Taiwan]], Taiwan began to hold Amoy Hokkien as its standard pronunciation; the Japanese called this mixture {{nihongo|'''Taiwanese'''|臺灣語|Taiwango}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Iûⁿ |first1=Ún-giân |last2=Tiuⁿ |first2=Ha̍k-khiam |last3=Lu |first3=Bichhin |script-title=zh:台語文運動訪談暨史料彙編 |language=zh |date=2008-03-01 |publisher=國史館 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789860132946 |oclc=813921186}}</ref>

Due to the influx of Japanese loanwords before 1945 and the political separation after 1949,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} Amoy Hokkien and Taiwanese began to [[Linguistic divergence|diverge]] slightly.

===Modern times===
[[File:Proportion of Taiwanese Language Used in House.svg|thumb|350px|Proportion of languages used at home by residents aged 6 or over in Taiwan in 2010, sorted by birth year.<ref name="housing census">Sources: http://www.dgbas.gov.tw/public/data/dgbas04/bc6/census022%28final%29.html 2010 population and housing census by DGBAS, [[Executive Yuan]].</ref> The chart shows the tendency that speech communities of [[Languages of Taiwan#Other languages|Taiwanese local languages]] are shifting to speak [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]].]]
Later, in the 20th century, the conceptualization of Taiwanese is more controversial than most variations of Chinese because at one time it marked a clear division between the Mainlanders who [[KMT retreat to Taiwan in 1949|arrived in 1949]] and the pre-existing majority native Taiwanese. Although the political and linguistic divisions between the two groups have blurred considerably, the political issues surrounding Taiwanese have been more controversial and sensitive than for other [[varieties of Chinese]].

After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], due to military defeat to the Japanese, the [[Qing dynasty]] ceded [[Taiwan]] to Japan, causing contact with the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions of mainland China to stop. During Japanese rule, Japanese became an official language in Taiwan, and Taiwanese began to absorb large number of Japanese loanwords into its language. Examples of such loanwords (some which had in turn been borrowed from English) include ''piān-só͘'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|便所}}|benjo|"toilet"}}, ''phêng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|坪}}|[[tsubo]]|"[[pyeong]]", an areal measurement}} (see also [[Taiwanese units of measurement]]), ''ga-suh'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|瓦斯}}|gasu|"gas"}}, ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|オートバイ}}|ōtobai|"autobicycle", motorcycle}}. All of these caused Taiwanese to deviate from Hokkien used elsewhere.

During [[Kōminka movement (Taiwan)|Kōminka]] of the late Japanese colonial period, the [[Japanese language]] appeared in every corner of Taiwan. The [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] beginning in 1937 brought stricter measures into force, and along with the outlawing of [[Chinese language romanization in Taiwan|romanized Taiwanese]], various publications were prohibited and Confucian-style private schools which taught [[Classical Chinese]] with [[Literary language|literary]] Southern Min pronunciation – were closed down in 1939.{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=135}} Taiwanese thus was reduced to a common [[Vernacular|daily language]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ang |first1=Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣方言之旅 |date=1991 |publisher=前衛出版社 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789579512312}}</ref> In 1937 the colonial government introduced a concept called "National Language Family" ({{linktext|国語}}{{linktext|の}}{{linktext|家)}}, which meant that families that proved that they adopted Japanese as their daily language enjoyed benefits such as greater access to education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw/ischool/publish_page/106/?cid=4897|title=Hui-Wen High School Taichung, Introduction to the Kominka period|work=www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw}}</ref>

After the handover of Taiwan to the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] in 1945, there was brief cultural exchange with mainland China followed by further oppression. The [[Chinese Civil War]] resulted in another political separation when the [[Kuomintang]] (Chinese Nationalist Party) government [[Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan|retreated to Taiwan following their defeat by the communists]] in 1949. The influx of two million soldiers and civilians caused the population of Taiwan to increase from 6 million to 8 million. The government subsequently promoted [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] while suppressing, but short of banning, the use of written Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] (e.g. [[pe̍h-oē-jī]], a phonetic rendering of spoken Hokkien using the Latin alphabet) as part of its general policy of political repression.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lin |first=Alvin |issue=89 |title=Writing Taiwanese: The Development of Modern Written Taiwanese |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp089_taiwanese.pdf |year=1999 |oclc=41879041 }}</ref> In 1964 the use of spoken Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] or [[Hakka]] in schools or in official settings was forbidden; violations of the prohibition in schools often resulted in physical punishments, fines, or humiliation.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Linguistic capital in Taiwan: The KMT's Mandarin language policy and its perceived impact on language practices of bilingual Mandarin and Tai-gi speakers |last=Sandel |first=Todd L. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |journal=Language in Society |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=523–551 |doi=10.1017/S0047404503324030 |jstor=4169285 |s2cid=145703339 }}</ref>

Only after the lifting of [[Martial law in Taiwan|martial law]] in 1987 and the [[mother tongue]] movement in the 1990s did Taiwan see a true [[Language revitalization|revival]] in the Taiwanese language. Today, there are a large number of Taiwanese scholars dedicated to researching the language. Despite this, according to census data the number of people speaking Taiwanese continued to drop.<ref name="housing census"/>

The history of Taiwanese and its interaction with Mandarin is complex and at times controversial, even regarding its name. The language has no official name in Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |title=中華民國文化部-國家語言發展法 |url=https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |website=www.moc.gov.tw |access-date=24 October 2019 |language=zh |date=10 October 2008 |quote=《國家語言發展法》並未以法律明列各固有族群之語言名稱，即是尊重各族群使用者慣常使用之命名權。 |archive-date=2 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402055541/https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some dislike the name "Taiwanese" as they feel that it belittles other languages spoken on the island such as Mandarin, [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], and the [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]]. Others prefer the names [[Southern Min]], Minnan or Hokkien as this views Taiwanese as a form of the Chinese variety spoken in [[Fujian]] province in [[mainland China]]. Others dislike those names for precisely the same reason.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} In the [[American Community Survey]] run by the [[United States Census Bureau]], Taiwanese was referred to as "Formosan" from 2012 to 2015 and as "Min Nan Chinese" since 2016.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2018/demo/SEHSD-WP2018-31.pdf | title=American Community Survey Redesign of Language-Spoken-at-Home Data | date=2016 | first=Christine P. | last=Gambino | work=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{Commons category|Taiwanese Hokkien}}
{{see also|Help:IPA/Taiwanese Hokkien}}
[[Phonology|Phonologically]], Hokkien is a [[tonal language]] with extensive [[tone sandhi]] rules. [[Syllable]]s consist maximally of an initial [[consonant]], a [[vowel]], a final consonant, and a tone.

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|- style="font-size: 90%;"
|+Initials
!colspan=2|
!colspan=2| [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo -palatal]]
!colspan=2| [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
!colspan=2| [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|m}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|m ㄇ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|n}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|n ㄋ
|colspan=2|
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ŋ}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ng ㄫ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! voiced
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|b}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|b ㆠ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɡ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|g ㆣ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|p}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|p ㄅ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|t}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|t ㄉ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|k}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|k ㄍ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[pʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ph ㄆ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|th ㄊ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[kʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|kh ㄎ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! voiced
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dz}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|j ㆡ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dʑ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|j(i) ㆢ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! tenuis
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ts}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ch, ts ㄗ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|tɕ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ch(i), ts(i) ㄐ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! aspirated
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tsʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh, tsh ㄘ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tɕʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh(i), tsh(i) ㄑ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|s}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|s ㄙ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɕ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|si ㄒ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|h}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|h ㄏ
|-
!colspan=2| [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|l}}'''~'''{{IPAblink|ɾ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|l ㄌ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|}
{|class=wikitable
|+Finals
! !![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]!![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]!![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- align=center
![[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|'''{{IPA|[m]}}''' -m||'''{{IPA|[n]}}''' -n||'''{{IPA|[ŋ]}}''' -ng||'''{{IPAblink|◌̃}}''' -ⁿ
|- align=center
![[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
|'''{{IPA|[p̚]}}''' -p ㆴ||'''{{IPA|[t̚]}}''' -t ㆵ||'''{{IPA|[k̚]}}''' -k ㆶ||'''{{IPAblink|ʔ}}''' -h ㆷ
|}

Unlike many other varieties of Chinese such as Mandarin and [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]], there are no native [[labiodental]] phonemes (i.e., {{IPAblink|f}}).

# Coronal affricates and fricatives become [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] before {{IPA|/i/}}, that is, {{IPA|/dzi/}}, {{IPA|/tsi/}}, {{IPA|/tsʰi/}}, and {{IPA|/si/}} are pronounced {{IPA|[dʑi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕʰi]}}, and {{IPA|[ɕi]}}.
# The consonant {{IPA|/dz/}} may be realized as a fricative; that is, as {{IPA|[z]}} in most environments and {{IPA|[ʑ]}} before {{IPA|/i/}}.
# The [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] plosives ({{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}) become the corresponding fricatives ({{IPAblink|β}} and {{IPAblink|ɣ}}) in some phonetic contexts. This is similar to [[begadkefat]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and a similar [[Allophone|allophony]] of intervocalic [[plosive consonants]] and their fricatives in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].

=== Vowels ===
Taiwanese has the following [[vowel]]s:
{|class=wikitable
|-
!rowspan=2| !!colspan=2|[[Front vowel|Front]]!!colspan=2|[[Central vowel|Central]]!!colspan=2|[[Back vowel|Back]]
!rowspan=5| !!colspan=2 rowspan=2|[[Syllabic consonant]]
|- align=center
!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]
|- align=center
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|'''{{IPAblink|i}}''' i ㄧ||'''{{IPA|[ĩ]}}''' iⁿ ㆪ
| ||
|'''{{IPAblink|u}}''' u ㄨ||'''{{IPA|[ũ]}}''' uⁿ ㆫ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[m̩]}}''' m ㆬ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[ŋ̍]}}''' ng ㆭ
|- align=center
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|'''{{IPAblink|e}}''' e ㆤ||'''{{IPA|[ẽ]}}''' eⁿ ㆥ
|'''{{IPAblink|ə}} ~ {{IPAblink|o}}''' o ㄜ, ㄛ||
|'''{{IPAblink|ɔ}}''' o͘ ㆦ||'''{{IPA|[ɔ̃]}}''' oⁿ ㆧ
|- align=center
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| || ||'''{{IPAblink|ä|a}}''' a ㄚ||'''{{IPA|[ã]}}''' aⁿ ㆩ|| ||
|}

The vowel {{angle bracket|o}} is akin to a [[schwa]]; in contrast, {{angle bracket|[[o͘]]}} (with dot) is a more [[Vowel height|open vowel]]. In addition, there are several [[diphthong]]s and [[triphthong]]s (for example, {{angle bracket|iau}}). The consonants {{angle bracket|m}} and {{angle bracket|ng}} can function as a [[Nucleus (syllable)|syllabic nucleus]] and are therefore included here as vowels. The vowels may be either plain or [[Nasal vowel|nasal]]: {{angle bracket|a}} is non-nasal, and {{angle bracket|aⁿ}} is the same vowel with concurrent nasal articulation. This is similar to [[French language|French]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Polish language|Polish]], and many other languages.

There are two pronunciations of vowel {{angle bracket|o}}. In the south (e.g., [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]) it is {{IPA|[ə]}}; in the north (e.g., [[Taipei]]) it is {{IPA|[o]}}. Due to development of transportation and communication, both pronunciations are common and acceptable throughout the country.

{{IPAblink|i}} is a diphthong [<nowiki/>[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]][[Mid central vowel|ə]]] before -k or -ng (POJ: ek, eng), and is slightly shortened and retracted before -p or -t to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-front unrounded vowel|í̞]]]. Similarly, {{IPAblink|u}} is slightly shortened and retracted before -t or -n to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-back rounded vowel|ʊ]]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Tâigí Phonics 3 - Single Vowels - YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Muv_Rx7OXg0 |url-status=dead|access-date=2021-02-06|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref>

=== Tones ===
[[Image:Taiwanese tones.png|thumb|right|Taiwanese tones, close to Taipei values.]]
In the traditional analysis, there are eight "tones", [[tone number|numbered]] from 1 to 8. Strictly speaking, there are only 3 [[Tone level]]. But as in other Sinitic languages, the two kinds of stopped syllables are considered also to be tones and assigned numbers 4 and 8. In Taiwanese tone 6 has merged into tone 7, and thus duplicated in the count. Here the eight tones are shown, following the traditional tone class categorization, named after the tones of [[Middle Sinitic]]:
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Taiwanese tones{{sfnp|Wu|2000|p=2691}}
|-
! Tone number !! Name !! POJ accent !! Pitch in Taipei !! Description !! Pitch in Tainan !! Description
|-
| 1 || yin level (陰平) || a || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥]}}''' (55) || high || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˦]}}''' (44) || high
|-
| 2 || yin rising (陰上) || á || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˩]}}''' (51) || falling || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˧]}}''' (53) || high falling
|-
| 3 || yin departing (陰去) || à || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧˩]}}''' to '''{{IPA|[˨˩]}}''' (21) || low falling || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩]}}''' (11) || low
|-
| 4 || yin entering (陰入) || ah || '''{{IPA|[āʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˧˨]}}''' (2) || mid stopped || '''{{IPA|[àʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˨˩]}}''' (2) || low stopped
|-
| 5 || yang level (陽平) || â || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩˦ ~ a˨˦]}}''' (24) || rising || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨˦]}}''' (25) || rising
|-
| 7 (6) || yang departing and yang rising (陽去與陽上) || ā || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧]}}''' (33) || mid || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨]}}''' (22) || mid
|-
| 8 || yang entering (陽入) || a̍h || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˦]}}''' (4) || high stopped || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˥]}}''' (5) || high stopped
|}

{{Listen|filename=Taiwanese-8Tones.ogg|title=Eight tones of Taiwanese|description=Demonstration of the tones of Taiwanese: 衫 ''saⁿ, 短 té, 褲, khò͘, 闊 khoah, 人 lâng, 矮 é, 鼻 phīⁿ, 直 ti̍t''. Tone sandhi rules do not apply in this sentence. (This demonstration is popular but misleading in the use of ''矮 é'' as an example for tone 6. In dialects that distinguish tones 6 and 7, ''矮 é'' belongs to tone 2, and most words of tone 6 merges into tone 7 in Taiwanese.)}}

See (for one example) the modern phonological analysis in {{harvp|Chiung|2003}}, which challenges these notions.

For tones 4 and 8, a final consonant {{angle bracket|p}}, {{angle bracket|t}}, or {{angle bracket|k}} may appear. When this happens, it is impossible for the syllable to be nasal. Indeed, these are the counterpart to the nasal final consonants {{angle bracket|m}}, {{angle bracket|n}}, and {{angle bracket|ng}}, respectively, in other tones. However, it is possible to have a nasal 4th or 8th tone syllable such as {{angle bracket|siahⁿ}}, as long as there is no final consonant other than {{angle bracket|h}}.

In the dialect spoken near the northern coast of Taiwan, there is no distinction between tones number 8 and number 4 – both are pronounced as if they follow the [[tone sandhi]] rules of tone number 4.

Tone number 0, typically written with two consecutive hyphens (--a) or a point (·a) before the syllable with this tone, is used to mark [[enclitic]]s denoting the extent of a verb action, the end of a noun phrase, etc. A frequent use of this tone is to denote a question, such as in "Chia̍h pá ·bōe?", literally meaning 'Have you eaten yet?’. This is realized by speaking the syllable with either a low-falling tone (3) or a low stop (4). The syllable prior to the {{angle bracket|·}} maintains its original tone.

=== Syllabic structure ===
A [[syllable]] requires a vowel (or diphthong or [[triphthong]]) to appear in the middle. All consonants can appear at the initial position. The consonants {{angle bracket|p, t, k}} and {{angle bracket|m, n, ng}} (and some consider {{angle bracket|h}}) may appear at the end of a syllable. Therefore, it is possible to have syllables such as {{angle bracket|ngiau}} ("(to) tickle") and {{angle bracket|thng}} ("soup").

=== Tone sandhi ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Tone Sandhi 01.svg|thumbnail|right|Schema of the tone sandhi rules in Taiwanese.]]
Taiwanese has extremely extensive [[tone sandhi]] (tone-changing) rules: in an utterance, only the last syllable pronounced is not affected by the rules.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uegu.blogspot.com/2015/01/blog-post_16.html|script-title=zh:台語好多聲|trans-title=The Many Tones of Taiwanese|author=麻瓜先生|date=January 2015|quote={{lang|zh-tw|台語裡有個變調系統，細說分明需要時間，但最大的規則就是「最後一個字不要變！其他變變變！」}}|access-date=21 March 2019}}</ref> What an ‘[[utterance]]’ (or ‘[[intonational phrase]]’) is, in the context of this language, is an ongoing topic for linguistic research, but some general rules apply:<ref name="Lin2015">{{cite book|author=Philip T. Lin|title=Taiwanese Grammar: A Concise Reference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlExBwAAQBAJ|date=31 January 2015|publisher=Greenhorn Media|isbn=978-0-9963982-1-3}}</ref>

The following syllables are unaffected by tone sandhi:
* The final syllable in a [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]], [[noun]] (including single syllable nouns, but not [[pronoun]]s), number, time phrase (i.e., today, tomorrow, etc.), spatial [[preposition]] (i.e., on, under), or [[question word]] (i.e., who, what, how).
* The syllable immediately preceding the [[possessive particle]] 的 (ê) or a neutralized tone. In POJ, this is the syllable before a double hyphen, e.g., 王先生 (Ông—sian-siⁿ)
* Some common [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] markers: 了 (liáu), 好 (hó), 完 (oân), 煞 (soah)

==== Normal tone sandhi ====
The following rules, listed in the traditional pedagogical mnemonic order, govern the pronunciation of tone on each of the syllables affected (that is, all but those described according to the rules listed above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''3''' ([[Quanzhou]]/Taipei speech) or '''7''' ([[Zhangzhou]]/Tainan speech).
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Normal tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻³ / tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻³ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜖]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻³ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜖]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

==== Double tone sandhi ====
There are a number of a single syllable words that undergo double tone sandhi, that is, they follow the tone change rule twice and are pronounced according to the second tone change. These syllables are almost always a 4th tone ending in '''-h''', and include the words 卜 (beh), 甲 (kah), 閣 (koh), 即 (chiah), as well as the 3rd tone verb 去 khì. As a result of following the tone change rule twice, these syllables are all pronounced as tone number '''1'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Double tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 4 || kah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kaʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kaʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || khi³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kʰi˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kʰi˩꜓]}}
|}

==== Before the -á suffix ====
{{Wiktionary pipe|仔#Usage notes|the rules for tone sandhi before '仔' (-á) with examples}}
Apart from the normal tone sandhi rules described above, there are two special cases where a different set of tone sandhi apply.<ref>Iunn Un-gian. "A Study on Implementation of Southern-Min Taiwanese Tone Sandhi System." (2005). https://aclweb.org/anthology/Y/Y05/Y05-1011.pdf</ref> In a noun with the noun [[suffix]] '{{linktext|lang=zh|仔}}' ({{linktext|á}}), the penultimate syllable is governed by the following rules:
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''' or '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''. (same as double)

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Tone sandhi before -á (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜕]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜓]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|}

==== In triplicated adjectives ====
Finally, in the case of single-syllable adjective [[triplication]] (for added emphasis), the first syllable is governed by the following rules (the second syllable follows the normal tone sandhi rules above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Triplicated tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

See {{harvp|Tiuⁿ|2001}}, {{harvp|Chiung|2003}} and the work of Robert L. Cheng (鄭良偉; Tēⁿ Liông-úi)<ref>{{cite web |date=2003 |publisher=Center for Chinese Studies, University of Hawaii |title=Robert L. Cheng |url=http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070624085539/http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-date=2007-06-24}}</ref> for modern linguistic approaches to tones and tone sandhi in Taiwanese.

== Lexicon ==
Modern linguistic studies (by Robert L. Cheng and Chin-An Li, for example) estimate that most (75% to 90%) Taiwanese [[word]]s have [[cognate]]s in other Sinitic languages. [[False friend]]s do exist; for example, ''cháu'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|走}}) means "to run" in Taiwanese, whereas the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] cognate, ''zǒu'', means "to walk". Moreover, cognates may have different [[Part of speech|lexical categories]]; for example, the [[morpheme]] ''phīⁿ'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|鼻}}) means not only "nose" (a noun, as in Mandarin ''bí'') but also "to smell" (a verb, unlike Mandarin).

Among the apparently cognate-less words are many basic words with properties that contrast with similar-meaning words of pan-Chinese derivation. Often the former group lacks a standard Han character, and the words are variously considered colloquial, intimate, vulgar, uncultured, or more concrete in meaning than the pan-Chinese synonym. Some examples: ''lâng'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|人}}, person, concrete) vs. ''jîn'' (人, person, abstract); ''{{linktext|cha-bó͘}}'' ({{linktext|查某}}, woman) vs. ''lú jîn'' (女人, woman, literary). Unlike the [[English language#Vocabulary|English Germanic/Latin contrast]], however, the two groups of Taiwanese words cannot be as strongly attributed to the influences of two disparate linguistic sources.

Extensive contact with the [[Japanese language]] has left a legacy of Japanese [[loanwords]], with 172 recorded in the Ministry of Education's ''[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_wailaici.jsp |script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典-外來詞 |year=2011 |trans-title=Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan - Loanwords |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |language=zh |access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref> Although a very small percentage of the vocabulary, their usage tends to be high-frequency because of their relevance to modern society and popular culture. Examples are: ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||オートバイ|ōtobai|"autobike"/motorcycle}} and ''pháng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|パン}}|pan|"[[bread]]", itself a loanword from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]}}. [[Grammatical particle]]s borrowed from Japanese, notably ''te̍k'' from {{nihongo4||的|teki}} and ''ka'' from {{nihongo4||か|ka}}, show up in the Taiwanese of older speakers.

Taiwanese pronouns are collectivized through [[nasalization]]. For example, ''i'' (he/she/it) and ''goá'' (I) become ''in'' (they) and ''goán'' (we), respectively. The ''-n'' thus represents a subsyllabic [[morpheme]].

Unlike English, Taiwanese has two [[first person plural|first-person plural]] pronouns. This distinction is called [[Clusivity|inclusive]], which includes the [[Interlocutor (linguistics)|addressee]], and exclusive, which excludes the addressee. Thus, ''goán'' means ''we excluding you'', while ''lán'' means ''we including you'' (similar to [[pluralis auctoris]]). The inclusive ''lán'' may be used to express politeness or solidarity, as in the example of a speaker asking a stranger "Where do we live?" while implicitly asking "Where do ''you'' live?".

== Syntax ==
{{Listen|filename=Tai JintianDaoJiaKanWo.ogg|title=Kin-ná jit hit ê cha-bó͘ gín-á lâi góan tau khòaⁿ góa.|description=An audio sample for a simple sentence, meaning "Today that little girl came to our house to see me".}}
The [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is similar to southern sinitic languages such as [[Hakka]] and [[Yue]]. The [[subject–verb–object]] sequence is typical as in, for example, [[Mandarin Chinese]], but [[subject–object–verb]] or the [[passive voice]] (with the sequence [[object–subject–verb]]) is possible with particles. Take a simple sentence for example: 'I hold you.' The words involved are: ''goá'' ('I' or 'me'), ''phō'' ('to hold'), ''lí'' ('you').
* Subject–verb–object (typical sequence): The sentence in the typical sequence would be: ''Goá phō lí.'' ('I hold you.')
* Subject–''kā''–object–verb: Another sentence of roughly equivalent meaning is ''Goá kā lí phō'', with the slight connotation of 'I take you and hold' or 'I get to you and hold'.
* Object ''hō͘'' subject–verb (the passive voice): Then, ''Lí hō͘ goá phō'' means the same thing but in the [[passive voice]], with the connotation of 'You allow yourself to be held by me' or 'You make yourself available for my holding'.

With this, more complicated sentences can be constructed: ''Goá kā chúi hō͘ lí lim'' ('I give water for you to drink': ''chúi'' means 'water'; ''lim'' is 'to drink').

This article can only give a few very simple examples on the syntax, for flavour. Linguistic work on the [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is still a (quite nascent) scholarly topic being explored.

== Scripts and orthographies ==
{{Main|Written Hokkien}}

[[File:Holo bunhak chokphin.JPG|thumb|right|A selection of literary works (original and translated) in Taiwanese, in several orthographies.]]

Until the late 19th century, Taiwanese speakers wrote mostly in [[Classical Sinitic]]|date=June 2015}}. Among many systems of writing Taiwanewe using Latin characters, the most used is called [[pe̍h oē jī]] (POJ) and was developed in the 19th century. (For additional romanized systems, see references in "Orthography in Latin characters", below.) Nonetheless, Taiwanese speakers nowadays most commonly write in Chinese Mandarin, though many of the same characters are also used to write Taiwanese.

=== Han characters ===
In most cases, Taiwanese speakers write using the [[writing system|script]] called [[Han characters]] as in Mandarin, although there are a number of special characters which are unique to Taiwanwe and which are sometimes used in informal writing. Where Han characters are used, they are not always etymological or genetic; the borrowing of similar-sounding or similar-meaning characters is a common practice. Bilingual speakers of both Mandarin and Taiwanese sometimes attempt to represent the sounds by adopting similar-sounding Mandarin Han characters. For example, the Han characters of the [[Profanity|vulgar slang]] 'khoàⁿ sáⁿ-siâu' ({{linktext|lang=zh|看|三小}}, substituted for the etymologically correct {{linktext|lang=zh|看|省屑}}, meaning 'What the hell are you looking at?’) has very little meaning in Mandarin and may not be readily understood by a Taiwanese monolingual, as knowledge of Mandarin character readings is required to fully decipher it.

In 2007, the [[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|Ministry of Education]] in Taiwan published the first list of [[Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters]], a list of 300 Han characters standardized for the use of writing Taiwanese and implemented the teaching of them in schools.<ref>[http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm 教育部公布閩南語300字推薦用字　卡拉OK用字也被選用 (Ministry of Education in Taiwan announces 300 recommended Hokkien words, Karaoke words are also selected)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724212916/http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm |date=24 July 2011 }}; [http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 「臺灣閩南語推薦用字（第1批）」已公布於網站，歡迎各界使用 (Announcement of recommended words for Taiwanese Hokkien)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718144143/http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 |date=18 July 2011 }}</ref> In 2008, the ministry published a second list of 100 characters, and in 2009 added 300 more, giving a total of 700 standardized characters used to write uniquely Taiwanese words.

However, these "recommended Han characters" are totally different from old Taiwanese Han characters. Hence, the policy of RoC is seen as cultural destruction again.

=== Orthography in Latin characters ===
[[Image:Kauhoe.jpg|thumb|right|An issue of the ''[[Taiwan Church News]]'', first published by Presbyterian missionaries in 1885. This was the first printed newspaper in Taiwan, and was written in Taiwanese, in the Latin orthography pe̍h oē jī.]]

There are several Latin-based orthographies, the oldest being [[Pe̍h oē jī]] (POJ, meaning "vernacular writing"), developed in the 19th century. [[Taiwanese Minnan Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī, Tâi-Bân-Lô) and [[Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet]] (TLPA) are two later adaptations of POJ. Other 20th-century innovations include [[Daighi tongiong pingim]] (DT), [[Ganvsig daiuuan bhanlam ghiw tongiong pingimv]] (GDT), [[Modern Literal Taiwanese]] (MLT), [[Simplified MLT]] (SMLT), [[Phofsit Daibuun]] (PSDB). The last four employ [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] [[spelling]] to indicate tone without use of [[diacritic]] symbols, but letters instead.

In POJ, the traditional list of letters is
:a b ch chh e g h i j k kh l m n ng o o͘ p ph s t th (ts) u
Twenty-four in all, including the obsolete {{angle bracket|ts}}, which was used to represent the modern {{angle bracket|ch}} at some places. The additional necessities are the nasal symbol {{angle bracket|ⁿ}}  (superscript {{angle bracket|n}}; the uppercase form {{angle bracket|N}} is sometimes used in [[all caps]] texts,<ref>Tè Khái-sū (1999) [https://archive.org/details/Tpsurvey Writing Latinized Taiwanese Languages with Unicode]</ref> such as book titles or section headings), and the tonal [[diacritic]]s.
POJ was developed first by [[Presbyterian]] [[missionaries]] and later by the indigenous [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]]; they have been active in promoting the language since the late 19th century. Recently there has been an increase in texts using a mixed orthography of Han characters and romanization, although these texts remain uncommon.

In 2006, the [[National Languages Committee]] (Ministry of Education, Republic of China) proposed [[Taiwanese Minnan Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī pheng-im, Tâi-Bân-Lô). This alphabet reconciles two orthographies, TLPA and POJ.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tlh.de-han.org/untong/2006/0929TaiLo.pdf|title=臺灣閩南語羅馬字拼音方案 (Orthographic system for the Minnan language in Taiwan, 'Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī pheng-im')}}</ref> The changes for the consonants involved using {{angle bracket|ts}} for POJ's {{angle bracket|ch}} (reverting to the orthography in the 19th century), and {{angle bracket|tsh}} for {{angle bracket|chh}}. For the vowels, {{angle bracket|o͘}} could optionally represented as {{angle bracket|oo}}. The nasal mark {{angle bracket|ⁿ}} could also be represented optionally as {{angle bracket|nn}}. The rest of the alphabet, most notably the use of diacritics to mark the tones, appeared to keep to the POJ tradition. One of the aims of this compromise was to curb any increase of 'market share' for Daighi tongiong pingim/Tongyong Pinyin.<ref>[http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf 教育部國語推行委員會: 關於閩南語拼音整合工作相關問題說帖 (National Languages Committee: On the integration of Minnan orthographies), 2006-10-16] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128050052/http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf |date=28 November 2007 }}</ref> It is unclear whether the community will adopt this new agreement.

=== Orthographies in kana and in bopomofo ===
[[Image:Japanese-Taiwanese Dictionary.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese–Taiwanese Dictionary, using the orthography in kana]]
{{Main|Taiwanese kana|Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols}}
There was an orthography of Taiwanese based on the [[Kana|Japanese kana]] during [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese rule]]. The [[Kuomintang]] government also tried to introduce an orthography in [[bopomofo]].

===Comparison of orthographies===
Here the different orthographies are compared:
{{POJtable}}

=== Computing ===
[[File:Pa-khek-le Kau-hoe.jpg|thumb|right|Pe̍h-ōe-jī inscription at a church in [[Tainan|Tâi-lâm]] commemorating [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]].]]

Many [[keyboard layout]]s and [[Chinese input methods for computers|input methods]] for entering either Latin or Han characters in Taiwanese are available. Some of them are free-of-charge, some commercial.

The [[Min Nan]] dialect group is registered per {{IETF RFC|3066}} as [https://www.iana.org/assignments/lang-tags/zh-min-nan zh-min-nan].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evertype.com/standards/iso639/iana-lang-assignments.html|title=Evertype|website=www.evertype.com}}</ref> Taiwanese Min Nan can be represented as 'zh-min-nan-TW'.

When writing Taiwanese in Han characters, some writers create 'new' characters when they consider it is impossible to use directly or borrow existing ones; this corresponds to similar practices in character usage in [[Written Cantonese|Cantonese]], [[chu nom|Vietnamese chữ nôm]], [[Hanja|Korean hanja]] and [[Kanji|Japanese kanji]]. These are usually not encoded in [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal Character Set]]), thus creating problems in computer processing.

All Latin characters required by pe̍h-oē-jī can be represented using [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal character set]]), using precomposed or combining (diacritics) characters.

{{Main|O͘}}
Prior to June 2004, the vowel {{IPA|[ɔ]}} akin to but more open than ⟨o⟩, written with a 'dot above right', was not encoded. The usual workaround was to use the (stand-alone; spacing) character ‘[[Interpunct|middle dot]]’ (U+00B7, ⟨·⟩) or less commonly the combining character 'dot above' (U+0307). As these are far from ideal, since 1997 proposals have been submitted to the ISO/IEC [[working group]] in charge of ISO/IEC 10646 – namely, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070628163947/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/wg2/ ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2] – to encode a new combining character 'dot above right'. This is now officially assigned to U+0358 (see documents [http://www.evertype.com/standards/la/taioan.html N1593], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311082219/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2507 N2507], [https://web.archive.org/web/20060928065416/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2628 N2628],
[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2699 N2699], and [http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/sc2/wg2/docs/N2770r.pdf N2770]). Font support has followed: for example, in [[Charis SIL]].

== Sociolinguistics ==
=== Regional variations ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Map.svg|thumb|right|Distribution of Hokkien dialects in Taiwan:<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ang Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin | script-title = zh:台灣的語種分布與分區 |title=Táiwān de yǔzhǒng fēnbù yǔ fēnqū |trans-title=The Distribution and Regionalization of Varieties in Taiwan | publisher = [[Academia Sinica]] |year=2013 |journal=Language and Linguistics |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=315–369|language=zh-hant |url=http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/14.2/LL14.2-04-Ang%20121227.pdf}} Map 5, p. 355.</ref>
{{legend|#ff8080|Quanzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#8080ff|Zhangzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#ff80ff|Both Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects}}
]]


The [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Taiwanese is the southern speech found in [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]. Other major variants are the northern speech, the central speech (near [[Taichung]] and the port town of [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]), and the northern (northeastern) coastal speech (dominant in [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan]]).

The distinguishing feature of the coastal speech is the use of the vowel {{angle bracket|uiⁿ}} in place of {{angle bracket|ng}}. The northern speech is distinguished by the absence of the [[#Tones|8th tone]], and some vowel exchanges (for example, {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, {{angle bracket|e}} and {{angle bracket|oe}}). The central speech has an additional vowel {{IPA|[ɨ]}} or {{IPA|[ø]}} between {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, which may be represented as {{angle bracket|ö}}. There are also a number of other pronunciation and lexical differences between the Taiwanese variants; the online Ministry of Education dictionary specifies these to a resolution of eight regions on Taiwan proper, in addition to [[Kinmen]] and [[Penghu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho|script-title=zh:方言差"語音差異表|trans-title=Table of Pronunciation Differences|year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho_p|script-title=zh:方言差"詞彙差異表|trans-title=Table of Vocabulary Differences |year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref>

Concerning the fifth (rising) tone in normal sandhi patterns, the Quanzhou/Coastal/Northern dialects change to seventh (mid level) tone, whereas the Zhangzhou/"Mixed"/Southern dialects change to third (low falling) tone.

Certain new north–south distinctions have appeared in recent decades.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}<ref>{{Cite journal|author1-link=Jack C. Richards|last=Richards|first=Jack C.|date=1977-01-01|title=Variation in Singapore English|jstor=43135170|journal=Interlanguage Studies Bulletin|volume=2|issue=2|pages=131–151}}</ref> The fourth and eighth tones tend to be reversed in the north and south.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/resources/PronouncingTaiwanese.html|title=Jordan: Pronouncing Romanized Taiwanese Hokkien|website=pages.ucsd.edu}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2016}}

====Quanzhou–Zhangzhou inclinations====

[[Hokkien]] immigrants to Taiwan originated from [[Quanzhou]] prefecture (44.8%) and [[Zhangzhou]] prefecture (35.2%).{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} The original phonology from these regions was spread around Taiwan during the immigration process. With the advanced development of transportation and greater mobility of the Taiwanese population, Taiwanese speech has steered itself towards a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech, known as ''Chiang–Chôan-lām'' (漳泉濫, in Mandarin ''Zhāng–Quán làn'').{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} Due to different proportion of mixture, some regions are inclined more towards Quanzhou accent, while others are inclined more towards Zhangzhou accent.

In general, Quanzhou accent is more common along the coastal region and is known as the ''hái-kháu'' accent; Zhangzhou accent is more common within the mountainous region of Taiwan and is known as the ''lāi-po͘'' accent. The regional variation within Taiwanese may be attributed to variations in the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents and/or lexicons. It ranges from Lukang accent (based on Quanzhou accent) on one end, to the northern coastal [[Yilan City|Yilan]] accent (based on Zhangzhou accent) on another end. Tainan, Kaohsiung and Taitung accents, on the other hand, are closest to the prestige accent.

'''<center>Variations in Taiwanese Hokkien accents</center>'''

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|-
! style="background:#FFA000; color:black" | [[Quanzhou]] accent
|-
| style="background:#fc0;"| [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]
|-
| style="background:#fc6;"| [[Penghu]], [[Taixi, Yunlin|Taixi]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]]—[[Budai, Chiayi|Budai]] coastal region (''hái-kháu'')
|-
| style="background:#fc9;"| [[Taipei]], [[Hsinchu]] (very similar to [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcc;"| [[Chiayi]]—[[Kaohsiung]] surrounding
area, [[Taitung City|Taitung]] (prestige accent, [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent mixed [[Zhangzhou]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcf;"| [[Taichung Basin|Taichung]], [[Changhua City|Changhua]]—[[Yunlin County|Yunlin]] inland area, [[Taoyuan, Taiwan|North Taoyuan]](''lāi-po͘'')
|-
| style="background:#c9f;"| [[Yilan City|Yilan]]
|-
! style= "background:#BBA1CB; color:black" | [[Zhangzhou]] accent
|}

====Recent terminological distinctions====
Recent research has found a need for new terminology of Taiwanese dialects, mainly because the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects in Taiwan developed independently from those in Fujian. Thus, some scholars (i.e., Klöter, following {{lang|zh-tw|董忠司}}) have divided Taiwanese into five subdialects, based on geographic region:{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=4}}
#''hái-kháu'' ({{lang|zh-tw|海口腔}}): west coast, based on what was formerly referred to as Quanzhou dialect (represented by the Lukang accent)
#''phian-hái'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏海腔}}): coastal (represented by the Nanliao ({{lang|zh-tw|南寮}}) accent)
#''lāi-po͘'' ({{lang|zh-tw|內埔腔}}): western inner plain, mountain regions, based on the Zhangzhou dialect (represented by the Yilan accent)
#''phian-lāi'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏內腔}}): interior (represented by the [[Taibao]] accent)
#''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}): common accents (represented by the Taipei (spec. [[Datong District, Taipei|Datong]]) accent in the north and the Tainan accent in the south)
Both ''phian-hái'' and ''phian-lāi'' are intermediate dialects between ''hái-kháu'' and ''lāi-po͘'', these also known as ''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}) or "{{lang|zh-tw|不泉不漳}}". In some ways this mixed dialect is similar to the Amoy dialect, which itself is a blend of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The common dialect refers to that which can be heard on radio, television, official announcements, etc.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

=== Fluency ===
A great majority of people in Taiwan can speak both [[Mandarin Chinese]] and Taiwanese although the degree of fluency varies widely.<ref name="housing census" /> There are however small but significant numbers of people in Taiwan, mainly but not exclusively [[Hakka people|Hakka]] and [[waishengren|Mainlanders]], who cannot speak Taiwanese fluently. A shrinking percentage of the population, mainly people born before the 1950s, cannot speak Mandarin at all, or learned to speak Mandarin later in life, though some of these speak Japanese fluently. Urban, working-class Hakkas as well as younger, southern-Taiwan Mainlanders tend to have better, even native-like fluency. Approximately half of the Hakka in Taiwan do speak Taiwanese. There are many families of mixed Hakka, Hoklo, and [[Taiwanese aborigines|Aboriginal]] bloodlines. There is, however, a large percentage of people in Taiwan, regardless of their background, whose ability to understand and read written Taiwanese is greater than their ability to speak it. This is the case with some singers who can sing Taiwanese songs with native-like proficiency, but can neither speak nor understand the language.

Which variant is used depends strongly on the context, and in general people will use Mandarin in more formal situations and Taiwanese in more informal situations. Taiwanese tends to get used more in [[rural]] areas, while Mandarin is used more in [[urban area|urban]] settings. Older people tend to use Taiwanese, while younger people tend to use Mandarin. In the broadcast media where Mandarin is used in many genres, [[soap opera]], [[variety show]]s, and even some news programs can also be found in Taiwanese.

=== Sociolinguistics and gender ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2011}}
Taiwanese is also perceived by some to have a slight masculine leaning, making it more popular among the males of the younger population. It is sometimes perceived as "unladylike" when spoken by the females of the younger population.

=== Special literary and art forms ===

''Chhit-jī-á'' (literally, "that which has seven syllables") is a [[poetry|poetic]] [[meter (poetry)|meter]] where each verse has 7 syllables.

There is a special form of [[music]]al/[[drama]]tic performance ''koa-á-hì'': the [[Taiwanese opera]]; the subject matter is usually a [[history|historical event]]. A similar form ''pò͘-tē-hì'' ([[glove puppetry]]) is also unique and has been elaborated in the past two decades into impressive [[television|televised]] spectacles.

See [[Taiwanese cuisine]] for names of several local dishes.

===Bible translations===
[[File:Bibles in Taiwanese.jpg|thumb|right|A collection of translations of the Bible in Taiwanese. Top left, ''Today’s Taiwanese'' version; top right, the Red-Cover Bible; bottom, Barclay's translation.]]

As with many other languages, the [[Chinese Bible Translations|translations of the Bible]] in Taiwanese marked milestones in the standardization attempts of the language and its orthography.

The first translation of the Bible in Amoy or Taiwanese in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography was by the first missionary to Taiwan, [[James Laidlaw Maxwell]], with the New Testament ''Lán ê Kiù-chú Iâ-so͘ Ki-tok ê Sin-iok'' published in 1873 and the Old Testament ''Kū-iok ê Sèng Keng'' in 1884.

[[File:Taiwanese Bible Chim-gian 1933.jpg|thumb|left|A copy of Barclay's Amoy translation, opened to the Proverbs.]]

The next translation of the Bible in Taiwanese or Amoy was by the missionary to Taiwan, [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]], carried out in Fujian and Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/native.htm |script-title=zh:本土聖經 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=zh }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm |script-title=ja:書評『聖經－－台語漢字本』 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=ja |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080120005258/http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm|archive-date=20 January 2008}}</ref> A New Testament translation was completed and published in 1916. The resulting work containing the Old and the New Testaments, in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography, was completed in 1930 and published in 1933 as the Amoy Romanized Bible ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|links=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]]. 2000 copies of the Amoy Romanized Bible were confiscated by the Taiwan Garrison from the Bible Society of Taiwan in 1975. This edition was later transliterated into Han characters and published as {{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=聖經台語漢字本|poj=Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|labels=no|scase=}} [[:zh-min-nan:Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]] in 1996.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://tailo.fhl.net/Godspeak/Godspeak26.html |title=台語信望愛 - 4.1.4 《台語漢字本》|website=tailo.fhl.net |language=zh-TW }}</ref>

[[File:Ang-phoe Seng-keng te-571-bin.jpg|thumb|right|A page from the Red-Cover Bible.]]

The Ko-Tân ([[Kerygma]]) Colloquial Taiwanese Version of the New Testament (''Sin-iok'') in pe̍h-ōe-jī, also known as the {{Interlanguage link|Red Cover Bible|zh-min-nan|Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|WD=}} ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), was published in 1973 as an ecumenical effort between the Protestant [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the Roman Catholic mission [[Maryknoll]]. This translation used a more modern vocabulary (somewhat influenced by Mandarin), and reflected the central Taiwan dialect, as the Maryknoll mission was based near [[Taichung|Tâi-tiong]]. It was soon confiscated by the Kuomintang government (which objected to the use of Latin orthography) in 1975. The copies of the ecumenical NT are now available on the online stores.

A translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Today's Taiwanese Romanized Version" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|labels=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]], containing only the New Testament, again in pe̍h-ōe-jī, was published in 2008<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peopo.org/chuniok/post/12934|title=現代台語新約羅馬字聖經出版感謝e話|website=www.peopo.org }}</ref> as a collaboration between the [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the [[Bible Society in Taiwan]]. A translation of the Old Testament, following the same principle, is being prepared.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/translation/Taiwanese.htm|title=台語聖經|website=www.biblesociety-tw.org|language=zh-TW}}</ref>{{Outdated inline|date=December 2018|reason=2018 status not stated|?=yes}}

Another translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Common Taiwanese Bible" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Choân-bîn Tâi-gí Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), with versions of pe̍h-ōe-jī, Han characters and Ruby version (both Han characters and pe̍h-ōe-jī) was published in 2015, available in printed and online.

=== Politics ===
[[File:Banning of POJ.gif|thumb|right|A decree (1955) banning the use of Pe̍h-ōe-jī, a Latin orthography for Taiwanese, in church.]]
Until the 1980s, the use of Taiwanese, along with all [[Varieties of Chinese|varieties]] other than [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]], was discouraged by the [[Kuomintang]] through measures such as banning its use in schools and limiting the amount of Taiwanese broadcast on electronic media. These measures were removed by the 1990s, and Taiwanese became an emblem of [[Taiwanese localization movement|localization]]. Mandarin remains the predominant language of education, although there is a "mother tongue" language requirement in Taiwanese schools which can be satisfied with student's choice of mother tongue: Taiwanese, Hakka, or [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]].

Although the use of Taiwanese over Mandarin was historically part of the [[Taiwan independence movement]], the linkage between politics and language is not as strong as it once was. Some fluency in Taiwanese is desirable for political office in Taiwan for both independence and unificationist politicians. At the same time even some supporters of Taiwan independence have played down its connection with Taiwanese in order to gain the support of the [[waishengren|Mainlander]]s and [[Hakka people]].

[[James Soong]] restricted the use of Taiwanese and other local tongues in broadcasting while serving as Director of the [[Government Information Office]] earlier in his career, but later became one of the first politicians of Mainlander origin to use Taiwanese in semi-formal occasions.{{synthesis inline|date=August 2016}} Since then, politicians opposed to Taiwanese independence have used it frequently in rallies, even when they are not native speakers. Conversely, politicians who have traditionally been identified with Taiwan independence have used Mandarin on formal occasions and semi-formal occasions such as press conferences. An example of the latter is former President [[Chen Shui-bian]] who uses Mandarin in all official state speeches, but uses mainly Taiwanese in political rallies and some informal state occasions such as New Year greetings. The current [[President of Taiwan]] and of the ([[Democratic Progressive Party|DPP]]), [[Tsai Ing-wen]] has been criticized by her supporters for not using Taiwanese in speeches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5dPfuafUb?url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-date=28 December 2008 |script-title=zh:蔡英文不說台語高雄人涼了半截 |trans-title=Tsai Ing-wen doesn't speak Taiwanese; The people in Kaohsiung feel half-disappointed |language=zh |access-date=12 October 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Former President [[Ma Ying-jeou]] spoke in Taiwanese during his 2008 [[Double Ten Day]] speech when he was talking about the state of the [[Economy of Taiwan|economy in Taiwan]].

In the early 21st century, there are few differences in language usage between the [[Chinese unification|pro-reuinification]] leaning [[Pan-Blue Coalition]] and the [[Taiwan independence movement|independence]] leaning [[Pan-Green Coalition]]. Both tend to use Taiwanese at political rallies and sometimes in informal interviews, and both tend to use Mandarin at formal press conferences and official state functions. Both also tend to use more Mandarin in [[Northern Taiwan]] and more Taiwanese in [[Southern Taiwan]]. However, at official party gatherings (as opposed to both Mandarin-leaning state functions and Taiwanese-leaning party rallies), the DPP tends to use Taiwanese while KMT and [[PFP (Taiwan)|PFP]] tend to use Mandarin. The [[Taiwan Solidarity Union]], which advocates a strong line on Taiwan independence, tends to use Taiwanese even in formal press conferences. In speaking, politicians will frequently [[Code-switching|code switch]]. In writing, almost everyone uses [[written vernacular Chinese|vernacular Mandarin]] which is further from Taiwanese, and the use of semi-alphabetic writing or even [[Tng-lang-ji|colloquial Taiwanese characters]] is rare.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=An investigation of written Taiwanese|url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/11520|date=2005|degree=MA|language=en-US|first=Katsuhiro J.|last=Ota|publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa|hdl=10125/11520}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Mair|first=Victor|title=Taiwanese, Mandarin, and Taiwan's language situation|url=http://pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|access-date=2020-08-06|website=pinyin.info}}</ref>

In 2002, the Taiwan Solidarity Union, a party with about 10% of the [[Legislative Yuan]] seats at the time, suggested making Taiwanese a second official language.<ref>{{cite news |author=Lin Mei-chun |title=Hokkien should be given official status, says TSU |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2002/03/10/0000127068 |work=Taipei Times|date=10 March 2002 |page=1 }}</ref> This proposal encountered strong opposition not only from Mainlander groups but also from Hakka and aboriginal groups who felt that it would slight their home languages, as well as others including [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]] who objected to the proposal on logistical grounds and on the grounds that it would increase ethnic tensions. Because of these objections, support for this measure is lukewarm among moderate Taiwan independence supporters, and the proposal did not pass.

In 2003, there was a controversy when parts of the civil service examination for judges were written in characters used only in Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite news|author=Ko Shu-ling|title=Control Yuan sets rules for future examinations |page=2 |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2004/09/20/2003203606 |work=Taipei Times|date=20 September 2004}}</ref> After strong objections, these questions were not used in scoring. As with the official-language controversy, objections to the use of Taiwanese came not only from Mainlander groups, but also Hoklo, Hakka and aborigines. The [[Control Yuan]] later created a rule that only allowed Standard Mandarin characters on civil service exams. According to public opinion surveys in 2008, more people supported making English a second official language than Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Gijsen, Johan |author2=Liu Yu-Chang |chapter=Chapter 8: The Quest for a New Civic and Linguistic Identity: Mandarin and English Encroachment upon the Taiwanese Language |title=Critical Perspectives on Language and Discourse in the New World Order|editor1-last=Abdullah|editor1-first=Faiz Sathi|editor2-last=Abdullah|editor2-first=Mardziah Hayati|editor3-last=Hoon|editor3-first=Tan Bee|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge Scholars|location=Newcastle|isbn=9781847183408|page=156}}</ref>

In 2017, aboriginal languages were given official status in Taiwan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aipl/201707190019.aspx|title=President lauds efforts in transitional justice for indigenous people|publisher=Focus Taiwan|access-date=19 July 2017}}</ref> as was the [[Taiwanese Hakka|Hakka language]].<ref name="hakkaofficial">{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2017/12/30/2003684894|title=Hakka made an official language|last1=Cheng|first1=Hung-ta|last2=Chung|first2=Jake|date=30 December 2017|work=[[Taipei Times]]}}</ref> {{As of|2018}}, English is planned to become an official language in Taiwan,<ref name="English status">{{Cite news|url=https://www.hongkongfp.com/2018/08/31/taiwan-make-english-official-language-next-year-says-official/|title=Taiwan to make English an official language next year, says official {{!}} Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|date=2018-08-31|work=Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|access-date=2018-09-05|language=en-GB}}</ref> although this has not happened as of mid-2020. Taiwanese is required for some activities but not others. For further information, see [[Languages of Taiwan]].

===Mother tongue movement===
[[Taiwanese localization movement|Taiwanization]] developed in the 1990s into a ‘[[mother tongue]] revival movement' aiming to save, preserve, and develop the local ethnic culture and language of Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, and aborigines. The effort to [[Language revitalization|save declining languages]] has since allowed them to revive and flourish. In 1993, Taiwan became the first country in the world to implement the teaching of Taiwanese in schools. By 2001, Taiwanese languages such as Taiwanese, Hakka, and aboriginal languages were taught in all Taiwanese schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhu.edu.tw/~society/e-j/45/45-16.htm|author=許嘉文|date=15 March 2005|language=zh|script-title=zh:台灣鄉土教育發展史|trans-title=The education history of local Taiwanese languages}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} Since the 2000s, elementary school students are required to take a class in either Taiwanese, Hakka or aboriginal languages.{{sfnp|Lin|2002}}{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} In junior high this is usually an available [[Course (education)#Elective and required courses|elective]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ey.gov.tw/AnnoucePage2.aspx|title=行政院全球資訊網|website=www.ey.gov.tw|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref> Taiwan also has its own [[Taiwan literature movement|literary circle]] whereby Hokkien poets and writers compose poetry and literature in Taiwanese on a regular basis.

As a result of the mother tongue movement, Taiwan has emerged as a significant cultural hub for Hokkien in the world in the 21st century. It also plans to be the major export center for [[Hokkien culture]] worldwide in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npf.org.tw/11/4118|title=馬英九 {{!}} 馬蕭文化政策 {{!}} 國家政策研究基金會 {{!}} 公共政策的理性思辯與對話平台！|website=國家政策研究基金會|language=zh-TW|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref>

=== Television ===

{{Expand Chinese|section=yes|date=August 2020}}

* [[Lady Rainicorn]] for ''[[Adventure Time]]'' broadcast by [[Cartoon Network (Taiwanese TV channel)|Cartoon Network Taiwan]] used Taiwanese for [[Li Hanfei]] ({{lang|zh-tw|李涵菲}})

==Scholarship==
Klöter's ''Written Taiwanese'' (cited below) has been described as "the most comprehensive English-language study of written Taiwanese".{{sfnp|Snow|2004|p=261}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Taiwan|Languages}}
* [[Languages of Taiwan]]
* [[Min Nan Wikipedia]]
* [[Speak Hokkien Campaign]]
* [[Taiwanese literature movement]]
* [[:nan:Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng|Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng]] (Taiwanese Test) {{in lang|nan}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

=== Words in native languages ===
{{notelist-ur}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Cited sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Ang |first=Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣河佬語聲調研究 |year=1987 |edition=4 |publisher=自立晚報 |location = Taipei |language= zh-Hant |isbn=9789575960353 |oclc=813713530 }}
* {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=James W. |author-link=James W. Davidson |title = The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : history, people, resources, and commercial prospects : tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions |year=1903 |publisher=Macmillan |url = https://archive.org/details/islandofformosap00davi |location=London and New York |ol=6931635M |oclc=1887893 }}
* {{cite book |last = Klöter |first = Henning |title=Written Taiwanese |year = 2005 |publisher=Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |isbn=9783447050937 }}
* {{cite book |last = Snow |first = D. |title=Cantonese as Written Language: The Growth of a Written Chinese Vernacular |year = 2004 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |location=Hong Kong |isbn=9789622097094 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wu |first=Soli |author-link = :zh-min-nan:Ngô͘ Siú-lé |year=2000 |script-title = zh:國臺對照活用辭典 |trans-title=Mandarin-Taiwanese Comparative Living Dictionary |language = zh-TW, zh-min-nan |publisher=Yuan-Liou |location=Taipei |isbn=9789573240884 |oclc = 45990089 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==

===Books and other material===
(As English language material on Taiwanese learning is limited, Japanese and German books are also listed here.)
; English textbooks & dictionaries
* {{cite book |author=李勤岸 |trans-title=Harvard Taiwanese 101 |script-title=zh:哈佛臺語101 |translator-last1=Yeh |translator-first1=Chieh-Ting |translator-last2=Lee |translator-first2=Marian |publisher=開朗 |place=Tainan |year=2005 |isbn=9789868160811 |language=en,zh |type=paperback & CD }}
* Su-chu Wu, Bodman, Nicholas C.: Spoken Taiwanese with cassette(s), 1980/2001, {{ISBN|0-87950-461-7}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-460-9}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-462-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |author-link=William Campbell (missionary) |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1913 |publisher=Taiwan Church Press |location=[[Tainan]] |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000072254844;view=1up;seq=28 |oclc=867068660}}
**{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1923 |edition=2nd |orig-year=1913 |publisher=Fukuin Print. Co. |location=Yokohama |oclc=43655590 |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015056044533;view=1up;seq=1 |postscript=(with preface by Thomas Barclay)}}
* Iâu Chèng-to: Cheng-soán Pe̍h-oē-jī (Concise Colloquial Writing). Tainan, Taiwan: Jîn-kong (an imprint of the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan). 1992.
* Tân, K. T: A Chinese-English Dictionary: Taiwan Dialect. Taipei: Southern Materials Center. 1978.
* Maryknoll Language Service Center: English-Amoy Dictionary. Taichung, Taiwan: Maryknoll Fathers. 1979.

; Japanese publications
* Higuchi, Yasushi (樋口靖 ''Higuchi Yasushi''): 台湾語会話, 2000, {{ISBN|4-497-20004-3}} (Good and yet concise introduction to the Taiwanese language in Japanese; CD: {{ISBN|4-497-20006-X}})
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''): はじめての台湾語, 2003, {{ISBN|4-7569-0665-6}} (Introduction to Taiwanese [and Mandarin]; in Japanese).
* Zheng, Zhenghao (鄭正浩 ''Zhèng Zhènghào''): 台湾語基本単語2000, 1996, {{ISBN|4-87615-697-2}} (Basic vocabulary in Taiwanese 2000; in Japanese).
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''), Chen Fenghui (陳豐惠 ''Chén Fēnghuì''), Kaori Takao (たかおかおり ''Takao Kaori''), 2006, 絵でわかる台湾語会話. {{ISBN|978-4-7569-0991-6}} (Conversations in Taiwanese [and Mandarin] with illustrations; in Japanese).
;Others
* Katharina Sommer, Xie Shu-Kai: Taiwanisch Wort für Wort, 2004, {{ISBN|3-89416-348-8}} (Taiwanese for travellers, in German. CD: {{ISBN|3-8317-6094-2}})

; Articles and other resources
*{{cite journal|last=Chiung |first=Wi-vun Taiffalo |date=2003 |title=Tone Change in Taiwanese: Age and Geographic Factors |journal=University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics |volume=8 |issue=1 |url=http://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl/vol8/iss1/5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303035733/http://uibun.twl.ncku.edu.tw/chuliau/lunsoat/english/tchange/tonechange-v.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite journal |last=LÎM |first=Chùn-io̍k |year=2014 |title=The Common Taiwanese Bible: A Means of Seeking to Affirm the Selfhood and Integrity of Taiwanese and Their Language |journal=Journal of Taiwanese Vernacular |volume=6 |number=2 |pages=106–9 |doi=10.6621/JTV.2014.0602.05
}}
*{{cite web |last=Tan-Tenn |first=Henry H. |date=2001 |title=Taiwanese learning resources |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050418075331/http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf |archive-date=2005-04-18 |url=http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf}}
*{{cite book |last=Tiuⁿ |first=Jū-hông |year=2001 |trans-title=Principles of Pe̍h-oē-jī or the Taiwanese Orthography: an introduction to its sound-symbol correspondences and related issues |script-title=zh:白話字基本論 : 臺語文對應&相關的議題淺說 |language=zh |place=Taipei |publisher=Crane |isbn=957-2053-07-8 }}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=zh-min-nan}}
; On the language
*{{cite web |last=Cannings |first=Michael |url=http://tailingua.com/ |title=Introducing the Taiwanese Language |website=Tailingua}}
* [http://johangijsen.blogspot.com/ Blog on the Taiwanese language and language education in Taiwan]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|title=How to Forget Your Mother Tongue and Remember Your National Language|last=Mair|first=Victor H. |author-link=Victor H. Mair |date=2003 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania|access-date=2 July 2011}}
* [[wikt:Appendix:Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists|Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists]]

; Dictionaries
*{{cite web|script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 |trans-title=[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]] |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index.html |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |date=2011 |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |script-title=zh:台語-華語線頂辭典 |trans-title=Taiwanese-Mandarin Online Dictionary |language=nan-tw, zh, en |url=http://210.240.194.97/iug/Ungian/soannteng/chil/Taihoa.asp }}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |url=http://210.240.194.97/TG/jitian/tgjt.asp |script-title=zh:台語線頂字典 |trans-title=Taiwanese Online Character Dictionary |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |script-title=zh:臺灣本土語言互譯及語音合成系統 |trans-title=Taiwanese languages translation and speech synthesis system |language=zh, nan-tw, hak |url=http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008180132/http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |archive-date=8 October 2006}}
* {{cite web |website=Maryknoll Language Service Center |url=http://taiwanesedictionary.org/ |title=Maryknoll Taiwanese-English Dictionary and English-Amoy Dictionary}}

; Learning aids
* [http://taiwanesegrammar.wordpress.com/ Intermediate Taiwanese grammar (as a blog)]
* [http://taiwanesevocabulary.wordpress.com/ Taiwanese vocabulary: word of the day (blog)]
* [http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/lang/taiwanese/ Taiwanese teaching material]: Nursery rhymes and songs in Han characters and romanization w/ recordings in MP3
* [http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe Travlang (language resources for travellers): Hō-ló-oē] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518234153/http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe |date=18 May 2017 }}
*[http://speaktaiwanese.com/spoken-hokkien/ ''Spoken Hokkien''] - a beginner's e-textbook, with audio, for English-speaking learners of conversational Taiwanese.
* {{cite web |url=http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |title=Daiwanway - Tutorial, dictionary, and stories in Taiwanese. Uses a unique romanization system, different from Pe̍h-oē-jī. Includes sound files |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429232228/http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |archive-date=2007-04-29}}

; Other
* [http://www.dmoz.org/World/Taiwanese/ Open Directory (dmoz): World: Taiwanese]
{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}
{{Southern Min Languages}}
{{Min Chinese}}
{{Chinese language}}

[[Category:Languages of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Hokkien-language dialects]]
[[Category:Taiwanese culture]]

Taiwanese Hokkien

2022-03-13T13:17:07Z

Cuaxdon:

{{short description|Variety of a language dialect}}
{{redirect|Taiwanese language|other languages spoken in Taiwan|Languages of Taiwan|the aboriginal languages of Taiwan|Formosan languages|other uses|Taiwanese language (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Taiwanese
| nativename = Taigi/Taigu, Taiwanese
| pronunciation = {{hideH|title="Tâi-gí / Tâi-gú" }}
{{IPA|[tai˧˩ gi˥˩]}} / {{IPA|[tai˧˩ gu˥˩]}} (dialect) 
{{hideF}}
| states = [[Taiwan]]
| region =
| speakers = 13.5 million
| date = 2017
| ref = <ref>{{e24|nan}}</ref>
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2 = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
| fam3 = [[Min Chinese|Min]]
| fam4 = [[Hoklo]]
| fam5 = [[Choan-Chiang]]
| script = [[Han characters]] (在來字), [[Latin script]] ([[pe̍h ōe jī]])
| nation = {{TWN}}{{efn|National language in [[Taiwan]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aedu/201812250018.aspx|title=Draft national language development act clears legislative floor|website=focustaiwan.tw }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://tw.news.appledaily.com/politics/realtime/20181225/1489328/ |title=立院三讀《國家語言發展法》公廣集團可設台語電視台 |website=ltn.com.tw|date=25 December 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://tw.news.yahoo.com/amphtml/%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E6%B3%95-%E7%AB%8B%E9%99%A2%E4%B8%89%E8%AE%80-%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E5%BE%97%E8%A8%AD%E5%8F%B0%E8%AA%9E%E5%B0%88%E5%B1%AC%E9%A0%BB%E9%81%93-062038323.html |title=《國家語言發展法》立院三讀！政府得設台語專屬頻道 |website=ltn.com.tw}}</ref> also statutory status in Taiwan as one of the languages for public transport announcements<ref>[[:zh:s:大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法|大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法]]</ref> and for the [[naturalization]] test.<ref>Article 6 of the [http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 Standards for Identification of Basic Language Abilities and General Knowledge of the Rights and Duties of Naturalized Citizens] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725175658/http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 |date=25 July 2017 }}</ref>}}
| agency = [[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education in Taiwan]] and relevant NGOs in Taiwan
| isoexception = dialect
| lingua = 79-AAA-jh
| map = Home usage of Taiwanese by district in Taiwan gradient map (2010).svg
| mapcaption = Proportion of residents aged 6 or older using Hokkien at home in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen & Matsu in 2010<ref>Table 6: Languages used at home for the resident nationals aged 6 years and over by gender and age, [http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm 2010 Population and Housing Census] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222005446/http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm |date=22 February 2015 }}, Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics (DGBAS), ROC (Taiwan).</ref>
| notice = IPA
}}

'''Taiwanwe''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi-oân ōe) , also known as '''Taigi/Taigu''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi gí/Tâi gú; [[Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn|tâilô]]: Tâi-gí/Tâi-gú),{{efn|native lang|tw|name=word1}}<ref name="taigi">{{cite web|title=Taigi與台語|url=https://talk.ltn.com.tw/amp/article/paper/1309601|access-date=10 August 2019|work=Liberty Times|date=10 August 2019}}</ref> '''Hoklo''' called by Hakka people, <ref>{{cite web|last=Lee|first=Jack Tsen-Ta|date=28 April 2015|orig-year=2004|url=http://www.mysmu.edu/faculty/jacklee/singlish_H.htm#Hokkien|title=Hokkien|work=A Dictionary of Singlish and Singapore English|access-date=22 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="taiwansnapshot">{{cite web|url=https://www.taiwan.gov.tw/images/content/ts.JPG|title=TAIWAN SNAPSHOT|access-date=15 March 2020|quote=Languages Mandarin (Chinese), Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, Austronesian languages}}</ref> is a variety of the [[Hoklo]] language spoken natively by about 70%+ of the [[population of Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=TW |title=Taiwan |website=[[Ethnologue]]|quote=Principal languages}}</ref> It is spoken by the [[Taiwanese people]], who descended from immigrants from southern [[Fujian]] during the [[Beng dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book |contribution=Taiwan's Evolving Identity |first=June Teufel |last=Dreyer |pages=4–10 |title=The Evolution of a Taiwanese National Identity |location=Washington |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Institute for Scholars |year=2003 |series=Asia Program Special Report |volume=114 |access-date=12 August 2016 |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325100938/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]] (pe̍h ōe jī) romanization is a [[orthography]] for Taiwanwe.

Taiwanwe is generally similar to spoken [[Emng dialect]], [[Choanchiu dialect]], and [[Chiangchiu dialect]] (branches of [[Hoklo]]), as well as their dialectal forms used in [[Southeast Asia]]. It is [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with [[Emng dialect]] on the mainland, with the dialect of the mouth of the [[Jiulong River]] (九龍) immediately to the west, and with [[Philippine Hokkien]] to the south, spoken altogether by about 3 million people.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210919021444/https://raw.githubusercontent.com/KIRINPUTRA/reclassifying-ISO-639-3-nan/main/Reclassifying_ISO_639-3_%5Bnan%5D__An_Empirical_Approach_to_Mutual_Intelligibility_and_Ethnolinguistic_Distinctions.pdf Reclassifying ISO 639-3 [nan]: An Empirical Approach to Mutual Intelligibility and Ethnolinguistic Distinctions]</ref> The mass popularity of [[Hokkien entertainment media]] from Taiwan has given [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prominence]] to the Taiwanese variety of Hokkien, especially since the 1980s.

==Classification==
Taiwanese is a branched-off variety of [[Hokkien]], a group of [[Southern Min]] language. Like many [[Min Chinese|Min]] varieties, it has distinct [[literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|literary and colloquial layers]] of vocabulary, often associated with formal and informal [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]]s respectively. The literary layer can be traced to the late [[Tang dynasty]] and can thus be related to [[Middle Chinese]]. In contrast, the colloquial layers of Min varieties are believed to have branched from the mainstream of Chinese around the time of the [[Han dynasty]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mei|first=Tsu-lin|year=1970|title=Tones and Prosody in Middle Chinese and The Origin of The Rising Tone|journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|volume=30|pages=86–110|doi=10.2307/2718766|jstor=2718766}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| chapter = The Mǐn dialects in historical perspective
| given = Jerry | surname = Norman
| title = Languages and Dialects of China
| editor-given = William S.-Y. | editor-surname = Wang
| pages = 325–360
| series = ''Journal of Chinese Linguistics'' Monograph Series | volume = 3
| publisher = Chinese University Press | year = 1991b
| issue = 3 | jstor = 23827042 | oclc = 600555701
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| surname = Ting | given = Pang-Hsin
| title = Derivation time of colloquial Min from Archaic Chinese
| journal = Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology
| year = 1983 | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 1–14
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| title = Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
| given1 = William H. | surname1 = Baxter | author-link = William H. Baxter
| given2 = Laurent | surname2 = Sagart | author-link2 = Laurent Sagart
| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-994537-5
| year = 2014
| pages = 33, 79
}}</ref>

Regional variations within Taiwanese may be traced back to Hokkien variants spoken in Southern Fujian, specifically those from [[Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou]], then later [[Amoy]]. Taiwanese also contains loanwords from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and the native [[Formosan languages]]. Recent work by scholars such as [https://web.archive.org/web/20041022000504/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/lou-ek-ki/kongpah-oat.htm Ekki Lu], [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081002014759/http://203.64.42.21/iug/ungian/poj/siausit/2002/2002pojgth/lunbun/a1-sakai.pdf Toru Sakai] (酒井亨 ''Sakai Tōru''), and Lí Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040915015640/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/li-khin-hoann/phok-su/phok-su.htm LEXICAL CHANGE AND VARIATION IN TAIWANESE LITERARY TEXTS, 1916–1998 -- A COMPUTER-ASSISTED CORPUS ANALYSIS]</ref> (also known as Tavokan Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}} or Chin-An Li), based on former research by scholars such as [[Ong Iok-tek|Ông Io̍k-tek]], has gone so far as to associate part of the basic vocabulary of the colloquial Taiwanese with the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] and [[Tai languages|Tai]] language families; however, such claims are controversial.

The literary form of Hokkien once flourished in [[Fujian]] and was brought to Taiwan by early emigrants. ''[[Tale of the Lychee Mirror]]'', a manuscript for a series of plays published during the [[Ming dynasty]] in 1566, is one of the earliest known works. This form of the language is now largely extinct. However, literary readings of the numbers are used in certain contexts such as reciting telephone numbers (see [[Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters]]).{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

== History and formation ==
{{see also|Hokkien#History}}

===Spread of Hokkien to Taiwan===
During the [[Yuan dynasty]], [[Quanzhou]] became a major international port for trade with the outside world.<ref>[http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 教育部，歷史文化學習網，《重要貿易港口－泉州》] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725194653/http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 |date=25 July 2011 }}</ref> From that period onwards, many people from the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions (southern Fujian) started to emigrate overseas due to political and economic reasons. One of the destinations of the emigrants is the relatively undeveloped island of [[Formosa]], starting around 1600. They brought with them their native language, Hokkien.

During the late [[Ming dynasty]], the political chaos pushed more migrants from southern Fujian and eastern [[Guangdong]] to Taiwan. The earliest immigrants involved in Taiwan's development included [[Chinese pirates|pirate-merchants]] {{Interlanguage link multi|Chinese Peter|zh|3=顏思齊|WD=}} and [[Zheng Zhilong]]. In 1621, Chinese Peter and his forces, hailing from [[Zhangzhou]], occupied ''Ponkan'' (modern-day [[Beigang, Yunlin]]) and started to develop ''Tirosen'' (modern-day [[Chiayi City|Chiayi]]). After the death of Peter and another pirate, [[Li Dan (pirate)|Li Dan]] of Quanzhou, Zheng sought to dominate the [[Taiwan Strait|Strait of Taiwan]]. By 1628, he had grown so powerful that the Ming court bestowed him the official title, "Patrolling Admiral".<ref>{{cite book|author1-link=Tonio Andrade |last=Andrade |first=Tonio |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century |publisher=Columbia University Press |chapter=Chapter 2: A Scramble for Influence |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade02.html |year=2005 |at=§20-1}}</ref>

In 1624, the number of Chinese in the island was about 25,000.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=13}} During the reign of [[Chongzhen Emperor]] (1627–1644), there were frequent droughts in the Fujian region. Zheng and a Chinese official suggested sending victims to Taiwan and provide "for each person three [[tael]]s of silver and for each three people one ox".{{sfnp|Andrade|2005|loc=§26}} Although this plan was never carried out, the Zheng family maintained an interest in Taiwan that would have dire consequences for the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]], who ruled Taiwan as [[Dutch Formosa]] at the time.

===Development and divergence===
In 1624 and 1626, the Dutch and Spanish forces occupied the [[Tainan]] and [[Keelung]] areas, respectively. During the 40 years of [[Dutch Formosa|Dutch colonial rule of Taiwan]], many [[Han Chinese]] from the [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Hakka culture|Hakka]] regions of mainland China were recruited to help develop Taiwan. Because of intermingling with [[Siraya people]] as well as Dutch colonial rule, the Hokkien dialects started to deviate from the original Hokkien spoken in mainland China.

In the 1661 [[Siege of Fort Zeelandia]], Chinese general [[Koxinga]] expelled the Dutch and established the [[Kingdom of Tungning]]. Koxinga originated from the Quanzhou region. [[Chen Yonghua]], who was in charge of establishing the education system of Tungning, also originated from Quanzhou. Because most of the soldiers he brought to Taiwan came from Quanzhou, the [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Hokkien on the island at the time was the [[Quanzhou dialect]].

In 1683, Chinese admiral [[Shi Lang]] attacked Taiwan in the [[Battle of Penghu]], ending the Tungning era and beginning [[Taiwan under Qing rule|Qing dynasty rule]] (until 1895). In the following years, in order to prevent people from rebelling, the Qing court instituted a ban on migration to Taiwan,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} especially the migration of [[Hakka people]] from [[Guangdong]] province, which led Hokkien to become the most spoken language in Taiwan.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

In the first decades of the 18th century, the linguistic differences between the Qing imperial bureaucrats and the commoners were recorded by the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]-speaking first Imperial [[High commissioner|High Commissioner]] to Taiwan (1722), [[Huang Shujing]]:
{{cquote|In this place, the language is as [[birdcall]] – totally unintelligible! For example: for the surname [[Liu|Liú]], they say 'Lâu'; for [[Chen (surname)|Chén]], 'Tân'; [[Zhuang (surname)|Zhuāng]], 'Chng'; and [[Zhang (surname)|Zhāng]] is 'Tioⁿ'. My deputy’s surname [[Wu (surname)|Wú]] becomes 'Ngô͘'. My surname [[Huang (surname)|Huáng]] does not even have a proper vowel: it is 'N̂g' here! It is difficult to make sense of this. 
({{lang|zh-Hant|郡中鴃舌鳥語，全不可曉。如：劉呼「澇」、陳呼「澹」、莊呼「曾」、張呼「丟」。余與吳待御兩姓，吳呼作「襖」，黃則無音，厄影切，更為難省。}})|||''Records from the mission to Taiwan and its Strait'', Volume II: "On the area around [[Fort Provintia]], [[Tainan]]" (臺海使槎錄卷二赤嵌筆談)}}
The tone of Huang's message [[Foretelling|foretold]] the uneasy relationships between different [[Speech community|language communities]] and colonial establishments over the next few centuries.

The ban on migration to Taiwan was relaxed sometime after 1722 (and was completely removed in 1874). During the 200 years of Qing dynasty rule, thousands of immigrants from [[Fujian]] arrived yearly; the population was over one million in the middle of the 18th century.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=561}} Civil unrest and armed conflicts were frequent. In addition to resistance against governments (both Chinese and later Japanese), [[Ethnic conflict|battles between ethnic groups]] were also significant: the belligerents usually grouped around the language they used. History has recorded battles between [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] speakers and Hokkien speakers, between these and the [[Taiwanese aborigine|aborigines]], and even between those who spoke different variants of Hokkien.

In the early 20th century, the [[Hoklo people]] in Taiwan could be categorized as originating from [[Xiamen]], [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Zhangpu County|Zhangpu]].{{clarify|reason=Zhangpu is part of Zhangzhou|date=August 2020}}{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=591}} People from the former two areas (Quanzhou-speaking) were dominant in the north of the island and along the west coast,<ref>"especially in the cities of Koro (Aulang), Taiko (Taika), Giubato (Gumatau), Gosei (Goche), Tokatsukutsu (Thawkakut), and Rokko (Lokiang)." (modern-day [[Houlong, Miaoli|Houlong]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]], [[Qingshui District|Qingshui]], [[Wuqi District|Wuqi]], [[Longjing District|Longjing]], and Lukang, respectively.) {{harvp|Davidson|1903|p=591}}</ref> whereas people from the latter two areas ([[Zhangzhou dialect|Zhangzhou]]-speaking) were dominant in the south and perhaps the central plains as well.

Although there were conflicts between Quanzhou- and Zhangzhou-speakers in Taiwan historically, their gradual [[intermingling]] led to the mixture of the two [[Accent (sociolinguistics)|accents]]. Apart from [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang city]] and [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan County]], which have preserved their original Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents respectively, almost every region of Taiwan now speaks a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien.{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} A similar phenomenon occurred in [[Xiamen]] (Amoy) after 1842, when the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien displaced the Quanzhou dialect to yield the modern [[Amoy dialect]].<ref>泉州旅游信息网，[http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm 泉州方言文化] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301121345/http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm |date=1 March 2007 }}</ref>

During the [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese colonial rule of Taiwan]], Taiwan began to hold Amoy Hokkien as its standard pronunciation; the Japanese called this mixture {{nihongo|'''Taiwanese'''|臺灣語|Taiwango}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Iûⁿ |first1=Ún-giân |last2=Tiuⁿ |first2=Ha̍k-khiam |last3=Lu |first3=Bichhin |script-title=zh:台語文運動訪談暨史料彙編 |language=zh |date=2008-03-01 |publisher=國史館 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789860132946 |oclc=813921186}}</ref>

Due to the influx of Japanese loanwords before 1945 and the political separation after 1949,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} Amoy Hokkien and Taiwanese began to [[Linguistic divergence|diverge]] slightly.

===Modern times===
[[File:Proportion of Taiwanese Language Used in House.svg|thumb|350px|Proportion of languages used at home by residents aged 6 or over in Taiwan in 2010, sorted by birth year.<ref name="housing census">Sources: http://www.dgbas.gov.tw/public/data/dgbas04/bc6/census022%28final%29.html 2010 population and housing census by DGBAS, [[Executive Yuan]].</ref> The chart shows the tendency that speech communities of [[Languages of Taiwan#Other languages|Taiwanese local languages]] are shifting to speak [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]].]]
Later, in the 20th century, the conceptualization of Taiwanese is more controversial than most variations of Chinese because at one time it marked a clear division between the Mainlanders who [[KMT retreat to Taiwan in 1949|arrived in 1949]] and the pre-existing majority native Taiwanese. Although the political and linguistic divisions between the two groups have blurred considerably, the political issues surrounding Taiwanese have been more controversial and sensitive than for other [[varieties of Chinese]].

After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], due to military defeat to the Japanese, the [[Qing dynasty]] ceded [[Taiwan]] to Japan, causing contact with the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions of mainland China to stop. During Japanese rule, Japanese became an official language in Taiwan, and Taiwanese began to absorb large number of Japanese loanwords into its language. Examples of such loanwords (some which had in turn been borrowed from English) include ''piān-só͘'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|便所}}|benjo|"toilet"}}, ''phêng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|坪}}|[[tsubo]]|"[[pyeong]]", an areal measurement}} (see also [[Taiwanese units of measurement]]), ''ga-suh'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|瓦斯}}|gasu|"gas"}}, ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|オートバイ}}|ōtobai|"autobicycle", motorcycle}}. All of these caused Taiwanese to deviate from Hokkien used elsewhere.

During [[Kōminka movement (Taiwan)|Kōminka]] of the late Japanese colonial period, the [[Japanese language]] appeared in every corner of Taiwan. The [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] beginning in 1937 brought stricter measures into force, and along with the outlawing of [[Chinese language romanization in Taiwan|romanized Taiwanese]], various publications were prohibited and Confucian-style private schools which taught [[Classical Chinese]] with [[Literary language|literary]] Southern Min pronunciation – were closed down in 1939.{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=135}} Taiwanese thus was reduced to a common [[Vernacular|daily language]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ang |first1=Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣方言之旅 |date=1991 |publisher=前衛出版社 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789579512312}}</ref> In 1937 the colonial government introduced a concept called "National Language Family" ({{linktext|国語}}{{linktext|の}}{{linktext|家)}}, which meant that families that proved that they adopted Japanese as their daily language enjoyed benefits such as greater access to education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw/ischool/publish_page/106/?cid=4897|title=Hui-Wen High School Taichung, Introduction to the Kominka period|work=www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw}}</ref>

After the handover of Taiwan to the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] in 1945, there was brief cultural exchange with mainland China followed by further oppression. The [[Chinese Civil War]] resulted in another political separation when the [[Kuomintang]] (Chinese Nationalist Party) government [[Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan|retreated to Taiwan following their defeat by the communists]] in 1949. The influx of two million soldiers and civilians caused the population of Taiwan to increase from 6 million to 8 million. The government subsequently promoted [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] while suppressing, but short of banning, the use of written Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] (e.g. [[pe̍h-oē-jī]], a phonetic rendering of spoken Hokkien using the Latin alphabet) as part of its general policy of political repression.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lin |first=Alvin |issue=89 |title=Writing Taiwanese: The Development of Modern Written Taiwanese |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp089_taiwanese.pdf |year=1999 |oclc=41879041 }}</ref> In 1964 the use of spoken Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] or [[Hakka]] in schools or in official settings was forbidden; violations of the prohibition in schools often resulted in physical punishments, fines, or humiliation.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Linguistic capital in Taiwan: The KMT's Mandarin language policy and its perceived impact on language practices of bilingual Mandarin and Tai-gi speakers |last=Sandel |first=Todd L. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |journal=Language in Society |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=523–551 |doi=10.1017/S0047404503324030 |jstor=4169285 |s2cid=145703339 }}</ref>

Only after the lifting of [[Martial law in Taiwan|martial law]] in 1987 and the [[mother tongue]] movement in the 1990s did Taiwan see a true [[Language revitalization|revival]] in the Taiwanese language. Today, there are a large number of Taiwanese scholars dedicated to researching the language. Despite this, according to census data the number of people speaking Taiwanese continued to drop.<ref name="housing census"/>

The history of Taiwanese and its interaction with Mandarin is complex and at times controversial, even regarding its name. The language has no official name in Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |title=中華民國文化部-國家語言發展法 |url=https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |website=www.moc.gov.tw |access-date=24 October 2019 |language=zh |date=10 October 2008 |quote=《國家語言發展法》並未以法律明列各固有族群之語言名稱，即是尊重各族群使用者慣常使用之命名權。 |archive-date=2 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402055541/https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some dislike the name "Taiwanese" as they feel that it belittles other languages spoken on the island such as Mandarin, [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], and the [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]]. Others prefer the names [[Southern Min]], Minnan or Hokkien as this views Taiwanese as a form of the Chinese variety spoken in [[Fujian]] province in [[mainland China]]. Others dislike those names for precisely the same reason.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} In the [[American Community Survey]] run by the [[United States Census Bureau]], Taiwanese was referred to as "Formosan" from 2012 to 2015 and as "Min Nan Chinese" since 2016.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2018/demo/SEHSD-WP2018-31.pdf | title=American Community Survey Redesign of Language-Spoken-at-Home Data | date=2016 | first=Christine P. | last=Gambino | work=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{Commons category|Taiwanese Hokkien}}
{{see also|Help:IPA/Taiwanese Hokkien}}
[[Phonology|Phonologically]], Hokkien is a [[tonal language]] with extensive [[tone sandhi]] rules. [[Syllable]]s consist maximally of an initial [[consonant]], a [[vowel]], a final consonant, and a tone.

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|- style="font-size: 90%;"
|+Initials
!colspan=2|
!colspan=2| [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo -palatal]]
!colspan=2| [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
!colspan=2| [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|m}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|m ㄇ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|n}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|n ㄋ
|colspan=2|
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ŋ}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ng ㄫ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! voiced
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|b}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|b ㆠ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɡ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|g ㆣ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|p}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|p ㄅ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|t}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|t ㄉ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|k}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|k ㄍ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[pʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ph ㄆ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|th ㄊ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[kʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|kh ㄎ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! voiced
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dz}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|j ㆡ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dʑ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|j(i) ㆢ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! tenuis
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ts}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ch, ts ㄗ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|tɕ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ch(i), ts(i) ㄐ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! aspirated
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tsʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh, tsh ㄘ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tɕʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh(i), tsh(i) ㄑ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|s}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|s ㄙ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɕ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|si ㄒ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|h}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|h ㄏ
|-
!colspan=2| [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|l}}'''~'''{{IPAblink|ɾ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|l ㄌ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|}
{|class=wikitable
|+Finals
! !![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]!![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]!![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- align=center
![[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|'''{{IPA|[m]}}''' -m||'''{{IPA|[n]}}''' -n||'''{{IPA|[ŋ]}}''' -ng||'''{{IPAblink|◌̃}}''' -ⁿ
|- align=center
![[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
|'''{{IPA|[p̚]}}''' -p ㆴ||'''{{IPA|[t̚]}}''' -t ㆵ||'''{{IPA|[k̚]}}''' -k ㆶ||'''{{IPAblink|ʔ}}''' -h ㆷ
|}

Unlike many other varieties of Chinese such as Mandarin and [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]], there are no native [[labiodental]] phonemes (i.e., {{IPAblink|f}}).

# Coronal affricates and fricatives become [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] before {{IPA|/i/}}, that is, {{IPA|/dzi/}}, {{IPA|/tsi/}}, {{IPA|/tsʰi/}}, and {{IPA|/si/}} are pronounced {{IPA|[dʑi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕʰi]}}, and {{IPA|[ɕi]}}.
# The consonant {{IPA|/dz/}} may be realized as a fricative; that is, as {{IPA|[z]}} in most environments and {{IPA|[ʑ]}} before {{IPA|/i/}}.
# The [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] plosives ({{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}) become the corresponding fricatives ({{IPAblink|β}} and {{IPAblink|ɣ}}) in some phonetic contexts. This is similar to [[begadkefat]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and a similar [[Allophone|allophony]] of intervocalic [[plosive consonants]] and their fricatives in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].

=== Vowels ===
Taiwanese has the following [[vowel]]s:
{|class=wikitable
|-
!rowspan=2| !!colspan=2|[[Front vowel|Front]]!!colspan=2|[[Central vowel|Central]]!!colspan=2|[[Back vowel|Back]]
!rowspan=5| !!colspan=2 rowspan=2|[[Syllabic consonant]]
|- align=center
!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]
|- align=center
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|'''{{IPAblink|i}}''' i ㄧ||'''{{IPA|[ĩ]}}''' iⁿ ㆪ
| ||
|'''{{IPAblink|u}}''' u ㄨ||'''{{IPA|[ũ]}}''' uⁿ ㆫ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[m̩]}}''' m ㆬ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[ŋ̍]}}''' ng ㆭ
|- align=center
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|'''{{IPAblink|e}}''' e ㆤ||'''{{IPA|[ẽ]}}''' eⁿ ㆥ
|'''{{IPAblink|ə}} ~ {{IPAblink|o}}''' o ㄜ, ㄛ||
|'''{{IPAblink|ɔ}}''' o͘ ㆦ||'''{{IPA|[ɔ̃]}}''' oⁿ ㆧ
|- align=center
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| || ||'''{{IPAblink|ä|a}}''' a ㄚ||'''{{IPA|[ã]}}''' aⁿ ㆩ|| ||
|}

The vowel {{angle bracket|o}} is akin to a [[schwa]]; in contrast, {{angle bracket|[[o͘]]}} (with dot) is a more [[Vowel height|open vowel]]. In addition, there are several [[diphthong]]s and [[triphthong]]s (for example, {{angle bracket|iau}}). The consonants {{angle bracket|m}} and {{angle bracket|ng}} can function as a [[Nucleus (syllable)|syllabic nucleus]] and are therefore included here as vowels. The vowels may be either plain or [[Nasal vowel|nasal]]: {{angle bracket|a}} is non-nasal, and {{angle bracket|aⁿ}} is the same vowel with concurrent nasal articulation. This is similar to [[French language|French]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Polish language|Polish]], and many other languages.

There are two pronunciations of vowel {{angle bracket|o}}. In the south (e.g., [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]) it is {{IPA|[ə]}}; in the north (e.g., [[Taipei]]) it is {{IPA|[o]}}. Due to development of transportation and communication, both pronunciations are common and acceptable throughout the country.

{{IPAblink|i}} is a diphthong [<nowiki/>[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]][[Mid central vowel|ə]]] before -k or -ng (POJ: ek, eng), and is slightly shortened and retracted before -p or -t to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-front unrounded vowel|í̞]]]. Similarly, {{IPAblink|u}} is slightly shortened and retracted before -t or -n to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-back rounded vowel|ʊ]]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Tâigí Phonics 3 - Single Vowels - YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Muv_Rx7OXg0 |url-status=dead|access-date=2021-02-06|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref>

=== Tones ===
[[Image:Taiwanese tones.png|thumb|right|Taiwanese tones, close to Taipei values.]]
In the traditional analysis, there are eight "tones", [[tone number|numbered]] from 1 to 8. Strictly speaking, there are only 3 [[Tone level]]. But as in other Sinitic languages, the two kinds of stopped syllables are considered also to be tones and assigned numbers 4 and 8. In Taiwanese tone 6 has merged into tone 7, and thus duplicated in the count. Here the eight tones are shown, following the traditional tone class categorization, named after the tones of [[Middle Sinitic]]:
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Taiwanese tones{{sfnp|Wu|2000|p=2691}}
|-
! Tone number !! Name !! POJ accent !! Pitch in Taipei !! Description !! Pitch in Tainan !! Description
|-
| 1 || yin level (陰平) || a || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥]}}''' (55) || high || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˦]}}''' (44) || high
|-
| 2 || yin rising (陰上) || á || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˩]}}''' (51) || falling || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˧]}}''' (53) || high falling
|-
| 3 || yin departing (陰去) || à || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧˩]}}''' to '''{{IPA|[˨˩]}}''' (21) || low falling || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩]}}''' (11) || low
|-
| 4 || yin entering (陰入) || ah || '''{{IPA|[āʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˧˨]}}''' (2) || mid stopped || '''{{IPA|[àʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˨˩]}}''' (2) || low stopped
|-
| 5 || yang level (陽平) || â || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩˦ ~ a˨˦]}}''' (24) || rising || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨˦]}}''' (25) || rising
|-
| 7 (6) || yang departing and yang rising (陽去與陽上) || ā || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧]}}''' (33) || mid || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨]}}''' (22) || mid
|-
| 8 || yang entering (陽入) || a̍h || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˦]}}''' (4) || high stopped || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˥]}}''' (5) || high stopped
|}

{{Listen|filename=Taiwanese-8Tones.ogg|title=Eight tones of Taiwanese|description=Demonstration of the tones of Taiwanese: 衫 ''saⁿ, 短 té, 褲, khò͘, 闊 khoah, 人 lâng, 矮 é, 鼻 phīⁿ, 直 ti̍t''. Tone sandhi rules do not apply in this sentence. (This demonstration is popular but misleading in the use of ''矮 é'' as an example for tone 6. In dialects that distinguish tones 6 and 7, ''矮 é'' belongs to tone 2, and most words of tone 6 merges into tone 7 in Taiwanese.)}}

See (for one example) the modern phonological analysis in {{harvp|Chiung|2003}}, which challenges these notions.

For tones 4 and 8, a final consonant {{angle bracket|p}}, {{angle bracket|t}}, or {{angle bracket|k}} may appear. When this happens, it is impossible for the syllable to be nasal. Indeed, these are the counterpart to the nasal final consonants {{angle bracket|m}}, {{angle bracket|n}}, and {{angle bracket|ng}}, respectively, in other tones. However, it is possible to have a nasal 4th or 8th tone syllable such as {{angle bracket|siahⁿ}}, as long as there is no final consonant other than {{angle bracket|h}}.

In the dialect spoken near the northern coast of Taiwan, there is no distinction between tones number 8 and number 4 – both are pronounced as if they follow the [[tone sandhi]] rules of tone number 4.

Tone number 0, typically written with two consecutive hyphens (--a) or a point (·a) before the syllable with this tone, is used to mark [[enclitic]]s denoting the extent of a verb action, the end of a noun phrase, etc. A frequent use of this tone is to denote a question, such as in "Chia̍h pá ·bōe?", literally meaning 'Have you eaten yet?’. This is realized by speaking the syllable with either a low-falling tone (3) or a low stop (4). The syllable prior to the {{angle bracket|·}} maintains its original tone.

=== Syllabic structure ===
A [[syllable]] requires a vowel (or diphthong or [[triphthong]]) to appear in the middle. All consonants can appear at the initial position. The consonants {{angle bracket|p, t, k}} and {{angle bracket|m, n, ng}} (and some consider {{angle bracket|h}}) may appear at the end of a syllable. Therefore, it is possible to have syllables such as {{angle bracket|ngiau}} ("(to) tickle") and {{angle bracket|thng}} ("soup").

=== Tone sandhi ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Tone Sandhi 01.svg|thumbnail|right|Schema of the tone sandhi rules in Taiwanese.]]
Taiwanese has extremely extensive [[tone sandhi]] (tone-changing) rules: in an utterance, only the last syllable pronounced is not affected by the rules.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uegu.blogspot.com/2015/01/blog-post_16.html|script-title=zh:台語好多聲|trans-title=The Many Tones of Taiwanese|author=麻瓜先生|date=January 2015|quote={{lang|zh-tw|台語裡有個變調系統，細說分明需要時間，但最大的規則就是「最後一個字不要變！其他變變變！」}}|access-date=21 March 2019}}</ref> What an ‘[[utterance]]’ (or ‘[[intonational phrase]]’) is, in the context of this language, is an ongoing topic for linguistic research, but some general rules apply:<ref name="Lin2015">{{cite book|author=Philip T. Lin|title=Taiwanese Grammar: A Concise Reference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlExBwAAQBAJ|date=31 January 2015|publisher=Greenhorn Media|isbn=978-0-9963982-1-3}}</ref>

The following syllables are unaffected by tone sandhi:
* The final syllable in a [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]], [[noun]] (including single syllable nouns, but not [[pronoun]]s), number, time phrase (i.e., today, tomorrow, etc.), spatial [[preposition]] (i.e., on, under), or [[question word]] (i.e., who, what, how).
* The syllable immediately preceding the [[possessive particle]] 的 (ê) or a neutralized tone. In POJ, this is the syllable before a double hyphen, e.g., 王先生 (Ông—sian-siⁿ)
* Some common [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] markers: 了 (liáu), 好 (hó), 完 (oân), 煞 (soah)

==== Normal tone sandhi ====
The following rules, listed in the traditional pedagogical mnemonic order, govern the pronunciation of tone on each of the syllables affected (that is, all but those described according to the rules listed above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''3''' ([[Quanzhou]]/Taipei speech) or '''7''' ([[Zhangzhou]]/Tainan speech).
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Normal tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻³ / tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻³ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜖]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻³ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜖]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

==== Double tone sandhi ====
There are a number of a single syllable words that undergo double tone sandhi, that is, they follow the tone change rule twice and are pronounced according to the second tone change. These syllables are almost always a 4th tone ending in '''-h''', and include the words 卜 (beh), 甲 (kah), 閣 (koh), 即 (chiah), as well as the 3rd tone verb 去 khì. As a result of following the tone change rule twice, these syllables are all pronounced as tone number '''1'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Double tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 4 || kah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kaʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kaʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || khi³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kʰi˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kʰi˩꜓]}}
|}

==== Before the -á suffix ====
{{Wiktionary pipe|仔#Usage notes|the rules for tone sandhi before '仔' (-á) with examples}}
Apart from the normal tone sandhi rules described above, there are two special cases where a different set of tone sandhi apply.<ref>Iunn Un-gian. "A Study on Implementation of Southern-Min Taiwanese Tone Sandhi System." (2005). https://aclweb.org/anthology/Y/Y05/Y05-1011.pdf</ref> In a noun with the noun [[suffix]] '{{linktext|lang=zh|仔}}' ({{linktext|á}}), the penultimate syllable is governed by the following rules:
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''' or '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''. (same as double)

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Tone sandhi before -á (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜕]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜓]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|}

==== In triplicated adjectives ====
Finally, in the case of single-syllable adjective [[triplication]] (for added emphasis), the first syllable is governed by the following rules (the second syllable follows the normal tone sandhi rules above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Triplicated tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

See {{harvp|Tiuⁿ|2001}}, {{harvp|Chiung|2003}} and the work of Robert L. Cheng (鄭良偉; Tēⁿ Liông-úi)<ref>{{cite web |date=2003 |publisher=Center for Chinese Studies, University of Hawaii |title=Robert L. Cheng |url=http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070624085539/http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-date=2007-06-24}}</ref> for modern linguistic approaches to tones and tone sandhi in Taiwanese.

== Lexicon ==
Modern linguistic studies (by Robert L. Cheng and Chin-An Li, for example) estimate that most (75% to 90%) Taiwanese [[word]]s have [[cognate]]s in other Sinitic languages. [[False friend]]s do exist; for example, ''cháu'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|走}}) means "to run" in Taiwanese, whereas the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] cognate, ''zǒu'', means "to walk". Moreover, cognates may have different [[Part of speech|lexical categories]]; for example, the [[morpheme]] ''phīⁿ'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|鼻}}) means not only "nose" (a noun, as in Mandarin ''bí'') but also "to smell" (a verb, unlike Mandarin).

Among the apparently cognate-less words are many basic words with properties that contrast with similar-meaning words of pan-Chinese derivation. Often the former group lacks a standard Han character, and the words are variously considered colloquial, intimate, vulgar, uncultured, or more concrete in meaning than the pan-Chinese synonym. Some examples: ''lâng'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|人}}, person, concrete) vs. ''jîn'' (人, person, abstract); ''{{linktext|cha-bó͘}}'' ({{linktext|查某}}, woman) vs. ''lú jîn'' (女人, woman, literary). Unlike the [[English language#Vocabulary|English Germanic/Latin contrast]], however, the two groups of Taiwanese words cannot be as strongly attributed to the influences of two disparate linguistic sources.

Extensive contact with the [[Japanese language]] has left a legacy of Japanese [[loanwords]], with 172 recorded in the Ministry of Education's ''[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_wailaici.jsp |script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典-外來詞 |year=2011 |trans-title=Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan - Loanwords |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |language=zh |access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref> Although a very small percentage of the vocabulary, their usage tends to be high-frequency because of their relevance to modern society and popular culture. Examples are: ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||オートバイ|ōtobai|"autobike"/motorcycle}} and ''pháng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|パン}}|pan|"[[bread]]", itself a loanword from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]}}. [[Grammatical particle]]s borrowed from Japanese, notably ''te̍k'' from {{nihongo4||的|teki}} and ''ka'' from {{nihongo4||か|ka}}, show up in the Taiwanese of older speakers.

Taiwanese pronouns are collectivized through [[nasalization]]. For example, ''i'' (he/she/it) and ''goá'' (I) become ''in'' (they) and ''goán'' (we), respectively. The ''-n'' thus represents a subsyllabic [[morpheme]].

Unlike English, Taiwanese has two [[first person plural|first-person plural]] pronouns. This distinction is called [[Clusivity|inclusive]], which includes the [[Interlocutor (linguistics)|addressee]], and exclusive, which excludes the addressee. Thus, ''goán'' means ''we excluding you'', while ''lán'' means ''we including you'' (similar to [[pluralis auctoris]]). The inclusive ''lán'' may be used to express politeness or solidarity, as in the example of a speaker asking a stranger "Where do we live?" while implicitly asking "Where do ''you'' live?".

== Syntax ==
{{Listen|filename=Tai JintianDaoJiaKanWo.ogg|title=Kin-ná jit hit ê cha-bó͘ gín-á lâi góan tau khòaⁿ góa.|description=An audio sample for a simple sentence, meaning "Today that little girl came to our house to see me".}}
The [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is similar to southern sinitic languages such as [[Hakka]] and [[Yue]]. The [[subject–verb–object]] sequence is typical as in, for example, [[Mandarin Chinese]], but [[subject–object–verb]] or the [[passive voice]] (with the sequence [[object–subject–verb]]) is possible with particles. Take a simple sentence for example: 'I hold you.' The words involved are: ''goá'' ('I' or 'me'), ''phō'' ('to hold'), ''lí'' ('you').
* Subject–verb–object (typical sequence): The sentence in the typical sequence would be: ''Goá phō lí.'' ('I hold you.')
* Subject–''kā''–object–verb: Another sentence of roughly equivalent meaning is ''Goá kā lí phō'', with the slight connotation of 'I take you and hold' or 'I get to you and hold'.
* Object ''hō͘'' subject–verb (the passive voice): Then, ''Lí hō͘ goá phō'' means the same thing but in the [[passive voice]], with the connotation of 'You allow yourself to be held by me' or 'You make yourself available for my holding'.

With this, more complicated sentences can be constructed: ''Goá kā chúi hō͘ lí lim'' ('I give water for you to drink': ''chúi'' means 'water'; ''lim'' is 'to drink').

This article can only give a few very simple examples on the syntax, for flavour. Linguistic work on the [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is still a (quite nascent) scholarly topic being explored.

== Scripts and orthographies ==
{{Main|Written Hokkien}}

[[File:Holo bunhak chokphin.JPG|thumb|right|A selection of literary works (original and translated) in Taiwanese, in several orthographies.]]

Until the late 19th century, Taiwanese speakers wrote mostly in [[Classical Sinitic]]|date=June 2015}}. Among many systems of writing Taiwanewe using Latin characters, the most used is called [[pe̍h oē jī]] (POJ) and was developed in the 19th century. (For additional romanized systems, see references in "Orthography in Latin characters", below.) Nonetheless, Taiwanese speakers nowadays most commonly write in Chinese Mandarin, though many of the same characters are also used to write Taiwanese.

=== Han characters ===
In most cases, Taiwanese speakers write using the [[writing system|script]] called [[Han characters]] as in Mandarin, although there are a number of special characters which are unique to Taiwanwe and which are sometimes used in informal writing. Where Han characters are used, they are not always etymological or genetic; the borrowing of similar-sounding or similar-meaning characters is a common practice. Bilingual speakers of both Mandarin and Taiwanese sometimes attempt to represent the sounds by adopting similar-sounding Mandarin Han characters. For example, the Han characters of the [[Profanity|vulgar slang]] 'khoàⁿ sáⁿ-siâu' ({{linktext|lang=zh|看|三小}}, substituted for the etymologically correct {{linktext|lang=zh|看|省屑}}, meaning 'What the hell are you looking at?’) has very little meaning in Mandarin and may not be readily understood by a Taiwanese monolingual, as knowledge of Mandarin character readings is required to fully decipher it.

In 2007, the [[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|Ministry of Education]] in Taiwan published the first list of [[Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters]], a list of 300 Han characters standardized for the use of writing Taiwanese and implemented the teaching of them in schools.<ref>[http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm 教育部公布閩南語300字推薦用字　卡拉OK用字也被選用 (Ministry of Education in Taiwan announces 300 recommended Hokkien words, Karaoke words are also selected)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724212916/http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm |date=24 July 2011 }}; [http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 「臺灣閩南語推薦用字（第1批）」已公布於網站，歡迎各界使用 (Announcement of recommended words for Taiwanese Hokkien)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718144143/http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 |date=18 July 2011 }}</ref> In 2008, the ministry published a second list of 100 characters, and in 2009 added 300 more, giving a total of 700 standardized characters used to write uniquely Taiwanese words.

However, these "recommended Han characters" are totally different from old Taiwanese Han characters. Hence, the policy of RoC is seen as cultural destruction again.

=== Orthography in Latin characters ===
[[Image:Kauhoe.jpg|thumb|right|An issue of the ''[[Taiwan Church News]]'', first published by Presbyterian missionaries in 1885. This was the first printed newspaper in Taiwan, and was written in Taiwanese, in the Latin orthography pe̍h oē jī.]]

There are several Latin-based orthographies, the oldest being [[Pe̍h oē jī]] (POJ, meaning "vernacular writing"), developed in the 19th century. [[Taiwanese Minnan Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī, Tâi-Bân-Lô) and [[Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet]] (TLPA) are two later adaptations of POJ. Other 20th-century innovations include [[Daighi tongiong pingim]] (DT), [[Ganvsig daiuuan bhanlam ghiw tongiong pingimv]] (GDT), [[Modern Literal Taiwanese]] (MLT), [[Simplified MLT]] (SMLT), [[Phofsit Daibuun]] (PSDB). The last four employ [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] [[spelling]] to indicate tone without use of [[diacritic]] symbols, but letters instead.

In POJ, the traditional list of letters is
:a b ch chh e g h i j k kh l m n ng o o͘ p ph s t th (ts) u
Twenty-four in all, including the obsolete {{angle bracket|ts}}, which was used to represent the modern {{angle bracket|ch}} at some places. The additional necessities are the nasal symbol {{angle bracket|ⁿ}}  (superscript {{angle bracket|n}}; the uppercase form {{angle bracket|N}} is sometimes used in [[all caps]] texts,<ref>Tè Khái-sū (1999) [https://archive.org/details/Tpsurvey Writing Latinized Taiwanese Languages with Unicode]</ref> such as book titles or section headings), and the tonal [[diacritic]]s.
POJ was developed first by [[Presbyterian]] [[missionaries]] and later by the indigenous [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]]; they have been active in promoting the language since the late 19th century. Recently there has been an increase in texts using a mixed orthography of Han characters and romanization, although these texts remain uncommon.

In 2006, the [[National Languages Committee]] (Ministry of Education, Republic of China) proposed [[Taiwanese Minnan Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī pheng-im, Tâi-Bân-Lô). This alphabet reconciles two orthographies, TLPA and POJ.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tlh.de-han.org/untong/2006/0929TaiLo.pdf|title=臺灣閩南語羅馬字拼音方案 (Orthographic system for the Minnan language in Taiwan, 'Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī pheng-im')}}</ref> The changes for the consonants involved using {{angle bracket|ts}} for POJ's {{angle bracket|ch}} (reverting to the orthography in the 19th century), and {{angle bracket|tsh}} for {{angle bracket|chh}}. For the vowels, {{angle bracket|o͘}} could optionally represented as {{angle bracket|oo}}. The nasal mark {{angle bracket|ⁿ}} could also be represented optionally as {{angle bracket|nn}}. The rest of the alphabet, most notably the use of diacritics to mark the tones, appeared to keep to the POJ tradition. One of the aims of this compromise was to curb any increase of 'market share' for Daighi tongiong pingim/Tongyong Pinyin.<ref>[http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf 教育部國語推行委員會: 關於閩南語拼音整合工作相關問題說帖 (National Languages Committee: On the integration of Minnan orthographies), 2006-10-16] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128050052/http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf |date=28 November 2007 }}</ref> It is unclear whether the community will adopt this new agreement.

=== Orthographies in kana and in bopomofo ===
[[Image:Japanese-Taiwanese Dictionary.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese–Taiwanese Dictionary, using the orthography in kana]]
{{Main|Taiwanese kana|Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols}}
There was an orthography of Taiwanese based on the [[Kana|Japanese kana]] during [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese rule]]. The [[Kuomintang]] government also tried to introduce an orthography in [[bopomofo]].

===Comparison of orthographies===
Here the different orthographies are compared:
{{POJtable}}

=== Computing ===
[[File:Pa-khek-le Kau-hoe.jpg|thumb|right|Pe̍h-ōe-jī inscription at a church in [[Tainan|Tâi-lâm]] commemorating [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]].]]

Many [[keyboard layout]]s and [[Chinese input methods for computers|input methods]] for entering either Latin or Han characters in Taiwanese are available. Some of them are free-of-charge, some commercial.

The [[Min Nan]] dialect group is registered per {{IETF RFC|3066}} as [https://www.iana.org/assignments/lang-tags/zh-min-nan zh-min-nan].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evertype.com/standards/iso639/iana-lang-assignments.html|title=Evertype|website=www.evertype.com}}</ref> Taiwanese Min Nan can be represented as 'zh-min-nan-TW'.

When writing Taiwanese in Han characters, some writers create 'new' characters when they consider it is impossible to use directly or borrow existing ones; this corresponds to similar practices in character usage in [[Written Cantonese|Cantonese]], [[chu nom|Vietnamese chữ nôm]], [[Hanja|Korean hanja]] and [[Kanji|Japanese kanji]]. These are usually not encoded in [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal Character Set]]), thus creating problems in computer processing.

All Latin characters required by pe̍h-oē-jī can be represented using [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal character set]]), using precomposed or combining (diacritics) characters.

{{Main|O͘}}
Prior to June 2004, the vowel {{IPA|[ɔ]}} akin to but more open than ⟨o⟩, written with a 'dot above right', was not encoded. The usual workaround was to use the (stand-alone; spacing) character ‘[[Interpunct|middle dot]]’ (U+00B7, ⟨·⟩) or less commonly the combining character 'dot above' (U+0307). As these are far from ideal, since 1997 proposals have been submitted to the ISO/IEC [[working group]] in charge of ISO/IEC 10646 – namely, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070628163947/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/wg2/ ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2] – to encode a new combining character 'dot above right'. This is now officially assigned to U+0358 (see documents [http://www.evertype.com/standards/la/taioan.html N1593], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311082219/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2507 N2507], [https://web.archive.org/web/20060928065416/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2628 N2628],
[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2699 N2699], and [http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/sc2/wg2/docs/N2770r.pdf N2770]). Font support has followed: for example, in [[Charis SIL]].

== Sociolinguistics ==
=== Regional variations ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Map.svg|thumb|right|Distribution of Hokkien dialects in Taiwan:<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ang Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin | script-title = zh:台灣的語種分布與分區 |title=Táiwān de yǔzhǒng fēnbù yǔ fēnqū |trans-title=The Distribution and Regionalization of Varieties in Taiwan | publisher = [[Academia Sinica]] |year=2013 |journal=Language and Linguistics |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=315–369|language=zh-hant |url=http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/14.2/LL14.2-04-Ang%20121227.pdf}} Map 5, p. 355.</ref>
{{legend|#ff8080|Quanzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#8080ff|Zhangzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#ff80ff|Both Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects}}
]]


The [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Taiwanese is the southern speech found in [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]. Other major variants are the northern speech, the central speech (near [[Taichung]] and the port town of [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]), and the northern (northeastern) coastal speech (dominant in [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan]]).

The distinguishing feature of the coastal speech is the use of the vowel {{angle bracket|uiⁿ}} in place of {{angle bracket|ng}}. The northern speech is distinguished by the absence of the [[#Tones|8th tone]], and some vowel exchanges (for example, {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, {{angle bracket|e}} and {{angle bracket|oe}}). The central speech has an additional vowel {{IPA|[ɨ]}} or {{IPA|[ø]}} between {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, which may be represented as {{angle bracket|ö}}. There are also a number of other pronunciation and lexical differences between the Taiwanese variants; the online Ministry of Education dictionary specifies these to a resolution of eight regions on Taiwan proper, in addition to [[Kinmen]] and [[Penghu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho|script-title=zh:方言差"語音差異表|trans-title=Table of Pronunciation Differences|year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho_p|script-title=zh:方言差"詞彙差異表|trans-title=Table of Vocabulary Differences |year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref>

Concerning the fifth (rising) tone in normal sandhi patterns, the Quanzhou/Coastal/Northern dialects change to seventh (mid level) tone, whereas the Zhangzhou/"Mixed"/Southern dialects change to third (low falling) tone.

Certain new north–south distinctions have appeared in recent decades.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}<ref>{{Cite journal|author1-link=Jack C. Richards|last=Richards|first=Jack C.|date=1977-01-01|title=Variation in Singapore English|jstor=43135170|journal=Interlanguage Studies Bulletin|volume=2|issue=2|pages=131–151}}</ref> The fourth and eighth tones tend to be reversed in the north and south.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/resources/PronouncingTaiwanese.html|title=Jordan: Pronouncing Romanized Taiwanese Hokkien|website=pages.ucsd.edu}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2016}}

====Quanzhou–Zhangzhou inclinations====

[[Hokkien]] immigrants to Taiwan originated from [[Quanzhou]] prefecture (44.8%) and [[Zhangzhou]] prefecture (35.2%).{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} The original phonology from these regions was spread around Taiwan during the immigration process. With the advanced development of transportation and greater mobility of the Taiwanese population, Taiwanese speech has steered itself towards a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech, known as ''Chiang–Chôan-lām'' (漳泉濫, in Mandarin ''Zhāng–Quán làn'').{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} Due to different proportion of mixture, some regions are inclined more towards Quanzhou accent, while others are inclined more towards Zhangzhou accent.

In general, Quanzhou accent is more common along the coastal region and is known as the ''hái-kháu'' accent; Zhangzhou accent is more common within the mountainous region of Taiwan and is known as the ''lāi-po͘'' accent. The regional variation within Taiwanese may be attributed to variations in the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents and/or lexicons. It ranges from Lukang accent (based on Quanzhou accent) on one end, to the northern coastal [[Yilan City|Yilan]] accent (based on Zhangzhou accent) on another end. Tainan, Kaohsiung and Taitung accents, on the other hand, are closest to the prestige accent.

'''<center>Variations in Taiwanese Hokkien accents</center>'''

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|-
! style="background:#FFA000; color:black" | [[Quanzhou]] accent
|-
| style="background:#fc0;"| [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]
|-
| style="background:#fc6;"| [[Penghu]], [[Taixi, Yunlin|Taixi]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]]—[[Budai, Chiayi|Budai]] coastal region (''hái-kháu'')
|-
| style="background:#fc9;"| [[Taipei]], [[Hsinchu]] (very similar to [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcc;"| [[Chiayi]]—[[Kaohsiung]] surrounding
area, [[Taitung City|Taitung]] (prestige accent, [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent mixed [[Zhangzhou]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcf;"| [[Taichung Basin|Taichung]], [[Changhua City|Changhua]]—[[Yunlin County|Yunlin]] inland area, [[Taoyuan, Taiwan|North Taoyuan]](''lāi-po͘'')
|-
| style="background:#c9f;"| [[Yilan City|Yilan]]
|-
! style= "background:#BBA1CB; color:black" | [[Zhangzhou]] accent
|}

====Recent terminological distinctions====
Recent research has found a need for new terminology of Taiwanese dialects, mainly because the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects in Taiwan developed independently from those in Fujian. Thus, some scholars (i.e., Klöter, following {{lang|zh-tw|董忠司}}) have divided Taiwanese into five subdialects, based on geographic region:{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=4}}
#''hái-kháu'' ({{lang|zh-tw|海口腔}}): west coast, based on what was formerly referred to as Quanzhou dialect (represented by the Lukang accent)
#''phian-hái'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏海腔}}): coastal (represented by the Nanliao ({{lang|zh-tw|南寮}}) accent)
#''lāi-po͘'' ({{lang|zh-tw|內埔腔}}): western inner plain, mountain regions, based on the Zhangzhou dialect (represented by the Yilan accent)
#''phian-lāi'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏內腔}}): interior (represented by the [[Taibao]] accent)
#''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}): common accents (represented by the Taipei (spec. [[Datong District, Taipei|Datong]]) accent in the north and the Tainan accent in the south)
Both ''phian-hái'' and ''phian-lāi'' are intermediate dialects between ''hái-kháu'' and ''lāi-po͘'', these also known as ''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}) or "{{lang|zh-tw|不泉不漳}}". In some ways this mixed dialect is similar to the Amoy dialect, which itself is a blend of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The common dialect refers to that which can be heard on radio, television, official announcements, etc.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

=== Fluency ===
A great majority of people in Taiwan can speak both [[Mandarin Chinese]] and Taiwanese although the degree of fluency varies widely.<ref name="housing census" /> There are however small but significant numbers of people in Taiwan, mainly but not exclusively [[Hakka people|Hakka]] and [[waishengren|Mainlanders]], who cannot speak Taiwanese fluently. A shrinking percentage of the population, mainly people born before the 1950s, cannot speak Mandarin at all, or learned to speak Mandarin later in life, though some of these speak Japanese fluently. Urban, working-class Hakkas as well as younger, southern-Taiwan Mainlanders tend to have better, even native-like fluency. Approximately half of the Hakka in Taiwan do speak Taiwanese. There are many families of mixed Hakka, Hoklo, and [[Taiwanese aborigines|Aboriginal]] bloodlines. There is, however, a large percentage of people in Taiwan, regardless of their background, whose ability to understand and read written Taiwanese is greater than their ability to speak it. This is the case with some singers who can sing Taiwanese songs with native-like proficiency, but can neither speak nor understand the language.

Which variant is used depends strongly on the context, and in general people will use Mandarin in more formal situations and Taiwanese in more informal situations. Taiwanese tends to get used more in [[rural]] areas, while Mandarin is used more in [[urban area|urban]] settings. Older people tend to use Taiwanese, while younger people tend to use Mandarin. In the broadcast media where Mandarin is used in many genres, [[soap opera]], [[variety show]]s, and even some news programs can also be found in Taiwanese.

=== Sociolinguistics and gender ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2011}}
Taiwanese is also perceived by some to have a slight masculine leaning, making it more popular among the males of the younger population. It is sometimes perceived as "unladylike" when spoken by the females of the younger population.

=== Special literary and art forms ===

''Chhit-jī-á'' (literally, "that which has seven syllables") is a [[poetry|poetic]] [[meter (poetry)|meter]] where each verse has 7 syllables.

There is a special form of [[music]]al/[[drama]]tic performance ''koa-á-hì'': the [[Taiwanese opera]]; the subject matter is usually a [[history|historical event]]. A similar form ''pò͘-tē-hì'' ([[glove puppetry]]) is also unique and has been elaborated in the past two decades into impressive [[television|televised]] spectacles.

See [[Taiwanese cuisine]] for names of several local dishes.

===Bible translations===
[[File:Bibles in Taiwanese.jpg|thumb|right|A collection of translations of the Bible in Taiwanese. Top left, ''Today’s Taiwanese'' version; top right, the Red-Cover Bible; bottom, Barclay's translation.]]

As with many other languages, the [[Chinese Bible Translations|translations of the Bible]] in Taiwanese marked milestones in the standardization attempts of the language and its orthography.

The first translation of the Bible in Amoy or Taiwanese in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography was by the first missionary to Taiwan, [[James Laidlaw Maxwell]], with the New Testament ''Lán ê Kiù-chú Iâ-so͘ Ki-tok ê Sin-iok'' published in 1873 and the Old Testament ''Kū-iok ê Sèng Keng'' in 1884.

[[File:Taiwanese Bible Chim-gian 1933.jpg|thumb|left|A copy of Barclay's Amoy translation, opened to the Proverbs.]]

The next translation of the Bible in Taiwanese or Amoy was by the missionary to Taiwan, [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]], carried out in Fujian and Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/native.htm |script-title=zh:本土聖經 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=zh }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm |script-title=ja:書評『聖經－－台語漢字本』 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=ja |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080120005258/http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm|archive-date=20 January 2008}}</ref> A New Testament translation was completed and published in 1916. The resulting work containing the Old and the New Testaments, in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography, was completed in 1930 and published in 1933 as the Amoy Romanized Bible ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|links=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]]. 2000 copies of the Amoy Romanized Bible were confiscated by the Taiwan Garrison from the Bible Society of Taiwan in 1975. This edition was later transliterated into Han characters and published as {{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=聖經台語漢字本|poj=Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|labels=no|scase=}} [[:zh-min-nan:Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]] in 1996.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://tailo.fhl.net/Godspeak/Godspeak26.html |title=台語信望愛 - 4.1.4 《台語漢字本》|website=tailo.fhl.net |language=zh-TW }}</ref>

[[File:Ang-phoe Seng-keng te-571-bin.jpg|thumb|right|A page from the Red-Cover Bible.]]

The Ko-Tân ([[Kerygma]]) Colloquial Taiwanese Version of the New Testament (''Sin-iok'') in pe̍h-ōe-jī, also known as the {{Interlanguage link|Red Cover Bible|zh-min-nan|Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|WD=}} ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), was published in 1973 as an ecumenical effort between the Protestant [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the Roman Catholic mission [[Maryknoll]]. This translation used a more modern vocabulary (somewhat influenced by Mandarin), and reflected the central Taiwan dialect, as the Maryknoll mission was based near [[Taichung|Tâi-tiong]]. It was soon confiscated by the Kuomintang government (which objected to the use of Latin orthography) in 1975. The copies of the ecumenical NT are now available on the online stores.

A translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Today's Taiwanese Romanized Version" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|labels=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]], containing only the New Testament, again in pe̍h-ōe-jī, was published in 2008<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peopo.org/chuniok/post/12934|title=現代台語新約羅馬字聖經出版感謝e話|website=www.peopo.org }}</ref> as a collaboration between the [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the [[Bible Society in Taiwan]]. A translation of the Old Testament, following the same principle, is being prepared.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/translation/Taiwanese.htm|title=台語聖經|website=www.biblesociety-tw.org|language=zh-TW}}</ref>{{Outdated inline|date=December 2018|reason=2018 status not stated|?=yes}}

Another translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Common Taiwanese Bible" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Choân-bîn Tâi-gí Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), with versions of pe̍h-ōe-jī, Han characters and Ruby version (both Han characters and pe̍h-ōe-jī) was published in 2015, available in printed and online.

=== Politics ===
[[File:Banning of POJ.gif|thumb|right|A decree (1955) banning the use of Pe̍h-ōe-jī, a Latin orthography for Taiwanese, in church.]]
Until the 1980s, the use of Taiwanese, along with all [[Varieties of Chinese|varieties]] other than [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]], was discouraged by the [[Kuomintang]] through measures such as banning its use in schools and limiting the amount of Taiwanese broadcast on electronic media. These measures were removed by the 1990s, and Taiwanese became an emblem of [[Taiwanese localization movement|localization]]. Mandarin remains the predominant language of education, although there is a "mother tongue" language requirement in Taiwanese schools which can be satisfied with student's choice of mother tongue: Taiwanese, Hakka, or [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]].

Although the use of Taiwanese over Mandarin was historically part of the [[Taiwan independence movement]], the linkage between politics and language is not as strong as it once was. Some fluency in Taiwanese is desirable for political office in Taiwan for both independence and unificationist politicians. At the same time even some supporters of Taiwan independence have played down its connection with Taiwanese in order to gain the support of the [[waishengren|Mainlander]]s and [[Hakka people]].

[[James Soong]] restricted the use of Taiwanese and other local tongues in broadcasting while serving as Director of the [[Government Information Office]] earlier in his career, but later became one of the first politicians of Mainlander origin to use Taiwanese in semi-formal occasions.{{synthesis inline|date=August 2016}} Since then, politicians opposed to Taiwanese independence have used it frequently in rallies, even when they are not native speakers. Conversely, politicians who have traditionally been identified with Taiwan independence have used Mandarin on formal occasions and semi-formal occasions such as press conferences. An example of the latter is former President [[Chen Shui-bian]] who uses Mandarin in all official state speeches, but uses mainly Taiwanese in political rallies and some informal state occasions such as New Year greetings. The current [[President of Taiwan]] and of the ([[Democratic Progressive Party|DPP]]), [[Tsai Ing-wen]] has been criticized by her supporters for not using Taiwanese in speeches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5dPfuafUb?url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-date=28 December 2008 |script-title=zh:蔡英文不說台語高雄人涼了半截 |trans-title=Tsai Ing-wen doesn't speak Taiwanese; The people in Kaohsiung feel half-disappointed |language=zh |access-date=12 October 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Former President [[Ma Ying-jeou]] spoke in Taiwanese during his 2008 [[Double Ten Day]] speech when he was talking about the state of the [[Economy of Taiwan|economy in Taiwan]].

In the early 21st century, there are few differences in language usage between the [[Chinese unification|pro-reuinification]] leaning [[Pan-Blue Coalition]] and the [[Taiwan independence movement|independence]] leaning [[Pan-Green Coalition]]. Both tend to use Taiwanese at political rallies and sometimes in informal interviews, and both tend to use Mandarin at formal press conferences and official state functions. Both also tend to use more Mandarin in [[Northern Taiwan]] and more Taiwanese in [[Southern Taiwan]]. However, at official party gatherings (as opposed to both Mandarin-leaning state functions and Taiwanese-leaning party rallies), the DPP tends to use Taiwanese while KMT and [[PFP (Taiwan)|PFP]] tend to use Mandarin. The [[Taiwan Solidarity Union]], which advocates a strong line on Taiwan independence, tends to use Taiwanese even in formal press conferences. In speaking, politicians will frequently [[Code-switching|code switch]]. In writing, almost everyone uses [[written vernacular Chinese|vernacular Mandarin]] which is further from Taiwanese, and the use of semi-alphabetic writing or even [[Tng-lang-ji|colloquial Taiwanese characters]] is rare.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=An investigation of written Taiwanese|url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/11520|date=2005|degree=MA|language=en-US|first=Katsuhiro J.|last=Ota|publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa|hdl=10125/11520}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Mair|first=Victor|title=Taiwanese, Mandarin, and Taiwan's language situation|url=http://pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|access-date=2020-08-06|website=pinyin.info}}</ref>

In 2002, the Taiwan Solidarity Union, a party with about 10% of the [[Legislative Yuan]] seats at the time, suggested making Taiwanese a second official language.<ref>{{cite news |author=Lin Mei-chun |title=Hokkien should be given official status, says TSU |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2002/03/10/0000127068 |work=Taipei Times|date=10 March 2002 |page=1 }}</ref> This proposal encountered strong opposition not only from Mainlander groups but also from Hakka and aboriginal groups who felt that it would slight their home languages, as well as others including [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]] who objected to the proposal on logistical grounds and on the grounds that it would increase ethnic tensions. Because of these objections, support for this measure is lukewarm among moderate Taiwan independence supporters, and the proposal did not pass.

In 2003, there was a controversy when parts of the civil service examination for judges were written in characters used only in Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite news|author=Ko Shu-ling|title=Control Yuan sets rules for future examinations |page=2 |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2004/09/20/2003203606 |work=Taipei Times|date=20 September 2004}}</ref> After strong objections, these questions were not used in scoring. As with the official-language controversy, objections to the use of Taiwanese came not only from Mainlander groups, but also Hoklo, Hakka and aborigines. The [[Control Yuan]] later created a rule that only allowed Standard Mandarin characters on civil service exams. According to public opinion surveys in 2008, more people supported making English a second official language than Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Gijsen, Johan |author2=Liu Yu-Chang |chapter=Chapter 8: The Quest for a New Civic and Linguistic Identity: Mandarin and English Encroachment upon the Taiwanese Language |title=Critical Perspectives on Language and Discourse in the New World Order|editor1-last=Abdullah|editor1-first=Faiz Sathi|editor2-last=Abdullah|editor2-first=Mardziah Hayati|editor3-last=Hoon|editor3-first=Tan Bee|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge Scholars|location=Newcastle|isbn=9781847183408|page=156}}</ref>

In 2017, aboriginal languages were given official status in Taiwan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aipl/201707190019.aspx|title=President lauds efforts in transitional justice for indigenous people|publisher=Focus Taiwan|access-date=19 July 2017}}</ref> as was the [[Taiwanese Hakka|Hakka language]].<ref name="hakkaofficial">{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2017/12/30/2003684894|title=Hakka made an official language|last1=Cheng|first1=Hung-ta|last2=Chung|first2=Jake|date=30 December 2017|work=[[Taipei Times]]}}</ref> {{As of|2018}}, English is planned to become an official language in Taiwan,<ref name="English status">{{Cite news|url=https://www.hongkongfp.com/2018/08/31/taiwan-make-english-official-language-next-year-says-official/|title=Taiwan to make English an official language next year, says official {{!}} Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|date=2018-08-31|work=Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|access-date=2018-09-05|language=en-GB}}</ref> although this has not happened as of mid-2020. Taiwanese is required for some activities but not others. For further information, see [[Languages of Taiwan]].

===Mother tongue movement===
[[Taiwanese localization movement|Taiwanization]] developed in the 1990s into a ‘[[mother tongue]] revival movement' aiming to save, preserve, and develop the local ethnic culture and language of Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, and aborigines. The effort to [[Language revitalization|save declining languages]] has since allowed them to revive and flourish. In 1993, Taiwan became the first country in the world to implement the teaching of Taiwanese in schools. By 2001, Taiwanese languages such as Taiwanese, Hakka, and aboriginal languages were taught in all Taiwanese schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhu.edu.tw/~society/e-j/45/45-16.htm|author=許嘉文|date=15 March 2005|language=zh|script-title=zh:台灣鄉土教育發展史|trans-title=The education history of local Taiwanese languages}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} Since the 2000s, elementary school students are required to take a class in either Taiwanese, Hakka or aboriginal languages.{{sfnp|Lin|2002}}{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} In junior high this is usually an available [[Course (education)#Elective and required courses|elective]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ey.gov.tw/AnnoucePage2.aspx|title=行政院全球資訊網|website=www.ey.gov.tw|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref> Taiwan also has its own [[Taiwan literature movement|literary circle]] whereby Hokkien poets and writers compose poetry and literature in Taiwanese on a regular basis.

As a result of the mother tongue movement, Taiwan has emerged as a significant cultural hub for Hokkien in the world in the 21st century. It also plans to be the major export center for [[Hokkien culture]] worldwide in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npf.org.tw/11/4118|title=馬英九 {{!}} 馬蕭文化政策 {{!}} 國家政策研究基金會 {{!}} 公共政策的理性思辯與對話平台！|website=國家政策研究基金會|language=zh-TW|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref>

=== Television ===

{{Expand Chinese|section=yes|date=August 2020}}

* [[Lady Rainicorn]] for ''[[Adventure Time]]'' broadcast by [[Cartoon Network (Taiwanese TV channel)|Cartoon Network Taiwan]] used Taiwanese for [[Li Hanfei]] ({{lang|zh-tw|李涵菲}})

==Scholarship==
Klöter's ''Written Taiwanese'' (cited below) has been described as "the most comprehensive English-language study of written Taiwanese".{{sfnp|Snow|2004|p=261}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Taiwan|Languages}}
* [[Languages of Taiwan]]
* [[Min Nan Wikipedia]]
* [[Speak Hokkien Campaign]]
* [[Taiwanese literature movement]]
* [[:nan:Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng|Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng]] (Taiwanese Test) {{in lang|nan}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

=== Words in native languages ===
{{notelist-ur}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Cited sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Ang |first=Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣河佬語聲調研究 |year=1987 |edition=4 |publisher=自立晚報 |location = Taipei |language= zh-Hant |isbn=9789575960353 |oclc=813713530 }}
* {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=James W. |author-link=James W. Davidson |title = The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : history, people, resources, and commercial prospects : tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions |year=1903 |publisher=Macmillan |url = https://archive.org/details/islandofformosap00davi |location=London and New York |ol=6931635M |oclc=1887893 }}
* {{cite book |last = Klöter |first = Henning |title=Written Taiwanese |year = 2005 |publisher=Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |isbn=9783447050937 }}
* {{cite book |last = Snow |first = D. |title=Cantonese as Written Language: The Growth of a Written Chinese Vernacular |year = 2004 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |location=Hong Kong |isbn=9789622097094 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wu |first=Soli |author-link = :zh-min-nan:Ngô͘ Siú-lé |year=2000 |script-title = zh:國臺對照活用辭典 |trans-title=Mandarin-Taiwanese Comparative Living Dictionary |language = zh-TW, zh-min-nan |publisher=Yuan-Liou |location=Taipei |isbn=9789573240884 |oclc = 45990089 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==

===Books and other material===
(As English language material on Taiwanese learning is limited, Japanese and German books are also listed here.)
; English textbooks & dictionaries
* {{cite book |author=李勤岸 |trans-title=Harvard Taiwanese 101 |script-title=zh:哈佛臺語101 |translator-last1=Yeh |translator-first1=Chieh-Ting |translator-last2=Lee |translator-first2=Marian |publisher=開朗 |place=Tainan |year=2005 |isbn=9789868160811 |language=en,zh |type=paperback & CD }}
* Su-chu Wu, Bodman, Nicholas C.: Spoken Taiwanese with cassette(s), 1980/2001, {{ISBN|0-87950-461-7}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-460-9}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-462-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |author-link=William Campbell (missionary) |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1913 |publisher=Taiwan Church Press |location=[[Tainan]] |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000072254844;view=1up;seq=28 |oclc=867068660}}
**{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1923 |edition=2nd |orig-year=1913 |publisher=Fukuin Print. Co. |location=Yokohama |oclc=43655590 |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015056044533;view=1up;seq=1 |postscript=(with preface by Thomas Barclay)}}
* Iâu Chèng-to: Cheng-soán Pe̍h-oē-jī (Concise Colloquial Writing). Tainan, Taiwan: Jîn-kong (an imprint of the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan). 1992.
* Tân, K. T: A Chinese-English Dictionary: Taiwan Dialect. Taipei: Southern Materials Center. 1978.
* Maryknoll Language Service Center: English-Amoy Dictionary. Taichung, Taiwan: Maryknoll Fathers. 1979.

; Japanese publications
* Higuchi, Yasushi (樋口靖 ''Higuchi Yasushi''): 台湾語会話, 2000, {{ISBN|4-497-20004-3}} (Good and yet concise introduction to the Taiwanese language in Japanese; CD: {{ISBN|4-497-20006-X}})
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''): はじめての台湾語, 2003, {{ISBN|4-7569-0665-6}} (Introduction to Taiwanese [and Mandarin]; in Japanese).
* Zheng, Zhenghao (鄭正浩 ''Zhèng Zhènghào''): 台湾語基本単語2000, 1996, {{ISBN|4-87615-697-2}} (Basic vocabulary in Taiwanese 2000; in Japanese).
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''), Chen Fenghui (陳豐惠 ''Chén Fēnghuì''), Kaori Takao (たかおかおり ''Takao Kaori''), 2006, 絵でわかる台湾語会話. {{ISBN|978-4-7569-0991-6}} (Conversations in Taiwanese [and Mandarin] with illustrations; in Japanese).
;Others
* Katharina Sommer, Xie Shu-Kai: Taiwanisch Wort für Wort, 2004, {{ISBN|3-89416-348-8}} (Taiwanese for travellers, in German. CD: {{ISBN|3-8317-6094-2}})

; Articles and other resources
*{{cite journal|last=Chiung |first=Wi-vun Taiffalo |date=2003 |title=Tone Change in Taiwanese: Age and Geographic Factors |journal=University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics |volume=8 |issue=1 |url=http://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl/vol8/iss1/5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303035733/http://uibun.twl.ncku.edu.tw/chuliau/lunsoat/english/tchange/tonechange-v.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite journal |last=LÎM |first=Chùn-io̍k |year=2014 |title=The Common Taiwanese Bible: A Means of Seeking to Affirm the Selfhood and Integrity of Taiwanese and Their Language |journal=Journal of Taiwanese Vernacular |volume=6 |number=2 |pages=106–9 |doi=10.6621/JTV.2014.0602.05
}}
*{{cite web |last=Tan-Tenn |first=Henry H. |date=2001 |title=Taiwanese learning resources |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050418075331/http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf |archive-date=2005-04-18 |url=http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf}}
*{{cite book |last=Tiuⁿ |first=Jū-hông |year=2001 |trans-title=Principles of Pe̍h-oē-jī or the Taiwanese Orthography: an introduction to its sound-symbol correspondences and related issues |script-title=zh:白話字基本論 : 臺語文對應&相關的議題淺說 |language=zh |place=Taipei |publisher=Crane |isbn=957-2053-07-8 }}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=zh-min-nan}}
; On the language
*{{cite web |last=Cannings |first=Michael |url=http://tailingua.com/ |title=Introducing the Taiwanese Language |website=Tailingua}}
* [http://johangijsen.blogspot.com/ Blog on the Taiwanese language and language education in Taiwan]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|title=How to Forget Your Mother Tongue and Remember Your National Language|last=Mair|first=Victor H. |author-link=Victor H. Mair |date=2003 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania|access-date=2 July 2011}}
* [[wikt:Appendix:Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists|Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists]]

; Dictionaries
*{{cite web|script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 |trans-title=[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]] |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index.html |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |date=2011 |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |script-title=zh:台語-華語線頂辭典 |trans-title=Taiwanese-Mandarin Online Dictionary |language=nan-tw, zh, en |url=http://210.240.194.97/iug/Ungian/soannteng/chil/Taihoa.asp }}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |url=http://210.240.194.97/TG/jitian/tgjt.asp |script-title=zh:台語線頂字典 |trans-title=Taiwanese Online Character Dictionary |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |script-title=zh:臺灣本土語言互譯及語音合成系統 |trans-title=Taiwanese languages translation and speech synthesis system |language=zh, nan-tw, hak |url=http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008180132/http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |archive-date=8 October 2006}}
* {{cite web |website=Maryknoll Language Service Center |url=http://taiwanesedictionary.org/ |title=Maryknoll Taiwanese-English Dictionary and English-Amoy Dictionary}}

; Learning aids
* [http://taiwanesegrammar.wordpress.com/ Intermediate Taiwanese grammar (as a blog)]
* [http://taiwanesevocabulary.wordpress.com/ Taiwanese vocabulary: word of the day (blog)]
* [http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/lang/taiwanese/ Taiwanese teaching material]: Nursery rhymes and songs in Han characters and romanization w/ recordings in MP3
* [http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe Travlang (language resources for travellers): Hō-ló-oē] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518234153/http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe |date=18 May 2017 }}
*[http://speaktaiwanese.com/spoken-hokkien/ ''Spoken Hokkien''] - a beginner's e-textbook, with audio, for English-speaking learners of conversational Taiwanese.
* {{cite web |url=http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |title=Daiwanway - Tutorial, dictionary, and stories in Taiwanese. Uses a unique romanization system, different from Pe̍h-oē-jī. Includes sound files |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429232228/http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |archive-date=2007-04-29}}

; Other
* [http://www.dmoz.org/World/Taiwanese/ Open Directory (dmoz): World: Taiwanese]
{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}
{{Southern Min Languages}}
{{Min Chinese}}
{{Chinese language}}

[[Category:Languages of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Hokkien-language dialects]]
[[Category:Taiwanese culture]]

Taiwanese Hokkien

2022-03-13T13:16:28Z

Cuaxdon:

{{short description|Variety of a language dialect}}
{{redirect|Taiwanese language|other languages spoken in Taiwan|Languages of Taiwan|the aboriginal languages of Taiwan|Formosan languages|other uses|Taiwanese language (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Taiwanese
| nativename = Taigi/Taigu, Taiwanese
| pronunciation = {{hideH|title="Tâi-gí / Tâi-gú" }}
{{IPA|[tai˧˩ gi˥˩]}} / {{IPA|[tai˧˩ gu˥˩]}} (dialect) 
{{hideF}}
| states = [[Taiwan]]
| region =
| speakers = 13.5 million
| date = 2017
| ref = <ref>{{e24|nan}}</ref>
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2 = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
| fam3 = [[Min Chinese|Min]]
| fam4 = [[Hoklo]]
| fam5 = [[Choan-Chiang]]
| script = [[Han characters]] (在來字), [[Latin script]] ([[pe̍h ōe jī]])
| nation = {{TWN}}{{efn|National language in [[Taiwan]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aedu/201812250018.aspx|title=Draft national language development act clears legislative floor|website=focustaiwan.tw }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://tw.news.appledaily.com/politics/realtime/20181225/1489328/ |title=立院三讀《國家語言發展法》公廣集團可設台語電視台 |website=ltn.com.tw|date=25 December 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://tw.news.yahoo.com/amphtml/%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E6%B3%95-%E7%AB%8B%E9%99%A2%E4%B8%89%E8%AE%80-%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E5%BE%97%E8%A8%AD%E5%8F%B0%E8%AA%9E%E5%B0%88%E5%B1%AC%E9%A0%BB%E9%81%93-062038323.html |title=《國家語言發展法》立院三讀！政府得設台語專屬頻道 |website=ltn.com.tw}}</ref> also statutory status in Taiwan as one of the languages for public transport announcements<ref>[[:zh:s:大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法|大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法]]</ref> and for the [[naturalization]] test.<ref>Article 6 of the [http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 Standards for Identification of Basic Language Abilities and General Knowledge of the Rights and Duties of Naturalized Citizens] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725175658/http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 |date=25 July 2017 }}</ref>}}
| agency = [[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education in Taiwan]] and relevant NGOs in Taiwan
| isoexception = dialect
| lingua = 79-AAA-jh
| map = Home usage of Taiwanese by district in Taiwan gradient map (2010).svg
| mapcaption = Proportion of residents aged 6 or older using Hokkien at home in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen & Matsu in 2010<ref>Table 6: Languages used at home for the resident nationals aged 6 years and over by gender and age, [http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm 2010 Population and Housing Census] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222005446/http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm |date=22 February 2015 }}, Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics (DGBAS), ROC (Taiwan).</ref>
| notice = IPA
}}

'''Taiwanwe''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi-oân ōe) , also known as '''Taigi/Taigu''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi gí/Tâi gú; [[Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn|tâi-lô]]: Tâi-gí/Tâi-gú),{{efn|native lang|tw|name=word1}}<ref name="taigi">{{cite web|title=Taigi與台語|url=https://talk.ltn.com.tw/amp/article/paper/1309601|access-date=10 August 2019|work=Liberty Times|date=10 August 2019}}</ref> '''Hoklo''' called by Hakka people, <ref>{{cite web|last=Lee|first=Jack Tsen-Ta|date=28 April 2015|orig-year=2004|url=http://www.mysmu.edu/faculty/jacklee/singlish_H.htm#Hokkien|title=Hokkien|work=A Dictionary of Singlish and Singapore English|access-date=22 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="taiwansnapshot">{{cite web|url=https://www.taiwan.gov.tw/images/content/ts.JPG|title=TAIWAN SNAPSHOT|access-date=15 March 2020|quote=Languages Mandarin (Chinese), Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, Austronesian languages}}</ref> is a variety of the [[Hoklo]] language spoken natively by about 70%+ of the [[population of Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=TW |title=Taiwan |website=[[Ethnologue]]|quote=Principal languages}}</ref> It is spoken by the [[Taiwanese people]], who descended from immigrants from southern [[Fujian]] during the [[Beng dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book |contribution=Taiwan's Evolving Identity |first=June Teufel |last=Dreyer |pages=4–10 |title=The Evolution of a Taiwanese National Identity |location=Washington |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Institute for Scholars |year=2003 |series=Asia Program Special Report |volume=114 |access-date=12 August 2016 |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325100938/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]] (pe̍h ōe jī) romanization is a [[orthography]] for Taiwanwe.

Taiwanwe is generally similar to spoken [[Emng dialect]], [[Choanchiu dialect]], and [[Chiangchiu dialect]] (branches of [[Hoklo]]), as well as their dialectal forms used in [[Southeast Asia]]. It is [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with [[Emng dialect]] on the mainland, with the dialect of the mouth of the [[Jiulong River]] (九龍) immediately to the west, and with [[Philippine Hokkien]] to the south, spoken altogether by about 3 million people.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210919021444/https://raw.githubusercontent.com/KIRINPUTRA/reclassifying-ISO-639-3-nan/main/Reclassifying_ISO_639-3_%5Bnan%5D__An_Empirical_Approach_to_Mutual_Intelligibility_and_Ethnolinguistic_Distinctions.pdf Reclassifying ISO 639-3 [nan]: An Empirical Approach to Mutual Intelligibility and Ethnolinguistic Distinctions]</ref> The mass popularity of [[Hokkien entertainment media]] from Taiwan has given [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prominence]] to the Taiwanese variety of Hokkien, especially since the 1980s.

==Classification==
Taiwanese is a branched-off variety of [[Hokkien]], a group of [[Southern Min]] language. Like many [[Min Chinese|Min]] varieties, it has distinct [[literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|literary and colloquial layers]] of vocabulary, often associated with formal and informal [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]]s respectively. The literary layer can be traced to the late [[Tang dynasty]] and can thus be related to [[Middle Chinese]]. In contrast, the colloquial layers of Min varieties are believed to have branched from the mainstream of Chinese around the time of the [[Han dynasty]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mei|first=Tsu-lin|year=1970|title=Tones and Prosody in Middle Chinese and The Origin of The Rising Tone|journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|volume=30|pages=86–110|doi=10.2307/2718766|jstor=2718766}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| chapter = The Mǐn dialects in historical perspective
| given = Jerry | surname = Norman
| title = Languages and Dialects of China
| editor-given = William S.-Y. | editor-surname = Wang
| pages = 325–360
| series = ''Journal of Chinese Linguistics'' Monograph Series | volume = 3
| publisher = Chinese University Press | year = 1991b
| issue = 3 | jstor = 23827042 | oclc = 600555701
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| surname = Ting | given = Pang-Hsin
| title = Derivation time of colloquial Min from Archaic Chinese
| journal = Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology
| year = 1983 | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 1–14
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| title = Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
| given1 = William H. | surname1 = Baxter | author-link = William H. Baxter
| given2 = Laurent | surname2 = Sagart | author-link2 = Laurent Sagart
| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-994537-5
| year = 2014
| pages = 33, 79
}}</ref>

Regional variations within Taiwanese may be traced back to Hokkien variants spoken in Southern Fujian, specifically those from [[Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou]], then later [[Amoy]]. Taiwanese also contains loanwords from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and the native [[Formosan languages]]. Recent work by scholars such as [https://web.archive.org/web/20041022000504/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/lou-ek-ki/kongpah-oat.htm Ekki Lu], [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081002014759/http://203.64.42.21/iug/ungian/poj/siausit/2002/2002pojgth/lunbun/a1-sakai.pdf Toru Sakai] (酒井亨 ''Sakai Tōru''), and Lí Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040915015640/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/li-khin-hoann/phok-su/phok-su.htm LEXICAL CHANGE AND VARIATION IN TAIWANESE LITERARY TEXTS, 1916–1998 -- A COMPUTER-ASSISTED CORPUS ANALYSIS]</ref> (also known as Tavokan Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}} or Chin-An Li), based on former research by scholars such as [[Ong Iok-tek|Ông Io̍k-tek]], has gone so far as to associate part of the basic vocabulary of the colloquial Taiwanese with the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] and [[Tai languages|Tai]] language families; however, such claims are controversial.

The literary form of Hokkien once flourished in [[Fujian]] and was brought to Taiwan by early emigrants. ''[[Tale of the Lychee Mirror]]'', a manuscript for a series of plays published during the [[Ming dynasty]] in 1566, is one of the earliest known works. This form of the language is now largely extinct. However, literary readings of the numbers are used in certain contexts such as reciting telephone numbers (see [[Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters]]).{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

== History and formation ==
{{see also|Hokkien#History}}

===Spread of Hokkien to Taiwan===
During the [[Yuan dynasty]], [[Quanzhou]] became a major international port for trade with the outside world.<ref>[http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 教育部，歷史文化學習網，《重要貿易港口－泉州》] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725194653/http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 |date=25 July 2011 }}</ref> From that period onwards, many people from the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions (southern Fujian) started to emigrate overseas due to political and economic reasons. One of the destinations of the emigrants is the relatively undeveloped island of [[Formosa]], starting around 1600. They brought with them their native language, Hokkien.

During the late [[Ming dynasty]], the political chaos pushed more migrants from southern Fujian and eastern [[Guangdong]] to Taiwan. The earliest immigrants involved in Taiwan's development included [[Chinese pirates|pirate-merchants]] {{Interlanguage link multi|Chinese Peter|zh|3=顏思齊|WD=}} and [[Zheng Zhilong]]. In 1621, Chinese Peter and his forces, hailing from [[Zhangzhou]], occupied ''Ponkan'' (modern-day [[Beigang, Yunlin]]) and started to develop ''Tirosen'' (modern-day [[Chiayi City|Chiayi]]). After the death of Peter and another pirate, [[Li Dan (pirate)|Li Dan]] of Quanzhou, Zheng sought to dominate the [[Taiwan Strait|Strait of Taiwan]]. By 1628, he had grown so powerful that the Ming court bestowed him the official title, "Patrolling Admiral".<ref>{{cite book|author1-link=Tonio Andrade |last=Andrade |first=Tonio |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century |publisher=Columbia University Press |chapter=Chapter 2: A Scramble for Influence |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade02.html |year=2005 |at=§20-1}}</ref>

In 1624, the number of Chinese in the island was about 25,000.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=13}} During the reign of [[Chongzhen Emperor]] (1627–1644), there were frequent droughts in the Fujian region. Zheng and a Chinese official suggested sending victims to Taiwan and provide "for each person three [[tael]]s of silver and for each three people one ox".{{sfnp|Andrade|2005|loc=§26}} Although this plan was never carried out, the Zheng family maintained an interest in Taiwan that would have dire consequences for the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]], who ruled Taiwan as [[Dutch Formosa]] at the time.

===Development and divergence===
In 1624 and 1626, the Dutch and Spanish forces occupied the [[Tainan]] and [[Keelung]] areas, respectively. During the 40 years of [[Dutch Formosa|Dutch colonial rule of Taiwan]], many [[Han Chinese]] from the [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Hakka culture|Hakka]] regions of mainland China were recruited to help develop Taiwan. Because of intermingling with [[Siraya people]] as well as Dutch colonial rule, the Hokkien dialects started to deviate from the original Hokkien spoken in mainland China.

In the 1661 [[Siege of Fort Zeelandia]], Chinese general [[Koxinga]] expelled the Dutch and established the [[Kingdom of Tungning]]. Koxinga originated from the Quanzhou region. [[Chen Yonghua]], who was in charge of establishing the education system of Tungning, also originated from Quanzhou. Because most of the soldiers he brought to Taiwan came from Quanzhou, the [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Hokkien on the island at the time was the [[Quanzhou dialect]].

In 1683, Chinese admiral [[Shi Lang]] attacked Taiwan in the [[Battle of Penghu]], ending the Tungning era and beginning [[Taiwan under Qing rule|Qing dynasty rule]] (until 1895). In the following years, in order to prevent people from rebelling, the Qing court instituted a ban on migration to Taiwan,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} especially the migration of [[Hakka people]] from [[Guangdong]] province, which led Hokkien to become the most spoken language in Taiwan.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

In the first decades of the 18th century, the linguistic differences between the Qing imperial bureaucrats and the commoners were recorded by the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]-speaking first Imperial [[High commissioner|High Commissioner]] to Taiwan (1722), [[Huang Shujing]]:
{{cquote|In this place, the language is as [[birdcall]] – totally unintelligible! For example: for the surname [[Liu|Liú]], they say 'Lâu'; for [[Chen (surname)|Chén]], 'Tân'; [[Zhuang (surname)|Zhuāng]], 'Chng'; and [[Zhang (surname)|Zhāng]] is 'Tioⁿ'. My deputy’s surname [[Wu (surname)|Wú]] becomes 'Ngô͘'. My surname [[Huang (surname)|Huáng]] does not even have a proper vowel: it is 'N̂g' here! It is difficult to make sense of this. 
({{lang|zh-Hant|郡中鴃舌鳥語，全不可曉。如：劉呼「澇」、陳呼「澹」、莊呼「曾」、張呼「丟」。余與吳待御兩姓，吳呼作「襖」，黃則無音，厄影切，更為難省。}})|||''Records from the mission to Taiwan and its Strait'', Volume II: "On the area around [[Fort Provintia]], [[Tainan]]" (臺海使槎錄卷二赤嵌筆談)}}
The tone of Huang's message [[Foretelling|foretold]] the uneasy relationships between different [[Speech community|language communities]] and colonial establishments over the next few centuries.

The ban on migration to Taiwan was relaxed sometime after 1722 (and was completely removed in 1874). During the 200 years of Qing dynasty rule, thousands of immigrants from [[Fujian]] arrived yearly; the population was over one million in the middle of the 18th century.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=561}} Civil unrest and armed conflicts were frequent. In addition to resistance against governments (both Chinese and later Japanese), [[Ethnic conflict|battles between ethnic groups]] were also significant: the belligerents usually grouped around the language they used. History has recorded battles between [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] speakers and Hokkien speakers, between these and the [[Taiwanese aborigine|aborigines]], and even between those who spoke different variants of Hokkien.

In the early 20th century, the [[Hoklo people]] in Taiwan could be categorized as originating from [[Xiamen]], [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Zhangpu County|Zhangpu]].{{clarify|reason=Zhangpu is part of Zhangzhou|date=August 2020}}{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=591}} People from the former two areas (Quanzhou-speaking) were dominant in the north of the island and along the west coast,<ref>"especially in the cities of Koro (Aulang), Taiko (Taika), Giubato (Gumatau), Gosei (Goche), Tokatsukutsu (Thawkakut), and Rokko (Lokiang)." (modern-day [[Houlong, Miaoli|Houlong]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]], [[Qingshui District|Qingshui]], [[Wuqi District|Wuqi]], [[Longjing District|Longjing]], and Lukang, respectively.) {{harvp|Davidson|1903|p=591}}</ref> whereas people from the latter two areas ([[Zhangzhou dialect|Zhangzhou]]-speaking) were dominant in the south and perhaps the central plains as well.

Although there were conflicts between Quanzhou- and Zhangzhou-speakers in Taiwan historically, their gradual [[intermingling]] led to the mixture of the two [[Accent (sociolinguistics)|accents]]. Apart from [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang city]] and [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan County]], which have preserved their original Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents respectively, almost every region of Taiwan now speaks a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien.{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} A similar phenomenon occurred in [[Xiamen]] (Amoy) after 1842, when the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien displaced the Quanzhou dialect to yield the modern [[Amoy dialect]].<ref>泉州旅游信息网，[http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm 泉州方言文化] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301121345/http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm |date=1 March 2007 }}</ref>

During the [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese colonial rule of Taiwan]], Taiwan began to hold Amoy Hokkien as its standard pronunciation; the Japanese called this mixture {{nihongo|'''Taiwanese'''|臺灣語|Taiwango}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Iûⁿ |first1=Ún-giân |last2=Tiuⁿ |first2=Ha̍k-khiam |last3=Lu |first3=Bichhin |script-title=zh:台語文運動訪談暨史料彙編 |language=zh |date=2008-03-01 |publisher=國史館 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789860132946 |oclc=813921186}}</ref>

Due to the influx of Japanese loanwords before 1945 and the political separation after 1949,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} Amoy Hokkien and Taiwanese began to [[Linguistic divergence|diverge]] slightly.

===Modern times===
[[File:Proportion of Taiwanese Language Used in House.svg|thumb|350px|Proportion of languages used at home by residents aged 6 or over in Taiwan in 2010, sorted by birth year.<ref name="housing census">Sources: http://www.dgbas.gov.tw/public/data/dgbas04/bc6/census022%28final%29.html 2010 population and housing census by DGBAS, [[Executive Yuan]].</ref> The chart shows the tendency that speech communities of [[Languages of Taiwan#Other languages|Taiwanese local languages]] are shifting to speak [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]].]]
Later, in the 20th century, the conceptualization of Taiwanese is more controversial than most variations of Chinese because at one time it marked a clear division between the Mainlanders who [[KMT retreat to Taiwan in 1949|arrived in 1949]] and the pre-existing majority native Taiwanese. Although the political and linguistic divisions between the two groups have blurred considerably, the political issues surrounding Taiwanese have been more controversial and sensitive than for other [[varieties of Chinese]].

After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], due to military defeat to the Japanese, the [[Qing dynasty]] ceded [[Taiwan]] to Japan, causing contact with the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions of mainland China to stop. During Japanese rule, Japanese became an official language in Taiwan, and Taiwanese began to absorb large number of Japanese loanwords into its language. Examples of such loanwords (some which had in turn been borrowed from English) include ''piān-só͘'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|便所}}|benjo|"toilet"}}, ''phêng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|坪}}|[[tsubo]]|"[[pyeong]]", an areal measurement}} (see also [[Taiwanese units of measurement]]), ''ga-suh'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|瓦斯}}|gasu|"gas"}}, ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|オートバイ}}|ōtobai|"autobicycle", motorcycle}}. All of these caused Taiwanese to deviate from Hokkien used elsewhere.

During [[Kōminka movement (Taiwan)|Kōminka]] of the late Japanese colonial period, the [[Japanese language]] appeared in every corner of Taiwan. The [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] beginning in 1937 brought stricter measures into force, and along with the outlawing of [[Chinese language romanization in Taiwan|romanized Taiwanese]], various publications were prohibited and Confucian-style private schools which taught [[Classical Chinese]] with [[Literary language|literary]] Southern Min pronunciation – were closed down in 1939.{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=135}} Taiwanese thus was reduced to a common [[Vernacular|daily language]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ang |first1=Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣方言之旅 |date=1991 |publisher=前衛出版社 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789579512312}}</ref> In 1937 the colonial government introduced a concept called "National Language Family" ({{linktext|国語}}{{linktext|の}}{{linktext|家)}}, which meant that families that proved that they adopted Japanese as their daily language enjoyed benefits such as greater access to education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw/ischool/publish_page/106/?cid=4897|title=Hui-Wen High School Taichung, Introduction to the Kominka period|work=www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw}}</ref>

After the handover of Taiwan to the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] in 1945, there was brief cultural exchange with mainland China followed by further oppression. The [[Chinese Civil War]] resulted in another political separation when the [[Kuomintang]] (Chinese Nationalist Party) government [[Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan|retreated to Taiwan following their defeat by the communists]] in 1949. The influx of two million soldiers and civilians caused the population of Taiwan to increase from 6 million to 8 million. The government subsequently promoted [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] while suppressing, but short of banning, the use of written Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] (e.g. [[pe̍h-oē-jī]], a phonetic rendering of spoken Hokkien using the Latin alphabet) as part of its general policy of political repression.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lin |first=Alvin |issue=89 |title=Writing Taiwanese: The Development of Modern Written Taiwanese |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp089_taiwanese.pdf |year=1999 |oclc=41879041 }}</ref> In 1964 the use of spoken Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] or [[Hakka]] in schools or in official settings was forbidden; violations of the prohibition in schools often resulted in physical punishments, fines, or humiliation.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Linguistic capital in Taiwan: The KMT's Mandarin language policy and its perceived impact on language practices of bilingual Mandarin and Tai-gi speakers |last=Sandel |first=Todd L. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |journal=Language in Society |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=523–551 |doi=10.1017/S0047404503324030 |jstor=4169285 |s2cid=145703339 }}</ref>

Only after the lifting of [[Martial law in Taiwan|martial law]] in 1987 and the [[mother tongue]] movement in the 1990s did Taiwan see a true [[Language revitalization|revival]] in the Taiwanese language. Today, there are a large number of Taiwanese scholars dedicated to researching the language. Despite this, according to census data the number of people speaking Taiwanese continued to drop.<ref name="housing census"/>

The history of Taiwanese and its interaction with Mandarin is complex and at times controversial, even regarding its name. The language has no official name in Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |title=中華民國文化部-國家語言發展法 |url=https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |website=www.moc.gov.tw |access-date=24 October 2019 |language=zh |date=10 October 2008 |quote=《國家語言發展法》並未以法律明列各固有族群之語言名稱，即是尊重各族群使用者慣常使用之命名權。 |archive-date=2 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402055541/https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some dislike the name "Taiwanese" as they feel that it belittles other languages spoken on the island such as Mandarin, [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], and the [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]]. Others prefer the names [[Southern Min]], Minnan or Hokkien as this views Taiwanese as a form of the Chinese variety spoken in [[Fujian]] province in [[mainland China]]. Others dislike those names for precisely the same reason.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} In the [[American Community Survey]] run by the [[United States Census Bureau]], Taiwanese was referred to as "Formosan" from 2012 to 2015 and as "Min Nan Chinese" since 2016.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2018/demo/SEHSD-WP2018-31.pdf | title=American Community Survey Redesign of Language-Spoken-at-Home Data | date=2016 | first=Christine P. | last=Gambino | work=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{Commons category|Taiwanese Hokkien}}
{{see also|Help:IPA/Taiwanese Hokkien}}
[[Phonology|Phonologically]], Hokkien is a [[tonal language]] with extensive [[tone sandhi]] rules. [[Syllable]]s consist maximally of an initial [[consonant]], a [[vowel]], a final consonant, and a tone.

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|- style="font-size: 90%;"
|+Initials
!colspan=2|
!colspan=2| [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo -palatal]]
!colspan=2| [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
!colspan=2| [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|m}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|m ㄇ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|n}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|n ㄋ
|colspan=2|
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ŋ}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ng ㄫ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! voiced
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|b}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|b ㆠ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɡ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|g ㆣ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|p}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|p ㄅ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|t}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|t ㄉ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|k}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|k ㄍ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[pʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ph ㄆ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|th ㄊ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[kʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|kh ㄎ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! voiced
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dz}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|j ㆡ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dʑ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|j(i) ㆢ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! tenuis
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ts}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ch, ts ㄗ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|tɕ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ch(i), ts(i) ㄐ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! aspirated
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tsʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh, tsh ㄘ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tɕʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh(i), tsh(i) ㄑ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|s}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|s ㄙ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɕ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|si ㄒ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|h}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|h ㄏ
|-
!colspan=2| [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|l}}'''~'''{{IPAblink|ɾ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|l ㄌ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|}
{|class=wikitable
|+Finals
! !![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]!![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]!![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- align=center
![[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|'''{{IPA|[m]}}''' -m||'''{{IPA|[n]}}''' -n||'''{{IPA|[ŋ]}}''' -ng||'''{{IPAblink|◌̃}}''' -ⁿ
|- align=center
![[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
|'''{{IPA|[p̚]}}''' -p ㆴ||'''{{IPA|[t̚]}}''' -t ㆵ||'''{{IPA|[k̚]}}''' -k ㆶ||'''{{IPAblink|ʔ}}''' -h ㆷ
|}

Unlike many other varieties of Chinese such as Mandarin and [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]], there are no native [[labiodental]] phonemes (i.e., {{IPAblink|f}}).

# Coronal affricates and fricatives become [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] before {{IPA|/i/}}, that is, {{IPA|/dzi/}}, {{IPA|/tsi/}}, {{IPA|/tsʰi/}}, and {{IPA|/si/}} are pronounced {{IPA|[dʑi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕʰi]}}, and {{IPA|[ɕi]}}.
# The consonant {{IPA|/dz/}} may be realized as a fricative; that is, as {{IPA|[z]}} in most environments and {{IPA|[ʑ]}} before {{IPA|/i/}}.
# The [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] plosives ({{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}) become the corresponding fricatives ({{IPAblink|β}} and {{IPAblink|ɣ}}) in some phonetic contexts. This is similar to [[begadkefat]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and a similar [[Allophone|allophony]] of intervocalic [[plosive consonants]] and their fricatives in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].

=== Vowels ===
Taiwanese has the following [[vowel]]s:
{|class=wikitable
|-
!rowspan=2| !!colspan=2|[[Front vowel|Front]]!!colspan=2|[[Central vowel|Central]]!!colspan=2|[[Back vowel|Back]]
!rowspan=5| !!colspan=2 rowspan=2|[[Syllabic consonant]]
|- align=center
!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]
|- align=center
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|'''{{IPAblink|i}}''' i ㄧ||'''{{IPA|[ĩ]}}''' iⁿ ㆪ
| ||
|'''{{IPAblink|u}}''' u ㄨ||'''{{IPA|[ũ]}}''' uⁿ ㆫ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[m̩]}}''' m ㆬ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[ŋ̍]}}''' ng ㆭ
|- align=center
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|'''{{IPAblink|e}}''' e ㆤ||'''{{IPA|[ẽ]}}''' eⁿ ㆥ
|'''{{IPAblink|ə}} ~ {{IPAblink|o}}''' o ㄜ, ㄛ||
|'''{{IPAblink|ɔ}}''' o͘ ㆦ||'''{{IPA|[ɔ̃]}}''' oⁿ ㆧ
|- align=center
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| || ||'''{{IPAblink|ä|a}}''' a ㄚ||'''{{IPA|[ã]}}''' aⁿ ㆩ|| ||
|}

The vowel {{angle bracket|o}} is akin to a [[schwa]]; in contrast, {{angle bracket|[[o͘]]}} (with dot) is a more [[Vowel height|open vowel]]. In addition, there are several [[diphthong]]s and [[triphthong]]s (for example, {{angle bracket|iau}}). The consonants {{angle bracket|m}} and {{angle bracket|ng}} can function as a [[Nucleus (syllable)|syllabic nucleus]] and are therefore included here as vowels. The vowels may be either plain or [[Nasal vowel|nasal]]: {{angle bracket|a}} is non-nasal, and {{angle bracket|aⁿ}} is the same vowel with concurrent nasal articulation. This is similar to [[French language|French]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Polish language|Polish]], and many other languages.

There are two pronunciations of vowel {{angle bracket|o}}. In the south (e.g., [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]) it is {{IPA|[ə]}}; in the north (e.g., [[Taipei]]) it is {{IPA|[o]}}. Due to development of transportation and communication, both pronunciations are common and acceptable throughout the country.

{{IPAblink|i}} is a diphthong [<nowiki/>[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]][[Mid central vowel|ə]]] before -k or -ng (POJ: ek, eng), and is slightly shortened and retracted before -p or -t to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-front unrounded vowel|í̞]]]. Similarly, {{IPAblink|u}} is slightly shortened and retracted before -t or -n to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-back rounded vowel|ʊ]]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Tâigí Phonics 3 - Single Vowels - YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Muv_Rx7OXg0 |url-status=dead|access-date=2021-02-06|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref>

=== Tones ===
[[Image:Taiwanese tones.png|thumb|right|Taiwanese tones, close to Taipei values.]]
In the traditional analysis, there are eight "tones", [[tone number|numbered]] from 1 to 8. Strictly speaking, there are only 3 [[Tone level]]. But as in other Sinitic languages, the two kinds of stopped syllables are considered also to be tones and assigned numbers 4 and 8. In Taiwanese tone 6 has merged into tone 7, and thus duplicated in the count. Here the eight tones are shown, following the traditional tone class categorization, named after the tones of [[Middle Sinitic]]:
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Taiwanese tones{{sfnp|Wu|2000|p=2691}}
|-
! Tone number !! Name !! POJ accent !! Pitch in Taipei !! Description !! Pitch in Tainan !! Description
|-
| 1 || yin level (陰平) || a || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥]}}''' (55) || high || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˦]}}''' (44) || high
|-
| 2 || yin rising (陰上) || á || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˩]}}''' (51) || falling || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˧]}}''' (53) || high falling
|-
| 3 || yin departing (陰去) || à || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧˩]}}''' to '''{{IPA|[˨˩]}}''' (21) || low falling || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩]}}''' (11) || low
|-
| 4 || yin entering (陰入) || ah || '''{{IPA|[āʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˧˨]}}''' (2) || mid stopped || '''{{IPA|[àʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˨˩]}}''' (2) || low stopped
|-
| 5 || yang level (陽平) || â || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩˦ ~ a˨˦]}}''' (24) || rising || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨˦]}}''' (25) || rising
|-
| 7 (6) || yang departing and yang rising (陽去與陽上) || ā || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧]}}''' (33) || mid || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨]}}''' (22) || mid
|-
| 8 || yang entering (陽入) || a̍h || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˦]}}''' (4) || high stopped || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˥]}}''' (5) || high stopped
|}

{{Listen|filename=Taiwanese-8Tones.ogg|title=Eight tones of Taiwanese|description=Demonstration of the tones of Taiwanese: 衫 ''saⁿ, 短 té, 褲, khò͘, 闊 khoah, 人 lâng, 矮 é, 鼻 phīⁿ, 直 ti̍t''. Tone sandhi rules do not apply in this sentence. (This demonstration is popular but misleading in the use of ''矮 é'' as an example for tone 6. In dialects that distinguish tones 6 and 7, ''矮 é'' belongs to tone 2, and most words of tone 6 merges into tone 7 in Taiwanese.)}}

See (for one example) the modern phonological analysis in {{harvp|Chiung|2003}}, which challenges these notions.

For tones 4 and 8, a final consonant {{angle bracket|p}}, {{angle bracket|t}}, or {{angle bracket|k}} may appear. When this happens, it is impossible for the syllable to be nasal. Indeed, these are the counterpart to the nasal final consonants {{angle bracket|m}}, {{angle bracket|n}}, and {{angle bracket|ng}}, respectively, in other tones. However, it is possible to have a nasal 4th or 8th tone syllable such as {{angle bracket|siahⁿ}}, as long as there is no final consonant other than {{angle bracket|h}}.

In the dialect spoken near the northern coast of Taiwan, there is no distinction between tones number 8 and number 4 – both are pronounced as if they follow the [[tone sandhi]] rules of tone number 4.

Tone number 0, typically written with two consecutive hyphens (--a) or a point (·a) before the syllable with this tone, is used to mark [[enclitic]]s denoting the extent of a verb action, the end of a noun phrase, etc. A frequent use of this tone is to denote a question, such as in "Chia̍h pá ·bōe?", literally meaning 'Have you eaten yet?’. This is realized by speaking the syllable with either a low-falling tone (3) or a low stop (4). The syllable prior to the {{angle bracket|·}} maintains its original tone.

=== Syllabic structure ===
A [[syllable]] requires a vowel (or diphthong or [[triphthong]]) to appear in the middle. All consonants can appear at the initial position. The consonants {{angle bracket|p, t, k}} and {{angle bracket|m, n, ng}} (and some consider {{angle bracket|h}}) may appear at the end of a syllable. Therefore, it is possible to have syllables such as {{angle bracket|ngiau}} ("(to) tickle") and {{angle bracket|thng}} ("soup").

=== Tone sandhi ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Tone Sandhi 01.svg|thumbnail|right|Schema of the tone sandhi rules in Taiwanese.]]
Taiwanese has extremely extensive [[tone sandhi]] (tone-changing) rules: in an utterance, only the last syllable pronounced is not affected by the rules.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uegu.blogspot.com/2015/01/blog-post_16.html|script-title=zh:台語好多聲|trans-title=The Many Tones of Taiwanese|author=麻瓜先生|date=January 2015|quote={{lang|zh-tw|台語裡有個變調系統，細說分明需要時間，但最大的規則就是「最後一個字不要變！其他變變變！」}}|access-date=21 March 2019}}</ref> What an ‘[[utterance]]’ (or ‘[[intonational phrase]]’) is, in the context of this language, is an ongoing topic for linguistic research, but some general rules apply:<ref name="Lin2015">{{cite book|author=Philip T. Lin|title=Taiwanese Grammar: A Concise Reference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlExBwAAQBAJ|date=31 January 2015|publisher=Greenhorn Media|isbn=978-0-9963982-1-3}}</ref>

The following syllables are unaffected by tone sandhi:
* The final syllable in a [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]], [[noun]] (including single syllable nouns, but not [[pronoun]]s), number, time phrase (i.e., today, tomorrow, etc.), spatial [[preposition]] (i.e., on, under), or [[question word]] (i.e., who, what, how).
* The syllable immediately preceding the [[possessive particle]] 的 (ê) or a neutralized tone. In POJ, this is the syllable before a double hyphen, e.g., 王先生 (Ông—sian-siⁿ)
* Some common [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] markers: 了 (liáu), 好 (hó), 完 (oân), 煞 (soah)

==== Normal tone sandhi ====
The following rules, listed in the traditional pedagogical mnemonic order, govern the pronunciation of tone on each of the syllables affected (that is, all but those described according to the rules listed above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''3''' ([[Quanzhou]]/Taipei speech) or '''7''' ([[Zhangzhou]]/Tainan speech).
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Normal tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻³ / tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻³ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜖]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻³ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜖]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

==== Double tone sandhi ====
There are a number of a single syllable words that undergo double tone sandhi, that is, they follow the tone change rule twice and are pronounced according to the second tone change. These syllables are almost always a 4th tone ending in '''-h''', and include the words 卜 (beh), 甲 (kah), 閣 (koh), 即 (chiah), as well as the 3rd tone verb 去 khì. As a result of following the tone change rule twice, these syllables are all pronounced as tone number '''1'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Double tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 4 || kah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kaʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kaʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || khi³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kʰi˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kʰi˩꜓]}}
|}

==== Before the -á suffix ====
{{Wiktionary pipe|仔#Usage notes|the rules for tone sandhi before '仔' (-á) with examples}}
Apart from the normal tone sandhi rules described above, there are two special cases where a different set of tone sandhi apply.<ref>Iunn Un-gian. "A Study on Implementation of Southern-Min Taiwanese Tone Sandhi System." (2005). https://aclweb.org/anthology/Y/Y05/Y05-1011.pdf</ref> In a noun with the noun [[suffix]] '{{linktext|lang=zh|仔}}' ({{linktext|á}}), the penultimate syllable is governed by the following rules:
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''' or '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''. (same as double)

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Tone sandhi before -á (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜕]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜓]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|}

==== In triplicated adjectives ====
Finally, in the case of single-syllable adjective [[triplication]] (for added emphasis), the first syllable is governed by the following rules (the second syllable follows the normal tone sandhi rules above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Triplicated tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

See {{harvp|Tiuⁿ|2001}}, {{harvp|Chiung|2003}} and the work of Robert L. Cheng (鄭良偉; Tēⁿ Liông-úi)<ref>{{cite web |date=2003 |publisher=Center for Chinese Studies, University of Hawaii |title=Robert L. Cheng |url=http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070624085539/http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-date=2007-06-24}}</ref> for modern linguistic approaches to tones and tone sandhi in Taiwanese.

== Lexicon ==
Modern linguistic studies (by Robert L. Cheng and Chin-An Li, for example) estimate that most (75% to 90%) Taiwanese [[word]]s have [[cognate]]s in other Sinitic languages. [[False friend]]s do exist; for example, ''cháu'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|走}}) means "to run" in Taiwanese, whereas the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] cognate, ''zǒu'', means "to walk". Moreover, cognates may have different [[Part of speech|lexical categories]]; for example, the [[morpheme]] ''phīⁿ'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|鼻}}) means not only "nose" (a noun, as in Mandarin ''bí'') but also "to smell" (a verb, unlike Mandarin).

Among the apparently cognate-less words are many basic words with properties that contrast with similar-meaning words of pan-Chinese derivation. Often the former group lacks a standard Han character, and the words are variously considered colloquial, intimate, vulgar, uncultured, or more concrete in meaning than the pan-Chinese synonym. Some examples: ''lâng'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|人}}, person, concrete) vs. ''jîn'' (人, person, abstract); ''{{linktext|cha-bó͘}}'' ({{linktext|查某}}, woman) vs. ''lú jîn'' (女人, woman, literary). Unlike the [[English language#Vocabulary|English Germanic/Latin contrast]], however, the two groups of Taiwanese words cannot be as strongly attributed to the influences of two disparate linguistic sources.

Extensive contact with the [[Japanese language]] has left a legacy of Japanese [[loanwords]], with 172 recorded in the Ministry of Education's ''[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_wailaici.jsp |script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典-外來詞 |year=2011 |trans-title=Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan - Loanwords |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |language=zh |access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref> Although a very small percentage of the vocabulary, their usage tends to be high-frequency because of their relevance to modern society and popular culture. Examples are: ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||オートバイ|ōtobai|"autobike"/motorcycle}} and ''pháng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|パン}}|pan|"[[bread]]", itself a loanword from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]}}. [[Grammatical particle]]s borrowed from Japanese, notably ''te̍k'' from {{nihongo4||的|teki}} and ''ka'' from {{nihongo4||か|ka}}, show up in the Taiwanese of older speakers.

Taiwanese pronouns are collectivized through [[nasalization]]. For example, ''i'' (he/she/it) and ''goá'' (I) become ''in'' (they) and ''goán'' (we), respectively. The ''-n'' thus represents a subsyllabic [[morpheme]].

Unlike English, Taiwanese has two [[first person plural|first-person plural]] pronouns. This distinction is called [[Clusivity|inclusive]], which includes the [[Interlocutor (linguistics)|addressee]], and exclusive, which excludes the addressee. Thus, ''goán'' means ''we excluding you'', while ''lán'' means ''we including you'' (similar to [[pluralis auctoris]]). The inclusive ''lán'' may be used to express politeness or solidarity, as in the example of a speaker asking a stranger "Where do we live?" while implicitly asking "Where do ''you'' live?".

== Syntax ==
{{Listen|filename=Tai JintianDaoJiaKanWo.ogg|title=Kin-ná jit hit ê cha-bó͘ gín-á lâi góan tau khòaⁿ góa.|description=An audio sample for a simple sentence, meaning "Today that little girl came to our house to see me".}}
The [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is similar to southern sinitic languages such as [[Hakka]] and [[Yue]]. The [[subject–verb–object]] sequence is typical as in, for example, [[Mandarin Chinese]], but [[subject–object–verb]] or the [[passive voice]] (with the sequence [[object–subject–verb]]) is possible with particles. Take a simple sentence for example: 'I hold you.' The words involved are: ''goá'' ('I' or 'me'), ''phō'' ('to hold'), ''lí'' ('you').
* Subject–verb–object (typical sequence): The sentence in the typical sequence would be: ''Goá phō lí.'' ('I hold you.')
* Subject–''kā''–object–verb: Another sentence of roughly equivalent meaning is ''Goá kā lí phō'', with the slight connotation of 'I take you and hold' or 'I get to you and hold'.
* Object ''hō͘'' subject–verb (the passive voice): Then, ''Lí hō͘ goá phō'' means the same thing but in the [[passive voice]], with the connotation of 'You allow yourself to be held by me' or 'You make yourself available for my holding'.

With this, more complicated sentences can be constructed: ''Goá kā chúi hō͘ lí lim'' ('I give water for you to drink': ''chúi'' means 'water'; ''lim'' is 'to drink').

This article can only give a few very simple examples on the syntax, for flavour. Linguistic work on the [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is still a (quite nascent) scholarly topic being explored.

== Scripts and orthographies ==
{{Main|Written Hokkien}}

[[File:Holo bunhak chokphin.JPG|thumb|right|A selection of literary works (original and translated) in Taiwanese, in several orthographies.]]

Until the late 19th century, Taiwanese speakers wrote mostly in [[Classical Sinitic]]|date=June 2015}}. Among many systems of writing Taiwanewe using Latin characters, the most used is called [[pe̍h oē jī]] (POJ) and was developed in the 19th century. (For additional romanized systems, see references in "Orthography in Latin characters", below.) Nonetheless, Taiwanese speakers nowadays most commonly write in Chinese Mandarin, though many of the same characters are also used to write Taiwanese.

=== Han characters ===
In most cases, Taiwanese speakers write using the [[writing system|script]] called [[Han characters]] as in Mandarin, although there are a number of special characters which are unique to Taiwanwe and which are sometimes used in informal writing. Where Han characters are used, they are not always etymological or genetic; the borrowing of similar-sounding or similar-meaning characters is a common practice. Bilingual speakers of both Mandarin and Taiwanese sometimes attempt to represent the sounds by adopting similar-sounding Mandarin Han characters. For example, the Han characters of the [[Profanity|vulgar slang]] 'khoàⁿ sáⁿ-siâu' ({{linktext|lang=zh|看|三小}}, substituted for the etymologically correct {{linktext|lang=zh|看|省屑}}, meaning 'What the hell are you looking at?’) has very little meaning in Mandarin and may not be readily understood by a Taiwanese monolingual, as knowledge of Mandarin character readings is required to fully decipher it.

In 2007, the [[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|Ministry of Education]] in Taiwan published the first list of [[Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters]], a list of 300 Han characters standardized for the use of writing Taiwanese and implemented the teaching of them in schools.<ref>[http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm 教育部公布閩南語300字推薦用字　卡拉OK用字也被選用 (Ministry of Education in Taiwan announces 300 recommended Hokkien words, Karaoke words are also selected)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724212916/http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm |date=24 July 2011 }}; [http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 「臺灣閩南語推薦用字（第1批）」已公布於網站，歡迎各界使用 (Announcement of recommended words for Taiwanese Hokkien)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718144143/http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 |date=18 July 2011 }}</ref> In 2008, the ministry published a second list of 100 characters, and in 2009 added 300 more, giving a total of 700 standardized characters used to write uniquely Taiwanese words.

However, these "recommended Han characters" are totally different from old Taiwanese Han characters. Hence, the policy of RoC is seen as cultural destruction again.

=== Orthography in Latin characters ===
[[Image:Kauhoe.jpg|thumb|right|An issue of the ''[[Taiwan Church News]]'', first published by Presbyterian missionaries in 1885. This was the first printed newspaper in Taiwan, and was written in Taiwanese, in the Latin orthography pe̍h oē jī.]]

There are several Latin-based orthographies, the oldest being [[Pe̍h oē jī]] (POJ, meaning "vernacular writing"), developed in the 19th century. [[Taiwanese Minnan Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī, Tâi-Bân-Lô) and [[Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet]] (TLPA) are two later adaptations of POJ. Other 20th-century innovations include [[Daighi tongiong pingim]] (DT), [[Ganvsig daiuuan bhanlam ghiw tongiong pingimv]] (GDT), [[Modern Literal Taiwanese]] (MLT), [[Simplified MLT]] (SMLT), [[Phofsit Daibuun]] (PSDB). The last four employ [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] [[spelling]] to indicate tone without use of [[diacritic]] symbols, but letters instead.

In POJ, the traditional list of letters is
:a b ch chh e g h i j k kh l m n ng o o͘ p ph s t th (ts) u
Twenty-four in all, including the obsolete {{angle bracket|ts}}, which was used to represent the modern {{angle bracket|ch}} at some places. The additional necessities are the nasal symbol {{angle bracket|ⁿ}}  (superscript {{angle bracket|n}}; the uppercase form {{angle bracket|N}} is sometimes used in [[all caps]] texts,<ref>Tè Khái-sū (1999) [https://archive.org/details/Tpsurvey Writing Latinized Taiwanese Languages with Unicode]</ref> such as book titles or section headings), and the tonal [[diacritic]]s.
POJ was developed first by [[Presbyterian]] [[missionaries]] and later by the indigenous [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]]; they have been active in promoting the language since the late 19th century. Recently there has been an increase in texts using a mixed orthography of Han characters and romanization, although these texts remain uncommon.

In 2006, the [[National Languages Committee]] (Ministry of Education, Republic of China) proposed [[Taiwanese Minnan Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī pheng-im, Tâi-Bân-Lô). This alphabet reconciles two orthographies, TLPA and POJ.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tlh.de-han.org/untong/2006/0929TaiLo.pdf|title=臺灣閩南語羅馬字拼音方案 (Orthographic system for the Minnan language in Taiwan, 'Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī pheng-im')}}</ref> The changes for the consonants involved using {{angle bracket|ts}} for POJ's {{angle bracket|ch}} (reverting to the orthography in the 19th century), and {{angle bracket|tsh}} for {{angle bracket|chh}}. For the vowels, {{angle bracket|o͘}} could optionally represented as {{angle bracket|oo}}. The nasal mark {{angle bracket|ⁿ}} could also be represented optionally as {{angle bracket|nn}}. The rest of the alphabet, most notably the use of diacritics to mark the tones, appeared to keep to the POJ tradition. One of the aims of this compromise was to curb any increase of 'market share' for Daighi tongiong pingim/Tongyong Pinyin.<ref>[http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf 教育部國語推行委員會: 關於閩南語拼音整合工作相關問題說帖 (National Languages Committee: On the integration of Minnan orthographies), 2006-10-16] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128050052/http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf |date=28 November 2007 }}</ref> It is unclear whether the community will adopt this new agreement.

=== Orthographies in kana and in bopomofo ===
[[Image:Japanese-Taiwanese Dictionary.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese–Taiwanese Dictionary, using the orthography in kana]]
{{Main|Taiwanese kana|Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols}}
There was an orthography of Taiwanese based on the [[Kana|Japanese kana]] during [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese rule]]. The [[Kuomintang]] government also tried to introduce an orthography in [[bopomofo]].

===Comparison of orthographies===
Here the different orthographies are compared:
{{POJtable}}

=== Computing ===
[[File:Pa-khek-le Kau-hoe.jpg|thumb|right|Pe̍h-ōe-jī inscription at a church in [[Tainan|Tâi-lâm]] commemorating [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]].]]

Many [[keyboard layout]]s and [[Chinese input methods for computers|input methods]] for entering either Latin or Han characters in Taiwanese are available. Some of them are free-of-charge, some commercial.

The [[Min Nan]] dialect group is registered per {{IETF RFC|3066}} as [https://www.iana.org/assignments/lang-tags/zh-min-nan zh-min-nan].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evertype.com/standards/iso639/iana-lang-assignments.html|title=Evertype|website=www.evertype.com}}</ref> Taiwanese Min Nan can be represented as 'zh-min-nan-TW'.

When writing Taiwanese in Han characters, some writers create 'new' characters when they consider it is impossible to use directly or borrow existing ones; this corresponds to similar practices in character usage in [[Written Cantonese|Cantonese]], [[chu nom|Vietnamese chữ nôm]], [[Hanja|Korean hanja]] and [[Kanji|Japanese kanji]]. These are usually not encoded in [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal Character Set]]), thus creating problems in computer processing.

All Latin characters required by pe̍h-oē-jī can be represented using [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal character set]]), using precomposed or combining (diacritics) characters.

{{Main|O͘}}
Prior to June 2004, the vowel {{IPA|[ɔ]}} akin to but more open than ⟨o⟩, written with a 'dot above right', was not encoded. The usual workaround was to use the (stand-alone; spacing) character ‘[[Interpunct|middle dot]]’ (U+00B7, ⟨·⟩) or less commonly the combining character 'dot above' (U+0307). As these are far from ideal, since 1997 proposals have been submitted to the ISO/IEC [[working group]] in charge of ISO/IEC 10646 – namely, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070628163947/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/wg2/ ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2] – to encode a new combining character 'dot above right'. This is now officially assigned to U+0358 (see documents [http://www.evertype.com/standards/la/taioan.html N1593], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311082219/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2507 N2507], [https://web.archive.org/web/20060928065416/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2628 N2628],
[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2699 N2699], and [http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/sc2/wg2/docs/N2770r.pdf N2770]). Font support has followed: for example, in [[Charis SIL]].

== Sociolinguistics ==
=== Regional variations ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Map.svg|thumb|right|Distribution of Hokkien dialects in Taiwan:<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ang Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin | script-title = zh:台灣的語種分布與分區 |title=Táiwān de yǔzhǒng fēnbù yǔ fēnqū |trans-title=The Distribution and Regionalization of Varieties in Taiwan | publisher = [[Academia Sinica]] |year=2013 |journal=Language and Linguistics |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=315–369|language=zh-hant |url=http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/14.2/LL14.2-04-Ang%20121227.pdf}} Map 5, p. 355.</ref>
{{legend|#ff8080|Quanzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#8080ff|Zhangzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#ff80ff|Both Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects}}
]]


The [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Taiwanese is the southern speech found in [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]. Other major variants are the northern speech, the central speech (near [[Taichung]] and the port town of [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]), and the northern (northeastern) coastal speech (dominant in [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan]]).

The distinguishing feature of the coastal speech is the use of the vowel {{angle bracket|uiⁿ}} in place of {{angle bracket|ng}}. The northern speech is distinguished by the absence of the [[#Tones|8th tone]], and some vowel exchanges (for example, {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, {{angle bracket|e}} and {{angle bracket|oe}}). The central speech has an additional vowel {{IPA|[ɨ]}} or {{IPA|[ø]}} between {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, which may be represented as {{angle bracket|ö}}. There are also a number of other pronunciation and lexical differences between the Taiwanese variants; the online Ministry of Education dictionary specifies these to a resolution of eight regions on Taiwan proper, in addition to [[Kinmen]] and [[Penghu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho|script-title=zh:方言差"語音差異表|trans-title=Table of Pronunciation Differences|year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho_p|script-title=zh:方言差"詞彙差異表|trans-title=Table of Vocabulary Differences |year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref>

Concerning the fifth (rising) tone in normal sandhi patterns, the Quanzhou/Coastal/Northern dialects change to seventh (mid level) tone, whereas the Zhangzhou/"Mixed"/Southern dialects change to third (low falling) tone.

Certain new north–south distinctions have appeared in recent decades.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}<ref>{{Cite journal|author1-link=Jack C. Richards|last=Richards|first=Jack C.|date=1977-01-01|title=Variation in Singapore English|jstor=43135170|journal=Interlanguage Studies Bulletin|volume=2|issue=2|pages=131–151}}</ref> The fourth and eighth tones tend to be reversed in the north and south.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/resources/PronouncingTaiwanese.html|title=Jordan: Pronouncing Romanized Taiwanese Hokkien|website=pages.ucsd.edu}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2016}}

====Quanzhou–Zhangzhou inclinations====

[[Hokkien]] immigrants to Taiwan originated from [[Quanzhou]] prefecture (44.8%) and [[Zhangzhou]] prefecture (35.2%).{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} The original phonology from these regions was spread around Taiwan during the immigration process. With the advanced development of transportation and greater mobility of the Taiwanese population, Taiwanese speech has steered itself towards a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech, known as ''Chiang–Chôan-lām'' (漳泉濫, in Mandarin ''Zhāng–Quán làn'').{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} Due to different proportion of mixture, some regions are inclined more towards Quanzhou accent, while others are inclined more towards Zhangzhou accent.

In general, Quanzhou accent is more common along the coastal region and is known as the ''hái-kháu'' accent; Zhangzhou accent is more common within the mountainous region of Taiwan and is known as the ''lāi-po͘'' accent. The regional variation within Taiwanese may be attributed to variations in the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents and/or lexicons. It ranges from Lukang accent (based on Quanzhou accent) on one end, to the northern coastal [[Yilan City|Yilan]] accent (based on Zhangzhou accent) on another end. Tainan, Kaohsiung and Taitung accents, on the other hand, are closest to the prestige accent.

'''<center>Variations in Taiwanese Hokkien accents</center>'''

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|-
! style="background:#FFA000; color:black" | [[Quanzhou]] accent
|-
| style="background:#fc0;"| [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]
|-
| style="background:#fc6;"| [[Penghu]], [[Taixi, Yunlin|Taixi]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]]—[[Budai, Chiayi|Budai]] coastal region (''hái-kháu'')
|-
| style="background:#fc9;"| [[Taipei]], [[Hsinchu]] (very similar to [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcc;"| [[Chiayi]]—[[Kaohsiung]] surrounding
area, [[Taitung City|Taitung]] (prestige accent, [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent mixed [[Zhangzhou]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcf;"| [[Taichung Basin|Taichung]], [[Changhua City|Changhua]]—[[Yunlin County|Yunlin]] inland area, [[Taoyuan, Taiwan|North Taoyuan]](''lāi-po͘'')
|-
| style="background:#c9f;"| [[Yilan City|Yilan]]
|-
! style= "background:#BBA1CB; color:black" | [[Zhangzhou]] accent
|}

====Recent terminological distinctions====
Recent research has found a need for new terminology of Taiwanese dialects, mainly because the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects in Taiwan developed independently from those in Fujian. Thus, some scholars (i.e., Klöter, following {{lang|zh-tw|董忠司}}) have divided Taiwanese into five subdialects, based on geographic region:{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=4}}
#''hái-kháu'' ({{lang|zh-tw|海口腔}}): west coast, based on what was formerly referred to as Quanzhou dialect (represented by the Lukang accent)
#''phian-hái'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏海腔}}): coastal (represented by the Nanliao ({{lang|zh-tw|南寮}}) accent)
#''lāi-po͘'' ({{lang|zh-tw|內埔腔}}): western inner plain, mountain regions, based on the Zhangzhou dialect (represented by the Yilan accent)
#''phian-lāi'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏內腔}}): interior (represented by the [[Taibao]] accent)
#''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}): common accents (represented by the Taipei (spec. [[Datong District, Taipei|Datong]]) accent in the north and the Tainan accent in the south)
Both ''phian-hái'' and ''phian-lāi'' are intermediate dialects between ''hái-kháu'' and ''lāi-po͘'', these also known as ''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}) or "{{lang|zh-tw|不泉不漳}}". In some ways this mixed dialect is similar to the Amoy dialect, which itself is a blend of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The common dialect refers to that which can be heard on radio, television, official announcements, etc.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

=== Fluency ===
A great majority of people in Taiwan can speak both [[Mandarin Chinese]] and Taiwanese although the degree of fluency varies widely.<ref name="housing census" /> There are however small but significant numbers of people in Taiwan, mainly but not exclusively [[Hakka people|Hakka]] and [[waishengren|Mainlanders]], who cannot speak Taiwanese fluently. A shrinking percentage of the population, mainly people born before the 1950s, cannot speak Mandarin at all, or learned to speak Mandarin later in life, though some of these speak Japanese fluently. Urban, working-class Hakkas as well as younger, southern-Taiwan Mainlanders tend to have better, even native-like fluency. Approximately half of the Hakka in Taiwan do speak Taiwanese. There are many families of mixed Hakka, Hoklo, and [[Taiwanese aborigines|Aboriginal]] bloodlines. There is, however, a large percentage of people in Taiwan, regardless of their background, whose ability to understand and read written Taiwanese is greater than their ability to speak it. This is the case with some singers who can sing Taiwanese songs with native-like proficiency, but can neither speak nor understand the language.

Which variant is used depends strongly on the context, and in general people will use Mandarin in more formal situations and Taiwanese in more informal situations. Taiwanese tends to get used more in [[rural]] areas, while Mandarin is used more in [[urban area|urban]] settings. Older people tend to use Taiwanese, while younger people tend to use Mandarin. In the broadcast media where Mandarin is used in many genres, [[soap opera]], [[variety show]]s, and even some news programs can also be found in Taiwanese.

=== Sociolinguistics and gender ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2011}}
Taiwanese is also perceived by some to have a slight masculine leaning, making it more popular among the males of the younger population. It is sometimes perceived as "unladylike" when spoken by the females of the younger population.

=== Special literary and art forms ===

''Chhit-jī-á'' (literally, "that which has seven syllables") is a [[poetry|poetic]] [[meter (poetry)|meter]] where each verse has 7 syllables.

There is a special form of [[music]]al/[[drama]]tic performance ''koa-á-hì'': the [[Taiwanese opera]]; the subject matter is usually a [[history|historical event]]. A similar form ''pò͘-tē-hì'' ([[glove puppetry]]) is also unique and has been elaborated in the past two decades into impressive [[television|televised]] spectacles.

See [[Taiwanese cuisine]] for names of several local dishes.

===Bible translations===
[[File:Bibles in Taiwanese.jpg|thumb|right|A collection of translations of the Bible in Taiwanese. Top left, ''Today’s Taiwanese'' version; top right, the Red-Cover Bible; bottom, Barclay's translation.]]

As with many other languages, the [[Chinese Bible Translations|translations of the Bible]] in Taiwanese marked milestones in the standardization attempts of the language and its orthography.

The first translation of the Bible in Amoy or Taiwanese in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography was by the first missionary to Taiwan, [[James Laidlaw Maxwell]], with the New Testament ''Lán ê Kiù-chú Iâ-so͘ Ki-tok ê Sin-iok'' published in 1873 and the Old Testament ''Kū-iok ê Sèng Keng'' in 1884.

[[File:Taiwanese Bible Chim-gian 1933.jpg|thumb|left|A copy of Barclay's Amoy translation, opened to the Proverbs.]]

The next translation of the Bible in Taiwanese or Amoy was by the missionary to Taiwan, [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]], carried out in Fujian and Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/native.htm |script-title=zh:本土聖經 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=zh }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm |script-title=ja:書評『聖經－－台語漢字本』 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=ja |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080120005258/http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm|archive-date=20 January 2008}}</ref> A New Testament translation was completed and published in 1916. The resulting work containing the Old and the New Testaments, in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography, was completed in 1930 and published in 1933 as the Amoy Romanized Bible ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|links=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]]. 2000 copies of the Amoy Romanized Bible were confiscated by the Taiwan Garrison from the Bible Society of Taiwan in 1975. This edition was later transliterated into Han characters and published as {{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=聖經台語漢字本|poj=Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|labels=no|scase=}} [[:zh-min-nan:Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]] in 1996.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://tailo.fhl.net/Godspeak/Godspeak26.html |title=台語信望愛 - 4.1.4 《台語漢字本》|website=tailo.fhl.net |language=zh-TW }}</ref>

[[File:Ang-phoe Seng-keng te-571-bin.jpg|thumb|right|A page from the Red-Cover Bible.]]

The Ko-Tân ([[Kerygma]]) Colloquial Taiwanese Version of the New Testament (''Sin-iok'') in pe̍h-ōe-jī, also known as the {{Interlanguage link|Red Cover Bible|zh-min-nan|Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|WD=}} ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), was published in 1973 as an ecumenical effort between the Protestant [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the Roman Catholic mission [[Maryknoll]]. This translation used a more modern vocabulary (somewhat influenced by Mandarin), and reflected the central Taiwan dialect, as the Maryknoll mission was based near [[Taichung|Tâi-tiong]]. It was soon confiscated by the Kuomintang government (which objected to the use of Latin orthography) in 1975. The copies of the ecumenical NT are now available on the online stores.

A translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Today's Taiwanese Romanized Version" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|labels=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]], containing only the New Testament, again in pe̍h-ōe-jī, was published in 2008<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peopo.org/chuniok/post/12934|title=現代台語新約羅馬字聖經出版感謝e話|website=www.peopo.org }}</ref> as a collaboration between the [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the [[Bible Society in Taiwan]]. A translation of the Old Testament, following the same principle, is being prepared.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/translation/Taiwanese.htm|title=台語聖經|website=www.biblesociety-tw.org|language=zh-TW}}</ref>{{Outdated inline|date=December 2018|reason=2018 status not stated|?=yes}}

Another translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Common Taiwanese Bible" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Choân-bîn Tâi-gí Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), with versions of pe̍h-ōe-jī, Han characters and Ruby version (both Han characters and pe̍h-ōe-jī) was published in 2015, available in printed and online.

=== Politics ===
[[File:Banning of POJ.gif|thumb|right|A decree (1955) banning the use of Pe̍h-ōe-jī, a Latin orthography for Taiwanese, in church.]]
Until the 1980s, the use of Taiwanese, along with all [[Varieties of Chinese|varieties]] other than [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]], was discouraged by the [[Kuomintang]] through measures such as banning its use in schools and limiting the amount of Taiwanese broadcast on electronic media. These measures were removed by the 1990s, and Taiwanese became an emblem of [[Taiwanese localization movement|localization]]. Mandarin remains the predominant language of education, although there is a "mother tongue" language requirement in Taiwanese schools which can be satisfied with student's choice of mother tongue: Taiwanese, Hakka, or [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]].

Although the use of Taiwanese over Mandarin was historically part of the [[Taiwan independence movement]], the linkage between politics and language is not as strong as it once was. Some fluency in Taiwanese is desirable for political office in Taiwan for both independence and unificationist politicians. At the same time even some supporters of Taiwan independence have played down its connection with Taiwanese in order to gain the support of the [[waishengren|Mainlander]]s and [[Hakka people]].

[[James Soong]] restricted the use of Taiwanese and other local tongues in broadcasting while serving as Director of the [[Government Information Office]] earlier in his career, but later became one of the first politicians of Mainlander origin to use Taiwanese in semi-formal occasions.{{synthesis inline|date=August 2016}} Since then, politicians opposed to Taiwanese independence have used it frequently in rallies, even when they are not native speakers. Conversely, politicians who have traditionally been identified with Taiwan independence have used Mandarin on formal occasions and semi-formal occasions such as press conferences. An example of the latter is former President [[Chen Shui-bian]] who uses Mandarin in all official state speeches, but uses mainly Taiwanese in political rallies and some informal state occasions such as New Year greetings. The current [[President of Taiwan]] and of the ([[Democratic Progressive Party|DPP]]), [[Tsai Ing-wen]] has been criticized by her supporters for not using Taiwanese in speeches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5dPfuafUb?url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-date=28 December 2008 |script-title=zh:蔡英文不說台語高雄人涼了半截 |trans-title=Tsai Ing-wen doesn't speak Taiwanese; The people in Kaohsiung feel half-disappointed |language=zh |access-date=12 October 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Former President [[Ma Ying-jeou]] spoke in Taiwanese during his 2008 [[Double Ten Day]] speech when he was talking about the state of the [[Economy of Taiwan|economy in Taiwan]].

In the early 21st century, there are few differences in language usage between the [[Chinese unification|pro-reuinification]] leaning [[Pan-Blue Coalition]] and the [[Taiwan independence movement|independence]] leaning [[Pan-Green Coalition]]. Both tend to use Taiwanese at political rallies and sometimes in informal interviews, and both tend to use Mandarin at formal press conferences and official state functions. Both also tend to use more Mandarin in [[Northern Taiwan]] and more Taiwanese in [[Southern Taiwan]]. However, at official party gatherings (as opposed to both Mandarin-leaning state functions and Taiwanese-leaning party rallies), the DPP tends to use Taiwanese while KMT and [[PFP (Taiwan)|PFP]] tend to use Mandarin. The [[Taiwan Solidarity Union]], which advocates a strong line on Taiwan independence, tends to use Taiwanese even in formal press conferences. In speaking, politicians will frequently [[Code-switching|code switch]]. In writing, almost everyone uses [[written vernacular Chinese|vernacular Mandarin]] which is further from Taiwanese, and the use of semi-alphabetic writing or even [[Tng-lang-ji|colloquial Taiwanese characters]] is rare.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=An investigation of written Taiwanese|url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/11520|date=2005|degree=MA|language=en-US|first=Katsuhiro J.|last=Ota|publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa|hdl=10125/11520}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Mair|first=Victor|title=Taiwanese, Mandarin, and Taiwan's language situation|url=http://pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|access-date=2020-08-06|website=pinyin.info}}</ref>

In 2002, the Taiwan Solidarity Union, a party with about 10% of the [[Legislative Yuan]] seats at the time, suggested making Taiwanese a second official language.<ref>{{cite news |author=Lin Mei-chun |title=Hokkien should be given official status, says TSU |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2002/03/10/0000127068 |work=Taipei Times|date=10 March 2002 |page=1 }}</ref> This proposal encountered strong opposition not only from Mainlander groups but also from Hakka and aboriginal groups who felt that it would slight their home languages, as well as others including [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]] who objected to the proposal on logistical grounds and on the grounds that it would increase ethnic tensions. Because of these objections, support for this measure is lukewarm among moderate Taiwan independence supporters, and the proposal did not pass.

In 2003, there was a controversy when parts of the civil service examination for judges were written in characters used only in Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite news|author=Ko Shu-ling|title=Control Yuan sets rules for future examinations |page=2 |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2004/09/20/2003203606 |work=Taipei Times|date=20 September 2004}}</ref> After strong objections, these questions were not used in scoring. As with the official-language controversy, objections to the use of Taiwanese came not only from Mainlander groups, but also Hoklo, Hakka and aborigines. The [[Control Yuan]] later created a rule that only allowed Standard Mandarin characters on civil service exams. According to public opinion surveys in 2008, more people supported making English a second official language than Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Gijsen, Johan |author2=Liu Yu-Chang |chapter=Chapter 8: The Quest for a New Civic and Linguistic Identity: Mandarin and English Encroachment upon the Taiwanese Language |title=Critical Perspectives on Language and Discourse in the New World Order|editor1-last=Abdullah|editor1-first=Faiz Sathi|editor2-last=Abdullah|editor2-first=Mardziah Hayati|editor3-last=Hoon|editor3-first=Tan Bee|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge Scholars|location=Newcastle|isbn=9781847183408|page=156}}</ref>

In 2017, aboriginal languages were given official status in Taiwan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aipl/201707190019.aspx|title=President lauds efforts in transitional justice for indigenous people|publisher=Focus Taiwan|access-date=19 July 2017}}</ref> as was the [[Taiwanese Hakka|Hakka language]].<ref name="hakkaofficial">{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2017/12/30/2003684894|title=Hakka made an official language|last1=Cheng|first1=Hung-ta|last2=Chung|first2=Jake|date=30 December 2017|work=[[Taipei Times]]}}</ref> {{As of|2018}}, English is planned to become an official language in Taiwan,<ref name="English status">{{Cite news|url=https://www.hongkongfp.com/2018/08/31/taiwan-make-english-official-language-next-year-says-official/|title=Taiwan to make English an official language next year, says official {{!}} Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|date=2018-08-31|work=Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|access-date=2018-09-05|language=en-GB}}</ref> although this has not happened as of mid-2020. Taiwanese is required for some activities but not others. For further information, see [[Languages of Taiwan]].

===Mother tongue movement===
[[Taiwanese localization movement|Taiwanization]] developed in the 1990s into a ‘[[mother tongue]] revival movement' aiming to save, preserve, and develop the local ethnic culture and language of Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, and aborigines. The effort to [[Language revitalization|save declining languages]] has since allowed them to revive and flourish. In 1993, Taiwan became the first country in the world to implement the teaching of Taiwanese in schools. By 2001, Taiwanese languages such as Taiwanese, Hakka, and aboriginal languages were taught in all Taiwanese schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhu.edu.tw/~society/e-j/45/45-16.htm|author=許嘉文|date=15 March 2005|language=zh|script-title=zh:台灣鄉土教育發展史|trans-title=The education history of local Taiwanese languages}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} Since the 2000s, elementary school students are required to take a class in either Taiwanese, Hakka or aboriginal languages.{{sfnp|Lin|2002}}{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} In junior high this is usually an available [[Course (education)#Elective and required courses|elective]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ey.gov.tw/AnnoucePage2.aspx|title=行政院全球資訊網|website=www.ey.gov.tw|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref> Taiwan also has its own [[Taiwan literature movement|literary circle]] whereby Hokkien poets and writers compose poetry and literature in Taiwanese on a regular basis.

As a result of the mother tongue movement, Taiwan has emerged as a significant cultural hub for Hokkien in the world in the 21st century. It also plans to be the major export center for [[Hokkien culture]] worldwide in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npf.org.tw/11/4118|title=馬英九 {{!}} 馬蕭文化政策 {{!}} 國家政策研究基金會 {{!}} 公共政策的理性思辯與對話平台！|website=國家政策研究基金會|language=zh-TW|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref>

=== Television ===

{{Expand Chinese|section=yes|date=August 2020}}

* [[Lady Rainicorn]] for ''[[Adventure Time]]'' broadcast by [[Cartoon Network (Taiwanese TV channel)|Cartoon Network Taiwan]] used Taiwanese for [[Li Hanfei]] ({{lang|zh-tw|李涵菲}})

==Scholarship==
Klöter's ''Written Taiwanese'' (cited below) has been described as "the most comprehensive English-language study of written Taiwanese".{{sfnp|Snow|2004|p=261}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Taiwan|Languages}}
* [[Languages of Taiwan]]
* [[Min Nan Wikipedia]]
* [[Speak Hokkien Campaign]]
* [[Taiwanese literature movement]]
* [[:nan:Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng|Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng]] (Taiwanese Test) {{in lang|nan}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

=== Words in native languages ===
{{notelist-ur}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Cited sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Ang |first=Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣河佬語聲調研究 |year=1987 |edition=4 |publisher=自立晚報 |location = Taipei |language= zh-Hant |isbn=9789575960353 |oclc=813713530 }}
* {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=James W. |author-link=James W. Davidson |title = The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : history, people, resources, and commercial prospects : tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions |year=1903 |publisher=Macmillan |url = https://archive.org/details/islandofformosap00davi |location=London and New York |ol=6931635M |oclc=1887893 }}
* {{cite book |last = Klöter |first = Henning |title=Written Taiwanese |year = 2005 |publisher=Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |isbn=9783447050937 }}
* {{cite book |last = Snow |first = D. |title=Cantonese as Written Language: The Growth of a Written Chinese Vernacular |year = 2004 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |location=Hong Kong |isbn=9789622097094 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wu |first=Soli |author-link = :zh-min-nan:Ngô͘ Siú-lé |year=2000 |script-title = zh:國臺對照活用辭典 |trans-title=Mandarin-Taiwanese Comparative Living Dictionary |language = zh-TW, zh-min-nan |publisher=Yuan-Liou |location=Taipei |isbn=9789573240884 |oclc = 45990089 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==

===Books and other material===
(As English language material on Taiwanese learning is limited, Japanese and German books are also listed here.)
; English textbooks & dictionaries
* {{cite book |author=李勤岸 |trans-title=Harvard Taiwanese 101 |script-title=zh:哈佛臺語101 |translator-last1=Yeh |translator-first1=Chieh-Ting |translator-last2=Lee |translator-first2=Marian |publisher=開朗 |place=Tainan |year=2005 |isbn=9789868160811 |language=en,zh |type=paperback & CD }}
* Su-chu Wu, Bodman, Nicholas C.: Spoken Taiwanese with cassette(s), 1980/2001, {{ISBN|0-87950-461-7}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-460-9}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-462-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |author-link=William Campbell (missionary) |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1913 |publisher=Taiwan Church Press |location=[[Tainan]] |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000072254844;view=1up;seq=28 |oclc=867068660}}
**{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1923 |edition=2nd |orig-year=1913 |publisher=Fukuin Print. Co. |location=Yokohama |oclc=43655590 |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015056044533;view=1up;seq=1 |postscript=(with preface by Thomas Barclay)}}
* Iâu Chèng-to: Cheng-soán Pe̍h-oē-jī (Concise Colloquial Writing). Tainan, Taiwan: Jîn-kong (an imprint of the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan). 1992.
* Tân, K. T: A Chinese-English Dictionary: Taiwan Dialect. Taipei: Southern Materials Center. 1978.
* Maryknoll Language Service Center: English-Amoy Dictionary. Taichung, Taiwan: Maryknoll Fathers. 1979.

; Japanese publications
* Higuchi, Yasushi (樋口靖 ''Higuchi Yasushi''): 台湾語会話, 2000, {{ISBN|4-497-20004-3}} (Good and yet concise introduction to the Taiwanese language in Japanese; CD: {{ISBN|4-497-20006-X}})
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''): はじめての台湾語, 2003, {{ISBN|4-7569-0665-6}} (Introduction to Taiwanese [and Mandarin]; in Japanese).
* Zheng, Zhenghao (鄭正浩 ''Zhèng Zhènghào''): 台湾語基本単語2000, 1996, {{ISBN|4-87615-697-2}} (Basic vocabulary in Taiwanese 2000; in Japanese).
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''), Chen Fenghui (陳豐惠 ''Chén Fēnghuì''), Kaori Takao (たかおかおり ''Takao Kaori''), 2006, 絵でわかる台湾語会話. {{ISBN|978-4-7569-0991-6}} (Conversations in Taiwanese [and Mandarin] with illustrations; in Japanese).
;Others
* Katharina Sommer, Xie Shu-Kai: Taiwanisch Wort für Wort, 2004, {{ISBN|3-89416-348-8}} (Taiwanese for travellers, in German. CD: {{ISBN|3-8317-6094-2}})

; Articles and other resources
*{{cite journal|last=Chiung |first=Wi-vun Taiffalo |date=2003 |title=Tone Change in Taiwanese: Age and Geographic Factors |journal=University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics |volume=8 |issue=1 |url=http://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl/vol8/iss1/5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303035733/http://uibun.twl.ncku.edu.tw/chuliau/lunsoat/english/tchange/tonechange-v.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite journal |last=LÎM |first=Chùn-io̍k |year=2014 |title=The Common Taiwanese Bible: A Means of Seeking to Affirm the Selfhood and Integrity of Taiwanese and Their Language |journal=Journal of Taiwanese Vernacular |volume=6 |number=2 |pages=106–9 |doi=10.6621/JTV.2014.0602.05
}}
*{{cite web |last=Tan-Tenn |first=Henry H. |date=2001 |title=Taiwanese learning resources |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050418075331/http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf |archive-date=2005-04-18 |url=http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf}}
*{{cite book |last=Tiuⁿ |first=Jū-hông |year=2001 |trans-title=Principles of Pe̍h-oē-jī or the Taiwanese Orthography: an introduction to its sound-symbol correspondences and related issues |script-title=zh:白話字基本論 : 臺語文對應&相關的議題淺說 |language=zh |place=Taipei |publisher=Crane |isbn=957-2053-07-8 }}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=zh-min-nan}}
; On the language
*{{cite web |last=Cannings |first=Michael |url=http://tailingua.com/ |title=Introducing the Taiwanese Language |website=Tailingua}}
* [http://johangijsen.blogspot.com/ Blog on the Taiwanese language and language education in Taiwan]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|title=How to Forget Your Mother Tongue and Remember Your National Language|last=Mair|first=Victor H. |author-link=Victor H. Mair |date=2003 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania|access-date=2 July 2011}}
* [[wikt:Appendix:Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists|Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists]]

; Dictionaries
*{{cite web|script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 |trans-title=[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]] |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index.html |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |date=2011 |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |script-title=zh:台語-華語線頂辭典 |trans-title=Taiwanese-Mandarin Online Dictionary |language=nan-tw, zh, en |url=http://210.240.194.97/iug/Ungian/soannteng/chil/Taihoa.asp }}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |url=http://210.240.194.97/TG/jitian/tgjt.asp |script-title=zh:台語線頂字典 |trans-title=Taiwanese Online Character Dictionary |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |script-title=zh:臺灣本土語言互譯及語音合成系統 |trans-title=Taiwanese languages translation and speech synthesis system |language=zh, nan-tw, hak |url=http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008180132/http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |archive-date=8 October 2006}}
* {{cite web |website=Maryknoll Language Service Center |url=http://taiwanesedictionary.org/ |title=Maryknoll Taiwanese-English Dictionary and English-Amoy Dictionary}}

; Learning aids
* [http://taiwanesegrammar.wordpress.com/ Intermediate Taiwanese grammar (as a blog)]
* [http://taiwanesevocabulary.wordpress.com/ Taiwanese vocabulary: word of the day (blog)]
* [http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/lang/taiwanese/ Taiwanese teaching material]: Nursery rhymes and songs in Han characters and romanization w/ recordings in MP3
* [http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe Travlang (language resources for travellers): Hō-ló-oē] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518234153/http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe |date=18 May 2017 }}
*[http://speaktaiwanese.com/spoken-hokkien/ ''Spoken Hokkien''] - a beginner's e-textbook, with audio, for English-speaking learners of conversational Taiwanese.
* {{cite web |url=http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |title=Daiwanway - Tutorial, dictionary, and stories in Taiwanese. Uses a unique romanization system, different from Pe̍h-oē-jī. Includes sound files |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429232228/http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |archive-date=2007-04-29}}

; Other
* [http://www.dmoz.org/World/Taiwanese/ Open Directory (dmoz): World: Taiwanese]
{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}
{{Southern Min Languages}}
{{Min Chinese}}
{{Chinese language}}

[[Category:Languages of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Hokkien-language dialects]]
[[Category:Taiwanese culture]]

Taiwanese Hokkien

2022-03-13T13:15:03Z

Cuaxdon:

{{short description|Variety of a language dialect}}
{{redirect|Taiwanese language|other languages spoken in Taiwan|Languages of Taiwan|the aboriginal languages of Taiwan|Formosan languages|other uses|Taiwanese language (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Taiwanese
| nativename = Taigi/Taigu, Taiwanese
| pronunciation = {{hideH|title="Tâi-gí / Tâi-gú" }}
{{IPA|[tai˧˩ gi˥˩]}} / {{IPA|[tai˧˩ gu˥˩]}} (dialect) 
{{hideF}}
| states = [[Taiwan]]
| region =
| speakers = 13.5 million
| date = 2017
| ref = <ref>{{e24|nan}}</ref>
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2 = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
| fam3 = [[Min Chinese|Min]]
| fam4 = [[Hoklo]]
| fam5 = [[Choan-Chiang]]
| script = [[Han characters]] (在來字), [[Latin script]] ([[pe̍h ōe jī]])
| nation = {{TWN}}{{efn|National language in [[Taiwan]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aedu/201812250018.aspx|title=Draft national language development act clears legislative floor|website=focustaiwan.tw }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://tw.news.appledaily.com/politics/realtime/20181225/1489328/ |title=立院三讀《國家語言發展法》公廣集團可設台語電視台 |website=ltn.com.tw|date=25 December 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://tw.news.yahoo.com/amphtml/%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E6%B3%95-%E7%AB%8B%E9%99%A2%E4%B8%89%E8%AE%80-%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E5%BE%97%E8%A8%AD%E5%8F%B0%E8%AA%9E%E5%B0%88%E5%B1%AC%E9%A0%BB%E9%81%93-062038323.html |title=《國家語言發展法》立院三讀！政府得設台語專屬頻道 |website=ltn.com.tw}}</ref> also statutory status in Taiwan as one of the languages for public transport announcements<ref>[[:zh:s:大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法|大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法]]</ref> and for the [[naturalization]] test.<ref>Article 6 of the [http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 Standards for Identification of Basic Language Abilities and General Knowledge of the Rights and Duties of Naturalized Citizens] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725175658/http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 |date=25 July 2017 }}</ref>}}
| agency = [[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education in Taiwan]] and relevant NGOs in Taiwan
| isoexception = dialect
| lingua = 79-AAA-jh
| map = Home usage of Taiwanese by district in Taiwan gradient map (2010).svg
| mapcaption = Proportion of residents aged 6 or older using Hokkien at home in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen & Matsu in 2010<ref>Table 6: Languages used at home for the resident nationals aged 6 years and over by gender and age, [http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm 2010 Population and Housing Census] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222005446/http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm |date=22 February 2015 }}, Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics (DGBAS), ROC (Taiwan).</ref>
| notice = IPA
}}

'''Taiwanwe''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi-oân ōe) , also known as '''Taigi/Taigu''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi gí/Tâi gú; [[Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn|tl]]: Tâi-gí/Tâi-gú),{{efn|native lang|tw|name=word1}}<ref name="taigi">{{cite web|title=Taigi與台語|url=https://talk.ltn.com.tw/amp/article/paper/1309601|access-date=10 August 2019|work=Liberty Times|date=10 August 2019}}</ref> '''Hoklo''' called by Hakka people, <ref>{{cite web|last=Lee|first=Jack Tsen-Ta|date=28 April 2015|orig-year=2004|url=http://www.mysmu.edu/faculty/jacklee/singlish_H.htm#Hokkien|title=Hokkien|work=A Dictionary of Singlish and Singapore English|access-date=22 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="taiwansnapshot">{{cite web|url=https://www.taiwan.gov.tw/images/content/ts.JPG|title=TAIWAN SNAPSHOT|access-date=15 March 2020|quote=Languages Mandarin (Chinese), Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, Austronesian languages}}</ref> is a variety of the [[Hoklo]] language spoken natively by about 70%+ of the [[population of Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=TW |title=Taiwan |website=[[Ethnologue]]|quote=Principal languages}}</ref> It is spoken by the [[Taiwanese people]], who descended from immigrants from southern [[Fujian]] during the [[Beng dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book |contribution=Taiwan's Evolving Identity |first=June Teufel |last=Dreyer |pages=4–10 |title=The Evolution of a Taiwanese National Identity |location=Washington |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Institute for Scholars |year=2003 |series=Asia Program Special Report |volume=114 |access-date=12 August 2016 |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325100938/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]] (pe̍h ōe jī) romanization is a [[orthography]] for Taiwanwe.

Taiwanwe is generally similar to spoken [[Emng dialect]], [[Choanchiu dialect]], and [[Chiangchiu dialect]] (branches of [[Hoklo]]), as well as their dialectal forms used in [[Southeast Asia]]. It is [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with [[Emng dialect]] on the mainland, with the dialect of the mouth of the [[Jiulong River]] (九龍) immediately to the west, and with [[Philippine Hokkien]] to the south, spoken altogether by about 3 million people.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210919021444/https://raw.githubusercontent.com/KIRINPUTRA/reclassifying-ISO-639-3-nan/main/Reclassifying_ISO_639-3_%5Bnan%5D__An_Empirical_Approach_to_Mutual_Intelligibility_and_Ethnolinguistic_Distinctions.pdf Reclassifying ISO 639-3 [nan]: An Empirical Approach to Mutual Intelligibility and Ethnolinguistic Distinctions]</ref> The mass popularity of [[Hokkien entertainment media]] from Taiwan has given [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prominence]] to the Taiwanese variety of Hokkien, especially since the 1980s.

==Classification==
Taiwanese is a branched-off variety of [[Hokkien]], a group of [[Southern Min]] language. Like many [[Min Chinese|Min]] varieties, it has distinct [[literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|literary and colloquial layers]] of vocabulary, often associated with formal and informal [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]]s respectively. The literary layer can be traced to the late [[Tang dynasty]] and can thus be related to [[Middle Chinese]]. In contrast, the colloquial layers of Min varieties are believed to have branched from the mainstream of Chinese around the time of the [[Han dynasty]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mei|first=Tsu-lin|year=1970|title=Tones and Prosody in Middle Chinese and The Origin of The Rising Tone|journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|volume=30|pages=86–110|doi=10.2307/2718766|jstor=2718766}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| chapter = The Mǐn dialects in historical perspective
| given = Jerry | surname = Norman
| title = Languages and Dialects of China
| editor-given = William S.-Y. | editor-surname = Wang
| pages = 325–360
| series = ''Journal of Chinese Linguistics'' Monograph Series | volume = 3
| publisher = Chinese University Press | year = 1991b
| issue = 3 | jstor = 23827042 | oclc = 600555701
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| surname = Ting | given = Pang-Hsin
| title = Derivation time of colloquial Min from Archaic Chinese
| journal = Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology
| year = 1983 | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 1–14
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| title = Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
| given1 = William H. | surname1 = Baxter | author-link = William H. Baxter
| given2 = Laurent | surname2 = Sagart | author-link2 = Laurent Sagart
| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-994537-5
| year = 2014
| pages = 33, 79
}}</ref>

Regional variations within Taiwanese may be traced back to Hokkien variants spoken in Southern Fujian, specifically those from [[Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou]], then later [[Amoy]]. Taiwanese also contains loanwords from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and the native [[Formosan languages]]. Recent work by scholars such as [https://web.archive.org/web/20041022000504/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/lou-ek-ki/kongpah-oat.htm Ekki Lu], [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081002014759/http://203.64.42.21/iug/ungian/poj/siausit/2002/2002pojgth/lunbun/a1-sakai.pdf Toru Sakai] (酒井亨 ''Sakai Tōru''), and Lí Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040915015640/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/li-khin-hoann/phok-su/phok-su.htm LEXICAL CHANGE AND VARIATION IN TAIWANESE LITERARY TEXTS, 1916–1998 -- A COMPUTER-ASSISTED CORPUS ANALYSIS]</ref> (also known as Tavokan Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}} or Chin-An Li), based on former research by scholars such as [[Ong Iok-tek|Ông Io̍k-tek]], has gone so far as to associate part of the basic vocabulary of the colloquial Taiwanese with the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] and [[Tai languages|Tai]] language families; however, such claims are controversial.

The literary form of Hokkien once flourished in [[Fujian]] and was brought to Taiwan by early emigrants. ''[[Tale of the Lychee Mirror]]'', a manuscript for a series of plays published during the [[Ming dynasty]] in 1566, is one of the earliest known works. This form of the language is now largely extinct. However, literary readings of the numbers are used in certain contexts such as reciting telephone numbers (see [[Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters]]).{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

== History and formation ==
{{see also|Hokkien#History}}

===Spread of Hokkien to Taiwan===
During the [[Yuan dynasty]], [[Quanzhou]] became a major international port for trade with the outside world.<ref>[http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 教育部，歷史文化學習網，《重要貿易港口－泉州》] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725194653/http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 |date=25 July 2011 }}</ref> From that period onwards, many people from the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions (southern Fujian) started to emigrate overseas due to political and economic reasons. One of the destinations of the emigrants is the relatively undeveloped island of [[Formosa]], starting around 1600. They brought with them their native language, Hokkien.

During the late [[Ming dynasty]], the political chaos pushed more migrants from southern Fujian and eastern [[Guangdong]] to Taiwan. The earliest immigrants involved in Taiwan's development included [[Chinese pirates|pirate-merchants]] {{Interlanguage link multi|Chinese Peter|zh|3=顏思齊|WD=}} and [[Zheng Zhilong]]. In 1621, Chinese Peter and his forces, hailing from [[Zhangzhou]], occupied ''Ponkan'' (modern-day [[Beigang, Yunlin]]) and started to develop ''Tirosen'' (modern-day [[Chiayi City|Chiayi]]). After the death of Peter and another pirate, [[Li Dan (pirate)|Li Dan]] of Quanzhou, Zheng sought to dominate the [[Taiwan Strait|Strait of Taiwan]]. By 1628, he had grown so powerful that the Ming court bestowed him the official title, "Patrolling Admiral".<ref>{{cite book|author1-link=Tonio Andrade |last=Andrade |first=Tonio |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century |publisher=Columbia University Press |chapter=Chapter 2: A Scramble for Influence |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade02.html |year=2005 |at=§20-1}}</ref>

In 1624, the number of Chinese in the island was about 25,000.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=13}} During the reign of [[Chongzhen Emperor]] (1627–1644), there were frequent droughts in the Fujian region. Zheng and a Chinese official suggested sending victims to Taiwan and provide "for each person three [[tael]]s of silver and for each three people one ox".{{sfnp|Andrade|2005|loc=§26}} Although this plan was never carried out, the Zheng family maintained an interest in Taiwan that would have dire consequences for the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]], who ruled Taiwan as [[Dutch Formosa]] at the time.

===Development and divergence===
In 1624 and 1626, the Dutch and Spanish forces occupied the [[Tainan]] and [[Keelung]] areas, respectively. During the 40 years of [[Dutch Formosa|Dutch colonial rule of Taiwan]], many [[Han Chinese]] from the [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Hakka culture|Hakka]] regions of mainland China were recruited to help develop Taiwan. Because of intermingling with [[Siraya people]] as well as Dutch colonial rule, the Hokkien dialects started to deviate from the original Hokkien spoken in mainland China.

In the 1661 [[Siege of Fort Zeelandia]], Chinese general [[Koxinga]] expelled the Dutch and established the [[Kingdom of Tungning]]. Koxinga originated from the Quanzhou region. [[Chen Yonghua]], who was in charge of establishing the education system of Tungning, also originated from Quanzhou. Because most of the soldiers he brought to Taiwan came from Quanzhou, the [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Hokkien on the island at the time was the [[Quanzhou dialect]].

In 1683, Chinese admiral [[Shi Lang]] attacked Taiwan in the [[Battle of Penghu]], ending the Tungning era and beginning [[Taiwan under Qing rule|Qing dynasty rule]] (until 1895). In the following years, in order to prevent people from rebelling, the Qing court instituted a ban on migration to Taiwan,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} especially the migration of [[Hakka people]] from [[Guangdong]] province, which led Hokkien to become the most spoken language in Taiwan.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

In the first decades of the 18th century, the linguistic differences between the Qing imperial bureaucrats and the commoners were recorded by the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]-speaking first Imperial [[High commissioner|High Commissioner]] to Taiwan (1722), [[Huang Shujing]]:
{{cquote|In this place, the language is as [[birdcall]] – totally unintelligible! For example: for the surname [[Liu|Liú]], they say 'Lâu'; for [[Chen (surname)|Chén]], 'Tân'; [[Zhuang (surname)|Zhuāng]], 'Chng'; and [[Zhang (surname)|Zhāng]] is 'Tioⁿ'. My deputy’s surname [[Wu (surname)|Wú]] becomes 'Ngô͘'. My surname [[Huang (surname)|Huáng]] does not even have a proper vowel: it is 'N̂g' here! It is difficult to make sense of this. 
({{lang|zh-Hant|郡中鴃舌鳥語，全不可曉。如：劉呼「澇」、陳呼「澹」、莊呼「曾」、張呼「丟」。余與吳待御兩姓，吳呼作「襖」，黃則無音，厄影切，更為難省。}})|||''Records from the mission to Taiwan and its Strait'', Volume II: "On the area around [[Fort Provintia]], [[Tainan]]" (臺海使槎錄卷二赤嵌筆談)}}
The tone of Huang's message [[Foretelling|foretold]] the uneasy relationships between different [[Speech community|language communities]] and colonial establishments over the next few centuries.

The ban on migration to Taiwan was relaxed sometime after 1722 (and was completely removed in 1874). During the 200 years of Qing dynasty rule, thousands of immigrants from [[Fujian]] arrived yearly; the population was over one million in the middle of the 18th century.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=561}} Civil unrest and armed conflicts were frequent. In addition to resistance against governments (both Chinese and later Japanese), [[Ethnic conflict|battles between ethnic groups]] were also significant: the belligerents usually grouped around the language they used. History has recorded battles between [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] speakers and Hokkien speakers, between these and the [[Taiwanese aborigine|aborigines]], and even between those who spoke different variants of Hokkien.

In the early 20th century, the [[Hoklo people]] in Taiwan could be categorized as originating from [[Xiamen]], [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Zhangpu County|Zhangpu]].{{clarify|reason=Zhangpu is part of Zhangzhou|date=August 2020}}{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=591}} People from the former two areas (Quanzhou-speaking) were dominant in the north of the island and along the west coast,<ref>"especially in the cities of Koro (Aulang), Taiko (Taika), Giubato (Gumatau), Gosei (Goche), Tokatsukutsu (Thawkakut), and Rokko (Lokiang)." (modern-day [[Houlong, Miaoli|Houlong]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]], [[Qingshui District|Qingshui]], [[Wuqi District|Wuqi]], [[Longjing District|Longjing]], and Lukang, respectively.) {{harvp|Davidson|1903|p=591}}</ref> whereas people from the latter two areas ([[Zhangzhou dialect|Zhangzhou]]-speaking) were dominant in the south and perhaps the central plains as well.

Although there were conflicts between Quanzhou- and Zhangzhou-speakers in Taiwan historically, their gradual [[intermingling]] led to the mixture of the two [[Accent (sociolinguistics)|accents]]. Apart from [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang city]] and [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan County]], which have preserved their original Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents respectively, almost every region of Taiwan now speaks a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien.{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} A similar phenomenon occurred in [[Xiamen]] (Amoy) after 1842, when the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien displaced the Quanzhou dialect to yield the modern [[Amoy dialect]].<ref>泉州旅游信息网，[http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm 泉州方言文化] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301121345/http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm |date=1 March 2007 }}</ref>

During the [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese colonial rule of Taiwan]], Taiwan began to hold Amoy Hokkien as its standard pronunciation; the Japanese called this mixture {{nihongo|'''Taiwanese'''|臺灣語|Taiwango}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Iûⁿ |first1=Ún-giân |last2=Tiuⁿ |first2=Ha̍k-khiam |last3=Lu |first3=Bichhin |script-title=zh:台語文運動訪談暨史料彙編 |language=zh |date=2008-03-01 |publisher=國史館 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789860132946 |oclc=813921186}}</ref>

Due to the influx of Japanese loanwords before 1945 and the political separation after 1949,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} Amoy Hokkien and Taiwanese began to [[Linguistic divergence|diverge]] slightly.

===Modern times===
[[File:Proportion of Taiwanese Language Used in House.svg|thumb|350px|Proportion of languages used at home by residents aged 6 or over in Taiwan in 2010, sorted by birth year.<ref name="housing census">Sources: http://www.dgbas.gov.tw/public/data/dgbas04/bc6/census022%28final%29.html 2010 population and housing census by DGBAS, [[Executive Yuan]].</ref> The chart shows the tendency that speech communities of [[Languages of Taiwan#Other languages|Taiwanese local languages]] are shifting to speak [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]].]]
Later, in the 20th century, the conceptualization of Taiwanese is more controversial than most variations of Chinese because at one time it marked a clear division between the Mainlanders who [[KMT retreat to Taiwan in 1949|arrived in 1949]] and the pre-existing majority native Taiwanese. Although the political and linguistic divisions between the two groups have blurred considerably, the political issues surrounding Taiwanese have been more controversial and sensitive than for other [[varieties of Chinese]].

After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], due to military defeat to the Japanese, the [[Qing dynasty]] ceded [[Taiwan]] to Japan, causing contact with the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions of mainland China to stop. During Japanese rule, Japanese became an official language in Taiwan, and Taiwanese began to absorb large number of Japanese loanwords into its language. Examples of such loanwords (some which had in turn been borrowed from English) include ''piān-só͘'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|便所}}|benjo|"toilet"}}, ''phêng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|坪}}|[[tsubo]]|"[[pyeong]]", an areal measurement}} (see also [[Taiwanese units of measurement]]), ''ga-suh'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|瓦斯}}|gasu|"gas"}}, ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|オートバイ}}|ōtobai|"autobicycle", motorcycle}}. All of these caused Taiwanese to deviate from Hokkien used elsewhere.

During [[Kōminka movement (Taiwan)|Kōminka]] of the late Japanese colonial period, the [[Japanese language]] appeared in every corner of Taiwan. The [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] beginning in 1937 brought stricter measures into force, and along with the outlawing of [[Chinese language romanization in Taiwan|romanized Taiwanese]], various publications were prohibited and Confucian-style private schools which taught [[Classical Chinese]] with [[Literary language|literary]] Southern Min pronunciation – were closed down in 1939.{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=135}} Taiwanese thus was reduced to a common [[Vernacular|daily language]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ang |first1=Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣方言之旅 |date=1991 |publisher=前衛出版社 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789579512312}}</ref> In 1937 the colonial government introduced a concept called "National Language Family" ({{linktext|国語}}{{linktext|の}}{{linktext|家)}}, which meant that families that proved that they adopted Japanese as their daily language enjoyed benefits such as greater access to education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw/ischool/publish_page/106/?cid=4897|title=Hui-Wen High School Taichung, Introduction to the Kominka period|work=www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw}}</ref>

After the handover of Taiwan to the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] in 1945, there was brief cultural exchange with mainland China followed by further oppression. The [[Chinese Civil War]] resulted in another political separation when the [[Kuomintang]] (Chinese Nationalist Party) government [[Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan|retreated to Taiwan following their defeat by the communists]] in 1949. The influx of two million soldiers and civilians caused the population of Taiwan to increase from 6 million to 8 million. The government subsequently promoted [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] while suppressing, but short of banning, the use of written Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] (e.g. [[pe̍h-oē-jī]], a phonetic rendering of spoken Hokkien using the Latin alphabet) as part of its general policy of political repression.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lin |first=Alvin |issue=89 |title=Writing Taiwanese: The Development of Modern Written Taiwanese |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp089_taiwanese.pdf |year=1999 |oclc=41879041 }}</ref> In 1964 the use of spoken Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] or [[Hakka]] in schools or in official settings was forbidden; violations of the prohibition in schools often resulted in physical punishments, fines, or humiliation.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Linguistic capital in Taiwan: The KMT's Mandarin language policy and its perceived impact on language practices of bilingual Mandarin and Tai-gi speakers |last=Sandel |first=Todd L. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |journal=Language in Society |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=523–551 |doi=10.1017/S0047404503324030 |jstor=4169285 |s2cid=145703339 }}</ref>

Only after the lifting of [[Martial law in Taiwan|martial law]] in 1987 and the [[mother tongue]] movement in the 1990s did Taiwan see a true [[Language revitalization|revival]] in the Taiwanese language. Today, there are a large number of Taiwanese scholars dedicated to researching the language. Despite this, according to census data the number of people speaking Taiwanese continued to drop.<ref name="housing census"/>

The history of Taiwanese and its interaction with Mandarin is complex and at times controversial, even regarding its name. The language has no official name in Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |title=中華民國文化部-國家語言發展法 |url=https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |website=www.moc.gov.tw |access-date=24 October 2019 |language=zh |date=10 October 2008 |quote=《國家語言發展法》並未以法律明列各固有族群之語言名稱，即是尊重各族群使用者慣常使用之命名權。 |archive-date=2 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402055541/https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some dislike the name "Taiwanese" as they feel that it belittles other languages spoken on the island such as Mandarin, [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], and the [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]]. Others prefer the names [[Southern Min]], Minnan or Hokkien as this views Taiwanese as a form of the Chinese variety spoken in [[Fujian]] province in [[mainland China]]. Others dislike those names for precisely the same reason.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} In the [[American Community Survey]] run by the [[United States Census Bureau]], Taiwanese was referred to as "Formosan" from 2012 to 2015 and as "Min Nan Chinese" since 2016.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2018/demo/SEHSD-WP2018-31.pdf | title=American Community Survey Redesign of Language-Spoken-at-Home Data | date=2016 | first=Christine P. | last=Gambino | work=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{Commons category|Taiwanese Hokkien}}
{{see also|Help:IPA/Taiwanese Hokkien}}
[[Phonology|Phonologically]], Hokkien is a [[tonal language]] with extensive [[tone sandhi]] rules. [[Syllable]]s consist maximally of an initial [[consonant]], a [[vowel]], a final consonant, and a tone.

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|- style="font-size: 90%;"
|+Initials
!colspan=2|
!colspan=2| [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo -palatal]]
!colspan=2| [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
!colspan=2| [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|m}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|m ㄇ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|n}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|n ㄋ
|colspan=2|
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ŋ}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ng ㄫ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! voiced
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|b}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|b ㆠ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɡ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|g ㆣ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|p}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|p ㄅ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|t}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|t ㄉ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|k}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|k ㄍ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[pʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ph ㄆ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|th ㄊ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[kʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|kh ㄎ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! voiced
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dz}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|j ㆡ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dʑ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|j(i) ㆢ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! tenuis
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ts}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ch, ts ㄗ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|tɕ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ch(i), ts(i) ㄐ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! aspirated
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tsʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh, tsh ㄘ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tɕʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh(i), tsh(i) ㄑ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|s}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|s ㄙ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɕ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|si ㄒ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|h}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|h ㄏ
|-
!colspan=2| [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|l}}'''~'''{{IPAblink|ɾ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|l ㄌ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|}
{|class=wikitable
|+Finals
! !![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]!![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]!![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- align=center
![[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|'''{{IPA|[m]}}''' -m||'''{{IPA|[n]}}''' -n||'''{{IPA|[ŋ]}}''' -ng||'''{{IPAblink|◌̃}}''' -ⁿ
|- align=center
![[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
|'''{{IPA|[p̚]}}''' -p ㆴ||'''{{IPA|[t̚]}}''' -t ㆵ||'''{{IPA|[k̚]}}''' -k ㆶ||'''{{IPAblink|ʔ}}''' -h ㆷ
|}

Unlike many other varieties of Chinese such as Mandarin and [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]], there are no native [[labiodental]] phonemes (i.e., {{IPAblink|f}}).

# Coronal affricates and fricatives become [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] before {{IPA|/i/}}, that is, {{IPA|/dzi/}}, {{IPA|/tsi/}}, {{IPA|/tsʰi/}}, and {{IPA|/si/}} are pronounced {{IPA|[dʑi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕʰi]}}, and {{IPA|[ɕi]}}.
# The consonant {{IPA|/dz/}} may be realized as a fricative; that is, as {{IPA|[z]}} in most environments and {{IPA|[ʑ]}} before {{IPA|/i/}}.
# The [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] plosives ({{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}) become the corresponding fricatives ({{IPAblink|β}} and {{IPAblink|ɣ}}) in some phonetic contexts. This is similar to [[begadkefat]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and a similar [[Allophone|allophony]] of intervocalic [[plosive consonants]] and their fricatives in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].

=== Vowels ===
Taiwanese has the following [[vowel]]s:
{|class=wikitable
|-
!rowspan=2| !!colspan=2|[[Front vowel|Front]]!!colspan=2|[[Central vowel|Central]]!!colspan=2|[[Back vowel|Back]]
!rowspan=5| !!colspan=2 rowspan=2|[[Syllabic consonant]]
|- align=center
!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]
|- align=center
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|'''{{IPAblink|i}}''' i ㄧ||'''{{IPA|[ĩ]}}''' iⁿ ㆪ
| ||
|'''{{IPAblink|u}}''' u ㄨ||'''{{IPA|[ũ]}}''' uⁿ ㆫ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[m̩]}}''' m ㆬ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[ŋ̍]}}''' ng ㆭ
|- align=center
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|'''{{IPAblink|e}}''' e ㆤ||'''{{IPA|[ẽ]}}''' eⁿ ㆥ
|'''{{IPAblink|ə}} ~ {{IPAblink|o}}''' o ㄜ, ㄛ||
|'''{{IPAblink|ɔ}}''' o͘ ㆦ||'''{{IPA|[ɔ̃]}}''' oⁿ ㆧ
|- align=center
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| || ||'''{{IPAblink|ä|a}}''' a ㄚ||'''{{IPA|[ã]}}''' aⁿ ㆩ|| ||
|}

The vowel {{angle bracket|o}} is akin to a [[schwa]]; in contrast, {{angle bracket|[[o͘]]}} (with dot) is a more [[Vowel height|open vowel]]. In addition, there are several [[diphthong]]s and [[triphthong]]s (for example, {{angle bracket|iau}}). The consonants {{angle bracket|m}} and {{angle bracket|ng}} can function as a [[Nucleus (syllable)|syllabic nucleus]] and are therefore included here as vowels. The vowels may be either plain or [[Nasal vowel|nasal]]: {{angle bracket|a}} is non-nasal, and {{angle bracket|aⁿ}} is the same vowel with concurrent nasal articulation. This is similar to [[French language|French]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Polish language|Polish]], and many other languages.

There are two pronunciations of vowel {{angle bracket|o}}. In the south (e.g., [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]) it is {{IPA|[ə]}}; in the north (e.g., [[Taipei]]) it is {{IPA|[o]}}. Due to development of transportation and communication, both pronunciations are common and acceptable throughout the country.

{{IPAblink|i}} is a diphthong [<nowiki/>[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]][[Mid central vowel|ə]]] before -k or -ng (POJ: ek, eng), and is slightly shortened and retracted before -p or -t to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-front unrounded vowel|í̞]]]. Similarly, {{IPAblink|u}} is slightly shortened and retracted before -t or -n to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-back rounded vowel|ʊ]]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Tâigí Phonics 3 - Single Vowels - YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Muv_Rx7OXg0 |url-status=dead|access-date=2021-02-06|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref>

=== Tones ===
[[Image:Taiwanese tones.png|thumb|right|Taiwanese tones, close to Taipei values.]]
In the traditional analysis, there are eight "tones", [[tone number|numbered]] from 1 to 8. Strictly speaking, there are only 3 [[Tone level]]. But as in other Sinitic languages, the two kinds of stopped syllables are considered also to be tones and assigned numbers 4 and 8. In Taiwanese tone 6 has merged into tone 7, and thus duplicated in the count. Here the eight tones are shown, following the traditional tone class categorization, named after the tones of [[Middle Sinitic]]:
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Taiwanese tones{{sfnp|Wu|2000|p=2691}}
|-
! Tone number !! Name !! POJ accent !! Pitch in Taipei !! Description !! Pitch in Tainan !! Description
|-
| 1 || yin level (陰平) || a || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥]}}''' (55) || high || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˦]}}''' (44) || high
|-
| 2 || yin rising (陰上) || á || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˩]}}''' (51) || falling || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˧]}}''' (53) || high falling
|-
| 3 || yin departing (陰去) || à || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧˩]}}''' to '''{{IPA|[˨˩]}}''' (21) || low falling || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩]}}''' (11) || low
|-
| 4 || yin entering (陰入) || ah || '''{{IPA|[āʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˧˨]}}''' (2) || mid stopped || '''{{IPA|[àʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˨˩]}}''' (2) || low stopped
|-
| 5 || yang level (陽平) || â || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩˦ ~ a˨˦]}}''' (24) || rising || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨˦]}}''' (25) || rising
|-
| 7 (6) || yang departing and yang rising (陽去與陽上) || ā || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧]}}''' (33) || mid || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨]}}''' (22) || mid
|-
| 8 || yang entering (陽入) || a̍h || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˦]}}''' (4) || high stopped || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˥]}}''' (5) || high stopped
|}

{{Listen|filename=Taiwanese-8Tones.ogg|title=Eight tones of Taiwanese|description=Demonstration of the tones of Taiwanese: 衫 ''saⁿ, 短 té, 褲, khò͘, 闊 khoah, 人 lâng, 矮 é, 鼻 phīⁿ, 直 ti̍t''. Tone sandhi rules do not apply in this sentence. (This demonstration is popular but misleading in the use of ''矮 é'' as an example for tone 6. In dialects that distinguish tones 6 and 7, ''矮 é'' belongs to tone 2, and most words of tone 6 merges into tone 7 in Taiwanese.)}}

See (for one example) the modern phonological analysis in {{harvp|Chiung|2003}}, which challenges these notions.

For tones 4 and 8, a final consonant {{angle bracket|p}}, {{angle bracket|t}}, or {{angle bracket|k}} may appear. When this happens, it is impossible for the syllable to be nasal. Indeed, these are the counterpart to the nasal final consonants {{angle bracket|m}}, {{angle bracket|n}}, and {{angle bracket|ng}}, respectively, in other tones. However, it is possible to have a nasal 4th or 8th tone syllable such as {{angle bracket|siahⁿ}}, as long as there is no final consonant other than {{angle bracket|h}}.

In the dialect spoken near the northern coast of Taiwan, there is no distinction between tones number 8 and number 4 – both are pronounced as if they follow the [[tone sandhi]] rules of tone number 4.

Tone number 0, typically written with two consecutive hyphens (--a) or a point (·a) before the syllable with this tone, is used to mark [[enclitic]]s denoting the extent of a verb action, the end of a noun phrase, etc. A frequent use of this tone is to denote a question, such as in "Chia̍h pá ·bōe?", literally meaning 'Have you eaten yet?’. This is realized by speaking the syllable with either a low-falling tone (3) or a low stop (4). The syllable prior to the {{angle bracket|·}} maintains its original tone.

=== Syllabic structure ===
A [[syllable]] requires a vowel (or diphthong or [[triphthong]]) to appear in the middle. All consonants can appear at the initial position. The consonants {{angle bracket|p, t, k}} and {{angle bracket|m, n, ng}} (and some consider {{angle bracket|h}}) may appear at the end of a syllable. Therefore, it is possible to have syllables such as {{angle bracket|ngiau}} ("(to) tickle") and {{angle bracket|thng}} ("soup").

=== Tone sandhi ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Tone Sandhi 01.svg|thumbnail|right|Schema of the tone sandhi rules in Taiwanese.]]
Taiwanese has extremely extensive [[tone sandhi]] (tone-changing) rules: in an utterance, only the last syllable pronounced is not affected by the rules.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uegu.blogspot.com/2015/01/blog-post_16.html|script-title=zh:台語好多聲|trans-title=The Many Tones of Taiwanese|author=麻瓜先生|date=January 2015|quote={{lang|zh-tw|台語裡有個變調系統，細說分明需要時間，但最大的規則就是「最後一個字不要變！其他變變變！」}}|access-date=21 March 2019}}</ref> What an ‘[[utterance]]’ (or ‘[[intonational phrase]]’) is, in the context of this language, is an ongoing topic for linguistic research, but some general rules apply:<ref name="Lin2015">{{cite book|author=Philip T. Lin|title=Taiwanese Grammar: A Concise Reference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlExBwAAQBAJ|date=31 January 2015|publisher=Greenhorn Media|isbn=978-0-9963982-1-3}}</ref>

The following syllables are unaffected by tone sandhi:
* The final syllable in a [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]], [[noun]] (including single syllable nouns, but not [[pronoun]]s), number, time phrase (i.e., today, tomorrow, etc.), spatial [[preposition]] (i.e., on, under), or [[question word]] (i.e., who, what, how).
* The syllable immediately preceding the [[possessive particle]] 的 (ê) or a neutralized tone. In POJ, this is the syllable before a double hyphen, e.g., 王先生 (Ông—sian-siⁿ)
* Some common [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] markers: 了 (liáu), 好 (hó), 完 (oân), 煞 (soah)

==== Normal tone sandhi ====
The following rules, listed in the traditional pedagogical mnemonic order, govern the pronunciation of tone on each of the syllables affected (that is, all but those described according to the rules listed above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''3''' ([[Quanzhou]]/Taipei speech) or '''7''' ([[Zhangzhou]]/Tainan speech).
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Normal tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻³ / tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻³ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜖]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻³ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜖]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

==== Double tone sandhi ====
There are a number of a single syllable words that undergo double tone sandhi, that is, they follow the tone change rule twice and are pronounced according to the second tone change. These syllables are almost always a 4th tone ending in '''-h''', and include the words 卜 (beh), 甲 (kah), 閣 (koh), 即 (chiah), as well as the 3rd tone verb 去 khì. As a result of following the tone change rule twice, these syllables are all pronounced as tone number '''1'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Double tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 4 || kah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kaʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kaʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || khi³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kʰi˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kʰi˩꜓]}}
|}

==== Before the -á suffix ====
{{Wiktionary pipe|仔#Usage notes|the rules for tone sandhi before '仔' (-á) with examples}}
Apart from the normal tone sandhi rules described above, there are two special cases where a different set of tone sandhi apply.<ref>Iunn Un-gian. "A Study on Implementation of Southern-Min Taiwanese Tone Sandhi System." (2005). https://aclweb.org/anthology/Y/Y05/Y05-1011.pdf</ref> In a noun with the noun [[suffix]] '{{linktext|lang=zh|仔}}' ({{linktext|á}}), the penultimate syllable is governed by the following rules:
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''' or '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''. (same as double)

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Tone sandhi before -á (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜕]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜓]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|}

==== In triplicated adjectives ====
Finally, in the case of single-syllable adjective [[triplication]] (for added emphasis), the first syllable is governed by the following rules (the second syllable follows the normal tone sandhi rules above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Triplicated tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

See {{harvp|Tiuⁿ|2001}}, {{harvp|Chiung|2003}} and the work of Robert L. Cheng (鄭良偉; Tēⁿ Liông-úi)<ref>{{cite web |date=2003 |publisher=Center for Chinese Studies, University of Hawaii |title=Robert L. Cheng |url=http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070624085539/http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-date=2007-06-24}}</ref> for modern linguistic approaches to tones and tone sandhi in Taiwanese.

== Lexicon ==
Modern linguistic studies (by Robert L. Cheng and Chin-An Li, for example) estimate that most (75% to 90%) Taiwanese [[word]]s have [[cognate]]s in other Sinitic languages. [[False friend]]s do exist; for example, ''cháu'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|走}}) means "to run" in Taiwanese, whereas the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] cognate, ''zǒu'', means "to walk". Moreover, cognates may have different [[Part of speech|lexical categories]]; for example, the [[morpheme]] ''phīⁿ'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|鼻}}) means not only "nose" (a noun, as in Mandarin ''bí'') but also "to smell" (a verb, unlike Mandarin).

Among the apparently cognate-less words are many basic words with properties that contrast with similar-meaning words of pan-Chinese derivation. Often the former group lacks a standard Han character, and the words are variously considered colloquial, intimate, vulgar, uncultured, or more concrete in meaning than the pan-Chinese synonym. Some examples: ''lâng'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|人}}, person, concrete) vs. ''jîn'' (人, person, abstract); ''{{linktext|cha-bó͘}}'' ({{linktext|查某}}, woman) vs. ''lú jîn'' (女人, woman, literary). Unlike the [[English language#Vocabulary|English Germanic/Latin contrast]], however, the two groups of Taiwanese words cannot be as strongly attributed to the influences of two disparate linguistic sources.

Extensive contact with the [[Japanese language]] has left a legacy of Japanese [[loanwords]], with 172 recorded in the Ministry of Education's ''[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_wailaici.jsp |script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典-外來詞 |year=2011 |trans-title=Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan - Loanwords |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |language=zh |access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref> Although a very small percentage of the vocabulary, their usage tends to be high-frequency because of their relevance to modern society and popular culture. Examples are: ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||オートバイ|ōtobai|"autobike"/motorcycle}} and ''pháng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|パン}}|pan|"[[bread]]", itself a loanword from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]}}. [[Grammatical particle]]s borrowed from Japanese, notably ''te̍k'' from {{nihongo4||的|teki}} and ''ka'' from {{nihongo4||か|ka}}, show up in the Taiwanese of older speakers.

Taiwanese pronouns are collectivized through [[nasalization]]. For example, ''i'' (he/she/it) and ''goá'' (I) become ''in'' (they) and ''goán'' (we), respectively. The ''-n'' thus represents a subsyllabic [[morpheme]].

Unlike English, Taiwanese has two [[first person plural|first-person plural]] pronouns. This distinction is called [[Clusivity|inclusive]], which includes the [[Interlocutor (linguistics)|addressee]], and exclusive, which excludes the addressee. Thus, ''goán'' means ''we excluding you'', while ''lán'' means ''we including you'' (similar to [[pluralis auctoris]]). The inclusive ''lán'' may be used to express politeness or solidarity, as in the example of a speaker asking a stranger "Where do we live?" while implicitly asking "Where do ''you'' live?".

== Syntax ==
{{Listen|filename=Tai JintianDaoJiaKanWo.ogg|title=Kin-ná jit hit ê cha-bó͘ gín-á lâi góan tau khòaⁿ góa.|description=An audio sample for a simple sentence, meaning "Today that little girl came to our house to see me".}}
The [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is similar to southern sinitic languages such as [[Hakka]] and [[Yue]]. The [[subject–verb–object]] sequence is typical as in, for example, [[Mandarin Chinese]], but [[subject–object–verb]] or the [[passive voice]] (with the sequence [[object–subject–verb]]) is possible with particles. Take a simple sentence for example: 'I hold you.' The words involved are: ''goá'' ('I' or 'me'), ''phō'' ('to hold'), ''lí'' ('you').
* Subject–verb–object (typical sequence): The sentence in the typical sequence would be: ''Goá phō lí.'' ('I hold you.')
* Subject–''kā''–object–verb: Another sentence of roughly equivalent meaning is ''Goá kā lí phō'', with the slight connotation of 'I take you and hold' or 'I get to you and hold'.
* Object ''hō͘'' subject–verb (the passive voice): Then, ''Lí hō͘ goá phō'' means the same thing but in the [[passive voice]], with the connotation of 'You allow yourself to be held by me' or 'You make yourself available for my holding'.

With this, more complicated sentences can be constructed: ''Goá kā chúi hō͘ lí lim'' ('I give water for you to drink': ''chúi'' means 'water'; ''lim'' is 'to drink').

This article can only give a few very simple examples on the syntax, for flavour. Linguistic work on the [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is still a (quite nascent) scholarly topic being explored.

== Scripts and orthographies ==
{{Main|Written Hokkien}}

[[File:Holo bunhak chokphin.JPG|thumb|right|A selection of literary works (original and translated) in Taiwanese, in several orthographies.]]

Until the late 19th century, Taiwanese speakers wrote mostly in [[Classical Sinitic]]|date=June 2015}}. Among many systems of writing Taiwanewe using Latin characters, the most used is called [[pe̍h oē jī]] (POJ) and was developed in the 19th century. (For additional romanized systems, see references in "Orthography in Latin characters", below.) Nonetheless, Taiwanese speakers nowadays most commonly write in Chinese Mandarin, though many of the same characters are also used to write Taiwanese.

=== Han characters ===
In most cases, Taiwanese speakers write using the [[writing system|script]] called [[Han characters]] as in Mandarin, although there are a number of special characters which are unique to Taiwanwe and which are sometimes used in informal writing. Where Han characters are used, they are not always etymological or genetic; the borrowing of similar-sounding or similar-meaning characters is a common practice. Bilingual speakers of both Mandarin and Taiwanese sometimes attempt to represent the sounds by adopting similar-sounding Mandarin Han characters. For example, the Han characters of the [[Profanity|vulgar slang]] 'khoàⁿ sáⁿ-siâu' ({{linktext|lang=zh|看|三小}}, substituted for the etymologically correct {{linktext|lang=zh|看|省屑}}, meaning 'What the hell are you looking at?’) has very little meaning in Mandarin and may not be readily understood by a Taiwanese monolingual, as knowledge of Mandarin character readings is required to fully decipher it.

In 2007, the [[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|Ministry of Education]] in Taiwan published the first list of [[Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters]], a list of 300 Han characters standardized for the use of writing Taiwanese and implemented the teaching of them in schools.<ref>[http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm 教育部公布閩南語300字推薦用字　卡拉OK用字也被選用 (Ministry of Education in Taiwan announces 300 recommended Hokkien words, Karaoke words are also selected)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724212916/http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm |date=24 July 2011 }}; [http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 「臺灣閩南語推薦用字（第1批）」已公布於網站，歡迎各界使用 (Announcement of recommended words for Taiwanese Hokkien)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718144143/http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 |date=18 July 2011 }}</ref> In 2008, the ministry published a second list of 100 characters, and in 2009 added 300 more, giving a total of 700 standardized characters used to write uniquely Taiwanese words.

However, these "recommended Han characters" are totally different from old Taiwanese Han characters. Hence, the policy of RoC is seen as cultural destruction again.

=== Orthography in Latin characters ===
[[Image:Kauhoe.jpg|thumb|right|An issue of the ''[[Taiwan Church News]]'', first published by Presbyterian missionaries in 1885. This was the first printed newspaper in Taiwan, and was written in Taiwanese, in the Latin orthography pe̍h oē jī.]]

There are several Latin-based orthographies, the oldest being [[Pe̍h oē jī]] (POJ, meaning "vernacular writing"), developed in the 19th century. [[Taiwanese Minnan Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī, Tâi-Bân-Lô) and [[Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet]] (TLPA) are two later adaptations of POJ. Other 20th-century innovations include [[Daighi tongiong pingim]] (DT), [[Ganvsig daiuuan bhanlam ghiw tongiong pingimv]] (GDT), [[Modern Literal Taiwanese]] (MLT), [[Simplified MLT]] (SMLT), [[Phofsit Daibuun]] (PSDB). The last four employ [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] [[spelling]] to indicate tone without use of [[diacritic]] symbols, but letters instead.

In POJ, the traditional list of letters is
:a b ch chh e g h i j k kh l m n ng o o͘ p ph s t th (ts) u
Twenty-four in all, including the obsolete {{angle bracket|ts}}, which was used to represent the modern {{angle bracket|ch}} at some places. The additional necessities are the nasal symbol {{angle bracket|ⁿ}}  (superscript {{angle bracket|n}}; the uppercase form {{angle bracket|N}} is sometimes used in [[all caps]] texts,<ref>Tè Khái-sū (1999) [https://archive.org/details/Tpsurvey Writing Latinized Taiwanese Languages with Unicode]</ref> such as book titles or section headings), and the tonal [[diacritic]]s.
POJ was developed first by [[Presbyterian]] [[missionaries]] and later by the indigenous [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]]; they have been active in promoting the language since the late 19th century. Recently there has been an increase in texts using a mixed orthography of Han characters and romanization, although these texts remain uncommon.

In 2006, the [[National Languages Committee]] (Ministry of Education, Republic of China) proposed [[Taiwanese Minnan Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī pheng-im, Tâi-Bân-Lô). This alphabet reconciles two orthographies, TLPA and POJ.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tlh.de-han.org/untong/2006/0929TaiLo.pdf|title=臺灣閩南語羅馬字拼音方案 (Orthographic system for the Minnan language in Taiwan, 'Tâi-ôan Bân Lâm Lô-má jī pheng-im')}}</ref> The changes for the consonants involved using {{angle bracket|ts}} for POJ's {{angle bracket|ch}} (reverting to the orthography in the 19th century), and {{angle bracket|tsh}} for {{angle bracket|chh}}. For the vowels, {{angle bracket|o͘}} could optionally represented as {{angle bracket|oo}}. The nasal mark {{angle bracket|ⁿ}} could also be represented optionally as {{angle bracket|nn}}. The rest of the alphabet, most notably the use of diacritics to mark the tones, appeared to keep to the POJ tradition. One of the aims of this compromise was to curb any increase of 'market share' for Daighi tongiong pingim/Tongyong Pinyin.<ref>[http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf 教育部國語推行委員會: 關於閩南語拼音整合工作相關問題說帖 (National Languages Committee: On the integration of Minnan orthographies), 2006-10-16] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128050052/http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf |date=28 November 2007 }}</ref> It is unclear whether the community will adopt this new agreement.

=== Orthographies in kana and in bopomofo ===
[[Image:Japanese-Taiwanese Dictionary.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese–Taiwanese Dictionary, using the orthography in kana]]
{{Main|Taiwanese kana|Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols}}
There was an orthography of Taiwanese based on the [[Kana|Japanese kana]] during [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese rule]]. The [[Kuomintang]] government also tried to introduce an orthography in [[bopomofo]].

===Comparison of orthographies===
Here the different orthographies are compared:
{{POJtable}}

=== Computing ===
[[File:Pa-khek-le Kau-hoe.jpg|thumb|right|Pe̍h-ōe-jī inscription at a church in [[Tainan|Tâi-lâm]] commemorating [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]].]]

Many [[keyboard layout]]s and [[Chinese input methods for computers|input methods]] for entering either Latin or Han characters in Taiwanese are available. Some of them are free-of-charge, some commercial.

The [[Min Nan]] dialect group is registered per {{IETF RFC|3066}} as [https://www.iana.org/assignments/lang-tags/zh-min-nan zh-min-nan].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evertype.com/standards/iso639/iana-lang-assignments.html|title=Evertype|website=www.evertype.com}}</ref> Taiwanese Min Nan can be represented as 'zh-min-nan-TW'.

When writing Taiwanese in Han characters, some writers create 'new' characters when they consider it is impossible to use directly or borrow existing ones; this corresponds to similar practices in character usage in [[Written Cantonese|Cantonese]], [[chu nom|Vietnamese chữ nôm]], [[Hanja|Korean hanja]] and [[Kanji|Japanese kanji]]. These are usually not encoded in [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal Character Set]]), thus creating problems in computer processing.

All Latin characters required by pe̍h-oē-jī can be represented using [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal character set]]), using precomposed or combining (diacritics) characters.

{{Main|O͘}}
Prior to June 2004, the vowel {{IPA|[ɔ]}} akin to but more open than ⟨o⟩, written with a 'dot above right', was not encoded. The usual workaround was to use the (stand-alone; spacing) character ‘[[Interpunct|middle dot]]’ (U+00B7, ⟨·⟩) or less commonly the combining character 'dot above' (U+0307). As these are far from ideal, since 1997 proposals have been submitted to the ISO/IEC [[working group]] in charge of ISO/IEC 10646 – namely, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070628163947/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/wg2/ ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2] – to encode a new combining character 'dot above right'. This is now officially assigned to U+0358 (see documents [http://www.evertype.com/standards/la/taioan.html N1593], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311082219/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2507 N2507], [https://web.archive.org/web/20060928065416/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2628 N2628],
[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2699 N2699], and [http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/sc2/wg2/docs/N2770r.pdf N2770]). Font support has followed: for example, in [[Charis SIL]].

== Sociolinguistics ==
=== Regional variations ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Map.svg|thumb|right|Distribution of Hokkien dialects in Taiwan:<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ang Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin | script-title = zh:台灣的語種分布與分區 |title=Táiwān de yǔzhǒng fēnbù yǔ fēnqū |trans-title=The Distribution and Regionalization of Varieties in Taiwan | publisher = [[Academia Sinica]] |year=2013 |journal=Language and Linguistics |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=315–369|language=zh-hant |url=http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/14.2/LL14.2-04-Ang%20121227.pdf}} Map 5, p. 355.</ref>
{{legend|#ff8080|Quanzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#8080ff|Zhangzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#ff80ff|Both Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects}}
]]


The [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Taiwanese is the southern speech found in [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]. Other major variants are the northern speech, the central speech (near [[Taichung]] and the port town of [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]), and the northern (northeastern) coastal speech (dominant in [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan]]).

The distinguishing feature of the coastal speech is the use of the vowel {{angle bracket|uiⁿ}} in place of {{angle bracket|ng}}. The northern speech is distinguished by the absence of the [[#Tones|8th tone]], and some vowel exchanges (for example, {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, {{angle bracket|e}} and {{angle bracket|oe}}). The central speech has an additional vowel {{IPA|[ɨ]}} or {{IPA|[ø]}} between {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, which may be represented as {{angle bracket|ö}}. There are also a number of other pronunciation and lexical differences between the Taiwanese variants; the online Ministry of Education dictionary specifies these to a resolution of eight regions on Taiwan proper, in addition to [[Kinmen]] and [[Penghu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho|script-title=zh:方言差"語音差異表|trans-title=Table of Pronunciation Differences|year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho_p|script-title=zh:方言差"詞彙差異表|trans-title=Table of Vocabulary Differences |year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref>

Concerning the fifth (rising) tone in normal sandhi patterns, the Quanzhou/Coastal/Northern dialects change to seventh (mid level) tone, whereas the Zhangzhou/"Mixed"/Southern dialects change to third (low falling) tone.

Certain new north–south distinctions have appeared in recent decades.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}<ref>{{Cite journal|author1-link=Jack C. Richards|last=Richards|first=Jack C.|date=1977-01-01|title=Variation in Singapore English|jstor=43135170|journal=Interlanguage Studies Bulletin|volume=2|issue=2|pages=131–151}}</ref> The fourth and eighth tones tend to be reversed in the north and south.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/resources/PronouncingTaiwanese.html|title=Jordan: Pronouncing Romanized Taiwanese Hokkien|website=pages.ucsd.edu}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2016}}

====Quanzhou–Zhangzhou inclinations====

[[Hokkien]] immigrants to Taiwan originated from [[Quanzhou]] prefecture (44.8%) and [[Zhangzhou]] prefecture (35.2%).{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} The original phonology from these regions was spread around Taiwan during the immigration process. With the advanced development of transportation and greater mobility of the Taiwanese population, Taiwanese speech has steered itself towards a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech, known as ''Chiang–Chôan-lām'' (漳泉濫, in Mandarin ''Zhāng–Quán làn'').{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} Due to different proportion of mixture, some regions are inclined more towards Quanzhou accent, while others are inclined more towards Zhangzhou accent.

In general, Quanzhou accent is more common along the coastal region and is known as the ''hái-kháu'' accent; Zhangzhou accent is more common within the mountainous region of Taiwan and is known as the ''lāi-po͘'' accent. The regional variation within Taiwanese may be attributed to variations in the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents and/or lexicons. It ranges from Lukang accent (based on Quanzhou accent) on one end, to the northern coastal [[Yilan City|Yilan]] accent (based on Zhangzhou accent) on another end. Tainan, Kaohsiung and Taitung accents, on the other hand, are closest to the prestige accent.

'''<center>Variations in Taiwanese Hokkien accents</center>'''

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|-
! style="background:#FFA000; color:black" | [[Quanzhou]] accent
|-
| style="background:#fc0;"| [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]
|-
| style="background:#fc6;"| [[Penghu]], [[Taixi, Yunlin|Taixi]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]]—[[Budai, Chiayi|Budai]] coastal region (''hái-kháu'')
|-
| style="background:#fc9;"| [[Taipei]], [[Hsinchu]] (very similar to [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcc;"| [[Chiayi]]—[[Kaohsiung]] surrounding
area, [[Taitung City|Taitung]] (prestige accent, [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent mixed [[Zhangzhou]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcf;"| [[Taichung Basin|Taichung]], [[Changhua City|Changhua]]—[[Yunlin County|Yunlin]] inland area, [[Taoyuan, Taiwan|North Taoyuan]](''lāi-po͘'')
|-
| style="background:#c9f;"| [[Yilan City|Yilan]]
|-
! style= "background:#BBA1CB; color:black" | [[Zhangzhou]] accent
|}

====Recent terminological distinctions====
Recent research has found a need for new terminology of Taiwanese dialects, mainly because the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects in Taiwan developed independently from those in Fujian. Thus, some scholars (i.e., Klöter, following {{lang|zh-tw|董忠司}}) have divided Taiwanese into five subdialects, based on geographic region:{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=4}}
#''hái-kháu'' ({{lang|zh-tw|海口腔}}): west coast, based on what was formerly referred to as Quanzhou dialect (represented by the Lukang accent)
#''phian-hái'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏海腔}}): coastal (represented by the Nanliao ({{lang|zh-tw|南寮}}) accent)
#''lāi-po͘'' ({{lang|zh-tw|內埔腔}}): western inner plain, mountain regions, based on the Zhangzhou dialect (represented by the Yilan accent)
#''phian-lāi'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏內腔}}): interior (represented by the [[Taibao]] accent)
#''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}): common accents (represented by the Taipei (spec. [[Datong District, Taipei|Datong]]) accent in the north and the Tainan accent in the south)
Both ''phian-hái'' and ''phian-lāi'' are intermediate dialects between ''hái-kháu'' and ''lāi-po͘'', these also known as ''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}) or "{{lang|zh-tw|不泉不漳}}". In some ways this mixed dialect is similar to the Amoy dialect, which itself is a blend of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The common dialect refers to that which can be heard on radio, television, official announcements, etc.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

=== Fluency ===
A great majority of people in Taiwan can speak both [[Mandarin Chinese]] and Taiwanese although the degree of fluency varies widely.<ref name="housing census" /> There are however small but significant numbers of people in Taiwan, mainly but not exclusively [[Hakka people|Hakka]] and [[waishengren|Mainlanders]], who cannot speak Taiwanese fluently. A shrinking percentage of the population, mainly people born before the 1950s, cannot speak Mandarin at all, or learned to speak Mandarin later in life, though some of these speak Japanese fluently. Urban, working-class Hakkas as well as younger, southern-Taiwan Mainlanders tend to have better, even native-like fluency. Approximately half of the Hakka in Taiwan do speak Taiwanese. There are many families of mixed Hakka, Hoklo, and [[Taiwanese aborigines|Aboriginal]] bloodlines. There is, however, a large percentage of people in Taiwan, regardless of their background, whose ability to understand and read written Taiwanese is greater than their ability to speak it. This is the case with some singers who can sing Taiwanese songs with native-like proficiency, but can neither speak nor understand the language.

Which variant is used depends strongly on the context, and in general people will use Mandarin in more formal situations and Taiwanese in more informal situations. Taiwanese tends to get used more in [[rural]] areas, while Mandarin is used more in [[urban area|urban]] settings. Older people tend to use Taiwanese, while younger people tend to use Mandarin. In the broadcast media where Mandarin is used in many genres, [[soap opera]], [[variety show]]s, and even some news programs can also be found in Taiwanese.

=== Sociolinguistics and gender ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2011}}
Taiwanese is also perceived by some to have a slight masculine leaning, making it more popular among the males of the younger population. It is sometimes perceived as "unladylike" when spoken by the females of the younger population.

=== Special literary and art forms ===

''Chhit-jī-á'' (literally, "that which has seven syllables") is a [[poetry|poetic]] [[meter (poetry)|meter]] where each verse has 7 syllables.

There is a special form of [[music]]al/[[drama]]tic performance ''koa-á-hì'': the [[Taiwanese opera]]; the subject matter is usually a [[history|historical event]]. A similar form ''pò͘-tē-hì'' ([[glove puppetry]]) is also unique and has been elaborated in the past two decades into impressive [[television|televised]] spectacles.

See [[Taiwanese cuisine]] for names of several local dishes.

===Bible translations===
[[File:Bibles in Taiwanese.jpg|thumb|right|A collection of translations of the Bible in Taiwanese. Top left, ''Today’s Taiwanese'' version; top right, the Red-Cover Bible; bottom, Barclay's translation.]]

As with many other languages, the [[Chinese Bible Translations|translations of the Bible]] in Taiwanese marked milestones in the standardization attempts of the language and its orthography.

The first translation of the Bible in Amoy or Taiwanese in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography was by the first missionary to Taiwan, [[James Laidlaw Maxwell]], with the New Testament ''Lán ê Kiù-chú Iâ-so͘ Ki-tok ê Sin-iok'' published in 1873 and the Old Testament ''Kū-iok ê Sèng Keng'' in 1884.

[[File:Taiwanese Bible Chim-gian 1933.jpg|thumb|left|A copy of Barclay's Amoy translation, opened to the Proverbs.]]

The next translation of the Bible in Taiwanese or Amoy was by the missionary to Taiwan, [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]], carried out in Fujian and Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/native.htm |script-title=zh:本土聖經 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=zh }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm |script-title=ja:書評『聖經－－台語漢字本』 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=ja |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080120005258/http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm|archive-date=20 January 2008}}</ref> A New Testament translation was completed and published in 1916. The resulting work containing the Old and the New Testaments, in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography, was completed in 1930 and published in 1933 as the Amoy Romanized Bible ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|links=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]]. 2000 copies of the Amoy Romanized Bible were confiscated by the Taiwan Garrison from the Bible Society of Taiwan in 1975. This edition was later transliterated into Han characters and published as {{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=聖經台語漢字本|poj=Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|labels=no|scase=}} [[:zh-min-nan:Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]] in 1996.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://tailo.fhl.net/Godspeak/Godspeak26.html |title=台語信望愛 - 4.1.4 《台語漢字本》|website=tailo.fhl.net |language=zh-TW }}</ref>

[[File:Ang-phoe Seng-keng te-571-bin.jpg|thumb|right|A page from the Red-Cover Bible.]]

The Ko-Tân ([[Kerygma]]) Colloquial Taiwanese Version of the New Testament (''Sin-iok'') in pe̍h-ōe-jī, also known as the {{Interlanguage link|Red Cover Bible|zh-min-nan|Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|WD=}} ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), was published in 1973 as an ecumenical effort between the Protestant [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the Roman Catholic mission [[Maryknoll]]. This translation used a more modern vocabulary (somewhat influenced by Mandarin), and reflected the central Taiwan dialect, as the Maryknoll mission was based near [[Taichung|Tâi-tiong]]. It was soon confiscated by the Kuomintang government (which objected to the use of Latin orthography) in 1975. The copies of the ecumenical NT are now available on the online stores.

A translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Today's Taiwanese Romanized Version" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|labels=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]], containing only the New Testament, again in pe̍h-ōe-jī, was published in 2008<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peopo.org/chuniok/post/12934|title=現代台語新約羅馬字聖經出版感謝e話|website=www.peopo.org }}</ref> as a collaboration between the [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the [[Bible Society in Taiwan]]. A translation of the Old Testament, following the same principle, is being prepared.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/translation/Taiwanese.htm|title=台語聖經|website=www.biblesociety-tw.org|language=zh-TW}}</ref>{{Outdated inline|date=December 2018|reason=2018 status not stated|?=yes}}

Another translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Common Taiwanese Bible" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Choân-bîn Tâi-gí Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), with versions of pe̍h-ōe-jī, Han characters and Ruby version (both Han characters and pe̍h-ōe-jī) was published in 2015, available in printed and online.

=== Politics ===
[[File:Banning of POJ.gif|thumb|right|A decree (1955) banning the use of Pe̍h-ōe-jī, a Latin orthography for Taiwanese, in church.]]
Until the 1980s, the use of Taiwanese, along with all [[Varieties of Chinese|varieties]] other than [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]], was discouraged by the [[Kuomintang]] through measures such as banning its use in schools and limiting the amount of Taiwanese broadcast on electronic media. These measures were removed by the 1990s, and Taiwanese became an emblem of [[Taiwanese localization movement|localization]]. Mandarin remains the predominant language of education, although there is a "mother tongue" language requirement in Taiwanese schools which can be satisfied with student's choice of mother tongue: Taiwanese, Hakka, or [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]].

Although the use of Taiwanese over Mandarin was historically part of the [[Taiwan independence movement]], the linkage between politics and language is not as strong as it once was. Some fluency in Taiwanese is desirable for political office in Taiwan for both independence and unificationist politicians. At the same time even some supporters of Taiwan independence have played down its connection with Taiwanese in order to gain the support of the [[waishengren|Mainlander]]s and [[Hakka people]].

[[James Soong]] restricted the use of Taiwanese and other local tongues in broadcasting while serving as Director of the [[Government Information Office]] earlier in his career, but later became one of the first politicians of Mainlander origin to use Taiwanese in semi-formal occasions.{{synthesis inline|date=August 2016}} Since then, politicians opposed to Taiwanese independence have used it frequently in rallies, even when they are not native speakers. Conversely, politicians who have traditionally been identified with Taiwan independence have used Mandarin on formal occasions and semi-formal occasions such as press conferences. An example of the latter is former President [[Chen Shui-bian]] who uses Mandarin in all official state speeches, but uses mainly Taiwanese in political rallies and some informal state occasions such as New Year greetings. The current [[President of Taiwan]] and of the ([[Democratic Progressive Party|DPP]]), [[Tsai Ing-wen]] has been criticized by her supporters for not using Taiwanese in speeches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5dPfuafUb?url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-date=28 December 2008 |script-title=zh:蔡英文不說台語高雄人涼了半截 |trans-title=Tsai Ing-wen doesn't speak Taiwanese; The people in Kaohsiung feel half-disappointed |language=zh |access-date=12 October 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Former President [[Ma Ying-jeou]] spoke in Taiwanese during his 2008 [[Double Ten Day]] speech when he was talking about the state of the [[Economy of Taiwan|economy in Taiwan]].

In the early 21st century, there are few differences in language usage between the [[Chinese unification|pro-reuinification]] leaning [[Pan-Blue Coalition]] and the [[Taiwan independence movement|independence]] leaning [[Pan-Green Coalition]]. Both tend to use Taiwanese at political rallies and sometimes in informal interviews, and both tend to use Mandarin at formal press conferences and official state functions. Both also tend to use more Mandarin in [[Northern Taiwan]] and more Taiwanese in [[Southern Taiwan]]. However, at official party gatherings (as opposed to both Mandarin-leaning state functions and Taiwanese-leaning party rallies), the DPP tends to use Taiwanese while KMT and [[PFP (Taiwan)|PFP]] tend to use Mandarin. The [[Taiwan Solidarity Union]], which advocates a strong line on Taiwan independence, tends to use Taiwanese even in formal press conferences. In speaking, politicians will frequently [[Code-switching|code switch]]. In writing, almost everyone uses [[written vernacular Chinese|vernacular Mandarin]] which is further from Taiwanese, and the use of semi-alphabetic writing or even [[Tng-lang-ji|colloquial Taiwanese characters]] is rare.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=An investigation of written Taiwanese|url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/11520|date=2005|degree=MA|language=en-US|first=Katsuhiro J.|last=Ota|publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa|hdl=10125/11520}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Mair|first=Victor|title=Taiwanese, Mandarin, and Taiwan's language situation|url=http://pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|access-date=2020-08-06|website=pinyin.info}}</ref>

In 2002, the Taiwan Solidarity Union, a party with about 10% of the [[Legislative Yuan]] seats at the time, suggested making Taiwanese a second official language.<ref>{{cite news |author=Lin Mei-chun |title=Hokkien should be given official status, says TSU |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2002/03/10/0000127068 |work=Taipei Times|date=10 March 2002 |page=1 }}</ref> This proposal encountered strong opposition not only from Mainlander groups but also from Hakka and aboriginal groups who felt that it would slight their home languages, as well as others including [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]] who objected to the proposal on logistical grounds and on the grounds that it would increase ethnic tensions. Because of these objections, support for this measure is lukewarm among moderate Taiwan independence supporters, and the proposal did not pass.

In 2003, there was a controversy when parts of the civil service examination for judges were written in characters used only in Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite news|author=Ko Shu-ling|title=Control Yuan sets rules for future examinations |page=2 |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2004/09/20/2003203606 |work=Taipei Times|date=20 September 2004}}</ref> After strong objections, these questions were not used in scoring. As with the official-language controversy, objections to the use of Taiwanese came not only from Mainlander groups, but also Hoklo, Hakka and aborigines. The [[Control Yuan]] later created a rule that only allowed Standard Mandarin characters on civil service exams. According to public opinion surveys in 2008, more people supported making English a second official language than Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Gijsen, Johan |author2=Liu Yu-Chang |chapter=Chapter 8: The Quest for a New Civic and Linguistic Identity: Mandarin and English Encroachment upon the Taiwanese Language |title=Critical Perspectives on Language and Discourse in the New World Order|editor1-last=Abdullah|editor1-first=Faiz Sathi|editor2-last=Abdullah|editor2-first=Mardziah Hayati|editor3-last=Hoon|editor3-first=Tan Bee|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge Scholars|location=Newcastle|isbn=9781847183408|page=156}}</ref>

In 2017, aboriginal languages were given official status in Taiwan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aipl/201707190019.aspx|title=President lauds efforts in transitional justice for indigenous people|publisher=Focus Taiwan|access-date=19 July 2017}}</ref> as was the [[Taiwanese Hakka|Hakka language]].<ref name="hakkaofficial">{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2017/12/30/2003684894|title=Hakka made an official language|last1=Cheng|first1=Hung-ta|last2=Chung|first2=Jake|date=30 December 2017|work=[[Taipei Times]]}}</ref> {{As of|2018}}, English is planned to become an official language in Taiwan,<ref name="English status">{{Cite news|url=https://www.hongkongfp.com/2018/08/31/taiwan-make-english-official-language-next-year-says-official/|title=Taiwan to make English an official language next year, says official {{!}} Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|date=2018-08-31|work=Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|access-date=2018-09-05|language=en-GB}}</ref> although this has not happened as of mid-2020. Taiwanese is required for some activities but not others. For further information, see [[Languages of Taiwan]].

===Mother tongue movement===
[[Taiwanese localization movement|Taiwanization]] developed in the 1990s into a ‘[[mother tongue]] revival movement' aiming to save, preserve, and develop the local ethnic culture and language of Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, and aborigines. The effort to [[Language revitalization|save declining languages]] has since allowed them to revive and flourish. In 1993, Taiwan became the first country in the world to implement the teaching of Taiwanese in schools. By 2001, Taiwanese languages such as Taiwanese, Hakka, and aboriginal languages were taught in all Taiwanese schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhu.edu.tw/~society/e-j/45/45-16.htm|author=許嘉文|date=15 March 2005|language=zh|script-title=zh:台灣鄉土教育發展史|trans-title=The education history of local Taiwanese languages}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} Since the 2000s, elementary school students are required to take a class in either Taiwanese, Hakka or aboriginal languages.{{sfnp|Lin|2002}}{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} In junior high this is usually an available [[Course (education)#Elective and required courses|elective]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ey.gov.tw/AnnoucePage2.aspx|title=行政院全球資訊網|website=www.ey.gov.tw|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref> Taiwan also has its own [[Taiwan literature movement|literary circle]] whereby Hokkien poets and writers compose poetry and literature in Taiwanese on a regular basis.

As a result of the mother tongue movement, Taiwan has emerged as a significant cultural hub for Hokkien in the world in the 21st century. It also plans to be the major export center for [[Hokkien culture]] worldwide in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npf.org.tw/11/4118|title=馬英九 {{!}} 馬蕭文化政策 {{!}} 國家政策研究基金會 {{!}} 公共政策的理性思辯與對話平台！|website=國家政策研究基金會|language=zh-TW|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref>

=== Television ===

{{Expand Chinese|section=yes|date=August 2020}}

* [[Lady Rainicorn]] for ''[[Adventure Time]]'' broadcast by [[Cartoon Network (Taiwanese TV channel)|Cartoon Network Taiwan]] used Taiwanese for [[Li Hanfei]] ({{lang|zh-tw|李涵菲}})

==Scholarship==
Klöter's ''Written Taiwanese'' (cited below) has been described as "the most comprehensive English-language study of written Taiwanese".{{sfnp|Snow|2004|p=261}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Taiwan|Languages}}
* [[Languages of Taiwan]]
* [[Min Nan Wikipedia]]
* [[Speak Hokkien Campaign]]
* [[Taiwanese literature movement]]
* [[:nan:Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng|Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng]] (Taiwanese Test) {{in lang|nan}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

=== Words in native languages ===
{{notelist-ur}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Cited sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Ang |first=Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣河佬語聲調研究 |year=1987 |edition=4 |publisher=自立晚報 |location = Taipei |language= zh-Hant |isbn=9789575960353 |oclc=813713530 }}
* {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=James W. |author-link=James W. Davidson |title = The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : history, people, resources, and commercial prospects : tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions |year=1903 |publisher=Macmillan |url = https://archive.org/details/islandofformosap00davi |location=London and New York |ol=6931635M |oclc=1887893 }}
* {{cite book |last = Klöter |first = Henning |title=Written Taiwanese |year = 2005 |publisher=Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |isbn=9783447050937 }}
* {{cite book |last = Snow |first = D. |title=Cantonese as Written Language: The Growth of a Written Chinese Vernacular |year = 2004 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |location=Hong Kong |isbn=9789622097094 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wu |first=Soli |author-link = :zh-min-nan:Ngô͘ Siú-lé |year=2000 |script-title = zh:國臺對照活用辭典 |trans-title=Mandarin-Taiwanese Comparative Living Dictionary |language = zh-TW, zh-min-nan |publisher=Yuan-Liou |location=Taipei |isbn=9789573240884 |oclc = 45990089 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==

===Books and other material===
(As English language material on Taiwanese learning is limited, Japanese and German books are also listed here.)
; English textbooks & dictionaries
* {{cite book |author=李勤岸 |trans-title=Harvard Taiwanese 101 |script-title=zh:哈佛臺語101 |translator-last1=Yeh |translator-first1=Chieh-Ting |translator-last2=Lee |translator-first2=Marian |publisher=開朗 |place=Tainan |year=2005 |isbn=9789868160811 |language=en,zh |type=paperback & CD }}
* Su-chu Wu, Bodman, Nicholas C.: Spoken Taiwanese with cassette(s), 1980/2001, {{ISBN|0-87950-461-7}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-460-9}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-462-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |author-link=William Campbell (missionary) |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1913 |publisher=Taiwan Church Press |location=[[Tainan]] |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000072254844;view=1up;seq=28 |oclc=867068660}}
**{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1923 |edition=2nd |orig-year=1913 |publisher=Fukuin Print. Co. |location=Yokohama |oclc=43655590 |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015056044533;view=1up;seq=1 |postscript=(with preface by Thomas Barclay)}}
* Iâu Chèng-to: Cheng-soán Pe̍h-oē-jī (Concise Colloquial Writing). Tainan, Taiwan: Jîn-kong (an imprint of the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan). 1992.
* Tân, K. T: A Chinese-English Dictionary: Taiwan Dialect. Taipei: Southern Materials Center. 1978.
* Maryknoll Language Service Center: English-Amoy Dictionary. Taichung, Taiwan: Maryknoll Fathers. 1979.

; Japanese publications
* Higuchi, Yasushi (樋口靖 ''Higuchi Yasushi''): 台湾語会話, 2000, {{ISBN|4-497-20004-3}} (Good and yet concise introduction to the Taiwanese language in Japanese; CD: {{ISBN|4-497-20006-X}})
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''): はじめての台湾語, 2003, {{ISBN|4-7569-0665-6}} (Introduction to Taiwanese [and Mandarin]; in Japanese).
* Zheng, Zhenghao (鄭正浩 ''Zhèng Zhènghào''): 台湾語基本単語2000, 1996, {{ISBN|4-87615-697-2}} (Basic vocabulary in Taiwanese 2000; in Japanese).
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''), Chen Fenghui (陳豐惠 ''Chén Fēnghuì''), Kaori Takao (たかおかおり ''Takao Kaori''), 2006, 絵でわかる台湾語会話. {{ISBN|978-4-7569-0991-6}} (Conversations in Taiwanese [and Mandarin] with illustrations; in Japanese).
;Others
* Katharina Sommer, Xie Shu-Kai: Taiwanisch Wort für Wort, 2004, {{ISBN|3-89416-348-8}} (Taiwanese for travellers, in German. CD: {{ISBN|3-8317-6094-2}})

; Articles and other resources
*{{cite journal|last=Chiung |first=Wi-vun Taiffalo |date=2003 |title=Tone Change in Taiwanese: Age and Geographic Factors |journal=University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics |volume=8 |issue=1 |url=http://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl/vol8/iss1/5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303035733/http://uibun.twl.ncku.edu.tw/chuliau/lunsoat/english/tchange/tonechange-v.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite journal |last=LÎM |first=Chùn-io̍k |year=2014 |title=The Common Taiwanese Bible: A Means of Seeking to Affirm the Selfhood and Integrity of Taiwanese and Their Language |journal=Journal of Taiwanese Vernacular |volume=6 |number=2 |pages=106–9 |doi=10.6621/JTV.2014.0602.05
}}
*{{cite web |last=Tan-Tenn |first=Henry H. |date=2001 |title=Taiwanese learning resources |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050418075331/http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf |archive-date=2005-04-18 |url=http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf}}
*{{cite book |last=Tiuⁿ |first=Jū-hông |year=2001 |trans-title=Principles of Pe̍h-oē-jī or the Taiwanese Orthography: an introduction to its sound-symbol correspondences and related issues |script-title=zh:白話字基本論 : 臺語文對應&相關的議題淺說 |language=zh |place=Taipei |publisher=Crane |isbn=957-2053-07-8 }}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=zh-min-nan}}
; On the language
*{{cite web |last=Cannings |first=Michael |url=http://tailingua.com/ |title=Introducing the Taiwanese Language |website=Tailingua}}
* [http://johangijsen.blogspot.com/ Blog on the Taiwanese language and language education in Taiwan]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|title=How to Forget Your Mother Tongue and Remember Your National Language|last=Mair|first=Victor H. |author-link=Victor H. Mair |date=2003 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania|access-date=2 July 2011}}
* [[wikt:Appendix:Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists|Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists]]

; Dictionaries
*{{cite web|script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 |trans-title=[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]] |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index.html |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |date=2011 |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |script-title=zh:台語-華語線頂辭典 |trans-title=Taiwanese-Mandarin Online Dictionary |language=nan-tw, zh, en |url=http://210.240.194.97/iug/Ungian/soannteng/chil/Taihoa.asp }}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |url=http://210.240.194.97/TG/jitian/tgjt.asp |script-title=zh:台語線頂字典 |trans-title=Taiwanese Online Character Dictionary |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |script-title=zh:臺灣本土語言互譯及語音合成系統 |trans-title=Taiwanese languages translation and speech synthesis system |language=zh, nan-tw, hak |url=http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008180132/http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |archive-date=8 October 2006}}
* {{cite web |website=Maryknoll Language Service Center |url=http://taiwanesedictionary.org/ |title=Maryknoll Taiwanese-English Dictionary and English-Amoy Dictionary}}

; Learning aids
* [http://taiwanesegrammar.wordpress.com/ Intermediate Taiwanese grammar (as a blog)]
* [http://taiwanesevocabulary.wordpress.com/ Taiwanese vocabulary: word of the day (blog)]
* [http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/lang/taiwanese/ Taiwanese teaching material]: Nursery rhymes and songs in Han characters and romanization w/ recordings in MP3
* [http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe Travlang (language resources for travellers): Hō-ló-oē] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518234153/http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe |date=18 May 2017 }}
*[http://speaktaiwanese.com/spoken-hokkien/ ''Spoken Hokkien''] - a beginner's e-textbook, with audio, for English-speaking learners of conversational Taiwanese.
* {{cite web |url=http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |title=Daiwanway - Tutorial, dictionary, and stories in Taiwanese. Uses a unique romanization system, different from Pe̍h-oē-jī. Includes sound files |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429232228/http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |archive-date=2007-04-29}}

; Other
* [http://www.dmoz.org/World/Taiwanese/ Open Directory (dmoz): World: Taiwanese]
{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}
{{Southern Min Languages}}
{{Min Chinese}}
{{Chinese language}}

[[Category:Languages of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Hokkien-language dialects]]
[[Category:Taiwanese culture]]

Taiwanese Hokkien

2022-03-05T08:56:40Z

Cuaxdon:

{{short description|Variety of a language dialect}}
{{redirect|Taiwanese language|other languages spoken in Taiwan|Languages of Taiwan|the aboriginal languages of Taiwan|Formosan languages|other uses|Taiwanese language (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Taiwanwe
| nativename = Taigi/Taigu, Taiwanese
| pronunciation = {{hideH|title="Tâi-gí / Tâi-gú" }}
{{IPA|[tai˧˩ gi˥˩]}} / {{IPA|[tai˧˩ gu˥˩]}} (dialect) 
{{hideF}}
| states = [[Taiwan]]
| region =
| speakers = 13.5 million
| date = 2017
| ref = <ref>{{e24|nan}}</ref>
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2 = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
| fam3 = [[Min Chinese|Min]]
| fam4 = [[Hoklo]]
| fam5 = [[Choan-Chiang]]
| script = [[Han characters]] (在來字), [[Latin script]] ([[pe̍h ōe jī]])
| nation = {{TWN}}{{efn|National language in [[Taiwan]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aedu/201812250018.aspx|title=Draft national language development act clears legislative floor|website=focustaiwan.tw }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://tw.news.appledaily.com/politics/realtime/20181225/1489328/ |title=立院三讀《國家語言發展法》公廣集團可設台語電視台 |website=ltn.com.tw|date=25 December 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://tw.news.yahoo.com/amphtml/%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E6%B3%95-%E7%AB%8B%E9%99%A2%E4%B8%89%E8%AE%80-%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E5%BE%97%E8%A8%AD%E5%8F%B0%E8%AA%9E%E5%B0%88%E5%B1%AC%E9%A0%BB%E9%81%93-062038323.html |title=《國家語言發展法》立院三讀！政府得設台語專屬頻道 |website=ltn.com.tw}}</ref> also statutory status in Taiwan as one of the languages for public transport announcements<ref>[[:zh:s:大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法|大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法]]</ref> and for the [[naturalization]] test.<ref>Article 6 of the [http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 Standards for Identification of Basic Language Abilities and General Knowledge of the Rights and Duties of Naturalized Citizens] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725175658/http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 |date=25 July 2017 }}</ref>}}
| agency = [[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education in Taiwan]] and relevant NGOs in Taiwan
| isoexception = dialect
| lingua = 79-AAA-jh
| map = Home usage of Taiwanese by district in Taiwan gradient map (2010).svg
| mapcaption = Proportion of residents aged 6 or older using Hokkien at home in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen & Matsu in 2010<ref>Table 6: Languages used at home for the resident nationals aged 6 years and over by gender and age, [http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm 2010 Population and Housing Census] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222005446/http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm |date=22 February 2015 }}, Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics (DGBAS), ROC (Taiwan).</ref>
| notice = IPA
}}

'''Taiwanwe''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi-oân ōe; [[Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn|tâi-lô]]: Tâi-uân uē) , also known as '''Taigi/Taigu''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi gí/Tâi gú),{{efn native lang|tw|name=word1}}<ref name="taigi">{{cite web|title=Taigi與台語|url=https://talk.ltn.com.tw/amp/article/paper/1309601|access-date=10 August 2019|work=Liberty Times|date=10 August 2019}}</ref> '''Hoklo''' called by Hakka people, <ref>{{cite web|last=Lee|first=Jack Tsen-Ta|date=28 April 2015|orig-year=2004|url=http://www.mysmu.edu/faculty/jacklee/singlish_H.htm#Hokkien|title=Hokkien|work=A Dictionary of Singlish and Singapore English|access-date=22 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="taiwansnapshot">{{cite web|url=https://www.taiwan.gov.tw/images/content/ts.JPG|title=TAIWAN SNAPSHOT|access-date=15 March 2020|quote=Languages Mandarin (Chinese), Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, Austronesian languages}}</ref> is a variety of the [[Hoklo]] language spoken natively by about 70%+ of the [[population of Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=TW |title=Taiwan |website=[[Ethnologue]]|quote=Principal languages}}</ref> It is spoken by the [[Taiwanese people]], who descended from immigrants from southern [[Fujian]] during the [[Beng dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book |contribution=Taiwan's Evolving Identity |first=June Teufel |last=Dreyer |pages=4–10 |title=The Evolution of a Taiwanese National Identity |location=Washington |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Institute for Scholars |year=2003 |series=Asia Program Special Report |volume=114 |access-date=12 August 2016 |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325100938/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]] (pe̍h ōe jī) romanization is a [[orthography]] for Taiwanwe.

Taiwanwe is generally similar to spoken [[Emng dialect]], [[Choanchiu dialect]], and [[Chiangchiu dialect]] (branches of [[Hoklo]]), as well as their dialectal forms used in [[Southeast Asia]]. It is [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with [[Emng dialect]] on the mainland, with the dialect of the mouth of the [[Jiulong River]] (九龍) immediately to the west, and with [[Philippine Hokkien]] to the south, spoken altogether by about 3 million people.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210919021444/https://raw.githubusercontent.com/KIRINPUTRA/reclassifying-ISO-639-3-nan/main/Reclassifying_ISO_639-3_%5Bnan%5D__An_Empirical_Approach_to_Mutual_Intelligibility_and_Ethnolinguistic_Distinctions.pdf Reclassifying ISO 639-3 [nan]: An Empirical Approach to Mutual Intelligibility and Ethnolinguistic Distinctions]</ref> The mass popularity of [[Hokkien entertainment media]] from Taiwan has given [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prominence]] to the Taiwanese variety of Hokkien, especially since the 1980s.

==Classification==
Taiwanese is a branched-off variety of [[Hokkien]], a group of [[Southern Min]] language. Like many [[Min Chinese|Min]] varieties, it has distinct [[literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|literary and colloquial layers]] of vocabulary, often associated with formal and informal [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]]s respectively. The literary layer can be traced to the late [[Tang dynasty]] and can thus be related to [[Middle Chinese]]. In contrast, the colloquial layers of Min varieties are believed to have branched from the mainstream of Chinese around the time of the [[Han dynasty]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mei|first=Tsu-lin|year=1970|title=Tones and Prosody in Middle Chinese and The Origin of The Rising Tone|journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|volume=30|pages=86–110|doi=10.2307/2718766|jstor=2718766}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| chapter = The Mǐn dialects in historical perspective
| given = Jerry | surname = Norman
| title = Languages and Dialects of China
| editor-given = William S.-Y. | editor-surname = Wang
| pages = 325–360
| series = ''Journal of Chinese Linguistics'' Monograph Series | volume = 3
| publisher = Chinese University Press | year = 1991b
| issue = 3 | jstor = 23827042 | oclc = 600555701
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| surname = Ting | given = Pang-Hsin
| title = Derivation time of colloquial Min from Archaic Chinese
| journal = Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology
| year = 1983 | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 1–14
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| title = Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
| given1 = William H. | surname1 = Baxter | author-link = William H. Baxter
| given2 = Laurent | surname2 = Sagart | author-link2 = Laurent Sagart
| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-994537-5
| year = 2014
| pages = 33, 79
}}</ref>

Regional variations within Taiwanese may be traced back to Hokkien variants spoken in Southern Fujian, specifically those from [[Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou]], then later [[Amoy]]. Taiwanese also contains loanwords from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and the native [[Formosan languages]]. Recent work by scholars such as [https://web.archive.org/web/20041022000504/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/lou-ek-ki/kongpah-oat.htm Ekki Lu], [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081002014759/http://203.64.42.21/iug/ungian/poj/siausit/2002/2002pojgth/lunbun/a1-sakai.pdf Toru Sakai] (酒井亨 ''Sakai Tōru''), and Lí Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040915015640/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/li-khin-hoann/phok-su/phok-su.htm LEXICAL CHANGE AND VARIATION IN TAIWANESE LITERARY TEXTS, 1916–1998 -- A COMPUTER-ASSISTED CORPUS ANALYSIS]</ref> (also known as Tavokan Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}} or Chin-An Li), based on former research by scholars such as [[Ong Iok-tek|Ông Io̍k-tek]], has gone so far as to associate part of the basic vocabulary of the colloquial Taiwanese with the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] and [[Tai languages|Tai]] language families; however, such claims are controversial.

The literary form of Hokkien once flourished in [[Fujian]] and was brought to Taiwan by early emigrants. ''[[Tale of the Lychee Mirror]]'', a manuscript for a series of plays published during the [[Ming dynasty]] in 1566, is one of the earliest known works. This form of the language is now largely extinct. However, literary readings of the numbers are used in certain contexts such as reciting telephone numbers (see [[Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters]]).{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

== History and formation ==
{{see also|Hokkien#History}}

===Spread of Hokkien to Taiwan===
During the [[Yuan dynasty]], [[Quanzhou]] became a major international port for trade with the outside world.<ref>[http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 教育部，歷史文化學習網，《重要貿易港口－泉州》] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725194653/http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 |date=25 July 2011 }}</ref> From that period onwards, many people from the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions (southern Fujian) started to emigrate overseas due to political and economic reasons. One of the destinations of the emigrants is the relatively undeveloped island of [[Formosa]], starting around 1600. They brought with them their native language, Hokkien.

During the late [[Ming dynasty]], the political chaos pushed more migrants from southern Fujian and eastern [[Guangdong]] to Taiwan. The earliest immigrants involved in Taiwan's development included [[Chinese pirates|pirate-merchants]] {{Interlanguage link multi|Chinese Peter|zh|3=顏思齊|WD=}} and [[Zheng Zhilong]]. In 1621, Chinese Peter and his forces, hailing from [[Zhangzhou]], occupied ''Ponkan'' (modern-day [[Beigang, Yunlin]]) and started to develop ''Tirosen'' (modern-day [[Chiayi City|Chiayi]]). After the death of Peter and another pirate, [[Li Dan (pirate)|Li Dan]] of Quanzhou, Zheng sought to dominate the [[Taiwan Strait|Strait of Taiwan]]. By 1628, he had grown so powerful that the Ming court bestowed him the official title, "Patrolling Admiral".<ref>{{cite book|author1-link=Tonio Andrade |last=Andrade |first=Tonio |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century |publisher=Columbia University Press |chapter=Chapter 2: A Scramble for Influence |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade02.html |year=2005 |at=§20-1}}</ref>

In 1624, the number of Chinese in the island was about 25,000.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=13}} During the reign of [[Chongzhen Emperor]] (1627–1644), there were frequent droughts in the Fujian region. Zheng and a Chinese official suggested sending victims to Taiwan and provide "for each person three [[tael]]s of silver and for each three people one ox".{{sfnp|Andrade|2005|loc=§26}} Although this plan was never carried out, the Zheng family maintained an interest in Taiwan that would have dire consequences for the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]], who ruled Taiwan as [[Dutch Formosa]] at the time.

===Development and divergence===
In 1624 and 1626, the Dutch and Spanish forces occupied the [[Tainan]] and [[Keelung]] areas, respectively. During the 40 years of [[Dutch Formosa|Dutch colonial rule of Taiwan]], many [[Han Chinese]] from the [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Hakka culture|Hakka]] regions of mainland China were recruited to help develop Taiwan. Because of intermingling with [[Siraya people]] as well as Dutch colonial rule, the Hokkien dialects started to deviate from the original Hokkien spoken in mainland China.

In the 1661 [[Siege of Fort Zeelandia]], Chinese general [[Koxinga]] expelled the Dutch and established the [[Kingdom of Tungning]]. Koxinga originated from the Quanzhou region. [[Chen Yonghua]], who was in charge of establishing the education system of Tungning, also originated from Quanzhou. Because most of the soldiers he brought to Taiwan came from Quanzhou, the [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Hokkien on the island at the time was the [[Quanzhou dialect]].

In 1683, Chinese admiral [[Shi Lang]] attacked Taiwan in the [[Battle of Penghu]], ending the Tungning era and beginning [[Taiwan under Qing rule|Qing dynasty rule]] (until 1895). In the following years, in order to prevent people from rebelling, the Qing court instituted a ban on migration to Taiwan,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} especially the migration of [[Hakka people]] from [[Guangdong]] province, which led Hokkien to become the most spoken language in Taiwan.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

In the first decades of the 18th century, the linguistic differences between the Qing imperial bureaucrats and the commoners were recorded by the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]-speaking first Imperial [[High commissioner|High Commissioner]] to Taiwan (1722), [[Huang Shujing]]:
{{cquote|In this place, the language is as [[birdcall]] – totally unintelligible! For example: for the surname [[Liu|Liú]], they say 'Lâu'; for [[Chen (surname)|Chén]], 'Tân'; [[Zhuang (surname)|Zhuāng]], 'Chng'; and [[Zhang (surname)|Zhāng]] is 'Tioⁿ'. My deputy’s surname [[Wu (surname)|Wú]] becomes 'Ngô͘'. My surname [[Huang (surname)|Huáng]] does not even have a proper vowel: it is 'N̂g' here! It is difficult to make sense of this. 
({{lang|zh-Hant|郡中鴃舌鳥語，全不可曉。如：劉呼「澇」、陳呼「澹」、莊呼「曾」、張呼「丟」。余與吳待御兩姓，吳呼作「襖」，黃則無音，厄影切，更為難省。}})|||''Records from the mission to Taiwan and its Strait'', Volume II: "On the area around [[Fort Provintia]], [[Tainan]]" (臺海使槎錄卷二赤嵌筆談)}}
The tone of Huang's message [[Foretelling|foretold]] the uneasy relationships between different [[Speech community|language communities]] and colonial establishments over the next few centuries.

The ban on migration to Taiwan was relaxed sometime after 1722 (and was completely removed in 1874). During the 200 years of Qing dynasty rule, thousands of immigrants from [[Fujian]] arrived yearly; the population was over one million in the middle of the 18th century.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=561}} Civil unrest and armed conflicts were frequent. In addition to resistance against governments (both Chinese and later Japanese), [[Ethnic conflict|battles between ethnic groups]] were also significant: the belligerents usually grouped around the language they used. History has recorded battles between [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] speakers and Hokkien speakers, between these and the [[Taiwanese aborigine|aborigines]], and even between those who spoke different variants of Hokkien.

In the early 20th century, the [[Hoklo people]] in Taiwan could be categorized as originating from [[Xiamen]], [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Zhangpu County|Zhangpu]].{{clarify|reason=Zhangpu is part of Zhangzhou|date=August 2020}}{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=591}} People from the former two areas (Quanzhou-speaking) were dominant in the north of the island and along the west coast,<ref>"especially in the cities of Koro (Aulang), Taiko (Taika), Giubato (Gumatau), Gosei (Goche), Tokatsukutsu (Thawkakut), and Rokko (Lokiang)." (modern-day [[Houlong, Miaoli|Houlong]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]], [[Qingshui District|Qingshui]], [[Wuqi District|Wuqi]], [[Longjing District|Longjing]], and Lukang, respectively.) {{harvp|Davidson|1903|p=591}}</ref> whereas people from the latter two areas ([[Zhangzhou dialect|Zhangzhou]]-speaking) were dominant in the south and perhaps the central plains as well.

Although there were conflicts between Quanzhou- and Zhangzhou-speakers in Taiwan historically, their gradual [[intermingling]] led to the mixture of the two [[Accent (sociolinguistics)|accents]]. Apart from [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang city]] and [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan County]], which have preserved their original Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents respectively, almost every region of Taiwan now speaks a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien.{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} A similar phenomenon occurred in [[Xiamen]] (Amoy) after 1842, when the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien displaced the Quanzhou dialect to yield the modern [[Amoy dialect]].<ref>泉州旅游信息网，[http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm 泉州方言文化] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301121345/http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm |date=1 March 2007 }}</ref>

During the [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese colonial rule of Taiwan]], Taiwan began to hold Amoy Hokkien as its standard pronunciation; the Japanese called this mixture {{nihongo|'''Taiwanese'''|臺灣語|Taiwango}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Iûⁿ |first1=Ún-giân |last2=Tiuⁿ |first2=Ha̍k-khiam |last3=Lu |first3=Bichhin |script-title=zh:台語文運動訪談暨史料彙編 |language=zh |date=2008-03-01 |publisher=國史館 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789860132946 |oclc=813921186}}</ref>

Due to the influx of Japanese loanwords before 1945 and the political separation after 1949,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} Amoy Hokkien and Taiwanese began to [[Linguistic divergence|diverge]] slightly.

===Modern times===
[[File:Proportion of Taiwanese Language Used in House.svg|thumb|350px|Proportion of languages used at home by residents aged 6 or over in Taiwan in 2010, sorted by birth year.<ref name="housing census">Sources: http://www.dgbas.gov.tw/public/data/dgbas04/bc6/census022%28final%29.html 2010 population and housing census by DGBAS, [[Executive Yuan]].</ref> The chart shows the tendency that speech communities of [[Languages of Taiwan#Other languages|Taiwanese local languages]] are shifting to speak [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]].]]
Later, in the 20th century, the conceptualization of Taiwanese is more controversial than most variations of Chinese because at one time it marked a clear division between the Mainlanders who [[KMT retreat to Taiwan in 1949|arrived in 1949]] and the pre-existing majority native Taiwanese. Although the political and linguistic divisions between the two groups have blurred considerably, the political issues surrounding Taiwanese have been more controversial and sensitive than for other [[varieties of Chinese]].

After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], due to military defeat to the Japanese, the [[Qing dynasty]] ceded [[Taiwan]] to Japan, causing contact with the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions of mainland China to stop. During Japanese rule, Japanese became an official language in Taiwan, and Taiwanese began to absorb large number of Japanese loanwords into its language. Examples of such loanwords (some which had in turn been borrowed from English) include ''piān-só͘'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|便所}}|benjo|"toilet"}}, ''phêng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|坪}}|[[tsubo]]|"[[pyeong]]", an areal measurement}} (see also [[Taiwanese units of measurement]]), ''ga-suh'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|瓦斯}}|gasu|"gas"}}, ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|オートバイ}}|ōtobai|"autobicycle", motorcycle}}. All of these caused Taiwanese to deviate from Hokkien used elsewhere.

During [[Kōminka movement (Taiwan)|Kōminka]] of the late Japanese colonial period, the [[Japanese language]] appeared in every corner of Taiwan. The [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] beginning in 1937 brought stricter measures into force, and along with the outlawing of [[Chinese language romanization in Taiwan|romanized Taiwanese]], various publications were prohibited and Confucian-style private schools which taught [[Classical Chinese]] with [[Literary language|literary]] Southern Min pronunciation – were closed down in 1939.{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=135}} Taiwanese thus was reduced to a common [[Vernacular|daily language]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ang |first1=Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣方言之旅 |date=1991 |publisher=前衛出版社 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789579512312}}</ref> In 1937 the colonial government introduced a concept called "National Language Family" ({{linktext|国語}}{{linktext|の}}{{linktext|家)}}, which meant that families that proved that they adopted Japanese as their daily language enjoyed benefits such as greater access to education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw/ischool/publish_page/106/?cid=4897|title=Hui-Wen High School Taichung, Introduction to the Kominka period|work=www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw}}</ref>

After the handover of Taiwan to the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] in 1945, there was brief cultural exchange with mainland China followed by further oppression. The [[Chinese Civil War]] resulted in another political separation when the [[Kuomintang]] (Chinese Nationalist Party) government [[Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan|retreated to Taiwan following their defeat by the communists]] in 1949. The influx of two million soldiers and civilians caused the population of Taiwan to increase from 6 million to 8 million. The government subsequently promoted [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] while suppressing, but short of banning, the use of written Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] (e.g. [[pe̍h-oē-jī]], a phonetic rendering of spoken Hokkien using the Latin alphabet) as part of its general policy of political repression.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lin |first=Alvin |issue=89 |title=Writing Taiwanese: The Development of Modern Written Taiwanese |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp089_taiwanese.pdf |year=1999 |oclc=41879041 }}</ref> In 1964 the use of spoken Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] or [[Hakka]] in schools or in official settings was forbidden; violations of the prohibition in schools often resulted in physical punishments, fines, or humiliation.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Linguistic capital in Taiwan: The KMT's Mandarin language policy and its perceived impact on language practices of bilingual Mandarin and Tai-gi speakers |last=Sandel |first=Todd L. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |journal=Language in Society |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=523–551 |doi=10.1017/S0047404503324030 |jstor=4169285 |s2cid=145703339 }}</ref>

Only after the lifting of [[Martial law in Taiwan|martial law]] in 1987 and the [[mother tongue]] movement in the 1990s did Taiwan see a true [[Language revitalization|revival]] in the Taiwanese language. Today, there are a large number of Taiwanese scholars dedicated to researching the language. Despite this, according to census data the number of people speaking Taiwanese continued to drop.<ref name="housing census"/>

The history of Taiwanese and its interaction with Mandarin is complex and at times controversial, even regarding its name. The language has no official name in Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |title=中華民國文化部-國家語言發展法 |url=https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |website=www.moc.gov.tw |access-date=24 October 2019 |language=zh |date=10 October 2008 |quote=《國家語言發展法》並未以法律明列各固有族群之語言名稱，即是尊重各族群使用者慣常使用之命名權。 |archive-date=2 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402055541/https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some dislike the name "Taiwanese" as they feel that it belittles other languages spoken on the island such as Mandarin, [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], and the [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]]. Others prefer the names [[Southern Min]], Minnan or Hokkien as this views Taiwanese as a form of the Chinese variety spoken in [[Fujian]] province in [[mainland China]]. Others dislike those names for precisely the same reason.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} In the [[American Community Survey]] run by the [[United States Census Bureau]], Taiwanese was referred to as "Formosan" from 2012 to 2015 and as "Min Nan Chinese" since 2016.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2018/demo/SEHSD-WP2018-31.pdf | title=American Community Survey Redesign of Language-Spoken-at-Home Data | date=2016 | first=Christine P. | last=Gambino | work=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{Commons category|Taiwanese Hokkien}}
{{see also|Help:IPA/Taiwanese Hokkien}}
[[Phonology|Phonologically]], Hokkien is a [[tonal language]] with extensive [[tone sandhi]] rules. [[Syllable]]s consist maximally of an initial [[consonant]], a [[vowel]], a final consonant, and a tone.

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|- style="font-size: 90%;"
|+Initials
!colspan=2|
!colspan=2| [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo -palatal]]
!colspan=2| [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
!colspan=2| [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|m}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|m ㄇ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|n}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|n ㄋ
|colspan=2|
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ŋ}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ng ㄫ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! voiced
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|b}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|b ㆠ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɡ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|g ㆣ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|p}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|p ㄅ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|t}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|t ㄉ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|k}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|k ㄍ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[pʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ph ㄆ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|th ㄊ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[kʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|kh ㄎ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! voiced
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dz}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|j ㆡ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dʑ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|j(i) ㆢ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! tenuis
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ts}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ch, ts ㄗ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|tɕ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ch(i), ts(i) ㄐ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! aspirated
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tsʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh, tsh ㄘ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tɕʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh(i), tsh(i) ㄑ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|s}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|s ㄙ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɕ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|si ㄒ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|h}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|h ㄏ
|-
!colspan=2| [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|l}}'''~'''{{IPAblink|ɾ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|l ㄌ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|}
{|class=wikitable
|+Finals
! !![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]!![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]!![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- align=center
![[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|'''{{IPA|[m]}}''' -m||'''{{IPA|[n]}}''' -n||'''{{IPA|[ŋ]}}''' -ng||'''{{IPAblink|◌̃}}''' -ⁿ
|- align=center
![[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
|'''{{IPA|[p̚]}}''' -p ㆴ||'''{{IPA|[t̚]}}''' -t ㆵ||'''{{IPA|[k̚]}}''' -k ㆶ||'''{{IPAblink|ʔ}}''' -h ㆷ
|}

Unlike many other varieties of Chinese such as Mandarin and [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]], there are no native [[labiodental]] phonemes (i.e., {{IPAblink|f}}).

# Coronal affricates and fricatives become [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] before {{IPA|/i/}}, that is, {{IPA|/dzi/}}, {{IPA|/tsi/}}, {{IPA|/tsʰi/}}, and {{IPA|/si/}} are pronounced {{IPA|[dʑi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕʰi]}}, and {{IPA|[ɕi]}}.
# The consonant {{IPA|/dz/}} may be realized as a fricative; that is, as {{IPA|[z]}} in most environments and {{IPA|[ʑ]}} before {{IPA|/i/}}.
# The [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] plosives ({{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}) become the corresponding fricatives ({{IPAblink|β}} and {{IPAblink|ɣ}}) in some phonetic contexts. This is similar to [[begadkefat]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and a similar [[Allophone|allophony]] of intervocalic [[plosive consonants]] and their fricatives in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].

=== Vowels ===
Taiwanese has the following [[vowel]]s:
{|class=wikitable
|-
!rowspan=2| !!colspan=2|[[Front vowel|Front]]!!colspan=2|[[Central vowel|Central]]!!colspan=2|[[Back vowel|Back]]
!rowspan=5| !!colspan=2 rowspan=2|[[Syllabic consonant]]
|- align=center
!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]
|- align=center
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|'''{{IPAblink|i}}''' i ㄧ||'''{{IPA|[ĩ]}}''' iⁿ ㆪ
| ||
|'''{{IPAblink|u}}''' u ㄨ||'''{{IPA|[ũ]}}''' uⁿ ㆫ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[m̩]}}''' m ㆬ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[ŋ̍]}}''' ng ㆭ
|- align=center
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|'''{{IPAblink|e}}''' e ㆤ||'''{{IPA|[ẽ]}}''' eⁿ ㆥ
|'''{{IPAblink|ə}} ~ {{IPAblink|o}}''' o ㄜ, ㄛ||
|'''{{IPAblink|ɔ}}''' o͘ ㆦ||'''{{IPA|[ɔ̃]}}''' oⁿ ㆧ
|- align=center
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| || ||'''{{IPAblink|ä|a}}''' a ㄚ||'''{{IPA|[ã]}}''' aⁿ ㆩ|| ||
|}

The vowel {{angle bracket|o}} is akin to a [[schwa]]; in contrast, {{angle bracket|[[o͘]]}} (with dot) is a more [[Vowel height|open vowel]]. In addition, there are several [[diphthong]]s and [[triphthong]]s (for example, {{angle bracket|iau}}). The consonants {{angle bracket|m}} and {{angle bracket|ng}} can function as a [[Nucleus (syllable)|syllabic nucleus]] and are therefore included here as vowels. The vowels may be either plain or [[Nasal vowel|nasal]]: {{angle bracket|a}} is non-nasal, and {{angle bracket|aⁿ}} is the same vowel with concurrent nasal articulation. This is similar to [[French language|French]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Polish language|Polish]], and many other languages.

There are two pronunciations of vowel {{angle bracket|o}}. In the south (e.g., [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]) it is {{IPA|[ə]}}; in the north (e.g., [[Taipei]]) it is {{IPA|[o]}}. Due to development of transportation and communication, both pronunciations are common and acceptable throughout the country.

{{IPAblink|i}} is a diphthong [<nowiki/>[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]][[Mid central vowel|ə]]] before -k or -ng, and is slightly shortened and retracted before -p or -t to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-front unrounded vowel|í̞]]]. Similarly, {{IPAblink|u}} is slightly shortened and retracted before -t or -n to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-back rounded vowel|ʊ]]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Tâigí Phonics 3 - Single Vowels - YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Muv_Rx7OXg0 |url-status=dead|access-date=2021-02-06|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref>

=== Tones ===
[[Image:Taiwanese tones.png|thumb|right|Taiwanese tones, close to Taipei values.]]
In the traditional analysis, there are eight "tones", [[tone number|numbered]] from 1 to 8. Strictly speaking, there are only five [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal contours]]. But as in other Chinese varieties, the two kinds of stopped syllables are considered also to be tones and assigned numbers 4 and 8. In Taiwanese tone 6 has merged into tone 7, and thus duplicated in the count. Here the eight tones are shown, following the traditional tone class categorization, named after the tones of [[Middle Chinese]]:
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Taiwanese tones{{sfnp|Wu|2000|p=2691}}
|-
! Tone number !! Name !! POJ accent !! Pitch in Taipei !! Description !! Pitch in Tainan !! Description
|-
| 1 || yin level (陰平) || a || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥]}}''' (55) || high || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˦]}}''' (44) || high
|-
| 2 || yin rising (陰上) || á || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˩]}}''' (51) || falling || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˧]}}''' (53) || high falling
|-
| 3 || yin departing (陰去) || à || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧˩]}}''' to '''{{IPA|[˨˩]}}''' (31~21) || low falling || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩]}}''' (11) || low
|-
| 4 || yin entering (陰入) || ah || '''{{IPA|[āʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˧˨]}}''' (32) || mid stopped || '''{{IPA|[àʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˨˩]}}''' (21) || low stopped
|-
| 5 || yang level (陽平) || â || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩˦ ~ a˨˦]}}''' (14~24) || rising || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨˦]}}''' (25) || rising
|-
| 7 (6) || yang departing and yang rising (陽去與陽上) || ā || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧]}}''' (33) || mid || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨]}}''' (22) || mid
|-
| 8 || yang entering (陽入) || a̍h || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˦]}}''' (4) || high stopped || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˥]}}''' (5) || high stopped
|}

{{Listen|filename=Taiwanese-8Tones.ogg|title=Eight tones of Taiwanese|description=Demonstration of the tones of Taiwanese: 衫 ''saⁿ, 短 té, 褲, khò͘, 闊 khoah, 人 lâng, 矮 é, 鼻 phīⁿ, 直 ti̍t''. Tone sandhi rules do not apply in this sentence. (This demonstration is popular but misleading in the use of ''矮 é'' as an example for tone 6. In dialects that distinguish tones 6 and 7, ''矮 é'' belongs to tone 2, and most words of tone 6 merges into tone 7 in Taiwanese.)}}

See (for one example) the modern phonological analysis in {{harvp|Chiung|2003}}, which challenges these notions.

For tones 4 and 8, a final consonant {{angle bracket|p}}, {{angle bracket|t}}, or {{angle bracket|k}} may appear. When this happens, it is impossible for the syllable to be nasal. Indeed, these are the counterpart to the nasal final consonants {{angle bracket|m}}, {{angle bracket|n}}, and {{angle bracket|ng}}, respectively, in other tones. However, it is possible to have a nasal 4th or 8th tone syllable such as {{angle bracket|siaⁿh}}, as long as there is no final consonant other than {{angle bracket|h}}.

In the dialect spoken near the northern coast of Taiwan, there is no distinction between tones number 8 and number 4 – both are pronounced as if they follow the [[tone sandhi]] rules of tone number 4.

Tone number 0, typically written with two consecutive hyphens {{angle bracket|--}} before the syllable with this tone, is used to mark [[enclitic]]s denoting the extent of a verb action, the end of a noun phrase, etc. A frequent use of this tone is to denote a question, such as in "Chia̍h-pá--bē?", literally meaning 'Have you eaten yet?’. This is realized by speaking the syllable with either a low-falling tone (3) or a low stop (4). The syllable prior to the {{angle bracket|--}} maintains its original tone.

=== Syllabic structure ===
A [[syllable]] requires a vowel (or diphthong or [[triphthong]]) to appear in the middle. All consonants can appear at the initial position. The consonants {{angle bracket|p, t, k}} and {{angle bracket|m, n, ng}} (and some consider {{angle bracket|h}}) may appear at the end of a syllable. Therefore, it is possible to have syllables such as {{angle bracket|ngiau}} ("(to) tickle") and {{angle bracket|thng}} ("soup").

=== Tone sandhi ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Tone Sandhi 01.svg|thumbnail|right|Schema of the tone sandhi rules in Taiwanese.]]
Taiwanese has extremely extensive [[tone sandhi]] (tone-changing) rules: in an utterance, only the last syllable pronounced is not affected by the rules.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uegu.blogspot.com/2015/01/blog-post_16.html|script-title=zh:台語好多聲|trans-title=The Many Tones of Taiwanese|author=麻瓜先生|date=January 2015|quote={{lang|zh-tw|台語裡有個變調系統，細說分明需要時間，但最大的規則就是「最後一個字不要變！其他變變變！」}}|access-date=21 March 2019}}</ref> What an ‘[[utterance]]’ (or ‘[[intonational phrase]]’) is, in the context of this language, is an ongoing topic for linguistic research, but some general rules apply:<ref name="Lin2015">{{cite book|author=Philip T. Lin|title=Taiwanese Grammar: A Concise Reference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlExBwAAQBAJ|date=31 January 2015|publisher=Greenhorn Media|isbn=978-0-9963982-1-3}}</ref>

The following syllables are unaffected by tone sandhi:
* The final syllable in a [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]], [[noun]] (including single syllable nouns, but not [[pronoun]]s), number, time phrase (i.e., today, tomorrow, etc.), spatial [[preposition]] (i.e., on, under), or [[question word]] (i.e., who, what, how).
* The syllable immediately preceding the [[possessive particle]] 的 (ê) or a neutralized tone. In POJ, this is the syllable before a double hyphen, e.g., 王先生 (Ông—sian-siⁿ)
* Some common [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] markers: 了 (liáu), 好 (hó), 完 (oân), 煞 (soah)

==== Normal tone sandhi ====
The following rules, listed in the traditional pedagogical mnemonic order, govern the pronunciation of tone on each of the syllables affected (that is, all but those described according to the rules listed above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''3''' ([[Quanzhou]]/Taipei speech) or '''7''' ([[Zhangzhou]]/Tainan speech).
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Normal tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻³ / tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻³ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜖]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻³ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜖]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

==== Double tone sandhi ====
There are a number of a single syllable words that undergo double tone sandhi, that is, they follow the tone change rule twice and are pronounced according to the second tone change. These syllables are almost always a 4th tone ending in '''-h''', and include the words 欲 (beh), 佮 (kah), 閣 (koh), 才 (chiah), as well as the 3rd tone verb 去 khì. As a result of following the tone change rule twice, these syllables are all pronounced as tone number '''1'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Double tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 4 || kah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kaʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kaʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || khi³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kʰi˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kʰi˩꜓]}}
|}

==== Before the -á suffix ====
{{Wiktionary pipe|仔#Usage notes|the rules for tone sandhi before '仔' (-á) with examples}}
Apart from the normal tone sandhi rules described above, there are two special cases where a different set of tone sandhi apply.<ref>Iunn Un-gian. "A Study on Implementation of Southern-Min Taiwanese Tone Sandhi System." (2005). https://aclweb.org/anthology/Y/Y05/Y05-1011.pdf</ref> In a noun with the noun [[suffix]] '{{linktext|lang=zh|仔}}' ({{linktext|á}}), the penultimate syllable is governed by the following rules:
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''' or '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''. (same as double)

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Tone sandhi before -á (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜕]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜓]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|}

==== In triplicated adjectives ====
Finally, in the case of single-syllable adjective [[triplication]] (for added emphasis), the first syllable is governed by the following rules (the second syllable follows the normal tone sandhi rules above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Triplicated tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

See {{harvp|Tiuⁿ|2001}}, {{harvp|Chiung|2003}} and the work of Robert L. Cheng (鄭良偉; Tēⁿ Liông-úi)<ref>{{cite web |date=2003 |publisher=Center for Chinese Studies, University of Hawaii |title=Robert L. Cheng |url=http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070624085539/http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-date=2007-06-24}}</ref> for modern linguistic approaches to tones and tone sandhi in Taiwanese.

== Lexicon ==
Modern linguistic studies (by Robert L. Cheng and Chin-An Li, for example) estimate that most (75% to 90%) Taiwanese [[word]]s have [[cognate]]s in other Chinese varieties. [[False friend]]s do exist; for example, ''cháu'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|走}}) means "to run" in Taiwanese, whereas the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] cognate, ''zǒu'', means "to walk". Moreover, cognates may have different [[Part of speech|lexical categories]]; for example, the [[morpheme]] ''phīⁿ'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|鼻}}) means not only "nose" (a noun, as in Mandarin ''bí'') but also "to smell" (a verb, unlike Mandarin).

Among the apparently cognate-less words are many basic words with properties that contrast with similar-meaning words of pan-Chinese derivation. Often the former group lacks a standard Han character, and the words are variously considered colloquial, intimate, vulgar, uncultured, or more concrete in meaning than the pan-Chinese synonym. Some examples: ''lâng'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|人}} or {{Lang|zh-tw|儂}}, person, concrete) vs. ''jîn'' (人, person, abstract); ''{{linktext|cha-bó͘}}'' ({{linktext|查某}}, woman) vs. ''lú-jîn'' (女人, woman, literary). Unlike the [[English language#Vocabulary|English Germanic/Latin contrast]], however, the two groups of Taiwanese words cannot be as strongly attributed to the influences of two disparate linguistic sources.

Extensive contact with the [[Japanese language]] has left a legacy of Japanese [[loanwords]], with 172 recorded in the Ministry of Education's ''[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_wailaici.jsp |script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典-外來詞 |year=2011 |trans-title=Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan - Loanwords |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |language=zh |access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref> Although a very small percentage of the vocabulary, their usage tends to be high-frequency because of their relevance to modern society and popular culture. Examples are: ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||オートバイ|ōtobai|"autobike"/motorcycle}} and ''pháng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|パン}}|pan|"[[bread]]", itself a loanword from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]}}. [[Grammatical particle]]s borrowed from Japanese, notably ''te̍k'' from {{nihongo4||的|teki}} and ''ka'' from {{nihongo4||か|ka}}, show up in the Taiwanese of older speakers.

Whereas Mandarin attaches a syllabic suffix to the singular pronoun to make a [[collective]] form, Taiwanese pronouns are collectivized through [[nasalization]]. For example, ''i'' (he/she/it) and ''goá'' (I) become ''in'' (they) and ''goán'' (we), respectively. The ''-n'' thus represents a subsyllabic [[morpheme]]. Like all other [[varieties of Chinese]], Taiwanese does not have true grammatical [[plural]]s.

Unlike English, Taiwanese has two [[first person plural|first-person plural]] pronouns. This distinction is called [[Clusivity|inclusive]], which includes the [[Interlocutor (linguistics)|addressee]], and exclusive, which excludes the addressee. Thus, ''goán'' means ''we excluding you'', while ''lán'' means ''we including you'' (similar to [[pluralis auctoris]]). The inclusive ''lán'' may be used to express politeness or solidarity, as in the example of a speaker asking a stranger "Where do we live?" while implicitly asking "Where do ''you'' live?".

== Syntax ==
{{Listen|filename=Tai JintianDaoJiaKanWo.ogg|title=Kin-á-jit hit-ê cha-bó͘ gín-á lâi góan tau khòaⁿ góa.|description=An audio sample for a simple sentence, meaning "Today that little girl came to our house to see me".}}
The [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is similar to southern Chinese varieties such as [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] and [[Yue Chinese|Yue]]. The [[subject–verb–object]] sequence is typical as in, for example, [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], but [[subject–object–verb]] or the [[passive voice]] (with the sequence [[object–subject–verb]]) is possible with particles. Take a simple sentence for example: 'I hold you.' The words involved are: ''goá'' ('I' or 'me'), ''phō'' ('to hold'), ''lí'' ('you').
* Subject–verb–object (typical sequence): The sentence in the typical sequence would be: ''Goá phō lí.'' ('I hold you.')
* Subject–''kā''–object–verb: Another sentence of roughly equivalent meaning is ''Goá kā lí phō'', with the slight connotation of 'I take you and hold' or 'I get to you and hold'.
* Object ''hō͘'' subject–verb (the passive voice): Then, ''Lí hō͘ goá phō'' means the same thing but in the [[passive voice]], with the connotation of 'You allow yourself to be held by me' or 'You make yourself available for my holding'.

With this, more complicated sentences can be constructed: ''Goá kā chúi hō͘ lí lim'' ('I give water for you to drink': ''chúi'' means 'water'; ''lim'' is 'to drink').

This article can only give a few very simple examples on the syntax, for flavour. Linguistic work on the [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is still a (quite nascent) scholarly topic being explored.

== Scripts and orthographies ==
{{Main|Written Hokkien}}

[[File:Holo bunhak chokphin.JPG|thumb|right|A selection of literary works (original and translated) in Taiwanese, in several orthographies.]]

Taiwanese does not have a strong written tradition. {{citation needed span|Until the late 19th century, Taiwanese speakers wrote mostly in [[Classical Chinese]]|date=June 2015}}. Among many systems of writing Taiwanese using Latin characters, the most used is called [[pe̍h-oē-jī]] (POJ) and was developed in the 19th century, while the [[Taiwanese Romanization System]] has been officially promoted since 2006 by Taiwan's [[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|Ministry of Education]]. (For additional romanized systems, see references in "Orthography in Latin characters", below.) Nonetheless, Taiwanese speakers nowadays most commonly write in [[Standard Chinese]] (Mandarin), though many of the same characters are also used to write Taiwanese.

=== Han characters ===
In most cases, Taiwanese speakers write using the [[writing system|script]] called [[Han characters]] as in Mandarin, although there are a number of special characters which are unique to Taiwanese and which are sometimes used in informal writing. Where Han characters are used, they are not always etymological or genetic; the borrowing of similar-sounding or similar-meaning characters is a common practice. Bilingual speakers of both Mandarin and Taiwanese sometimes attempt to represent the sounds by adopting similar-sounding Mandarin Han characters. For example, the Han characters of the [[Profanity|vulgar slang]] 'khoàⁿ sáⁿ-siâu' ({{linktext|lang=zh|看|三小}}, substituted for the etymologically correct {{linktext|lang=zh|看|啥潲}}, meaning 'What the hell are you looking at?’) has very little meaning in Mandarin and may not be readily understood by a Taiwanese monolingual, as knowledge of Mandarin character readings is required to fully decipher it.

In 2007, the [[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|Ministry of Education]] in Taiwan published the first list of [[Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters]], a list of 300 Han characters standardized for the use of writing Taiwanese and implemented the teaching of them in schools.<ref>[http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm 教育部公布閩南語300字推薦用字　卡拉OK用字也被選用 (Ministry of Education in Taiwan announces 300 recommended Hokkien words, Karaoke words are also selected)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724212916/http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm |date=24 July 2011 }}; [http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 「臺灣閩南語推薦用字（第1批）」已公布於網站，歡迎各界使用 (Announcement of recommended words for Taiwanese Hokkien)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718144143/http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 |date=18 July 2011 }}</ref> In 2008, the ministry published a second list of 100 characters, and in 2009 added 300 more, giving a total of 700 standardized characters used to write uniquely Taiwanese words. With increasing literacy in Taiwanese, there are currently more Taiwanese online bloggers who write Taiwanese online using these standardized Chinese characters. Han characters are also used by Taiwan's Hokkien literary circle for Hokkien poets and writers to write literature or poetry in Taiwanese.

=== Orthography in Latin characters ===
[[Image:Kauhoe.jpg|thumb|right|An issue of the ''[[Taiwan Church News]]'', first published by Presbyterian missionaries in 1885. This was the first printed newspaper in Taiwan, and was written in Taiwanese, in the Latin orthography pe̍h-oē-jī.]]

There are several Latin-based orthographies, the oldest being [[Pe̍h-oē-jī]] (POJ, meaning "vernacular writing"), developed in the 19th century. [[Taiwanese Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Lô-má-jī, Tâi-Lô) and [[Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet]] (TLPA) are two later adaptations of POJ. Other 20th-century innovations include [[Daighi tongiong pingim]] (DT), [[Ganvsig daiuuan bhanlam ghiw tongiong pingimv]] (GDT), [[Modern Literal Taiwanese]] (MLT), [[Simplified MLT]] (SMLT), [[Phofsit Daibuun]] (PSDB). The last four employ [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] [[spelling]] to indicate tone without use of [[diacritic]] symbols, but letters instead.

In POJ, the traditional list of letters is
:a b ch chh e g h i j k kh l m n ng o o͘ p ph s t th (ts) u
Twenty-four in all, including the obsolete {{angle bracket|ts}}, which was used to represent the modern {{angle bracket|ch}} at some places. The additional necessities are the nasal symbol {{angle bracket|ⁿ}}  (superscript {{angle bracket|n}}; the uppercase form {{angle bracket|N}} is sometimes used in [[all caps]] texts,<ref>Tè Khái-sū (1999) [https://archive.org/details/Tpsurvey Writing Latinized Taiwanese Languages with Unicode]</ref> such as book titles or section headings), and the tonal [[diacritic]]s.
POJ was developed first by [[Presbyterian]] [[missionaries]] and later by the indigenous [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]]; they have been active in promoting the language since the late 19th century. Recently there has been an increase in texts using a mixed orthography of Han characters and romanization, although these texts remain uncommon.

In 2006, the [[National Languages Committee]] (Ministry of Education, Republic of China) proposed [[Taiwanese Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Lô-má-jī, Tâi-lô). This alphabet reconciles two of the more senior orthographies, TLPA and POJ.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tlh.de-han.org/untong/2006/0929TaiLo.pdf|title=臺灣閩南語羅馬字拼音方案 (Orthographic system for the Minnan language in Taiwan, 'Tâi-ôan Lô-má-jī')}}</ref> The changes for the consonants involved using {{angle bracket|ts}} for POJ's {{angle bracket|ch}} (reverting to the orthography in the 19th century), and {{angle bracket|tsh}} for {{angle bracket|chh}}. For the vowels, {{angle bracket|o͘}} could optionally represented as {{angle bracket|oo}}. The nasal mark {{angle bracket|ⁿ}} could also be represented optionally as {{angle bracket|nn}}. The rest of the alphabet, most notably the use of diacritics to mark the tones, appeared to keep to the POJ tradition. One of the aims of this compromise was to curb any increase of 'market share' for Daighi tongiong pingim/Tongyong Pinyin.<ref>[http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf 教育部國語推行委員會: 關於閩南語拼音整合工作相關問題說帖 (National Languages Committee: On the integration of Minnan orthographies), 2006-10-16] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128050052/http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf |date=28 November 2007 }}</ref> It is unclear whether the community will adopt this new agreement.

=== Orthographies in kana and in bopomofo ===
[[Image:Japanese-Taiwanese Dictionary.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese–Taiwanese Dictionary, using the orthography in kana]]
{{Main|Taiwanese kana|Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols}}
There was an orthography of Taiwanese based on the [[Kana|Japanese kana]] during [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese rule]]. The [[Kuomintang]] government also tried to introduce an orthography in [[bopomofo]].

===Comparison of orthographies===
Here the different orthographies are compared:
{{POJtable}}

=== Computing ===
[[File:Pa-khek-le Kau-hoe.jpg|thumb|right|Pe̍h-ōe-jī inscription at a church in [[Tainan|Tâi-lâm]] commemorating [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]].]]

Many [[keyboard layout]]s and [[Chinese input methods for computers|input methods]] for entering either Latin or Han characters in Taiwanese are available. Some of them are free-of-charge, some commercial.

The [[Min Nan]] dialect group is registered per {{IETF RFC|3066}} as [https://www.iana.org/assignments/lang-tags/zh-min-nan zh-min-nan].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evertype.com/standards/iso639/iana-lang-assignments.html|title=Evertype|website=www.evertype.com}}</ref> Taiwanese Min Nan can be represented as 'zh-min-nan-TW'.

When writing Taiwanese in Han characters, some writers create 'new' characters when they consider it is impossible to use directly or borrow existing ones; this corresponds to similar practices in character usage in [[Written Cantonese|Cantonese]], [[chu nom|Vietnamese chữ nôm]], [[Hanja|Korean hanja]] and [[Kanji|Japanese kanji]]. These are usually not encoded in [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal Character Set]]), thus creating problems in computer processing.

All Latin characters required by pe̍h-oē-jī can be represented using [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal character set]]), using precomposed or combining (diacritics) characters.

{{Main|O͘}}
Prior to June 2004, the vowel {{IPA|[ɔ]}} akin to but more open than ⟨o⟩, written with a 'dot above right', was not encoded. The usual workaround was to use the (stand-alone; spacing) character ‘[[Interpunct|middle dot]]’ (U+00B7, ⟨·⟩) or less commonly the combining character 'dot above' (U+0307). As these are far from ideal, since 1997 proposals have been submitted to the ISO/IEC [[working group]] in charge of ISO/IEC 10646 – namely, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070628163947/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/wg2/ ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2] – to encode a new combining character 'dot above right'. This is now officially assigned to U+0358 (see documents [http://www.evertype.com/standards/la/taioan.html N1593], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311082219/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2507 N2507], [https://web.archive.org/web/20060928065416/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2628 N2628],
[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2699 N2699], and [http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/sc2/wg2/docs/N2770r.pdf N2770]). Font support has followed: for example, in [[Charis SIL]].

== Sociolinguistics ==
=== Regional variations ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Map.svg|thumb|right|Distribution of Hokkien dialects in Taiwan:<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ang Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin | script-title = zh:台灣的語種分布與分區 |title=Táiwān de yǔzhǒng fēnbù yǔ fēnqū |trans-title=The Distribution and Regionalization of Varieties in Taiwan | publisher = [[Academia Sinica]] |year=2013 |journal=Language and Linguistics |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=315–369|language=zh-hant |url=http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/14.2/LL14.2-04-Ang%20121227.pdf}} Map 5, p. 355.</ref>
{{legend|#ff8080|Quanzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#8080ff|Zhangzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#ff80ff|Both Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects}}
]]


The [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Taiwanese is the southern speech found in [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]. Other major variants are the northern speech, the central speech (near [[Taichung]] and the port town of [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]), and the northern (northeastern) coastal speech (dominant in [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan]]).

The distinguishing feature of the coastal speech is the use of the vowel {{angle bracket|uiⁿ}} in place of {{angle bracket|ng}}. The northern speech is distinguished by the absence of the [[#Tones|8th tone]], and some vowel exchanges (for example, {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, {{angle bracket|e}} and {{angle bracket|oe}}). The central speech has an additional vowel {{IPA|[ɨ]}} or {{IPA|[ø]}} between {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, which may be represented as {{angle bracket|ö}}. There are also a number of other pronunciation and lexical differences between the Taiwanese variants; the online Ministry of Education dictionary specifies these to a resolution of eight regions on Taiwan proper, in addition to [[Kinmen]] and [[Penghu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho|script-title=zh:方言差"語音差異表|trans-title=Table of Pronunciation Differences|year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho_p|script-title=zh:方言差"詞彙差異表|trans-title=Table of Vocabulary Differences |year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref>

Concerning the fifth (rising) tone in normal sandhi patterns, the Quanzhou/Coastal/Northern dialects change to seventh (mid level) tone, whereas the Zhangzhou/"Mixed"/Southern dialects change to third (low falling) tone.

Certain new north–south distinctions have appeared in recent decades.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}<ref>{{Cite journal|author1-link=Jack C. Richards|last=Richards|first=Jack C.|date=1977-01-01|title=Variation in Singapore English|jstor=43135170|journal=Interlanguage Studies Bulletin|volume=2|issue=2|pages=131–151}}</ref> The fourth and eighth tones tend to be reversed in the north and south.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/resources/PronouncingTaiwanese.html|title=Jordan: Pronouncing Romanized Taiwanese Hokkien|website=pages.ucsd.edu}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2016}}

====Quanzhou–Zhangzhou inclinations====

[[Hokkien]] immigrants to Taiwan originated from [[Quanzhou]] prefecture (44.8%) and [[Zhangzhou]] prefecture (35.2%).{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} The original phonology from these regions was spread around Taiwan during the immigration process. With the advanced development of transportation and greater mobility of the Taiwanese population, Taiwanese speech has steered itself towards a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech, known as ''Chiang–Chôan-lām'' (漳泉濫, in Mandarin ''Zhāng–Quán làn'').{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} Due to different proportion of mixture, some regions are inclined more towards Quanzhou accent, while others are inclined more towards Zhangzhou accent.

In general, Quanzhou accent is more common along the coastal region and is known as the ''hái-kháu'' accent; Zhangzhou accent is more common within the mountainous region of Taiwan and is known as the ''lāi-po͘'' accent. The regional variation within Taiwanese may be attributed to variations in the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents and/or lexicons. It ranges from Lukang accent (based on Quanzhou accent) on one end, to the northern coastal [[Yilan City|Yilan]] accent (based on Zhangzhou accent) on another end. Tainan, Kaohsiung and Taitung accents, on the other hand, are closest to the prestige accent.

'''<center>Variations in Taiwanese Hokkien accents</center>'''

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|-
! style="background:#FFA000; color:black" | [[Quanzhou]] accent
|-
| style="background:#fc0;"| [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]
|-
| style="background:#fc6;"| [[Penghu]], [[Taixi, Yunlin|Taixi]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]]—[[Budai, Chiayi|Budai]] coastal region (''hái-kháu'')
|-
| style="background:#fc9;"| [[Taipei]], [[Hsinchu]] (very similar to [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcc;"| [[Chiayi]]—[[Kaohsiung]] surrounding
area, [[Taitung City|Taitung]] (prestige accent, [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent mixed [[Zhangzhou]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcf;"| [[Taichung Basin|Taichung]], [[Changhua City|Changhua]]—[[Yunlin County|Yunlin]] inland area, [[Taoyuan, Taiwan|North Taoyuan]](''lāi-po͘'')
|-
| style="background:#c9f;"| [[Yilan City|Yilan]]
|-
! style= "background:#BBA1CB; color:black" | [[Zhangzhou]] accent
|}

====Recent terminological distinctions====
Recent research has found a need for new terminology of Taiwanese dialects, mainly because the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects in Taiwan developed independently from those in Fujian. Thus, some scholars (i.e., Klöter, following {{lang|zh-tw|董忠司}}) have divided Taiwanese into five subdialects, based on geographic region:{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=4}}
#''hái-kháu'' ({{lang|zh-tw|海口腔}}): west coast, based on what was formerly referred to as Quanzhou dialect (represented by the Lukang accent)
#''phian-hái'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏海腔}}): coastal (represented by the Nanliao ({{lang|zh-tw|南寮}}) accent)
#''lāi-po͘'' ({{lang|zh-tw|內埔腔}}): western inner plain, mountain regions, based on the Zhangzhou dialect (represented by the Yilan accent)
#''phian-lāi'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏內腔}}): interior (represented by the [[Taibao]] accent)
#''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}): common accents (represented by the Taipei (spec. [[Datong District, Taipei|Datong]]) accent in the north and the Tainan accent in the south)
Both ''phian-hái'' and ''phian-lāi'' are intermediate dialects between ''hái-kháu'' and ''lāi-po͘'', these also known as ''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}) or "{{lang|zh-tw|不泉不漳}}". In some ways this mixed dialect is similar to the Amoy dialect, which itself is a blend of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The common dialect refers to that which can be heard on radio, television, official announcements, etc.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

=== Fluency ===
A great majority of people in Taiwan can speak both [[Mandarin Chinese]] and Taiwanese although the degree of fluency varies widely.<ref name="housing census" /> There are however small but significant numbers of people in Taiwan, mainly but not exclusively [[Hakka people|Hakka]] and [[waishengren|Mainlanders]], who cannot speak Taiwanese fluently. A shrinking percentage of the population, mainly people born before the 1950s, cannot speak Mandarin at all, or learned to speak Mandarin later in life, though some of these speak Japanese fluently. Urban, working-class Hakkas as well as younger, southern-Taiwan Mainlanders tend to have better, even native-like fluency. Approximately half of the Hakka in Taiwan do speak Taiwanese. There are many families of mixed Hakka, Hoklo, and [[Taiwanese aborigines|Aboriginal]] bloodlines. There is, however, a large percentage of people in Taiwan, regardless of their background, whose ability to understand and read written Taiwanese is greater than their ability to speak it. This is the case with some singers who can sing Taiwanese songs with native-like proficiency, but can neither speak nor understand the language.

Which variant is used depends strongly on the context, and in general people will use Mandarin in more formal situations and Taiwanese in more informal situations. Taiwanese tends to get used more in [[rural]] areas, while Mandarin is used more in [[urban area|urban]] settings. Older people tend to use Taiwanese, while younger people tend to use Mandarin. In the broadcast media where Mandarin is used in many genres, [[soap opera]], [[variety show]]s, and even some news programs can also be found in Taiwanese.

=== Sociolinguistics and gender ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2011}}
Taiwanese is also perceived by some to have a slight masculine leaning, making it more popular among the males of the younger population. It is sometimes perceived as "unladylike" when spoken by the females of the younger population.

=== Special literary and art forms ===

''Chhit-jī-á'' (literally, "that which has seven syllables") is a [[poetry|poetic]] [[meter (poetry)|meter]] where each verse has 7 syllables.

There is a special form of [[music]]al/[[drama]]tic performance ''koa-á-hì'': the [[Taiwanese opera]]; the subject matter is usually a [[history|historical event]]. A similar form ''pò͘-tē-hì'' ([[glove puppetry]]) is also unique and has been elaborated in the past two decades into impressive [[television|televised]] spectacles.

See [[Taiwanese cuisine]] for names of several local dishes.

===Bible translations===
[[File:Bibles in Taiwanese.jpg|thumb|right|A collection of translations of the Bible in Taiwanese. Top left, ''Today’s Taiwanese'' version; top right, the Red-Cover Bible; bottom, Barclay's translation.]]

As with many other languages, the [[Chinese Bible Translations|translations of the Bible]] in Taiwanese marked milestones in the standardization attempts of the language and its orthography.

The first translation of the Bible in Amoy or Taiwanese in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography was by the first missionary to Taiwan, [[James Laidlaw Maxwell]], with the New Testament ''Lán ê Kiù-chú Iâ-so͘ Ki-tok ê Sin-iok'' published in 1873 and the Old Testament ''Kū-iok ê Sèng Keng'' in 1884.

[[File:Taiwanese Bible Chim-gian 1933.jpg|thumb|left|A copy of Barclay's Amoy translation, opened to the Proverbs.]]

The next translation of the Bible in Taiwanese or Amoy was by the missionary to Taiwan, [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]], carried out in Fujian and Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/native.htm |script-title=zh:本土聖經 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=zh }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm |script-title=ja:書評『聖經－－台語漢字本』 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=ja |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080120005258/http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm|archive-date=20 January 2008}}</ref> A New Testament translation was completed and published in 1916. The resulting work containing the Old and the New Testaments, in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography, was completed in 1930 and published in 1933 as the Amoy Romanized Bible ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|links=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]]. 2000 copies of the Amoy Romanized Bible were confiscated by the Taiwan Garrison from the Bible Society of Taiwan in 1975. This edition was later transliterated into Han characters and published as {{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=聖經台語漢字本|poj=Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|labels=no|scase=}} [[:zh-min-nan:Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]] in 1996.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://tailo.fhl.net/Godspeak/Godspeak26.html |title=台語信望愛 - 4.1.4 《台語漢字本》|website=tailo.fhl.net |language=zh-TW }}</ref>

[[File:Ang-phoe Seng-keng te-571-bin.jpg|thumb|right|A page from the Red-Cover Bible.]]

The Ko-Tân ([[Kerygma]]) Colloquial Taiwanese Version of the New Testament (''Sin-iok'') in pe̍h-ōe-jī, also known as the {{Interlanguage link|Red Cover Bible|zh-min-nan|Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|WD=}} ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), was published in 1973 as an ecumenical effort between the Protestant [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the Roman Catholic mission [[Maryknoll]]. This translation used a more modern vocabulary (somewhat influenced by Mandarin), and reflected the central Taiwan dialect, as the Maryknoll mission was based near [[Taichung|Tâi-tiong]]. It was soon confiscated by the Kuomintang government (which objected to the use of Latin orthography) in 1975. The copies of the ecumenical NT are now available on the online stores.

A translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Today's Taiwanese Romanized Version" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|labels=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]], containing only the New Testament, again in pe̍h-ōe-jī, was published in 2008<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peopo.org/chuniok/post/12934|title=現代台語新約羅馬字聖經出版感謝e話|website=www.peopo.org }}</ref> as a collaboration between the [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the [[Bible Society in Taiwan]]. A translation of the Old Testament, following the same principle, is being prepared.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/translation/Taiwanese.htm|title=台語聖經|website=www.biblesociety-tw.org|language=zh-TW}}</ref>{{Outdated inline|date=December 2018|reason=2018 status not stated|?=yes}}

Another translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Common Taiwanese Bible" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Choân-bîn Tâi-gí Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), with versions of pe̍h-ōe-jī, Han characters and Ruby version (both Han characters and pe̍h-ōe-jī) was published in 2015, available in printed and online.

=== Politics ===
[[File:Banning of POJ.gif|thumb|right|A decree (1955) banning the use of Pe̍h-ōe-jī, a Latin orthography for Taiwanese, in church.]]
Until the 1980s, the use of Taiwanese, along with all [[Varieties of Chinese|varieties]] other than [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]], was discouraged by the [[Kuomintang]] through measures such as banning its use in schools and limiting the amount of Taiwanese broadcast on electronic media. These measures were removed by the 1990s, and Taiwanese became an emblem of [[Taiwanese localization movement|localization]]. Mandarin remains the predominant language of education, although there is a "mother tongue" language requirement in Taiwanese schools which can be satisfied with student's choice of mother tongue: Taiwanese, Hakka, or [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]].

Although the use of Taiwanese over Mandarin was historically part of the [[Taiwan independence movement]], the linkage between politics and language is not as strong as it once was. Some fluency in Taiwanese is desirable for political office in Taiwan for both independence and unificationist politicians. At the same time even some supporters of Taiwan independence have played down its connection with Taiwanese in order to gain the support of the [[waishengren|Mainlander]]s and [[Hakka people]].

[[James Soong]] restricted the use of Taiwanese and other local tongues in broadcasting while serving as Director of the [[Government Information Office]] earlier in his career, but later became one of the first politicians of Mainlander origin to use Taiwanese in semi-formal occasions.{{synthesis inline|date=August 2016}} Since then, politicians opposed to Taiwanese independence have used it frequently in rallies, even when they are not native speakers. Conversely, politicians who have traditionally been identified with Taiwan independence have used Mandarin on formal occasions and semi-formal occasions such as press conferences. An example of the latter is former President [[Chen Shui-bian]] who uses Mandarin in all official state speeches, but uses mainly Taiwanese in political rallies and some informal state occasions such as New Year greetings. The current [[President of Taiwan]] and of the ([[Democratic Progressive Party|DPP]]), [[Tsai Ing-wen]] has been criticized by her supporters for not using Taiwanese in speeches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5dPfuafUb?url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-date=28 December 2008 |script-title=zh:蔡英文不說台語高雄人涼了半截 |trans-title=Tsai Ing-wen doesn't speak Taiwanese; The people in Kaohsiung feel half-disappointed |language=zh |access-date=12 October 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Former President [[Ma Ying-jeou]] spoke in Taiwanese during his 2008 [[Double Ten Day]] speech when he was talking about the state of the [[Economy of Taiwan|economy in Taiwan]].

In the early 21st century, there are few differences in language usage between the [[Chinese unification|pro-reuinification]] leaning [[Pan-Blue Coalition]] and the [[Taiwan independence movement|independence]] leaning [[Pan-Green Coalition]]. Both tend to use Taiwanese at political rallies and sometimes in informal interviews, and both tend to use Mandarin at formal press conferences and official state functions. Both also tend to use more Mandarin in [[Northern Taiwan]] and more Taiwanese in [[Southern Taiwan]]. However, at official party gatherings (as opposed to both Mandarin-leaning state functions and Taiwanese-leaning party rallies), the DPP tends to use Taiwanese while KMT and [[PFP (Taiwan)|PFP]] tend to use Mandarin. The [[Taiwan Solidarity Union]], which advocates a strong line on Taiwan independence, tends to use Taiwanese even in formal press conferences. In speaking, politicians will frequently [[Code-switching|code switch]]. In writing, almost everyone uses [[written vernacular Chinese|vernacular Mandarin]] which is further from Taiwanese, and the use of semi-alphabetic writing or even [[Tng-lang-ji|colloquial Taiwanese characters]] is rare.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=An investigation of written Taiwanese|url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/11520|date=2005|degree=MA|language=en-US|first=Katsuhiro J.|last=Ota|publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa|hdl=10125/11520}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Mair|first=Victor|title=Taiwanese, Mandarin, and Taiwan's language situation|url=http://pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|access-date=2020-08-06|website=pinyin.info}}</ref>

In 2002, the Taiwan Solidarity Union, a party with about 10% of the [[Legislative Yuan]] seats at the time, suggested making Taiwanese a second official language.<ref>{{cite news |author=Lin Mei-chun |title=Hokkien should be given official status, says TSU |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2002/03/10/0000127068 |work=Taipei Times|date=10 March 2002 |page=1 }}</ref> This proposal encountered strong opposition not only from Mainlander groups but also from Hakka and aboriginal groups who felt that it would slight their home languages, as well as others including [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]] who objected to the proposal on logistical grounds and on the grounds that it would increase ethnic tensions. Because of these objections, support for this measure is lukewarm among moderate Taiwan independence supporters, and the proposal did not pass.

In 2003, there was a controversy when parts of the civil service examination for judges were written in characters used only in Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite news|author=Ko Shu-ling|title=Control Yuan sets rules for future examinations |page=2 |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2004/09/20/2003203606 |work=Taipei Times|date=20 September 2004}}</ref> After strong objections, these questions were not used in scoring. As with the official-language controversy, objections to the use of Taiwanese came not only from Mainlander groups, but also Hoklo, Hakka and aborigines. The [[Control Yuan]] later created a rule that only allowed Standard Mandarin characters on civil service exams. According to public opinion surveys in 2008, more people supported making English a second official language than Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Gijsen, Johan |author2=Liu Yu-Chang |chapter=Chapter 8: The Quest for a New Civic and Linguistic Identity: Mandarin and English Encroachment upon the Taiwanese Language |title=Critical Perspectives on Language and Discourse in the New World Order|editor1-last=Abdullah|editor1-first=Faiz Sathi|editor2-last=Abdullah|editor2-first=Mardziah Hayati|editor3-last=Hoon|editor3-first=Tan Bee|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge Scholars|location=Newcastle|isbn=9781847183408|page=156}}</ref>

In 2017, aboriginal languages were given official status in Taiwan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aipl/201707190019.aspx|title=President lauds efforts in transitional justice for indigenous people|publisher=Focus Taiwan|access-date=19 July 2017}}</ref> as was the [[Taiwanese Hakka|Hakka language]].<ref name="hakkaofficial">{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2017/12/30/2003684894|title=Hakka made an official language|last1=Cheng|first1=Hung-ta|last2=Chung|first2=Jake|date=30 December 2017|work=[[Taipei Times]]}}</ref> {{As of|2018}}, English is planned to become an official language in Taiwan,<ref name="English status">{{Cite news|url=https://www.hongkongfp.com/2018/08/31/taiwan-make-english-official-language-next-year-says-official/|title=Taiwan to make English an official language next year, says official {{!}} Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|date=2018-08-31|work=Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|access-date=2018-09-05|language=en-GB}}</ref> although this has not happened as of mid-2020. Taiwanese is required for some activities but not others. For further information, see [[Languages of Taiwan]].

===Mother tongue movement===
[[Taiwanese localization movement|Taiwanization]] developed in the 1990s into a ‘[[mother tongue]] revival movement' aiming to save, preserve, and develop the local ethnic culture and language of Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, and aborigines. The effort to [[Language revitalization|save declining languages]] has since allowed them to revive and flourish. In 1993, Taiwan became the first country in the world to implement the teaching of Taiwanese in schools. By 2001, Taiwanese languages such as Taiwanese, Hakka, and aboriginal languages were taught in all Taiwanese schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhu.edu.tw/~society/e-j/45/45-16.htm|author=許嘉文|date=15 March 2005|language=zh|script-title=zh:台灣鄉土教育發展史|trans-title=The education history of local Taiwanese languages}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} Since the 2000s, elementary school students are required to take a class in either Taiwanese, Hakka or aboriginal languages.{{sfnp|Lin|2002}}{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} In junior high this is usually an available [[Course (education)#Elective and required courses|elective]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ey.gov.tw/AnnoucePage2.aspx|title=行政院全球資訊網|website=www.ey.gov.tw|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref> Taiwan also has its own [[Taiwan literature movement|literary circle]] whereby Hokkien poets and writers compose poetry and literature in Taiwanese on a regular basis.

As a result of the mother tongue movement, Taiwan has emerged as a significant cultural hub for Hokkien in the world in the 21st century. It also plans to be the major export center for [[Hokkien culture]] worldwide in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npf.org.tw/11/4118|title=馬英九 {{!}} 馬蕭文化政策 {{!}} 國家政策研究基金會 {{!}} 公共政策的理性思辯與對話平台！|website=國家政策研究基金會|language=zh-TW|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref>

=== Television ===

{{Expand Chinese|section=yes|date=August 2020}}

* [[Lady Rainicorn]] for ''[[Adventure Time]]'' broadcast by [[Cartoon Network (Taiwanese TV channel)|Cartoon Network Taiwan]] used Taiwanese for [[Li Hanfei]] ({{lang|zh-tw|李涵菲}})

==Scholarship==
Klöter's ''Written Taiwanese'' (cited below) has been described as "the most comprehensive English-language study of written Taiwanese".{{sfnp|Snow|2004|p=261}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Taiwan|Languages}}
* [[Languages of Taiwan]]
* [[Min Nan Wikipedia]]
* [[Speak Hokkien Campaign]]
* [[Taiwanese literature movement]]
* [[:nan:Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng|Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng]] (Taiwanese Test) {{in lang|nan}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

=== Words in native languages ===
{{notelist-ur}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Cited sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Ang |first=Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣河佬語聲調研究 |year=1987 |edition=4 |publisher=自立晚報 |location = Taipei |language= zh-Hant |isbn=9789575960353 |oclc=813713530 }}
* {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=James W. |author-link=James W. Davidson |title = The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : history, people, resources, and commercial prospects : tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions |year=1903 |publisher=Macmillan |url = https://archive.org/details/islandofformosap00davi |location=London and New York |ol=6931635M |oclc=1887893 }}
* {{cite book |last = Klöter |first = Henning |title=Written Taiwanese |year = 2005 |publisher=Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |isbn=9783447050937 }}
* {{cite book |last = Snow |first = D. |title=Cantonese as Written Language: The Growth of a Written Chinese Vernacular |year = 2004 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |location=Hong Kong |isbn=9789622097094 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wu |first=Soli |author-link = :zh-min-nan:Ngô͘ Siú-lé |year=2000 |script-title = zh:國臺對照活用辭典 |trans-title=Mandarin-Taiwanese Comparative Living Dictionary |language = zh-TW, zh-min-nan |publisher=Yuan-Liou |location=Taipei |isbn=9789573240884 |oclc = 45990089 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==

===Books and other material===
(As English language material on Taiwanese learning is limited, Japanese and German books are also listed here.)
; English textbooks & dictionaries
* {{cite book |author=李勤岸 |trans-title=Harvard Taiwanese 101 |script-title=zh:哈佛臺語101 |translator-last1=Yeh |translator-first1=Chieh-Ting |translator-last2=Lee |translator-first2=Marian |publisher=開朗 |place=Tainan |year=2005 |isbn=9789868160811 |language=en,zh |type=paperback & CD }}
* Su-chu Wu, Bodman, Nicholas C.: Spoken Taiwanese with cassette(s), 1980/2001, {{ISBN|0-87950-461-7}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-460-9}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-462-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |author-link=William Campbell (missionary) |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1913 |publisher=Taiwan Church Press |location=[[Tainan]] |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000072254844;view=1up;seq=28 |oclc=867068660}}
**{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1923 |edition=2nd |orig-year=1913 |publisher=Fukuin Print. Co. |location=Yokohama |oclc=43655590 |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015056044533;view=1up;seq=1 |postscript=(with preface by Thomas Barclay)}}
* Iâu Chèng-to: Cheng-soán Pe̍h-oē-jī (Concise Colloquial Writing). Tainan, Taiwan: Jîn-kong (an imprint of the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan). 1992.
* Tân, K. T: A Chinese-English Dictionary: Taiwan Dialect. Taipei: Southern Materials Center. 1978.
* Maryknoll Language Service Center: English-Amoy Dictionary. Taichung, Taiwan: Maryknoll Fathers. 1979.

; Japanese publications
* Higuchi, Yasushi (樋口靖 ''Higuchi Yasushi''): 台湾語会話, 2000, {{ISBN|4-497-20004-3}} (Good and yet concise introduction to the Taiwanese language in Japanese; CD: {{ISBN|4-497-20006-X}})
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''): はじめての台湾語, 2003, {{ISBN|4-7569-0665-6}} (Introduction to Taiwanese [and Mandarin]; in Japanese).
* Zheng, Zhenghao (鄭正浩 ''Zhèng Zhènghào''): 台湾語基本単語2000, 1996, {{ISBN|4-87615-697-2}} (Basic vocabulary in Taiwanese 2000; in Japanese).
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''), Chen Fenghui (陳豐惠 ''Chén Fēnghuì''), Kaori Takao (たかおかおり ''Takao Kaori''), 2006, 絵でわかる台湾語会話. {{ISBN|978-4-7569-0991-6}} (Conversations in Taiwanese [and Mandarin] with illustrations; in Japanese).
;Others
* Katharina Sommer, Xie Shu-Kai: Taiwanisch Wort für Wort, 2004, {{ISBN|3-89416-348-8}} (Taiwanese for travellers, in German. CD: {{ISBN|3-8317-6094-2}})

; Articles and other resources
*{{cite journal|last=Chiung |first=Wi-vun Taiffalo |date=2003 |title=Tone Change in Taiwanese: Age and Geographic Factors |journal=University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics |volume=8 |issue=1 |url=http://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl/vol8/iss1/5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303035733/http://uibun.twl.ncku.edu.tw/chuliau/lunsoat/english/tchange/tonechange-v.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite journal |last=LÎM |first=Chùn-io̍k |year=2014 |title=The Common Taiwanese Bible: A Means of Seeking to Affirm the Selfhood and Integrity of Taiwanese and Their Language |journal=Journal of Taiwanese Vernacular |volume=6 |number=2 |pages=106–9 |doi=10.6621/JTV.2014.0602.05
}}
*{{cite web |last=Tan-Tenn |first=Henry H. |date=2001 |title=Taiwanese learning resources |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050418075331/http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf |archive-date=2005-04-18 |url=http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf}}
*{{cite book |last=Tiuⁿ |first=Jū-hông |year=2001 |trans-title=Principles of Pe̍h-oē-jī or the Taiwanese Orthography: an introduction to its sound-symbol correspondences and related issues |script-title=zh:白話字基本論 : 臺語文對應&相關的議題淺說 |language=zh |place=Taipei |publisher=Crane |isbn=957-2053-07-8 }}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=zh-min-nan}}
; On the language
*{{cite web |last=Cannings |first=Michael |url=http://tailingua.com/ |title=Introducing the Taiwanese Language |website=Tailingua}}
* [http://johangijsen.blogspot.com/ Blog on the Taiwanese language and language education in Taiwan]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|title=How to Forget Your Mother Tongue and Remember Your National Language|last=Mair|first=Victor H. |author-link=Victor H. Mair |date=2003 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania|access-date=2 July 2011}}
* [[wikt:Appendix:Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists|Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists]]

; Dictionaries
*{{cite web|script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 |trans-title=[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]] |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index.html |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |date=2011 |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |script-title=zh:台語-華語線頂辭典 |trans-title=Taiwanese-Mandarin Online Dictionary |language=nan-tw, zh, en |url=http://210.240.194.97/iug/Ungian/soannteng/chil/Taihoa.asp }}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |url=http://210.240.194.97/TG/jitian/tgjt.asp |script-title=zh:台語線頂字典 |trans-title=Taiwanese Online Character Dictionary |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |script-title=zh:臺灣本土語言互譯及語音合成系統 |trans-title=Taiwanese languages translation and speech synthesis system |language=zh, nan-tw, hak |url=http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008180132/http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |archive-date=8 October 2006}}
* {{cite web |website=Maryknoll Language Service Center |url=http://taiwanesedictionary.org/ |title=Maryknoll Taiwanese-English Dictionary and English-Amoy Dictionary}}

; Learning aids
* [http://taiwanesegrammar.wordpress.com/ Intermediate Taiwanese grammar (as a blog)]
* [http://taiwanesevocabulary.wordpress.com/ Taiwanese vocabulary: word of the day (blog)]
* [http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/lang/taiwanese/ Taiwanese teaching material]: Nursery rhymes and songs in Han characters and romanization w/ recordings in MP3
* [http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe Travlang (language resources for travellers): Hō-ló-oē] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518234153/http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe |date=18 May 2017 }}
*[http://speaktaiwanese.com/spoken-hokkien/ ''Spoken Hokkien''] - a beginner's e-textbook, with audio, for English-speaking learners of conversational Taiwanese.
* {{cite web |url=http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |title=Daiwanway |postscript=. Tutorial, dictionary, and stories in Taiwanese. Uses a unique romanization system, different from Pe̍h-oē-jī. Includes sound files |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429232228/http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |archive-date=2007-04-29}}

; Other
* [http://www.dmoz.org/World/Taiwanese/ Open Directory (dmoz): World: Taiwanese]
{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}
{{Southern Min Languages}}
{{Min Chinese}}
{{Chinese language}}

[[Category:Languages of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Hokkien-language dialects]]
[[Category:Taiwanese culture]]

Taiwanese Hokkien

2022-03-05T08:55:43Z

Cuaxdon:

{{short description|Variety of a language dialect}}
{{redirect|Taiwanese language|other languages spoken in Taiwan|Languages of Taiwan|the aboriginal languages of Taiwan|Formosan languages|other uses|Taiwanese language (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Taiwanwe
| nativename = Taigi/Taigu, Taiwanese
| pronunciation = {{hideH|title="Tâi-gí / Tâi-gú" }}
{{IPA|[tai˧˩ gi˥˩]}} / {{IPA|[tai˧˩ gu˥˩]}} (dialect) 
{{hideF}}
| states = [[Taiwan]]
| region =
| speakers = 13.5 million
| date = 2017
| ref = <ref>{{e24|nan}}</ref>
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2 = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
| fam3 = [[Min Chinese|Min]]
| fam4 = [[Hoklo]]
| fam5 = [[Choan-Chiang]]
| script = [[Han characters]] (在來字), [[Latin script]] ([[pe̍h ōe jī]])
| nation = {{TWN}}{{efn|National language in [[Taiwan]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aedu/201812250018.aspx|title=Draft national language development act clears legislative floor|website=focustaiwan.tw }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://tw.news.appledaily.com/politics/realtime/20181225/1489328/ |title=立院三讀《國家語言發展法》公廣集團可設台語電視台 |website=ltn.com.tw|date=25 December 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://tw.news.yahoo.com/amphtml/%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95%E6%B3%95-%E7%AB%8B%E9%99%A2%E4%B8%89%E8%AE%80-%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E5%BE%97%E8%A8%AD%E5%8F%B0%E8%AA%9E%E5%B0%88%E5%B1%AC%E9%A0%BB%E9%81%93-062038323.html |title=《國家語言發展法》立院三讀！政府得設台語專屬頻道 |website=ltn.com.tw}}</ref> also statutory status in Taiwan as one of the languages for public transport announcements<ref>[[:zh:s:大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法|大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法]]</ref> and for the [[naturalization]] test.<ref>Article 6 of the [http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 Standards for Identification of Basic Language Abilities and General Knowledge of the Rights and Duties of Naturalized Citizens] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725175658/http://www.ris.gov.tw/zh_TW/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2a89733e-e3e3-4f28-8f7b-84dff55777d5&groupId=10157 |date=25 July 2017 }}</ref>}}
| agency = [[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education in Taiwan]] and relevant NGOs in Taiwan
| isoexception = dialect
| lingua = 79-AAA-jh
| map = Home usage of Taiwanese by district in Taiwan gradient map (2010).svg
| mapcaption = Proportion of residents aged 6 or older using Hokkien at home in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen & Matsu in 2010<ref>Table 6: Languages used at home for the resident nationals aged 6 years and over by gender and age, [http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm 2010 Population and Housing Census] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222005446/http://ebas1.ebas.gov.tw/phc2010/english/rehome.htm |date=22 February 2015 }}, Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics (DGBAS), ROC (Taiwan).</ref>
| notice = IPA
}}

'''Taiwanwe''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi-oân ōe; [[Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn|tâi-lô]]: tâi-uân uē) , also known as '''Taigi/Taigu''' (pe̍h ōe jī: Tâi gí/Tâi gú),{{efn native lang|tw|name=word1}}<ref name="taigi">{{cite web|title=Taigi與台語|url=https://talk.ltn.com.tw/amp/article/paper/1309601|access-date=10 August 2019|work=Liberty Times|date=10 August 2019}}</ref> '''Hoklo''' called by Hakka people, <ref>{{cite web|last=Lee|first=Jack Tsen-Ta|date=28 April 2015|orig-year=2004|url=http://www.mysmu.edu/faculty/jacklee/singlish_H.htm#Hokkien|title=Hokkien|work=A Dictionary of Singlish and Singapore English|access-date=22 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="taiwansnapshot">{{cite web|url=https://www.taiwan.gov.tw/images/content/ts.JPG|title=TAIWAN SNAPSHOT|access-date=15 March 2020|quote=Languages Mandarin (Chinese), Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, Austronesian languages}}</ref> is a variety of the [[Hoklo]] language spoken natively by about 70%+ of the [[population of Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=TW |title=Taiwan |website=[[Ethnologue]]|quote=Principal languages}}</ref> It is spoken by the [[Taiwanese people]], who descended from immigrants from southern [[Fujian]] during the [[Beng dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book |contribution=Taiwan's Evolving Identity |first=June Teufel |last=Dreyer |pages=4–10 |title=The Evolution of a Taiwanese National Identity |location=Washington |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Institute for Scholars |year=2003 |series=Asia Program Special Report |volume=114 |access-date=12 August 2016 |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325100938/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/asia_rpt114.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]] (pe̍h ōe jī) romanization is a [[orthography]] for Taiwanwe.

Taiwanwe is generally similar to spoken [[Emng dialect]], [[Choanchiu dialect]], and [[Chiangchiu dialect]] (branches of [[Hoklo]]), as well as their dialectal forms used in [[Southeast Asia]]. It is [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with [[Emng dialect]] on the mainland, with the dialect of the mouth of the [[Jiulong River]] (九龍) immediately to the west, and with [[Philippine Hokkien]] to the south, spoken altogether by about 3 million people.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210919021444/https://raw.githubusercontent.com/KIRINPUTRA/reclassifying-ISO-639-3-nan/main/Reclassifying_ISO_639-3_%5Bnan%5D__An_Empirical_Approach_to_Mutual_Intelligibility_and_Ethnolinguistic_Distinctions.pdf Reclassifying ISO 639-3 [nan]: An Empirical Approach to Mutual Intelligibility and Ethnolinguistic Distinctions]</ref> The mass popularity of [[Hokkien entertainment media]] from Taiwan has given [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prominence]] to the Taiwanese variety of Hokkien, especially since the 1980s.

==Classification==
Taiwanese is a branched-off variety of [[Hokkien]], a group of [[Southern Min]] language. Like many [[Min Chinese|Min]] varieties, it has distinct [[literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters|literary and colloquial layers]] of vocabulary, often associated with formal and informal [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]]s respectively. The literary layer can be traced to the late [[Tang dynasty]] and can thus be related to [[Middle Chinese]]. In contrast, the colloquial layers of Min varieties are believed to have branched from the mainstream of Chinese around the time of the [[Han dynasty]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mei|first=Tsu-lin|year=1970|title=Tones and Prosody in Middle Chinese and The Origin of The Rising Tone|journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|volume=30|pages=86–110|doi=10.2307/2718766|jstor=2718766}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| chapter = The Mǐn dialects in historical perspective
| given = Jerry | surname = Norman
| title = Languages and Dialects of China
| editor-given = William S.-Y. | editor-surname = Wang
| pages = 325–360
| series = ''Journal of Chinese Linguistics'' Monograph Series | volume = 3
| publisher = Chinese University Press | year = 1991b
| issue = 3 | jstor = 23827042 | oclc = 600555701
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| surname = Ting | given = Pang-Hsin
| title = Derivation time of colloquial Min from Archaic Chinese
| journal = Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology
| year = 1983 | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 1–14
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| title = Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
| given1 = William H. | surname1 = Baxter | author-link = William H. Baxter
| given2 = Laurent | surname2 = Sagart | author-link2 = Laurent Sagart
| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-994537-5
| year = 2014
| pages = 33, 79
}}</ref>

Regional variations within Taiwanese may be traced back to Hokkien variants spoken in Southern Fujian, specifically those from [[Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou]], then later [[Amoy]]. Taiwanese also contains loanwords from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and the native [[Formosan languages]]. Recent work by scholars such as [https://web.archive.org/web/20041022000504/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/lou-ek-ki/kongpah-oat.htm Ekki Lu], [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081002014759/http://203.64.42.21/iug/ungian/poj/siausit/2002/2002pojgth/lunbun/a1-sakai.pdf Toru Sakai] (酒井亨 ''Sakai Tōru''), and Lí Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040915015640/http://ws.twl.ncku.edu.tw/hak-chia/l/li-khin-hoann/phok-su/phok-su.htm LEXICAL CHANGE AND VARIATION IN TAIWANESE LITERARY TEXTS, 1916–1998 -- A COMPUTER-ASSISTED CORPUS ANALYSIS]</ref> (also known as Tavokan Khîn-hoāⁿ{{which lang|date=June 2021}} or Chin-An Li), based on former research by scholars such as [[Ong Iok-tek|Ông Io̍k-tek]], has gone so far as to associate part of the basic vocabulary of the colloquial Taiwanese with the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] and [[Tai languages|Tai]] language families; however, such claims are controversial.

The literary form of Hokkien once flourished in [[Fujian]] and was brought to Taiwan by early emigrants. ''[[Tale of the Lychee Mirror]]'', a manuscript for a series of plays published during the [[Ming dynasty]] in 1566, is one of the earliest known works. This form of the language is now largely extinct. However, literary readings of the numbers are used in certain contexts such as reciting telephone numbers (see [[Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters]]).{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

== History and formation ==
{{see also|Hokkien#History}}

===Spread of Hokkien to Taiwan===
During the [[Yuan dynasty]], [[Quanzhou]] became a major international port for trade with the outside world.<ref>[http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 教育部，歷史文化學習網，《重要貿易港口－泉州》] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725194653/http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=641&subjectid=1264 |date=25 July 2011 }}</ref> From that period onwards, many people from the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions (southern Fujian) started to emigrate overseas due to political and economic reasons. One of the destinations of the emigrants is the relatively undeveloped island of [[Formosa]], starting around 1600. They brought with them their native language, Hokkien.

During the late [[Ming dynasty]], the political chaos pushed more migrants from southern Fujian and eastern [[Guangdong]] to Taiwan. The earliest immigrants involved in Taiwan's development included [[Chinese pirates|pirate-merchants]] {{Interlanguage link multi|Chinese Peter|zh|3=顏思齊|WD=}} and [[Zheng Zhilong]]. In 1621, Chinese Peter and his forces, hailing from [[Zhangzhou]], occupied ''Ponkan'' (modern-day [[Beigang, Yunlin]]) and started to develop ''Tirosen'' (modern-day [[Chiayi City|Chiayi]]). After the death of Peter and another pirate, [[Li Dan (pirate)|Li Dan]] of Quanzhou, Zheng sought to dominate the [[Taiwan Strait|Strait of Taiwan]]. By 1628, he had grown so powerful that the Ming court bestowed him the official title, "Patrolling Admiral".<ref>{{cite book|author1-link=Tonio Andrade |last=Andrade |first=Tonio |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century |publisher=Columbia University Press |chapter=Chapter 2: A Scramble for Influence |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade02.html |year=2005 |at=§20-1}}</ref>

In 1624, the number of Chinese in the island was about 25,000.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=13}} During the reign of [[Chongzhen Emperor]] (1627–1644), there were frequent droughts in the Fujian region. Zheng and a Chinese official suggested sending victims to Taiwan and provide "for each person three [[tael]]s of silver and for each three people one ox".{{sfnp|Andrade|2005|loc=§26}} Although this plan was never carried out, the Zheng family maintained an interest in Taiwan that would have dire consequences for the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]], who ruled Taiwan as [[Dutch Formosa]] at the time.

===Development and divergence===
In 1624 and 1626, the Dutch and Spanish forces occupied the [[Tainan]] and [[Keelung]] areas, respectively. During the 40 years of [[Dutch Formosa|Dutch colonial rule of Taiwan]], many [[Han Chinese]] from the [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Hakka culture|Hakka]] regions of mainland China were recruited to help develop Taiwan. Because of intermingling with [[Siraya people]] as well as Dutch colonial rule, the Hokkien dialects started to deviate from the original Hokkien spoken in mainland China.

In the 1661 [[Siege of Fort Zeelandia]], Chinese general [[Koxinga]] expelled the Dutch and established the [[Kingdom of Tungning]]. Koxinga originated from the Quanzhou region. [[Chen Yonghua]], who was in charge of establishing the education system of Tungning, also originated from Quanzhou. Because most of the soldiers he brought to Taiwan came from Quanzhou, the [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Hokkien on the island at the time was the [[Quanzhou dialect]].

In 1683, Chinese admiral [[Shi Lang]] attacked Taiwan in the [[Battle of Penghu]], ending the Tungning era and beginning [[Taiwan under Qing rule|Qing dynasty rule]] (until 1895). In the following years, in order to prevent people from rebelling, the Qing court instituted a ban on migration to Taiwan,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} especially the migration of [[Hakka people]] from [[Guangdong]] province, which led Hokkien to become the most spoken language in Taiwan.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

In the first decades of the 18th century, the linguistic differences between the Qing imperial bureaucrats and the commoners were recorded by the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]-speaking first Imperial [[High commissioner|High Commissioner]] to Taiwan (1722), [[Huang Shujing]]:
{{cquote|In this place, the language is as [[birdcall]] – totally unintelligible! For example: for the surname [[Liu|Liú]], they say 'Lâu'; for [[Chen (surname)|Chén]], 'Tân'; [[Zhuang (surname)|Zhuāng]], 'Chng'; and [[Zhang (surname)|Zhāng]] is 'Tioⁿ'. My deputy’s surname [[Wu (surname)|Wú]] becomes 'Ngô͘'. My surname [[Huang (surname)|Huáng]] does not even have a proper vowel: it is 'N̂g' here! It is difficult to make sense of this. 
({{lang|zh-Hant|郡中鴃舌鳥語，全不可曉。如：劉呼「澇」、陳呼「澹」、莊呼「曾」、張呼「丟」。余與吳待御兩姓，吳呼作「襖」，黃則無音，厄影切，更為難省。}})|||''Records from the mission to Taiwan and its Strait'', Volume II: "On the area around [[Fort Provintia]], [[Tainan]]" (臺海使槎錄卷二赤嵌筆談)}}
The tone of Huang's message [[Foretelling|foretold]] the uneasy relationships between different [[Speech community|language communities]] and colonial establishments over the next few centuries.

The ban on migration to Taiwan was relaxed sometime after 1722 (and was completely removed in 1874). During the 200 years of Qing dynasty rule, thousands of immigrants from [[Fujian]] arrived yearly; the population was over one million in the middle of the 18th century.{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=561}} Civil unrest and armed conflicts were frequent. In addition to resistance against governments (both Chinese and later Japanese), [[Ethnic conflict|battles between ethnic groups]] were also significant: the belligerents usually grouped around the language they used. History has recorded battles between [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] speakers and Hokkien speakers, between these and the [[Taiwanese aborigine|aborigines]], and even between those who spoke different variants of Hokkien.

In the early 20th century, the [[Hoklo people]] in Taiwan could be categorized as originating from [[Xiamen]], [[Quanzhou]], [[Zhangzhou]], and [[Zhangpu County|Zhangpu]].{{clarify|reason=Zhangpu is part of Zhangzhou|date=August 2020}}{{sfnp|Davidson|1903|p=591}} People from the former two areas (Quanzhou-speaking) were dominant in the north of the island and along the west coast,<ref>"especially in the cities of Koro (Aulang), Taiko (Taika), Giubato (Gumatau), Gosei (Goche), Tokatsukutsu (Thawkakut), and Rokko (Lokiang)." (modern-day [[Houlong, Miaoli|Houlong]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]], [[Qingshui District|Qingshui]], [[Wuqi District|Wuqi]], [[Longjing District|Longjing]], and Lukang, respectively.) {{harvp|Davidson|1903|p=591}}</ref> whereas people from the latter two areas ([[Zhangzhou dialect|Zhangzhou]]-speaking) were dominant in the south and perhaps the central plains as well.

Although there were conflicts between Quanzhou- and Zhangzhou-speakers in Taiwan historically, their gradual [[intermingling]] led to the mixture of the two [[Accent (sociolinguistics)|accents]]. Apart from [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang city]] and [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan County]], which have preserved their original Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents respectively, almost every region of Taiwan now speaks a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien.{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} A similar phenomenon occurred in [[Xiamen]] (Amoy) after 1842, when the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou Hokkien displaced the Quanzhou dialect to yield the modern [[Amoy dialect]].<ref>泉州旅游信息网，[http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm 泉州方言文化] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301121345/http://fjqz.fj.vnet.cn/travel/talk/right.htm |date=1 March 2007 }}</ref>

During the [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese colonial rule of Taiwan]], Taiwan began to hold Amoy Hokkien as its standard pronunciation; the Japanese called this mixture {{nihongo|'''Taiwanese'''|臺灣語|Taiwango}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Iûⁿ |first1=Ún-giân |last2=Tiuⁿ |first2=Ha̍k-khiam |last3=Lu |first3=Bichhin |script-title=zh:台語文運動訪談暨史料彙編 |language=zh |date=2008-03-01 |publisher=國史館 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789860132946 |oclc=813921186}}</ref>

Due to the influx of Japanese loanwords before 1945 and the political separation after 1949,{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} Amoy Hokkien and Taiwanese began to [[Linguistic divergence|diverge]] slightly.

===Modern times===
[[File:Proportion of Taiwanese Language Used in House.svg|thumb|350px|Proportion of languages used at home by residents aged 6 or over in Taiwan in 2010, sorted by birth year.<ref name="housing census">Sources: http://www.dgbas.gov.tw/public/data/dgbas04/bc6/census022%28final%29.html 2010 population and housing census by DGBAS, [[Executive Yuan]].</ref> The chart shows the tendency that speech communities of [[Languages of Taiwan#Other languages|Taiwanese local languages]] are shifting to speak [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]].]]
Later, in the 20th century, the conceptualization of Taiwanese is more controversial than most variations of Chinese because at one time it marked a clear division between the Mainlanders who [[KMT retreat to Taiwan in 1949|arrived in 1949]] and the pre-existing majority native Taiwanese. Although the political and linguistic divisions between the two groups have blurred considerably, the political issues surrounding Taiwanese have been more controversial and sensitive than for other [[varieties of Chinese]].

After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], due to military defeat to the Japanese, the [[Qing dynasty]] ceded [[Taiwan]] to Japan, causing contact with the [[Hokkien]]-speaking regions of mainland China to stop. During Japanese rule, Japanese became an official language in Taiwan, and Taiwanese began to absorb large number of Japanese loanwords into its language. Examples of such loanwords (some which had in turn been borrowed from English) include ''piān-só͘'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|便所}}|benjo|"toilet"}}, ''phêng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|坪}}|[[tsubo]]|"[[pyeong]]", an areal measurement}} (see also [[Taiwanese units of measurement]]), ''ga-suh'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|瓦斯}}|gasu|"gas"}}, ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|オートバイ}}|ōtobai|"autobicycle", motorcycle}}. All of these caused Taiwanese to deviate from Hokkien used elsewhere.

During [[Kōminka movement (Taiwan)|Kōminka]] of the late Japanese colonial period, the [[Japanese language]] appeared in every corner of Taiwan. The [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] beginning in 1937 brought stricter measures into force, and along with the outlawing of [[Chinese language romanization in Taiwan|romanized Taiwanese]], various publications were prohibited and Confucian-style private schools which taught [[Classical Chinese]] with [[Literary language|literary]] Southern Min pronunciation – were closed down in 1939.{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=135}} Taiwanese thus was reduced to a common [[Vernacular|daily language]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ang |first1=Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣方言之旅 |date=1991 |publisher=前衛出版社 |location=Taipei |isbn=9789579512312}}</ref> In 1937 the colonial government introduced a concept called "National Language Family" ({{linktext|国語}}{{linktext|の}}{{linktext|家)}}, which meant that families that proved that they adopted Japanese as their daily language enjoyed benefits such as greater access to education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw/ischool/publish_page/106/?cid=4897|title=Hui-Wen High School Taichung, Introduction to the Kominka period|work=www.hwsh.tc.edu.tw}}</ref>

After the handover of Taiwan to the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] in 1945, there was brief cultural exchange with mainland China followed by further oppression. The [[Chinese Civil War]] resulted in another political separation when the [[Kuomintang]] (Chinese Nationalist Party) government [[Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan|retreated to Taiwan following their defeat by the communists]] in 1949. The influx of two million soldiers and civilians caused the population of Taiwan to increase from 6 million to 8 million. The government subsequently promoted [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] while suppressing, but short of banning, the use of written Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] (e.g. [[pe̍h-oē-jī]], a phonetic rendering of spoken Hokkien using the Latin alphabet) as part of its general policy of political repression.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lin |first=Alvin |issue=89 |title=Writing Taiwanese: The Development of Modern Written Taiwanese |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp089_taiwanese.pdf |year=1999 |oclc=41879041 }}</ref> In 1964 the use of spoken Taiwanese [[Hokkien]] or [[Hakka]] in schools or in official settings was forbidden; violations of the prohibition in schools often resulted in physical punishments, fines, or humiliation.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Linguistic capital in Taiwan: The KMT's Mandarin language policy and its perceived impact on language practices of bilingual Mandarin and Tai-gi speakers |last=Sandel |first=Todd L. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |journal=Language in Society |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=523–551 |doi=10.1017/S0047404503324030 |jstor=4169285 |s2cid=145703339 }}</ref>

Only after the lifting of [[Martial law in Taiwan|martial law]] in 1987 and the [[mother tongue]] movement in the 1990s did Taiwan see a true [[Language revitalization|revival]] in the Taiwanese language. Today, there are a large number of Taiwanese scholars dedicated to researching the language. Despite this, according to census data the number of people speaking Taiwanese continued to drop.<ref name="housing census"/>

The history of Taiwanese and its interaction with Mandarin is complex and at times controversial, even regarding its name. The language has no official name in Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |title=中華民國文化部-國家語言發展法 |url=https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |website=www.moc.gov.tw |access-date=24 October 2019 |language=zh |date=10 October 2008 |quote=《國家語言發展法》並未以法律明列各固有族群之語言名稱，即是尊重各族群使用者慣常使用之命名權。 |archive-date=2 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402055541/https://www.moc.gov.tw/content_275.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some dislike the name "Taiwanese" as they feel that it belittles other languages spoken on the island such as Mandarin, [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], and the [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]]. Others prefer the names [[Southern Min]], Minnan or Hokkien as this views Taiwanese as a form of the Chinese variety spoken in [[Fujian]] province in [[mainland China]]. Others dislike those names for precisely the same reason.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} In the [[American Community Survey]] run by the [[United States Census Bureau]], Taiwanese was referred to as "Formosan" from 2012 to 2015 and as "Min Nan Chinese" since 2016.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2018/demo/SEHSD-WP2018-31.pdf | title=American Community Survey Redesign of Language-Spoken-at-Home Data | date=2016 | first=Christine P. | last=Gambino | work=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{Commons category|Taiwanese Hokkien}}
{{see also|Help:IPA/Taiwanese Hokkien}}
[[Phonology|Phonologically]], Hokkien is a [[tonal language]] with extensive [[tone sandhi]] rules. [[Syllable]]s consist maximally of an initial [[consonant]], a [[vowel]], a final consonant, and a tone.

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|- style="font-size: 90%;"
|+Initials
!colspan=2|
!colspan=2| [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo -palatal]]
!colspan=2| [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
!colspan=2| [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|m}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|m ㄇ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|n}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|n ㄋ
|colspan=2|
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ŋ}}''' || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ng ㄫ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! voiced
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|b}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|b ㆠ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɡ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|g ㆣ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|p}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|p ㄅ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|t}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|t ㄉ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|k}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|k ㄍ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"| || style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|
|-
! [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[pʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ph ㄆ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|th ㄊ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[kʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|kh ㄎ
|colspan=2|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! voiced
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dz}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|j ㆡ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|dʑ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|j(i) ㆢ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! tenuis
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ts}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|ch, ts ㄗ
| style="width:20px; border-right:0;"|'''{{IPAblink|tɕ}}'''|| style="width:20px; border-left:0;"|ch(i), ts(i) ㄐ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
! aspirated
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tsʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh, tsh ㄘ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPA|[tɕʰ]}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|chh(i), tsh(i) ㄑ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|s}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|s ㄙ
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|ɕ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|si ㄒ
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|h}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|h ㄏ
|-
!colspan=2| [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|colspan=2|
|style="border-right: 0;"|'''{{IPAblink|l}}'''~'''{{IPAblink|ɾ}}'''||style="border-left: 0;"|l ㄌ
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|colspan=2|
|}
{|class=wikitable
|+Finals
! !![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]!![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]!![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- align=center
![[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|'''{{IPA|[m]}}''' -m||'''{{IPA|[n]}}''' -n||'''{{IPA|[ŋ]}}''' -ng||'''{{IPAblink|◌̃}}''' -ⁿ
|- align=center
![[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
|'''{{IPA|[p̚]}}''' -p ㆴ||'''{{IPA|[t̚]}}''' -t ㆵ||'''{{IPA|[k̚]}}''' -k ㆶ||'''{{IPAblink|ʔ}}''' -h ㆷ
|}

Unlike many other varieties of Chinese such as Mandarin and [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]], there are no native [[labiodental]] phonemes (i.e., {{IPAblink|f}}).

# Coronal affricates and fricatives become [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] before {{IPA|/i/}}, that is, {{IPA|/dzi/}}, {{IPA|/tsi/}}, {{IPA|/tsʰi/}}, and {{IPA|/si/}} are pronounced {{IPA|[dʑi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕi]}}, {{IPA|[tɕʰi]}}, and {{IPA|[ɕi]}}.
# The consonant {{IPA|/dz/}} may be realized as a fricative; that is, as {{IPA|[z]}} in most environments and {{IPA|[ʑ]}} before {{IPA|/i/}}.
# The [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] plosives ({{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}) become the corresponding fricatives ({{IPAblink|β}} and {{IPAblink|ɣ}}) in some phonetic contexts. This is similar to [[begadkefat]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and a similar [[Allophone|allophony]] of intervocalic [[plosive consonants]] and their fricatives in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].

=== Vowels ===
Taiwanese has the following [[vowel]]s:
{|class=wikitable
|-
!rowspan=2| !!colspan=2|[[Front vowel|Front]]!!colspan=2|[[Central vowel|Central]]!!colspan=2|[[Back vowel|Back]]
!rowspan=5| !!colspan=2 rowspan=2|[[Syllabic consonant]]
|- align=center
!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]!!Oral!![[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]
|- align=center
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|'''{{IPAblink|i}}''' i ㄧ||'''{{IPA|[ĩ]}}''' iⁿ ㆪ
| ||
|'''{{IPAblink|u}}''' u ㄨ||'''{{IPA|[ũ]}}''' uⁿ ㆫ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[m̩]}}''' m ㆬ
|rowspan=3|'''{{IPA|[ŋ̍]}}''' ng ㆭ
|- align=center
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|'''{{IPAblink|e}}''' e ㆤ||'''{{IPA|[ẽ]}}''' eⁿ ㆥ
|'''{{IPAblink|ə}} ~ {{IPAblink|o}}''' o ㄜ, ㄛ||
|'''{{IPAblink|ɔ}}''' o͘ ㆦ||'''{{IPA|[ɔ̃]}}''' oⁿ ㆧ
|- align=center
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| || ||'''{{IPAblink|ä|a}}''' a ㄚ||'''{{IPA|[ã]}}''' aⁿ ㆩ|| ||
|}

The vowel {{angle bracket|o}} is akin to a [[schwa]]; in contrast, {{angle bracket|[[o͘]]}} (with dot) is a more [[Vowel height|open vowel]]. In addition, there are several [[diphthong]]s and [[triphthong]]s (for example, {{angle bracket|iau}}). The consonants {{angle bracket|m}} and {{angle bracket|ng}} can function as a [[Nucleus (syllable)|syllabic nucleus]] and are therefore included here as vowels. The vowels may be either plain or [[Nasal vowel|nasal]]: {{angle bracket|a}} is non-nasal, and {{angle bracket|aⁿ}} is the same vowel with concurrent nasal articulation. This is similar to [[French language|French]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Polish language|Polish]], and many other languages.

There are two pronunciations of vowel {{angle bracket|o}}. In the south (e.g., [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]) it is {{IPA|[ə]}}; in the north (e.g., [[Taipei]]) it is {{IPA|[o]}}. Due to development of transportation and communication, both pronunciations are common and acceptable throughout the country.

{{IPAblink|i}} is a diphthong [<nowiki/>[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]][[Mid central vowel|ə]]] before -k or -ng, and is slightly shortened and retracted before -p or -t to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-front unrounded vowel|í̞]]]. Similarly, {{IPAblink|u}} is slightly shortened and retracted before -t or -n to something more like [<nowiki/>[[Near-close near-back rounded vowel|ʊ]]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Tâigí Phonics 3 - Single Vowels - YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Muv_Rx7OXg0 |url-status=dead|access-date=2021-02-06|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref>

=== Tones ===
[[Image:Taiwanese tones.png|thumb|right|Taiwanese tones, close to Taipei values.]]
In the traditional analysis, there are eight "tones", [[tone number|numbered]] from 1 to 8. Strictly speaking, there are only five [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal contours]]. But as in other Chinese varieties, the two kinds of stopped syllables are considered also to be tones and assigned numbers 4 and 8. In Taiwanese tone 6 has merged into tone 7, and thus duplicated in the count. Here the eight tones are shown, following the traditional tone class categorization, named after the tones of [[Middle Chinese]]:
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Taiwanese tones{{sfnp|Wu|2000|p=2691}}
|-
! Tone number !! Name !! POJ accent !! Pitch in Taipei !! Description !! Pitch in Tainan !! Description
|-
| 1 || yin level (陰平) || a || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥]}}''' (55) || high || '''{{IPA|[á]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˦]}}''' (44) || high
|-
| 2 || yin rising (陰上) || á || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˩]}}''' (51) || falling || '''{{IPA|[â]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˥˧]}}''' (53) || high falling
|-
| 3 || yin departing (陰去) || à || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧˩]}}''' to '''{{IPA|[˨˩]}}''' (31~21) || low falling || '''{{IPA|[à]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩]}}''' (11) || low
|-
| 4 || yin entering (陰入) || ah || '''{{IPA|[āʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˧˨]}}''' (32) || mid stopped || '''{{IPA|[àʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˨˩]}}''' (21) || low stopped
|-
| 5 || yang level (陽平) || â || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˩˦ ~ a˨˦]}}''' (14~24) || rising || '''{{IPA|[ǎ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨˦]}}''' (25) || rising
|-
| 7 (6) || yang departing and yang rising (陽去與陽上) || ā || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˧]}}''' (33) || mid || '''{{IPA|[ā]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[a˨]}}''' (22) || mid
|-
| 8 || yang entering (陽入) || a̍h || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˦]}}''' (4) || high stopped || '''{{IPA|[áʔ]}}''' = '''{{IPA|[aʔ˥]}}''' (5) || high stopped
|}

{{Listen|filename=Taiwanese-8Tones.ogg|title=Eight tones of Taiwanese|description=Demonstration of the tones of Taiwanese: 衫 ''saⁿ, 短 té, 褲, khò͘, 闊 khoah, 人 lâng, 矮 é, 鼻 phīⁿ, 直 ti̍t''. Tone sandhi rules do not apply in this sentence. (This demonstration is popular but misleading in the use of ''矮 é'' as an example for tone 6. In dialects that distinguish tones 6 and 7, ''矮 é'' belongs to tone 2, and most words of tone 6 merges into tone 7 in Taiwanese.)}}

See (for one example) the modern phonological analysis in {{harvp|Chiung|2003}}, which challenges these notions.

For tones 4 and 8, a final consonant {{angle bracket|p}}, {{angle bracket|t}}, or {{angle bracket|k}} may appear. When this happens, it is impossible for the syllable to be nasal. Indeed, these are the counterpart to the nasal final consonants {{angle bracket|m}}, {{angle bracket|n}}, and {{angle bracket|ng}}, respectively, in other tones. However, it is possible to have a nasal 4th or 8th tone syllable such as {{angle bracket|siaⁿh}}, as long as there is no final consonant other than {{angle bracket|h}}.

In the dialect spoken near the northern coast of Taiwan, there is no distinction between tones number 8 and number 4 – both are pronounced as if they follow the [[tone sandhi]] rules of tone number 4.

Tone number 0, typically written with two consecutive hyphens {{angle bracket|--}} before the syllable with this tone, is used to mark [[enclitic]]s denoting the extent of a verb action, the end of a noun phrase, etc. A frequent use of this tone is to denote a question, such as in "Chia̍h-pá--bē?", literally meaning 'Have you eaten yet?’. This is realized by speaking the syllable with either a low-falling tone (3) or a low stop (4). The syllable prior to the {{angle bracket|--}} maintains its original tone.

=== Syllabic structure ===
A [[syllable]] requires a vowel (or diphthong or [[triphthong]]) to appear in the middle. All consonants can appear at the initial position. The consonants {{angle bracket|p, t, k}} and {{angle bracket|m, n, ng}} (and some consider {{angle bracket|h}}) may appear at the end of a syllable. Therefore, it is possible to have syllables such as {{angle bracket|ngiau}} ("(to) tickle") and {{angle bracket|thng}} ("soup").

=== Tone sandhi ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Tone Sandhi 01.svg|thumbnail|right|Schema of the tone sandhi rules in Taiwanese.]]
Taiwanese has extremely extensive [[tone sandhi]] (tone-changing) rules: in an utterance, only the last syllable pronounced is not affected by the rules.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uegu.blogspot.com/2015/01/blog-post_16.html|script-title=zh:台語好多聲|trans-title=The Many Tones of Taiwanese|author=麻瓜先生|date=January 2015|quote={{lang|zh-tw|台語裡有個變調系統，細說分明需要時間，但最大的規則就是「最後一個字不要變！其他變變變！」}}|access-date=21 March 2019}}</ref> What an ‘[[utterance]]’ (or ‘[[intonational phrase]]’) is, in the context of this language, is an ongoing topic for linguistic research, but some general rules apply:<ref name="Lin2015">{{cite book|author=Philip T. Lin|title=Taiwanese Grammar: A Concise Reference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlExBwAAQBAJ|date=31 January 2015|publisher=Greenhorn Media|isbn=978-0-9963982-1-3}}</ref>

The following syllables are unaffected by tone sandhi:
* The final syllable in a [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]], [[noun]] (including single syllable nouns, but not [[pronoun]]s), number, time phrase (i.e., today, tomorrow, etc.), spatial [[preposition]] (i.e., on, under), or [[question word]] (i.e., who, what, how).
* The syllable immediately preceding the [[possessive particle]] 的 (ê) or a neutralized tone. In POJ, this is the syllable before a double hyphen, e.g., 王先生 (Ông—sian-siⁿ)
* Some common [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] markers: 了 (liáu), 好 (hó), 完 (oân), 煞 (soah)

==== Normal tone sandhi ====
The following rules, listed in the traditional pedagogical mnemonic order, govern the pronunciation of tone on each of the syllables affected (that is, all but those described according to the rules listed above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''3''' ([[Quanzhou]]/Taipei speech) or '''7''' ([[Zhangzhou]]/Tainan speech).
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''3'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Normal tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻³ / tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻³ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜖]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻³ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜖]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

==== Double tone sandhi ====
There are a number of a single syllable words that undergo double tone sandhi, that is, they follow the tone change rule twice and are pronounced according to the second tone change. These syllables are almost always a 4th tone ending in '''-h''', and include the words 欲 (beh), 佮 (kah), 閣 (koh), 才 (chiah), as well as the 3rd tone verb 去 khì. As a result of following the tone change rule twice, these syllables are all pronounced as tone number '''1'''.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Double tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 4 || kah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kaʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kaʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || khi³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[kʰi˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[kʰi˩꜓]}}
|}

==== Before the -á suffix ====
{{Wiktionary pipe|仔#Usage notes|the rules for tone sandhi before '仔' (-á) with examples}}
Apart from the normal tone sandhi rules described above, there are two special cases where a different set of tone sandhi apply.<ref>Iunn Un-gian. "A Study on Implementation of Southern-Min Taiwanese Tone Sandhi System." (2005). https://aclweb.org/anthology/Y/Y05/Y05-1011.pdf</ref> In a noun with the noun [[suffix]] '{{linktext|lang=zh|仔}}' ({{linktext|á}}), the penultimate syllable is governed by the following rules:
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''2''' or '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8'''.(same as normal)
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''7'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''. (same as double)

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Tone sandhi before -á (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜕]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜓]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁷ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜔]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜓]}}
|}

==== In triplicated adjectives ====
Finally, in the case of single-syllable adjective [[triplication]] (for added emphasis), the first syllable is governed by the following rules (the second syllable follows the normal tone sandhi rules above):
* If the original tone number is '''5''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''7''', pronounce it as tone number '''1'''.
* If the original tone number is '''3''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''2''', pronounce it as tone number '''1''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''1''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''4''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is not '''h''' (that is, it is '''p''', '''t''', or '''k'''), pronounce it as tone number '''8''' (same as normal).
* If the original tone number is '''8''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''5'''.
* If the original tone number is '''4''' and the final consonant is '''h''', pronounce it as tone number '''2''' (same as normal).

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Triplicated tone sandhi (IPA)
|-
! Tone number !! Sandhi !! Taipei !!Tainan
|-
| 5 || tang⁵⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
| 7 || tang⁷⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˧꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˨꜓]}}
|-
| 3 || tang³⁻² || {{IPA|[taŋ˧˩꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˩꜒꜔]}}
|-
| 2 || tang²⁻¹ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˩꜒]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˥˧꜓]}}
|-
| 1 || tang¹⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taŋ˥꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taŋ˦꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 8 || tak⁸⁻⁴ || {{IPA|[tak˦꜔꜕]}} || {{IPA|[tak˥꜕꜖]}}
|-
| tah⁸⁻⁵ || {{IPA|[taʔ˦꜕꜓]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˥꜕꜓]}}
|-
|rowspan=2| 4 || tak⁴⁻⁸ || {{IPA|[tak˧˨꜓]}} || {{IPA|[tak˨˩꜒]}}
|-
| tah⁴⁻² || {{IPA|[taʔ˧˨꜒꜖]}} || {{IPA|[taʔ˨˩꜒꜔]}}
|}

See {{harvp|Tiuⁿ|2001}}, {{harvp|Chiung|2003}} and the work of Robert L. Cheng (鄭良偉; Tēⁿ Liông-úi)<ref>{{cite web |date=2003 |publisher=Center for Chinese Studies, University of Hawaii |title=Robert L. Cheng |url=http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070624085539/http://www.chinesestudies.hawaii.edu/community/faculty/cheng_robert.html |archive-date=2007-06-24}}</ref> for modern linguistic approaches to tones and tone sandhi in Taiwanese.

== Lexicon ==
Modern linguistic studies (by Robert L. Cheng and Chin-An Li, for example) estimate that most (75% to 90%) Taiwanese [[word]]s have [[cognate]]s in other Chinese varieties. [[False friend]]s do exist; for example, ''cháu'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|走}}) means "to run" in Taiwanese, whereas the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] cognate, ''zǒu'', means "to walk". Moreover, cognates may have different [[Part of speech|lexical categories]]; for example, the [[morpheme]] ''phīⁿ'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|鼻}}) means not only "nose" (a noun, as in Mandarin ''bí'') but also "to smell" (a verb, unlike Mandarin).

Among the apparently cognate-less words are many basic words with properties that contrast with similar-meaning words of pan-Chinese derivation. Often the former group lacks a standard Han character, and the words are variously considered colloquial, intimate, vulgar, uncultured, or more concrete in meaning than the pan-Chinese synonym. Some examples: ''lâng'' ({{Lang|zh-tw|人}} or {{Lang|zh-tw|儂}}, person, concrete) vs. ''jîn'' (人, person, abstract); ''{{linktext|cha-bó͘}}'' ({{linktext|查某}}, woman) vs. ''lú-jîn'' (女人, woman, literary). Unlike the [[English language#Vocabulary|English Germanic/Latin contrast]], however, the two groups of Taiwanese words cannot be as strongly attributed to the influences of two disparate linguistic sources.

Extensive contact with the [[Japanese language]] has left a legacy of Japanese [[loanwords]], with 172 recorded in the Ministry of Education's ''[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_wailaici.jsp |script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典-外來詞 |year=2011 |trans-title=Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan - Loanwords |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |language=zh |access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref> Although a very small percentage of the vocabulary, their usage tends to be high-frequency because of their relevance to modern society and popular culture. Examples are: ''o͘-tó͘-bái'' from {{nihongo4||オートバイ|ōtobai|"autobike"/motorcycle}} and ''pháng'' from {{nihongo4||{{linktext|パン}}|pan|"[[bread]]", itself a loanword from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]}}. [[Grammatical particle]]s borrowed from Japanese, notably ''te̍k'' from {{nihongo4||的|teki}} and ''ka'' from {{nihongo4||か|ka}}, show up in the Taiwanese of older speakers.

Whereas Mandarin attaches a syllabic suffix to the singular pronoun to make a [[collective]] form, Taiwanese pronouns are collectivized through [[nasalization]]. For example, ''i'' (he/she/it) and ''goá'' (I) become ''in'' (they) and ''goán'' (we), respectively. The ''-n'' thus represents a subsyllabic [[morpheme]]. Like all other [[varieties of Chinese]], Taiwanese does not have true grammatical [[plural]]s.

Unlike English, Taiwanese has two [[first person plural|first-person plural]] pronouns. This distinction is called [[Clusivity|inclusive]], which includes the [[Interlocutor (linguistics)|addressee]], and exclusive, which excludes the addressee. Thus, ''goán'' means ''we excluding you'', while ''lán'' means ''we including you'' (similar to [[pluralis auctoris]]). The inclusive ''lán'' may be used to express politeness or solidarity, as in the example of a speaker asking a stranger "Where do we live?" while implicitly asking "Where do ''you'' live?".

== Syntax ==
{{Listen|filename=Tai JintianDaoJiaKanWo.ogg|title=Kin-á-jit hit-ê cha-bó͘ gín-á lâi góan tau khòaⁿ góa.|description=An audio sample for a simple sentence, meaning "Today that little girl came to our house to see me".}}
The [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is similar to southern Chinese varieties such as [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] and [[Yue Chinese|Yue]]. The [[subject–verb–object]] sequence is typical as in, for example, [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], but [[subject–object–verb]] or the [[passive voice]] (with the sequence [[object–subject–verb]]) is possible with particles. Take a simple sentence for example: 'I hold you.' The words involved are: ''goá'' ('I' or 'me'), ''phō'' ('to hold'), ''lí'' ('you').
* Subject–verb–object (typical sequence): The sentence in the typical sequence would be: ''Goá phō lí.'' ('I hold you.')
* Subject–''kā''–object–verb: Another sentence of roughly equivalent meaning is ''Goá kā lí phō'', with the slight connotation of 'I take you and hold' or 'I get to you and hold'.
* Object ''hō͘'' subject–verb (the passive voice): Then, ''Lí hō͘ goá phō'' means the same thing but in the [[passive voice]], with the connotation of 'You allow yourself to be held by me' or 'You make yourself available for my holding'.

With this, more complicated sentences can be constructed: ''Goá kā chúi hō͘ lí lim'' ('I give water for you to drink': ''chúi'' means 'water'; ''lim'' is 'to drink').

This article can only give a few very simple examples on the syntax, for flavour. Linguistic work on the [[syntax]] of Taiwanese is still a (quite nascent) scholarly topic being explored.

== Scripts and orthographies ==
{{Main|Written Hokkien}}

[[File:Holo bunhak chokphin.JPG|thumb|right|A selection of literary works (original and translated) in Taiwanese, in several orthographies.]]

Taiwanese does not have a strong written tradition. {{citation needed span|Until the late 19th century, Taiwanese speakers wrote mostly in [[Classical Chinese]]|date=June 2015}}. Among many systems of writing Taiwanese using Latin characters, the most used is called [[pe̍h-oē-jī]] (POJ) and was developed in the 19th century, while the [[Taiwanese Romanization System]] has been officially promoted since 2006 by Taiwan's [[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|Ministry of Education]]. (For additional romanized systems, see references in "Orthography in Latin characters", below.) Nonetheless, Taiwanese speakers nowadays most commonly write in [[Standard Chinese]] (Mandarin), though many of the same characters are also used to write Taiwanese.

=== Han characters ===
In most cases, Taiwanese speakers write using the [[writing system|script]] called [[Han characters]] as in Mandarin, although there are a number of special characters which are unique to Taiwanese and which are sometimes used in informal writing. Where Han characters are used, they are not always etymological or genetic; the borrowing of similar-sounding or similar-meaning characters is a common practice. Bilingual speakers of both Mandarin and Taiwanese sometimes attempt to represent the sounds by adopting similar-sounding Mandarin Han characters. For example, the Han characters of the [[Profanity|vulgar slang]] 'khoàⁿ sáⁿ-siâu' ({{linktext|lang=zh|看|三小}}, substituted for the etymologically correct {{linktext|lang=zh|看|啥潲}}, meaning 'What the hell are you looking at?’) has very little meaning in Mandarin and may not be readily understood by a Taiwanese monolingual, as knowledge of Mandarin character readings is required to fully decipher it.

In 2007, the [[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|Ministry of Education]] in Taiwan published the first list of [[Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters]], a list of 300 Han characters standardized for the use of writing Taiwanese and implemented the teaching of them in schools.<ref>[http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm 教育部公布閩南語300字推薦用字　卡拉OK用字也被選用 (Ministry of Education in Taiwan announces 300 recommended Hokkien words, Karaoke words are also selected)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724212916/http://www.nownews.com/2007/05/30/327-2104243.htm |date=24 July 2011 }}; [http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 「臺灣閩南語推薦用字（第1批）」已公布於網站，歡迎各界使用 (Announcement of recommended words for Taiwanese Hokkien)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718144143/http://www.edu.tw/mandr/news.aspx?news_sn=707&pages=6 |date=18 July 2011 }}</ref> In 2008, the ministry published a second list of 100 characters, and in 2009 added 300 more, giving a total of 700 standardized characters used to write uniquely Taiwanese words. With increasing literacy in Taiwanese, there are currently more Taiwanese online bloggers who write Taiwanese online using these standardized Chinese characters. Han characters are also used by Taiwan's Hokkien literary circle for Hokkien poets and writers to write literature or poetry in Taiwanese.

=== Orthography in Latin characters ===
[[Image:Kauhoe.jpg|thumb|right|An issue of the ''[[Taiwan Church News]]'', first published by Presbyterian missionaries in 1885. This was the first printed newspaper in Taiwan, and was written in Taiwanese, in the Latin orthography pe̍h-oē-jī.]]

There are several Latin-based orthographies, the oldest being [[Pe̍h-oē-jī]] (POJ, meaning "vernacular writing"), developed in the 19th century. [[Taiwanese Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Lô-má-jī, Tâi-Lô) and [[Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet]] (TLPA) are two later adaptations of POJ. Other 20th-century innovations include [[Daighi tongiong pingim]] (DT), [[Ganvsig daiuuan bhanlam ghiw tongiong pingimv]] (GDT), [[Modern Literal Taiwanese]] (MLT), [[Simplified MLT]] (SMLT), [[Phofsit Daibuun]] (PSDB). The last four employ [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] [[spelling]] to indicate tone without use of [[diacritic]] symbols, but letters instead.

In POJ, the traditional list of letters is
:a b ch chh e g h i j k kh l m n ng o o͘ p ph s t th (ts) u
Twenty-four in all, including the obsolete {{angle bracket|ts}}, which was used to represent the modern {{angle bracket|ch}} at some places. The additional necessities are the nasal symbol {{angle bracket|ⁿ}}  (superscript {{angle bracket|n}}; the uppercase form {{angle bracket|N}} is sometimes used in [[all caps]] texts,<ref>Tè Khái-sū (1999) [https://archive.org/details/Tpsurvey Writing Latinized Taiwanese Languages with Unicode]</ref> such as book titles or section headings), and the tonal [[diacritic]]s.
POJ was developed first by [[Presbyterian]] [[missionaries]] and later by the indigenous [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]]; they have been active in promoting the language since the late 19th century. Recently there has been an increase in texts using a mixed orthography of Han characters and romanization, although these texts remain uncommon.

In 2006, the [[National Languages Committee]] (Ministry of Education, Republic of China) proposed [[Taiwanese Romanization System]] (Tâi-ôan Lô-má-jī, Tâi-lô). This alphabet reconciles two of the more senior orthographies, TLPA and POJ.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tlh.de-han.org/untong/2006/0929TaiLo.pdf|title=臺灣閩南語羅馬字拼音方案 (Orthographic system for the Minnan language in Taiwan, 'Tâi-ôan Lô-má-jī')}}</ref> The changes for the consonants involved using {{angle bracket|ts}} for POJ's {{angle bracket|ch}} (reverting to the orthography in the 19th century), and {{angle bracket|tsh}} for {{angle bracket|chh}}. For the vowels, {{angle bracket|o͘}} could optionally represented as {{angle bracket|oo}}. The nasal mark {{angle bracket|ⁿ}} could also be represented optionally as {{angle bracket|nn}}. The rest of the alphabet, most notably the use of diacritics to mark the tones, appeared to keep to the POJ tradition. One of the aims of this compromise was to curb any increase of 'market share' for Daighi tongiong pingim/Tongyong Pinyin.<ref>[http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf 教育部國語推行委員會: 關於閩南語拼音整合工作相關問題說帖 (National Languages Committee: On the integration of Minnan orthographies), 2006-10-16] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128050052/http://203.64.42.21/TG/khinhoaN/other/TLsoatthiap.pdf |date=28 November 2007 }}</ref> It is unclear whether the community will adopt this new agreement.

=== Orthographies in kana and in bopomofo ===
[[Image:Japanese-Taiwanese Dictionary.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese–Taiwanese Dictionary, using the orthography in kana]]
{{Main|Taiwanese kana|Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols}}
There was an orthography of Taiwanese based on the [[Kana|Japanese kana]] during [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Japanese rule]]. The [[Kuomintang]] government also tried to introduce an orthography in [[bopomofo]].

===Comparison of orthographies===
Here the different orthographies are compared:
{{POJtable}}

=== Computing ===
[[File:Pa-khek-le Kau-hoe.jpg|thumb|right|Pe̍h-ōe-jī inscription at a church in [[Tainan|Tâi-lâm]] commemorating [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]].]]

Many [[keyboard layout]]s and [[Chinese input methods for computers|input methods]] for entering either Latin or Han characters in Taiwanese are available. Some of them are free-of-charge, some commercial.

The [[Min Nan]] dialect group is registered per {{IETF RFC|3066}} as [https://www.iana.org/assignments/lang-tags/zh-min-nan zh-min-nan].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evertype.com/standards/iso639/iana-lang-assignments.html|title=Evertype|website=www.evertype.com}}</ref> Taiwanese Min Nan can be represented as 'zh-min-nan-TW'.

When writing Taiwanese in Han characters, some writers create 'new' characters when they consider it is impossible to use directly or borrow existing ones; this corresponds to similar practices in character usage in [[Written Cantonese|Cantonese]], [[chu nom|Vietnamese chữ nôm]], [[Hanja|Korean hanja]] and [[Kanji|Japanese kanji]]. These are usually not encoded in [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal Character Set]]), thus creating problems in computer processing.

All Latin characters required by pe̍h-oē-jī can be represented using [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal character set]]), using precomposed or combining (diacritics) characters.

{{Main|O͘}}
Prior to June 2004, the vowel {{IPA|[ɔ]}} akin to but more open than ⟨o⟩, written with a 'dot above right', was not encoded. The usual workaround was to use the (stand-alone; spacing) character ‘[[Interpunct|middle dot]]’ (U+00B7, ⟨·⟩) or less commonly the combining character 'dot above' (U+0307). As these are far from ideal, since 1997 proposals have been submitted to the ISO/IEC [[working group]] in charge of ISO/IEC 10646 – namely, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070628163947/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/wg2/ ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2] – to encode a new combining character 'dot above right'. This is now officially assigned to U+0358 (see documents [http://www.evertype.com/standards/la/taioan.html N1593], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311082219/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2507 N2507], [https://web.archive.org/web/20060928065416/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2628 N2628],
[http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2699 N2699], and [http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/sc2/wg2/docs/N2770r.pdf N2770]). Font support has followed: for example, in [[Charis SIL]].

== Sociolinguistics ==
=== Regional variations ===
[[File:Taiwanese Hokkien Map.svg|thumb|right|Distribution of Hokkien dialects in Taiwan:<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ang Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin | script-title = zh:台灣的語種分布與分區 |title=Táiwān de yǔzhǒng fēnbù yǔ fēnqū |trans-title=The Distribution and Regionalization of Varieties in Taiwan | publisher = [[Academia Sinica]] |year=2013 |journal=Language and Linguistics |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=315–369|language=zh-hant |url=http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/14.2/LL14.2-04-Ang%20121227.pdf}} Map 5, p. 355.</ref>
{{legend|#ff8080|Quanzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#8080ff|Zhangzhou dialect predominant}}
{{legend|#ff80ff|Both Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects}}
]]


The [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige variant]] of Taiwanese is the southern speech found in [[Tainan]] and [[Kaohsiung]]. Other major variants are the northern speech, the central speech (near [[Taichung]] and the port town of [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]), and the northern (northeastern) coastal speech (dominant in [[Yilan County, Taiwan|Yilan]]).

The distinguishing feature of the coastal speech is the use of the vowel {{angle bracket|uiⁿ}} in place of {{angle bracket|ng}}. The northern speech is distinguished by the absence of the [[#Tones|8th tone]], and some vowel exchanges (for example, {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, {{angle bracket|e}} and {{angle bracket|oe}}). The central speech has an additional vowel {{IPA|[ɨ]}} or {{IPA|[ø]}} between {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|u}}, which may be represented as {{angle bracket|ö}}. There are also a number of other pronunciation and lexical differences between the Taiwanese variants; the online Ministry of Education dictionary specifies these to a resolution of eight regions on Taiwan proper, in addition to [[Kinmen]] and [[Penghu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho|script-title=zh:方言差"語音差異表|trans-title=Table of Pronunciation Differences|year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_fangyan_level2.jsp?condition=cuankho_p|script-title=zh:方言差"詞彙差異表|trans-title=Table of Vocabulary Differences |year=2011|work=臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C.|language=zh|access-date=8 July 2011}}</ref>

Concerning the fifth (rising) tone in normal sandhi patterns, the Quanzhou/Coastal/Northern dialects change to seventh (mid level) tone, whereas the Zhangzhou/"Mixed"/Southern dialects change to third (low falling) tone.

Certain new north–south distinctions have appeared in recent decades.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}<ref>{{Cite journal|author1-link=Jack C. Richards|last=Richards|first=Jack C.|date=1977-01-01|title=Variation in Singapore English|jstor=43135170|journal=Interlanguage Studies Bulletin|volume=2|issue=2|pages=131–151}}</ref> The fourth and eighth tones tend to be reversed in the north and south.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/resources/PronouncingTaiwanese.html|title=Jordan: Pronouncing Romanized Taiwanese Hokkien|website=pages.ucsd.edu}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2016}}

====Quanzhou–Zhangzhou inclinations====

[[Hokkien]] immigrants to Taiwan originated from [[Quanzhou]] prefecture (44.8%) and [[Zhangzhou]] prefecture (35.2%).{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} The original phonology from these regions was spread around Taiwan during the immigration process. With the advanced development of transportation and greater mobility of the Taiwanese population, Taiwanese speech has steered itself towards a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech, known as ''Chiang–Chôan-lām'' (漳泉濫, in Mandarin ''Zhāng–Quán làn'').{{sfnp|Ang|1987}} Due to different proportion of mixture, some regions are inclined more towards Quanzhou accent, while others are inclined more towards Zhangzhou accent.

In general, Quanzhou accent is more common along the coastal region and is known as the ''hái-kháu'' accent; Zhangzhou accent is more common within the mountainous region of Taiwan and is known as the ''lāi-po͘'' accent. The regional variation within Taiwanese may be attributed to variations in the mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou accents and/or lexicons. It ranges from Lukang accent (based on Quanzhou accent) on one end, to the northern coastal [[Yilan City|Yilan]] accent (based on Zhangzhou accent) on another end. Tainan, Kaohsiung and Taitung accents, on the other hand, are closest to the prestige accent.

'''<center>Variations in Taiwanese Hokkien accents</center>'''

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|-
! style="background:#FFA000; color:black" | [[Quanzhou]] accent
|-
| style="background:#fc0;"| [[Lukang, Changhua|Lukang]]
|-
| style="background:#fc6;"| [[Penghu]], [[Taixi, Yunlin|Taixi]], [[Dajia District|Dajia]]—[[Budai, Chiayi|Budai]] coastal region (''hái-kháu'')
|-
| style="background:#fc9;"| [[Taipei]], [[Hsinchu]] (very similar to [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcc;"| [[Chiayi]]—[[Kaohsiung]] surrounding
area, [[Taitung City|Taitung]] (prestige accent, [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] accent mixed [[Zhangzhou]] accent)
|-
| style="background:#fcf;"| [[Taichung Basin|Taichung]], [[Changhua City|Changhua]]—[[Yunlin County|Yunlin]] inland area, [[Taoyuan, Taiwan|North Taoyuan]](''lāi-po͘'')
|-
| style="background:#c9f;"| [[Yilan City|Yilan]]
|-
! style= "background:#BBA1CB; color:black" | [[Zhangzhou]] accent
|}

====Recent terminological distinctions====
Recent research has found a need for new terminology of Taiwanese dialects, mainly because the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects in Taiwan developed independently from those in Fujian. Thus, some scholars (i.e., Klöter, following {{lang|zh-tw|董忠司}}) have divided Taiwanese into five subdialects, based on geographic region:{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=4}}
#''hái-kháu'' ({{lang|zh-tw|海口腔}}): west coast, based on what was formerly referred to as Quanzhou dialect (represented by the Lukang accent)
#''phian-hái'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏海腔}}): coastal (represented by the Nanliao ({{lang|zh-tw|南寮}}) accent)
#''lāi-po͘'' ({{lang|zh-tw|內埔腔}}): western inner plain, mountain regions, based on the Zhangzhou dialect (represented by the Yilan accent)
#''phian-lāi'' ({{lang|zh-tw|偏內腔}}): interior (represented by the [[Taibao]] accent)
#''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}): common accents (represented by the Taipei (spec. [[Datong District, Taipei|Datong]]) accent in the north and the Tainan accent in the south)
Both ''phian-hái'' and ''phian-lāi'' are intermediate dialects between ''hái-kháu'' and ''lāi-po͘'', these also known as ''thong-hêng'' ({{lang|zh-tw|通行腔}}) or "{{lang|zh-tw|不泉不漳}}". In some ways this mixed dialect is similar to the Amoy dialect, which itself is a blend of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. The common dialect refers to that which can be heard on radio, television, official announcements, etc.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

=== Fluency ===
A great majority of people in Taiwan can speak both [[Mandarin Chinese]] and Taiwanese although the degree of fluency varies widely.<ref name="housing census" /> There are however small but significant numbers of people in Taiwan, mainly but not exclusively [[Hakka people|Hakka]] and [[waishengren|Mainlanders]], who cannot speak Taiwanese fluently. A shrinking percentage of the population, mainly people born before the 1950s, cannot speak Mandarin at all, or learned to speak Mandarin later in life, though some of these speak Japanese fluently. Urban, working-class Hakkas as well as younger, southern-Taiwan Mainlanders tend to have better, even native-like fluency. Approximately half of the Hakka in Taiwan do speak Taiwanese. There are many families of mixed Hakka, Hoklo, and [[Taiwanese aborigines|Aboriginal]] bloodlines. There is, however, a large percentage of people in Taiwan, regardless of their background, whose ability to understand and read written Taiwanese is greater than their ability to speak it. This is the case with some singers who can sing Taiwanese songs with native-like proficiency, but can neither speak nor understand the language.

Which variant is used depends strongly on the context, and in general people will use Mandarin in more formal situations and Taiwanese in more informal situations. Taiwanese tends to get used more in [[rural]] areas, while Mandarin is used more in [[urban area|urban]] settings. Older people tend to use Taiwanese, while younger people tend to use Mandarin. In the broadcast media where Mandarin is used in many genres, [[soap opera]], [[variety show]]s, and even some news programs can also be found in Taiwanese.

=== Sociolinguistics and gender ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2011}}
Taiwanese is also perceived by some to have a slight masculine leaning, making it more popular among the males of the younger population. It is sometimes perceived as "unladylike" when spoken by the females of the younger population.

=== Special literary and art forms ===

''Chhit-jī-á'' (literally, "that which has seven syllables") is a [[poetry|poetic]] [[meter (poetry)|meter]] where each verse has 7 syllables.

There is a special form of [[music]]al/[[drama]]tic performance ''koa-á-hì'': the [[Taiwanese opera]]; the subject matter is usually a [[history|historical event]]. A similar form ''pò͘-tē-hì'' ([[glove puppetry]]) is also unique and has been elaborated in the past two decades into impressive [[television|televised]] spectacles.

See [[Taiwanese cuisine]] for names of several local dishes.

===Bible translations===
[[File:Bibles in Taiwanese.jpg|thumb|right|A collection of translations of the Bible in Taiwanese. Top left, ''Today’s Taiwanese'' version; top right, the Red-Cover Bible; bottom, Barclay's translation.]]

As with many other languages, the [[Chinese Bible Translations|translations of the Bible]] in Taiwanese marked milestones in the standardization attempts of the language and its orthography.

The first translation of the Bible in Amoy or Taiwanese in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography was by the first missionary to Taiwan, [[James Laidlaw Maxwell]], with the New Testament ''Lán ê Kiù-chú Iâ-so͘ Ki-tok ê Sin-iok'' published in 1873 and the Old Testament ''Kū-iok ê Sèng Keng'' in 1884.

[[File:Taiwanese Bible Chim-gian 1933.jpg|thumb|left|A copy of Barclay's Amoy translation, opened to the Proverbs.]]

The next translation of the Bible in Taiwanese or Amoy was by the missionary to Taiwan, [[Thomas Barclay (missionary)|Thomas Barclay]], carried out in Fujian and Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/native.htm |script-title=zh:本土聖經 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=zh }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm |script-title=ja:書評『聖經－－台語漢字本』 |access-date=2008-07-14 |language=ja |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080120005258/http://www32.ocn.ne.jp/~sunliong/lunwen-12j.htm|archive-date=20 January 2008}}</ref> A New Testament translation was completed and published in 1916. The resulting work containing the Old and the New Testaments, in the pe̍h-ōe-jī orthography, was completed in 1930 and published in 1933 as the Amoy Romanized Bible ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|links=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Sin-kū-iok ê Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]]. 2000 copies of the Amoy Romanized Bible were confiscated by the Taiwan Garrison from the Bible Society of Taiwan in 1975. This edition was later transliterated into Han characters and published as {{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=聖經台語漢字本|poj=Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|labels=no|scase=}} [[:zh-min-nan:Sèng-keng Tâi-gí Hàn-jī Pún|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]] in 1996.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://tailo.fhl.net/Godspeak/Godspeak26.html |title=台語信望愛 - 4.1.4 《台語漢字本》|website=tailo.fhl.net |language=zh-TW }}</ref>

[[File:Ang-phoe Seng-keng te-571-bin.jpg|thumb|right|A page from the Red-Cover Bible.]]

The Ko-Tân ([[Kerygma]]) Colloquial Taiwanese Version of the New Testament (''Sin-iok'') in pe̍h-ōe-jī, also known as the {{Interlanguage link|Red Cover Bible|zh-min-nan|Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|WD=}} ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Âng-phoê Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), was published in 1973 as an ecumenical effort between the Protestant [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the Roman Catholic mission [[Maryknoll]]. This translation used a more modern vocabulary (somewhat influenced by Mandarin), and reflected the central Taiwan dialect, as the Maryknoll mission was based near [[Taichung|Tâi-tiong]]. It was soon confiscated by the Kuomintang government (which objected to the use of Latin orthography) in 1975. The copies of the ecumenical NT are now available on the online stores.

A translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Today's Taiwanese Romanized Version" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|labels=no}}) [[:zh-min-nan:Hiān-tāi Tâi-gú Sin-iok Sèng-keng|(on Hokkien Wikipedia)]], containing only the New Testament, again in pe̍h-ōe-jī, was published in 2008<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peopo.org/chuniok/post/12934|title=現代台語新約羅馬字聖經出版感謝e話|website=www.peopo.org }}</ref> as a collaboration between the [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]] and the [[Bible Society in Taiwan]]. A translation of the Old Testament, following the same principle, is being prepared.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblesociety-tw.org/translation/Taiwanese.htm|title=台語聖經|website=www.biblesociety-tw.org|language=zh-TW}}</ref>{{Outdated inline|date=December 2018|reason=2018 status not stated|?=yes}}

Another translation using the principle of [[Dynamic and formal equivalence|functional equivalence]], "Common Taiwanese Bible" ({{Lang-zh|c=|s=|t=|poj=Choân-bîn Tâi-gí Sèng-keng|labels=no}}), with versions of pe̍h-ōe-jī, Han characters and Ruby version (both Han characters and pe̍h-ōe-jī) was published in 2015, available in printed and online.

=== Politics ===
[[File:Banning of POJ.gif|thumb|right|A decree (1955) banning the use of Pe̍h-ōe-jī, a Latin orthography for Taiwanese, in church.]]
Until the 1980s, the use of Taiwanese, along with all [[Varieties of Chinese|varieties]] other than [[Taiwanese Mandarin|Mandarin]], was discouraged by the [[Kuomintang]] through measures such as banning its use in schools and limiting the amount of Taiwanese broadcast on electronic media. These measures were removed by the 1990s, and Taiwanese became an emblem of [[Taiwanese localization movement|localization]]. Mandarin remains the predominant language of education, although there is a "mother tongue" language requirement in Taiwanese schools which can be satisfied with student's choice of mother tongue: Taiwanese, Hakka, or [[Formosan languages|aboriginal languages]].

Although the use of Taiwanese over Mandarin was historically part of the [[Taiwan independence movement]], the linkage between politics and language is not as strong as it once was. Some fluency in Taiwanese is desirable for political office in Taiwan for both independence and unificationist politicians. At the same time even some supporters of Taiwan independence have played down its connection with Taiwanese in order to gain the support of the [[waishengren|Mainlander]]s and [[Hakka people]].

[[James Soong]] restricted the use of Taiwanese and other local tongues in broadcasting while serving as Director of the [[Government Information Office]] earlier in his career, but later became one of the first politicians of Mainlander origin to use Taiwanese in semi-formal occasions.{{synthesis inline|date=August 2016}} Since then, politicians opposed to Taiwanese independence have used it frequently in rallies, even when they are not native speakers. Conversely, politicians who have traditionally been identified with Taiwan independence have used Mandarin on formal occasions and semi-formal occasions such as press conferences. An example of the latter is former President [[Chen Shui-bian]] who uses Mandarin in all official state speeches, but uses mainly Taiwanese in political rallies and some informal state occasions such as New Year greetings. The current [[President of Taiwan]] and of the ([[Democratic Progressive Party|DPP]]), [[Tsai Ing-wen]] has been criticized by her supporters for not using Taiwanese in speeches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5dPfuafUb?url=http://www.newtaiwan.com.tw/bulletinview.jsp?bulletinid=80826 |archive-date=28 December 2008 |script-title=zh:蔡英文不說台語高雄人涼了半截 |trans-title=Tsai Ing-wen doesn't speak Taiwanese; The people in Kaohsiung feel half-disappointed |language=zh |access-date=12 October 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Former President [[Ma Ying-jeou]] spoke in Taiwanese during his 2008 [[Double Ten Day]] speech when he was talking about the state of the [[Economy of Taiwan|economy in Taiwan]].

In the early 21st century, there are few differences in language usage between the [[Chinese unification|pro-reuinification]] leaning [[Pan-Blue Coalition]] and the [[Taiwan independence movement|independence]] leaning [[Pan-Green Coalition]]. Both tend to use Taiwanese at political rallies and sometimes in informal interviews, and both tend to use Mandarin at formal press conferences and official state functions. Both also tend to use more Mandarin in [[Northern Taiwan]] and more Taiwanese in [[Southern Taiwan]]. However, at official party gatherings (as opposed to both Mandarin-leaning state functions and Taiwanese-leaning party rallies), the DPP tends to use Taiwanese while KMT and [[PFP (Taiwan)|PFP]] tend to use Mandarin. The [[Taiwan Solidarity Union]], which advocates a strong line on Taiwan independence, tends to use Taiwanese even in formal press conferences. In speaking, politicians will frequently [[Code-switching|code switch]]. In writing, almost everyone uses [[written vernacular Chinese|vernacular Mandarin]] which is further from Taiwanese, and the use of semi-alphabetic writing or even [[Tng-lang-ji|colloquial Taiwanese characters]] is rare.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=An investigation of written Taiwanese|url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/11520|date=2005|degree=MA|language=en-US|first=Katsuhiro J.|last=Ota|publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa|hdl=10125/11520}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Mair|first=Victor|title=Taiwanese, Mandarin, and Taiwan's language situation|url=http://pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|access-date=2020-08-06|website=pinyin.info}}</ref>

In 2002, the Taiwan Solidarity Union, a party with about 10% of the [[Legislative Yuan]] seats at the time, suggested making Taiwanese a second official language.<ref>{{cite news |author=Lin Mei-chun |title=Hokkien should be given official status, says TSU |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2002/03/10/0000127068 |work=Taipei Times|date=10 March 2002 |page=1 }}</ref> This proposal encountered strong opposition not only from Mainlander groups but also from Hakka and aboriginal groups who felt that it would slight their home languages, as well as others including [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]] who objected to the proposal on logistical grounds and on the grounds that it would increase ethnic tensions. Because of these objections, support for this measure is lukewarm among moderate Taiwan independence supporters, and the proposal did not pass.

In 2003, there was a controversy when parts of the civil service examination for judges were written in characters used only in Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite news|author=Ko Shu-ling|title=Control Yuan sets rules for future examinations |page=2 |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2004/09/20/2003203606 |work=Taipei Times|date=20 September 2004}}</ref> After strong objections, these questions were not used in scoring. As with the official-language controversy, objections to the use of Taiwanese came not only from Mainlander groups, but also Hoklo, Hakka and aborigines. The [[Control Yuan]] later created a rule that only allowed Standard Mandarin characters on civil service exams. According to public opinion surveys in 2008, more people supported making English a second official language than Taiwanese.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Gijsen, Johan |author2=Liu Yu-Chang |chapter=Chapter 8: The Quest for a New Civic and Linguistic Identity: Mandarin and English Encroachment upon the Taiwanese Language |title=Critical Perspectives on Language and Discourse in the New World Order|editor1-last=Abdullah|editor1-first=Faiz Sathi|editor2-last=Abdullah|editor2-first=Mardziah Hayati|editor3-last=Hoon|editor3-first=Tan Bee|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge Scholars|location=Newcastle|isbn=9781847183408|page=156}}</ref>

In 2017, aboriginal languages were given official status in Taiwan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/aipl/201707190019.aspx|title=President lauds efforts in transitional justice for indigenous people|publisher=Focus Taiwan|access-date=19 July 2017}}</ref> as was the [[Taiwanese Hakka|Hakka language]].<ref name="hakkaofficial">{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2017/12/30/2003684894|title=Hakka made an official language|last1=Cheng|first1=Hung-ta|last2=Chung|first2=Jake|date=30 December 2017|work=[[Taipei Times]]}}</ref> {{As of|2018}}, English is planned to become an official language in Taiwan,<ref name="English status">{{Cite news|url=https://www.hongkongfp.com/2018/08/31/taiwan-make-english-official-language-next-year-says-official/|title=Taiwan to make English an official language next year, says official {{!}} Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|date=2018-08-31|work=Hong Kong Free Press HKFP|access-date=2018-09-05|language=en-GB}}</ref> although this has not happened as of mid-2020. Taiwanese is required for some activities but not others. For further information, see [[Languages of Taiwan]].

===Mother tongue movement===
[[Taiwanese localization movement|Taiwanization]] developed in the 1990s into a ‘[[mother tongue]] revival movement' aiming to save, preserve, and develop the local ethnic culture and language of Holo (Taiwanese), Hakka, and aborigines. The effort to [[Language revitalization|save declining languages]] has since allowed them to revive and flourish. In 1993, Taiwan became the first country in the world to implement the teaching of Taiwanese in schools. By 2001, Taiwanese languages such as Taiwanese, Hakka, and aboriginal languages were taught in all Taiwanese schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhu.edu.tw/~society/e-j/45/45-16.htm|author=許嘉文|date=15 March 2005|language=zh|script-title=zh:台灣鄉土教育發展史|trans-title=The education history of local Taiwanese languages}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} Since the 2000s, elementary school students are required to take a class in either Taiwanese, Hakka or aboriginal languages.{{sfnp|Lin|2002}}{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}{{dubious|date=March 2016}} In junior high this is usually an available [[Course (education)#Elective and required courses|elective]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ey.gov.tw/AnnoucePage2.aspx|title=行政院全球資訊網|website=www.ey.gov.tw|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref> Taiwan also has its own [[Taiwan literature movement|literary circle]] whereby Hokkien poets and writers compose poetry and literature in Taiwanese on a regular basis.

As a result of the mother tongue movement, Taiwan has emerged as a significant cultural hub for Hokkien in the world in the 21st century. It also plans to be the major export center for [[Hokkien culture]] worldwide in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npf.org.tw/11/4118|title=馬英九 {{!}} 馬蕭文化政策 {{!}} 國家政策研究基金會 {{!}} 公共政策的理性思辯與對話平台！|website=國家政策研究基金會|language=zh-TW|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref>

=== Television ===

{{Expand Chinese|section=yes|date=August 2020}}

* [[Lady Rainicorn]] for ''[[Adventure Time]]'' broadcast by [[Cartoon Network (Taiwanese TV channel)|Cartoon Network Taiwan]] used Taiwanese for [[Li Hanfei]] ({{lang|zh-tw|李涵菲}})

==Scholarship==
Klöter's ''Written Taiwanese'' (cited below) has been described as "the most comprehensive English-language study of written Taiwanese".{{sfnp|Snow|2004|p=261}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Taiwan|Languages}}
* [[Languages of Taiwan]]
* [[Min Nan Wikipedia]]
* [[Speak Hokkien Campaign]]
* [[Taiwanese literature movement]]
* [[:nan:Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng|Bân-lâm-gí Gí-giân Lêng-le̍k Jīn-chèng]] (Taiwanese Test) {{in lang|nan}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

=== Words in native languages ===
{{notelist-ur}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Cited sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Ang |first=Ui-jin |author-link=Ang Ui-jin |script-title=zh:臺灣河佬語聲調研究 |year=1987 |edition=4 |publisher=自立晚報 |location = Taipei |language= zh-Hant |isbn=9789575960353 |oclc=813713530 }}
* {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=James W. |author-link=James W. Davidson |title = The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : history, people, resources, and commercial prospects : tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions |year=1903 |publisher=Macmillan |url = https://archive.org/details/islandofformosap00davi |location=London and New York |ol=6931635M |oclc=1887893 }}
* {{cite book |last = Klöter |first = Henning |title=Written Taiwanese |year = 2005 |publisher=Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |isbn=9783447050937 }}
* {{cite book |last = Snow |first = D. |title=Cantonese as Written Language: The Growth of a Written Chinese Vernacular |year = 2004 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |location=Hong Kong |isbn=9789622097094 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wu |first=Soli |author-link = :zh-min-nan:Ngô͘ Siú-lé |year=2000 |script-title = zh:國臺對照活用辭典 |trans-title=Mandarin-Taiwanese Comparative Living Dictionary |language = zh-TW, zh-min-nan |publisher=Yuan-Liou |location=Taipei |isbn=9789573240884 |oclc = 45990089 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==

===Books and other material===
(As English language material on Taiwanese learning is limited, Japanese and German books are also listed here.)
; English textbooks & dictionaries
* {{cite book |author=李勤岸 |trans-title=Harvard Taiwanese 101 |script-title=zh:哈佛臺語101 |translator-last1=Yeh |translator-first1=Chieh-Ting |translator-last2=Lee |translator-first2=Marian |publisher=開朗 |place=Tainan |year=2005 |isbn=9789868160811 |language=en,zh |type=paperback & CD }}
* Su-chu Wu, Bodman, Nicholas C.: Spoken Taiwanese with cassette(s), 1980/2001, {{ISBN|0-87950-461-7}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-460-9}} or {{ISBN|0-87950-462-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |author-link=William Campbell (missionary) |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1913 |publisher=Taiwan Church Press |location=[[Tainan]] |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000072254844;view=1up;seq=28 |oclc=867068660}}
**{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=William |title=A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular, spoken throughout the prefectures of Chin-chiu, Chiang-chiu and Formosa |year=1923 |edition=2nd |orig-year=1913 |publisher=Fukuin Print. Co. |location=Yokohama |oclc=43655590 |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015056044533;view=1up;seq=1 |postscript=(with preface by Thomas Barclay)}}
* Iâu Chèng-to: Cheng-soán Pe̍h-oē-jī (Concise Colloquial Writing). Tainan, Taiwan: Jîn-kong (an imprint of the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan). 1992.
* Tân, K. T: A Chinese-English Dictionary: Taiwan Dialect. Taipei: Southern Materials Center. 1978.
* Maryknoll Language Service Center: English-Amoy Dictionary. Taichung, Taiwan: Maryknoll Fathers. 1979.

; Japanese publications
* Higuchi, Yasushi (樋口靖 ''Higuchi Yasushi''): 台湾語会話, 2000, {{ISBN|4-497-20004-3}} (Good and yet concise introduction to the Taiwanese language in Japanese; CD: {{ISBN|4-497-20006-X}})
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''): はじめての台湾語, 2003, {{ISBN|4-7569-0665-6}} (Introduction to Taiwanese [and Mandarin]; in Japanese).
* Zheng, Zhenghao (鄭正浩 ''Zhèng Zhènghào''): 台湾語基本単語2000, 1996, {{ISBN|4-87615-697-2}} (Basic vocabulary in Taiwanese 2000; in Japanese).
* Zhao, Yihua (趙怡華 ''Zhào Yíhuá''), Chen Fenghui (陳豐惠 ''Chén Fēnghuì''), Kaori Takao (たかおかおり ''Takao Kaori''), 2006, 絵でわかる台湾語会話. {{ISBN|978-4-7569-0991-6}} (Conversations in Taiwanese [and Mandarin] with illustrations; in Japanese).
;Others
* Katharina Sommer, Xie Shu-Kai: Taiwanisch Wort für Wort, 2004, {{ISBN|3-89416-348-8}} (Taiwanese for travellers, in German. CD: {{ISBN|3-8317-6094-2}})

; Articles and other resources
*{{cite journal|last=Chiung |first=Wi-vun Taiffalo |date=2003 |title=Tone Change in Taiwanese: Age and Geographic Factors |journal=University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics |volume=8 |issue=1 |url=http://repository.upenn.edu/pwpl/vol8/iss1/5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303035733/http://uibun.twl.ncku.edu.tw/chuliau/lunsoat/english/tchange/tonechange-v.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite journal |last=LÎM |first=Chùn-io̍k |year=2014 |title=The Common Taiwanese Bible: A Means of Seeking to Affirm the Selfhood and Integrity of Taiwanese and Their Language |journal=Journal of Taiwanese Vernacular |volume=6 |number=2 |pages=106–9 |doi=10.6621/JTV.2014.0602.05
}}
*{{cite web |last=Tan-Tenn |first=Henry H. |date=2001 |title=Taiwanese learning resources |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050418075331/http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf |archive-date=2005-04-18 |url=http://lomaji.com/poj/faq/ITASA_2001_Resources.pdf}}
*{{cite book |last=Tiuⁿ |first=Jū-hông |year=2001 |trans-title=Principles of Pe̍h-oē-jī or the Taiwanese Orthography: an introduction to its sound-symbol correspondences and related issues |script-title=zh:白話字基本論 : 臺語文對應&相關的議題淺說 |language=zh |place=Taipei |publisher=Crane |isbn=957-2053-07-8 }}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=zh-min-nan}}
; On the language
*{{cite web |last=Cannings |first=Michael |url=http://tailingua.com/ |title=Introducing the Taiwanese Language |website=Tailingua}}
* [http://johangijsen.blogspot.com/ Blog on the Taiwanese language and language education in Taiwan]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|title=How to Forget Your Mother Tongue and Remember Your National Language|last=Mair|first=Victor H. |author-link=Victor H. Mair |date=2003 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania|access-date=2 July 2011}}
* [[wikt:Appendix:Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists|Sino-Tibetan Swadesh lists]]

; Dictionaries
*{{cite web|script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 |trans-title=[[Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]] |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index.html |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |date=2011 |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |script-title=zh:台語-華語線頂辭典 |trans-title=Taiwanese-Mandarin Online Dictionary |language=nan-tw, zh, en |url=http://210.240.194.97/iug/Ungian/soannteng/chil/Taihoa.asp }}
* {{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |url=http://210.240.194.97/TG/jitian/tgjt.asp |script-title=zh:台語線頂字典 |trans-title=Taiwanese Online Character Dictionary |language=zh}}
* {{cite web |script-title=zh:臺灣本土語言互譯及語音合成系統 |trans-title=Taiwanese languages translation and speech synthesis system |language=zh, nan-tw, hak |url=http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008180132/http://nlg.csie.ntu.edu.tw/systems/TWLLMT/index.html |archive-date=8 October 2006}}
* {{cite web |website=Maryknoll Language Service Center |url=http://taiwanesedictionary.org/ |title=Maryknoll Taiwanese-English Dictionary and English-Amoy Dictionary}}

; Learning aids
* [http://taiwanesegrammar.wordpress.com/ Intermediate Taiwanese grammar (as a blog)]
* [http://taiwanesevocabulary.wordpress.com/ Taiwanese vocabulary: word of the day (blog)]
* [http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/lang/taiwanese/ Taiwanese teaching material]: Nursery rhymes and songs in Han characters and romanization w/ recordings in MP3
* [http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe Travlang (language resources for travellers): Hō-ló-oē] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518234153/http://travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi?page=main&lang1=english&lang2=holooe |date=18 May 2017 }}
*[http://speaktaiwanese.com/spoken-hokkien/ ''Spoken Hokkien''] - a beginner's e-textbook, with audio, for English-speaking learners of conversational Taiwanese.
* {{cite web |url=http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |title=Daiwanway |postscript=. Tutorial, dictionary, and stories in Taiwanese. Uses a unique romanization system, different from Pe̍h-oē-jī. Includes sound files |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429232228/http://daiwanway.dynip.com/ |archive-date=2007-04-29}}

; Other
* [http://www.dmoz.org/World/Taiwanese/ Open Directory (dmoz): World: Taiwanese]
{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}
{{Southern Min Languages}}
{{Min Chinese}}
{{Chinese language}}

[[Category:Languages of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Hokkien-language dialects]]
[[Category:Taiwanese culture]]

Talk:Fraud deterrence

2022-03-05T05:22:12Z

Cuaxdon: /* Split section */

{{WikiProject Law Enforcement |class=Start |importance=Mid}}
{{WikiProject Corruption |class=Start |importance=High}}

==What do fraud auditors do?==
what auditors do if fraud is suspected in an organisations. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/168.172.1.2|168.172.1.2]] ([[User talk:168.172.1.2|talk]]) 10:01, 30 June 2008‎

== External links modified ==

Hello fellow Wikipedians,

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== Split section ==

I think that the content about the fraud triangle should be split out into a new article named [[Fraud triangle]]. It is an unambiguously notable subject.''' —''' [[User:Mr. Guye|Mr. Guye]] ([[User talk:Mr. Guye|talk]]) ([[Special:Contributions/Mr. Guye|contribs]])  21:17, 22 August 2018 (UTC)
*'''Agree''' with proposal to split. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Gusfriend|Gusfriend]] ([[User talk:Gusfriend#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gusfriend|contribs]]) 09:34, 4 February 2022 (UTC) 
*'''Agree''' with being split out into a new article. [[User:Cuaxdon|Andrei Ꞓuà]] ([[User talk:Cuaxdon|talk]]) 05:21, 5 March 2022 (UTC)

History of Python

2022-01-29T11:32:59Z

Cuaxdon:

{{short description|History of the Python programming language}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2015}}
[[File:Python logo 1990s.svg|thumb|Old Python logo, 1990s–2006]]
[[File:Python logo and wordmark.svg|alt=|thumb|New Python logo, 2006–present]]
{{main|Python (programming language)}}

The [[programming language]] [[Python (programming language)|Python]] was conceived in the late 1980s,<ref name="venners-interview-pt-1">{{cite web |url=http://www.artima.com/intv/pythonP.html |title=The Making of Python |access-date=March 22, 2007 |publisher=Artima Developer }}</ref> and its implementation was started in December 1989<ref name="timeline-of-python" /> by [[Guido van Rossum]] at [[Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica|CWI]] in [[the Netherlands]] as a successor to [[ABC (programming language)|ABC]] capable of [[exception handling]] and interfacing with the [[Amoeba (operating system)|Amoeba operating system]].<ref name = "faq-created">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/doc/faq/general/#why-was-python-created-in-the-first-place |title=Why was Python created in the first place? |publisher=Python FAQ |access-date=March 22, 2007 }}</ref> Van Rossum is Python's principal author, and his continuing central role in deciding the direction of Python is reflected in the title given to him by the Python community, [[Benevolent Dictator For Life|''Benevolent Dictator for Life'' (BDFL)]].<ref name="origin">{{cite web |url=http://www.artima.com/weblogs/viewpost.jsp?thread=235725 |title=Origin of BDFL |first=Guido |last=van Rossum |date=July 31, 2008 |access-date=August 1, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Application-Development/Python-Creator-Scripts-Inside-Google/ |title=Python Creator Scripts Inside Google |date=March 7, 2006 |publisher=www.eweek.com |access-date=May 13, 2008 }}</ref> (However, van Rossum stepped down as leader on July 12, 2018.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fairchild |first1=Carlie |title=Guido van Rossum Stepping Down from Role as Python's Benevolent Dictator For Life |url=https://www.linuxjournal.com/content/guido-van-rossum-stepping-down-role-pythons-benevolent-dictator-life |access-date=July 12, 2018 |work=Linux Journal |date=July 12, 2018 |language=en }}</ref>). Python was named after the [[BBC TV]] show ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/3/faq/general.html#why-is-it-called-python |title=General Python FAQ — Python 3.8.3 documentation |website=docs.python.org }}</ref>

Python 2.0 was released on October 16, 2000, with many major new features, including a cycle-detecting [[Garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collector]] (in addition to [[reference counting]]) for [[memory management]] and support for [[Unicode]]. However, the most important change was to the development process itself, with a shift to a more transparent and community-backed process.<ref name="newin-2.0">{{cite web |url=http://www.amk.ca/python/2.0/ |title=What's New in Python 2.0 |first1=Andrew M. |last1=Kuchling |first2=Moshe |last2=Zadka |access-date=March 22, 2007 |archive-date=December 14, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091214142515/http://www.amk.ca/python/2.0 }}</ref>

Python 3.0, a major, backwards-incompatible release, was released on December 3, 2008<ref name="3.0-release">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/download/releases/3.0/ |title=Welcome to Python.org |work=python.org |access-date=December 27, 2016 }}</ref> after a long period of testing. Many of its major features have also been [[backport]]ed to the backwards-compatible, though now-unsupported, Python 2.6 and 2.7.<ref name="pep-3000" />

==Early history==
In February 1991, Van Rossum published the code (labeled version 0.9.0) to alt.sources.<ref name="alt-sources-history">{{cite web |url=https://www.tuhs.org/Usenet/alt.sources/1991-February/001749.html |title=Python 0.9.1 part 01/21 |publisher=alt.sources archives |access-date=2021-08-11 }}</ref><ref name="svn-history">{{cite web |url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/python/cpython/master/Misc/HISTORY |title=HISTORY |publisher=Python Foundation |work=Python source distribution |access-date=2017-11-23 }}</ref> Already present at this stage in development were [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming)|classes with inheritance]], exception handling, functions, and the core [[Data type|datatypes]] of {{code|list}}, {{code|dict}}, {{code|str}} and so on. Also in this initial release was a [[module system]] borrowed from [[Modula-3]]; Van Rossum describes the module as "one of Python's major programming units".<ref name="venners-interview-pt-1" /> Python's exception model also resembles Modula-3's, with the addition of an {{code|else}} clause.<ref name="faq-created" /> In 1994 [news://comp.lang.python comp.lang.python], the primary [[Internet forum|discussion forum]] for Python, was formed, marking a milestone in the growth of Python's userbase.<ref name="venners-interview-pt-1" />

==Version 1==
Python reached version 1.0 in January 1994. The major new features included in this release were the functional programming tools <code>[[Anonymous function#Python|lambda]]</code>, <code>[[Map (higher-order function)|map]]</code>, <code>[[Filter (higher-order function)|filter]]</code> and <code>[[Fold (higher-order function)|reduce]]</code>. Van Rossum stated that "Python acquired lambda, reduce(), filter() and map(), courtesy of a [[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]] hacker who missed them and submitted working [[Patch (computing)|patches]]".<ref name="reduce-fate">{{cite web |url=http://www.artima.com/weblogs/viewpost.jsp?thread=98196 |title=The fate of reduce() in Python 3000 |first=Guido |last=van Rossum |access-date=2007-03-22 |publisher=Artima Developer }}</ref>

The last version released while Van Rossum was at CWI was Python 1.2. In 1995, Van Rossum continued his work on Python at the [[Corporation for National Research Initiatives]] (CNRI) in [[Reston, Virginia|Reston]], [[Virginia]] from where he released several versions.

By version 1.4, Python had acquired several new features. Notable among these are the Modula-3 inspired [[keyword argument]]s (which are also similar to [[Common Lisp]]'s keyword arguments) and built-in support for [[complex number]]s. Also included is a basic form of [[data hiding]] by [[name mangling]], though this is easily bypassed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amk.ca/python/writing/12-14 |title=LJ #37: Python 1.4 Update |access-date=2007-04-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070501080219/http://www.amk.ca/python/writing/12-14 |archive-date=May 1, 2007 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

During Van Rossum's stay at CNRI, he launched the Computer Programming for Everybody (CP4E) initiative, intending to make programming more accessible to more people, with a basic "literacy" in programming languages, similar to the basic English literacy and mathematics skills required by most employers. Python served a central role in this: because of its focus on clean syntax, it was already suitable, and CP4E's goals bore similarities to its predecessor, ABC. The project was funded by [[DARPA]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/doc/essays/cp4e/ |first=Guido |last=van Rossum |title=Computer Programming for Everybody |access-date=2007-03-22 }}</ref> {{As of|2007}}, the CP4E project is inactive, and while Python attempts to be easily learnable and not too arcane in its syntax and semantics, outreach to non-programmers is not an active concern.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/cp4e/ |title=Computer Programming for Everybody |access-date=2007-03-22 |publisher=Python Software Foundation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070329060757/http://www.python.org/cp4e/ |archive-date=March 29, 2007 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

===BeOpen===
In 2000, the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com<ref>https://slashdot.org/story/00/05/30/1931239/python-development-team-moves-to-beopencom</ref> to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team, under the direction of early [[Google]] alum Domenic Merenda.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.beopen.com/company/team.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20000815095541/http://www.beopen.com/company/team.html|archive-date = August 15, 2000|title = Open | Your digital insurance partner}}</ref><ref>http://joeellsworth.com/resume/references/pybiz_beopen_partnership.pdf</ref> CNRI requested that a version 1.6 be released, summarizing Python's development up to the point at which the development team left CNRI. Consequently, the release schedules for 1.6 and 2.0 had a significant amount of overlap.<ref name="newin-2.0" /> Python 2.0 was the only release from BeOpen.com. After Python 2.0 was released by BeOpen.com, Guido van Rossum and the other PythonLabs developers joined [[Zope|Digital Creations]].

The Python 1.6 release included a new CNRI license that was substantially longer than the CWI license that had been used for earlier releases. The new license included a clause stating that the license was governed by the [[Law|laws]] of the [[State of Virginia]]. The [[Free Software Foundation]] argued that the choice-of-law clause was incompatible with the [[GNU General Public License]]. BeOpen, CNRI and the FSF negotiated a change to Python's [[free software license]] that would make it GPL-compatible. Python 1.6.1 is essentially the same as Python 1.6, with a few minor bug fixes, and with the new GPL-compatible license.<ref name="lib-history">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/doc/2.5/lib/node951.html |title=History of the software |work=Python Library Reference |access-date=2007-03-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070329061639/http://www.python.org/doc/2.5/lib/node951.html |archive-date=March 29, 2007 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

==Version 2==
Python 2.0, released October 2000,<ref name="newin-2.0" /> introduced [[list comprehension]]s, a feature borrowed from the [[functional programming]] languages [[SETL]] and [[Haskell (programming language)|Haskell]]. Python's syntax for this construct is very similar to Haskell's, apart from Haskell's preference for [[Punctuation|punctuation characters]] and Python's preference for alphabetic keywords. Python 2.0 also introduced a garbage collector capable of collecting reference cycles.<ref name="newin-2.0" />

Python 2.1 was close to Python 1.6.1, as well as Python 2.0. Its license was renamed [[Python Software Foundation License]]. All code, documentation and specifications added, from the time of Python 2.1's alpha release on, is owned by the [[Python Software Foundation]] (PSF), a [[Nonprofit organization|non-profit organization]] formed in 2001, modeled after the [[Apache Software Foundation]].<ref name="lib-history" /> The release included a change to the language specification to support nested scopes, like other [[static scoping|statically scoped]] languages.<ref name="pep-0227" /> (The feature was turned off by default, and not required, until Python 2.2.)

Python 2.2 was released in December 2001;<ref>https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2/</ref> a major innovation was the unification of Python's types (types written in [[C (programming language)|C]]) and classes (types written in Python) into one hierarchy. This single unification made Python's object model purely and consistently object oriented.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/doc/2.2.3/whatsnew/sect-rellinks.html |title=PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes |access-date=2008-09-05 |first=Andrew M. |last=Kuchling |date=2001-12-21 |work=What's New in Python 2.2 |publisher=Python Foundation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917162106/http://python.org/doc/2.2.3/whatsnew/sect-rellinks.html |archive-date=September 17, 2008 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Also added were [[generator (computer science)|generator]]s which were inspired by [[Icon (programming language)|Icon]].<ref name="pep-0255" />

Python 2.5 was released in September 2006 <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.5/ |title=Python 2.5 Release |website=Python.org }}</ref> and introduced the {{code|with}} statement, which encloses a code block within a context manager (for example, acquiring a [[lock (computer science)|lock]] before the block of code is run and releasing the lock afterwards, or opening a [[Computer file|file]] and then closing it), allowing [[Resource Acquisition Is Initialization]] (RAII)-like behavior and replacing a common try/finally idiom. <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.5/highlights/ |title=Highlights: Python 2.5 |website=Python.org }}</ref>

Python 2.6 was released to coincide with Python 3.0, and included some features from that release, as well as a "warnings" mode that highlighted the use of features that were removed in Python 3.0.<ref name="pep-0361" /><ref name="pep-3000" /> Similarly, Python 2.7 coincided with and included features from Python 3.1,<ref name="whatsnew2.7">{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/release/2.7/whatsnew/2.7.html |title=What's New in Python 2.7 |date=2010-07-03 |quote=Much as Python 2.6 incorporated features from Python 3.0, version 2.7 incorporates some of the new features in Python 3.1. The 2.x series continues to provide tools for migrating to the 3.x series. |first=Andrew M. |last=Kuchling |access-date=2012-10-07 }}</ref> which was released on June 26, 2009.
Parallel 2.x and 3.x releases then ceased, and Python 2.7 was the last release in the 2.x series.<ref name="pep-0404" /> In November 2014, it was announced that Python 2.7 would be supported until 2020, but users were encouraged to move to Python 3 as soon as possible.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.i-programmer.info/news/216-python/7179-python-27-to-be-maintained-until-2020.html |title=Python 2.7 To Be Maintained Until 2020 |first=Sue |last=Gee |date=2014-04-14 |work=i-programmer.info |access-date=December 27, 2016 }}</ref> Python 2.7 support ended on January 1, 2020, along with [[Freeze (software engineering)|code freeze]] of 2.7 development branch. A final release, 2.7.18, occurred on April 20, 2020, and included fixes for critical bugs and release blockers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://github.com/python/cpython/commits/2.7|title=Commits · python/cpython at 2.7|website=[[GitHub]]}}</ref> This marked the [[End-of-life (product)|end-of-life]] of Python 2.<ref name="pep-0373" />

==Version 3==
Python 3.0 (also called "Python 3000" or "Py3K") was released on December 3, 2008.<ref name="3.0-release" /> It was designed to rectify fundamental design flaws in the language—the changes required could not be implemented while retaining full backwards compatibility with the 2.x series, which necessitated a new major version number. The guiding principle of Python 3 was: "reduce feature duplication by removing old ways of doing things".

Python 3.0 was developed with the same philosophy as in prior versions. However, as Python had accumulated new and redundant ways to program the same task, Python 3.0 had an emphasis on removing duplicative constructs and modules, in keeping with "There should be one— and preferably only one —obvious way to do it".

Nonetheless, Python 3.0 remained a [[Multi-paradigm programming language|multi-paradigm language]]. Coders could still follow [[object-oriented]], [[structured programming|structured]], and [[functional programming|functional]] programming paradigms, among others, but within such broad choices, the details were intended to be more obvious in Python 3.0 than they were in Python 2.x.

===Compatibility===
Python 3.0 broke backward compatibility, and much Python 2 code does not run unmodified on Python 3. Python's [[dynamic typing]] combined with the plans to change the semantics of certain methods of dictionaries, for example, made perfect [[source-to-source compiler|mechanical translation]] from Python 2.x to Python 3.0 very difficult. A tool called "2to3" does the parts of translation that can be done automatically. At this, 2to3 appeared to be fairly successful, though an early review noted that there were aspects of translation that such a tool would never be able to handle.<ref>Ruby, Sam; [http://intertwingly.net/blog/2007/09/01/2to3 2to3], September 1, 2007</ref> Prior to the roll-out of Python 3, projects requiring compatibility with both the 2.x and 3.x series were recommended to have one source (for the 2.x series), and produce releases for the Python 3.x platform using 2to3. Edits to the Python 3.x code were discouraged for so long as the code needed to run on Python 2.x.<ref name="pep-3000" /> This is no longer recommended; as of 2012 the preferred approach was to create a single code base that can run under both Python 2 and 3 using compatibility modules.<ref>Coghlan, Nick; [http://python-notes.curiousefficiency.org/en/latest/python3/questions_and_answers.html#other-changes Python 3 Q & A], June 29, 2012</ref>

===Features===
Some of the major changes included for Python 3.0 were:

* Changing {{code|print}} so that it is a [[Intrinsic function|built-in function]], not a statement. This made it easier to change a module to use a different print function, as well as making the syntax more regular. In Python 2.6 and 2.7 {{code|print()}} is available as a builtin but is masked by the print statement syntax, which can be disabled by entering {{code|from __future__ import print_function}} at the top of the file<ref name="pep-3105" />
* Removal of the Python 2 {{code|input}} function, and the renaming of the {{code|raw_input}} function to {{code|input}}. Python 3's {{code|input}} function behaves like Python 2's {{code|raw_input}} function, in that the input is always returned as a string rather than being evaluated as an expression
* Moving {{code|reduce}} (but not {{code|map}} or {{code|filter}}) out of the built-in namespace and into {{code|functools}} (the rationale being code that uses {{code|reduce}} is less readable than code that uses a for loop and accumulator variable)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.artima.com/weblogs/viewpost.jsp?thread=211200 |title=Python 3000 FAQ |first=Guido |last=van Rossum |work=artima.com |access-date=December 27, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.artima.com/weblogs/viewpost.jsp?thread=98196 |title=The fate of reduce() in Python 3000 |website=www.artima.com |access-date=2019-12-31 }}</ref>
* Adding support for optional function annotations that can be used for [[Gradual typing|informal type declarations]] or other purposes<ref name="pep-3107" />
* Unifying the {{code|str}}/{{code|unicode}} types, representing text, and introducing a separate immutable {{code|bytes}} type; and a mostly corresponding mutable {{code|bytearray}} type, both of which represent arrays of [[byte]]s<ref name="pep-3137" />
* Removing backward-compatibility features, including old-style classes, string exceptions, and implicit relative imports
* A change in [[integer division]] functionality: in Python 2, {{code|5 / 2}} is {{code|2}}; in Python 3, {{code|5 / 2}} is {{code|2.5}}. (In both Python 2 – 2.2 onwards – and Python 3, a separate operator exists to provide the old behavior: {{code|5 // 2}} is {{code|2}})

Subsequent releases in the Python 3.x series have included additional, substantial new features; all ongoing development of the language is done in the 3.x series.

==Table of versions==
Releases before numbered versions:

* Implementation started - December, 1989<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
* Internal releases at [[Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica]] - 1990<ref name="timeline-of-python" />

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Version
! Latest micro version
! Release date
! End of full support
! End of security fixes
|-
| {{Version|o|0.9}}
| 0.9.9<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
| 1991-02-20<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
| colspan="2" | 1993-07-29{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-release|Date of last micro release.}}<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
|-
| {{Version|o|1.0}}
| 1.0.4<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
| 1994-01-26<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
| colspan="2" | 1994-02-15{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-release}}<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
|-
| {{Version|o|1.1}}
| 1.1.1<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
| 1994-10-11<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
| colspan="2" | 1994-11-10{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-release}}<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
|-
| {{Version|o|1.2}}
|
| 1995-04-13<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
| colspan="2" | Unsupported
|-
| {{Version|o|1.3}}
|
| 1995-10-13<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
| colspan="2" | Unsupported
|-
| {{Version|o|1.4}}
|
| 1996-10-25<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
| colspan="2" | Unsupported
|-
| {{Version|o|1.5}}
| 1.5.2<ref name="releases"/>
| 1998-01-03<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
| colspan="2" | 1999-04-13{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-release}}<ref name="timeline-of-python" />
|-
| {{Version|o|1.6}}
| 1.6.1<ref name="releases" />
| 2000-09-05<ref name="pep-0160" />
| colspan="2" | 2000-09{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-release}}<ref name="releases" />
|-
| {{Version|o|2.0}}
| 2.0.1<ref name="downloads" />
| 2000-10-16<ref name="pep-0200" />
| colspan="2" | 2001-06-22{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-release}}<ref name="downloads" />
|-
| {{Version|o|2.1}}
| 2.1.3<ref name="downloads" />
| 2001-04-15<ref name="pep-0226" />
| colspan="2" | 2002-04-09{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-release}}<ref name="downloads" />
|-
| {{Version|o|2.2}}
| 2.2.3<ref name="downloads" />
| 2001-12-21<ref name="pep-0251" />
| colspan="2" | 2003-05-30{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-release}}<ref name="downloads" />
|-
| {{Version|o|2.3}}
| 2.3.7<ref name="downloads" />
| 2003-06-29<ref name="pep-0283" />
| colspan="2" | 2008-03-11{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-release}}<ref name="downloads" />
|-
| {{Version|o|2.4}}
| 2.4.6<ref name="downloads" />
| 2004-11-30<ref name="pep-0320" />
| colspan="2" | 2008-12-19{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-release}}<ref name="downloads" />
|-
| {{Version|o|2.5}}
| 2.5.6<ref name="downloads" />
| 2006-09-19<ref name="pep-0356" />
| colspan="2" | 2011-05-26{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-release}}<ref name="downloads" />
|-
| {{Version|o|2.6}}
| 2.6.9<ref name="pep-0361" />
| 2008-10-01<ref name="pep-0361" />
| 2010-08-24{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-bug-release|Date of last non security only release.}}<ref name="pep-0361" />
| 2013-10-29<ref name="pep-0361" />
|-
| {{Version|o|2.7}}
| 2.7.18<ref name="pep-0373" />
| 2010-07-03<ref name="pep-0373" />
| colspan="2" | 2020-01-01{{efn|group=version-table|Official support ended on 2020-01-01, but a final release of the code as it appeared on 2020-01-01 was released on 2020-04-20 as version 2.7.18.<ref name="pep-0373" />}}<ref name="pep-0373" />
|-
| {{Version|o|3.0}}
| 3.0.1<ref name="downloads" />
| 2008-12-03<ref name="pep-0361" />
| colspan="2" | 2009-06-27<ref name="devcycle" />
|-
| {{Version|o|3.1}}
| 3.1.5<ref name="pep-0375" />
| 2009-06-27<ref name="pep-0375" />
| 2011-06-12<ref>{{cite mailing list |url=https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-announce-list@python.org/message/6HBADVUPFMK3TUJVZWAMYIO2JP4WZ7UT/ |title=[RELEASED] Python 3.1.4 |date=2011-06-12 |access-date=2019-11-29 |mailing-list=python-announce |last=Peterson |first=Benjamin }}</ref>
| 2012-04-06<ref name="pep-0375" />
|-
| {{Version|o|3.2}}
| 3.2.6<ref name="pep-0392" />
| 2011-02-20<ref name="pep-0392" />
| 2013-05-13{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-bug-release}}<ref name="pep-0392" />
| 2016-02-20<ref name="pep-0392" />
|-
| {{Version|o|3.3}}
| 3.3.7<ref name="pep-0398" />
| 2012-09-29<ref name="pep-0398" />
| 2014-03-08{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-bug-release}}<ref name="pep-0398" />
| 2017-09-29<ref name="pep-0398" />
|-
| {{Version|o|3.4}}
| 3.4.10<ref name="pep-0429" />
| 2014-03-16<ref name="pep-0429" />
| 2017-08-09<ref>{{cite mailing list |url=https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-announce-list@python.org/message/S6OZYIRIRG7ZLSTFLXA36KUQ56LV2DH6/ |title=[RELEASED] Python 3.4.7 is now available |date=2017-08-09 |access-date=2019-11-29 |mailing-list=python-announce |last=Hastings |first=Larry }}</ref>
| 2019-03-18{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-release}}<ref name="pep-0429" />
|-
| {{Version|o|3.5}}
| 3.5.10<ref name="pep-0478" />
| 2015-09-13<ref name="pep-0478" />
| 2017-08-08<ref>{{cite mailing list |url=https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-announce-list@python.org/message/HOIDGMHH35YLRM72UKOWI4CVXPXH3DJ2/ |title=[RELEASED] Python 3.5.4 is now available |date=2017-08-08 |access-date=2019-11-29 |mailing-list=python-announce |last=Hastings |first=Larry }}</ref>
| 2020-09-30<ref name="pep-0478" />
|-
| {{Version|o|3.6}}
| ''3.6.15''<ref name="pep-0494" />
| 2016-12-23<ref name="pep-0494" />
| 2018-12-24{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-bug-release}}<ref name="pep-0494" />
| 2021-12-23<ref>{{cite web |website=Python Developer's Guide |publisher=Python Foundation |access-date=20 December 2021 |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0494 |title=PEP 494 -- Python 3.6 Release Schedule }}</ref><ref name="pep-0494" />
|-
| {{Version|co|3.7}}{{Update after|2023|06}}
| ''3.7.12''<ref name="pep-0537" />
| 2018-06-27<ref name="pep-0537" />
| 2020-06-27{{efn|group=version-table|name=last-bug-release}}<ref name="pep-0537" />
| 2023-06-27<ref name="pep-0537" />{{Update after|2023|06|27}}
|-
| {{Version|co|3.8}}{{Update after|2024|10}}
| ''3.8.12''<ref name="pep-0569" />
| 2019-10-14<ref name="pep-0569" />
| 2021-05-03<ref name="pep-0569" />
| 2024-10<ref name="pep-0569" />{{Update after|2024|10}}
|-
| {{Version|co|3.9}}{{Update after|2025|10}}
| ''3.9.10''<ref name="mail-20211105" />{{Update after|2022|01|03}}
| 2020-10-05<ref name="pep-0596" />
| 2022-05<ref name="pep-0602" />{{Update after|2022|05}}
| 2025-10<ref name="pep-0596" /><ref name="pep-0602" />{{Update after|2025|10}}
|-
| {{Version|c|3.10}}{{Update after|2026|10}}
| ''3.10.2''<ref name="pep-0619" />{{Update after|2021|12|06}}
| 2021-10-04<ref name="pep-0619" />
| 2023-05<ref name="pep-0619" />{{Update after|2023|05}}
| 2026-10<ref name="pep-0619" />{{Update after|2026|10}}
|-
| {{Version|cp|3.11}}{{Update after|2022|10|03}}
|3.11.0a2<ref name="mail-20211105" />{{Update after|2021|12|06}}
| 2022-10-03<ref name="pep-0664" />{{Update after|2022|10|03}}
| 2024-05<ref name="pep-0664" />{{Update after|2024|05}}
| 2027-10<ref name="pep-0664" />{{Update after|2027|10}}
|-
| {{Version|p|3.12}}{{Update after|2022|10|03}}
|{{Update after|2022|10|03}}
| 2023-10<ref name="pep-0602" />{{Update after|2023|10}}
| 2025-05<ref name="pep-0602" />{{Update after|2025|05}}
| 2028-10<ref name="pep-0602" />{{Update after|2028|10}}
|-
| colspan="2" | '''Legend:'''
| colspan="3" | {{Version|l|show=011111}}
|-
| colspan="5" | ''Italics'' indicates the latest micro version of currently supported versions as of 2021-11-06{{Update after|2021|12|06}}.
|}
Table notes:
{{notelist|group=version-table}}

=== Support ===

<timeline>
ImageSize = width:1000 height:auto barincrement:35
PlotArea = left:100 right:50 bottom:30 top:10

DateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy
Period = from:01/01/1991 till:01/01/2029
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:2 start:1991
ScaleMinor = unit:month increment:3 start:01/01/1991

Define $dx = 25 # shift text to right side of bar

Colors =
id:in_development value:rgb(0.76, 0.90, 0.96) legend:In_development
id:pre_release value:rgb(1, 0.82, 0.63) legend:Pre_release
id:in_support value:rgb(0.83, 0.96, 0.71) legend:In_support
id:maintenance value:rgb(1, 0.97, 0.78) legend:Maintenance
id:out_of_support value:rgb(0.99, 0.70, 0.67) legend:Out_of_support

PlotData=
mark:(line,black)
fontsize:S
bar:3.12 from:05/10/2023 till:01/10/2028 text:3.12 color:in_development
bar:3.11 from:05/10/2022 till:01/10/2027 text:3.11 color:pre_release
bar:3.10 from:05/10/2021 till:01/10/2026 text:3.10 color:in_support
bar:3.9 from:05/10/2020 till:01/10/2025 text:3.9 color:maintenance
bar:3.8 from:14/10/2019 till:01/10/2024 text:3.8 color:maintenance
bar:3.7 from:27/06/2018 till:01/06/2023 text:3.7 color:maintenance
bar:3.6 from:23/12/2016 till:23/12/2021 text:3.6 color:out_of_support
bar:3.5 from:13/09/2015 till:30/09/2020 text:3.5 color:out_of_support
bar:3.4 from:16/03/2014 till:18/03/2019 text:3.4 color:out_of_support
bar:3.3 from:29/09/2012 till:29/09/2017 text:3.3 color:out_of_support
bar:3.2 from:20/02/2011 till:20/02/2016 text:3.2 color:out_of_support
bar:3.1 from:27/06/2009 till:01/06/2012 text:3.1 color:out_of_support
bar:3.0 from:03/12/2008 till:27/06/2009 text:3.0 color:out_of_support
bar:2.7 from:03/07/2010 till:01/01/2020 text:2.7 color:out_of_support
bar:2.6 from:01/10/2008 till:29/10/2013 text:2.6 color:out_of_support
bar:2.5 from:19/09/2006 till:26/05/2011 text:2.5 color:out_of_support
bar:2.4 from:30/11/2004 till:19/12/2008 text:2.4 color:out_of_support
bar:2.3 from:29/06/2003 till:11/03/2008 text:2.3 color:out_of_support
bar:2.2 from:21/12/2001 till:30/05/2003 text:2.2 color:out_of_support
bar:2.1 from:15/04/2001 till:09/04/2002 text:2.1 color:out_of_support
bar:2.0 from:16/10/2000 till:22/06/2001 text:2.0 color:out_of_support
bar:1.6 from:14/04/1999 till:16/10/2000 text:1.6 color:out_of_support
bar:1.5 from:03/01/1998 till:13/04/1999 text:1.5 color:out_of_support
bar:1.4 from:25/10/1996 till:03/01/1998 text:1.4 color:out_of_support
bar:1.3 from:13/10/1995 till:25/10/1996 text:1.3 color:out_of_support
bar:1.2 from:13/04/1995 till:13/10/1995 text:1.2 color:out_of_support
bar:1.1 from:11/10/1994 till:13/04/1995 text:1.1 color:out_of_support
bar:1.0 from:26/01/1994 till:11/10/1994 text:1.0 color:out_of_support
bar:0.9 from:20/02/1991 till:26/01/1994 text:0.9 color:out_of_support
</timeline>

==See also==
* [[History of software engineering]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="timeline-of-python">{{cite web |url=http://python-history.blogspot.com/2009/01/brief-timeline-of-python.html |title=A Brief Timeline of Python |last=van Rossum |first=Guido |author-link1=Guido van Rossum |date=2009-01-20 |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="downloads">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/downloads/ |title=Download Python {{!}} Python.org|access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="releases">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/download/releases |title=Releases {{!}} Python.org|access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>

<ref name="devcycle">{{cite web |url=https://devguide.python.org/devcycle/ |title=17. Development Cycle — Python Developer's Guide |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0160">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0160/ |title=PEP 160 -- Python 1.6 Release Schedule |last=Drake |first=Fred L., Jr. |date=2000-07-25 |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0200">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0200/ |title=PEP 200 -- Python 2.0 Release Schedule |last=Hylton |first=Jeremy |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0226">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0226/ |title=PEP 226 -- Python 2.1 Release Schedule |last=Hylton |first=Jeremy |date=2000-10-16 |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0227">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0227/ |title=PEP 227 -- Statically Nested Scopes |last=Hylton |first=Jeremy |date=2000-11-01 |access-date = 2007-03-22 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0251">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0251/ |title=PEP 251 -- Python 2.2 Release Schedule |last1=Warsaw |first1=Barry |last2=van Rossum |first2=Guido |date=2001-04-17 |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0255">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0255/ |title=PEP 255 -- Simple Generators |last1=Schemenauer |first1=Neil |last2=Peters |first2=Tim |last3=Hetland |first3=Magnus |date=2001-12-21|access-date=2008-09-05 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0283">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0283/ |title=PEP 283 -- Python 2.3 Release Schedule |last=van Rossum |first=Guido |date=2002-02-27 |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0320">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0320/ |title=PEP 320 -- Python 2.4 Release Schedule |last1=Warsaw |first1=Barry |last2=Hettinger |first2=Raymond |last3=Baxter |first3=Anthony |date=2003-07-29 |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0356">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0356/ |title=PEP 356 -- Python 2.5 Release Schedule |last1=Norwitz |first1=Neal |last2=van Rossum |first2=Guido |last3=Baxter |first3=Anthony |date=2006-02-07 |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0361">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0361/ |title=PEP 361 -- Python 2.6 and 3.0 Release Schedule |last1=Norwitz |first1=Neal |last2=Warsaw |first2=Barry |date=2006-06-29 |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0373">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0373/ |title=PEP 373 -- Python 2.7 Release Schedule |last=Peterson |first=Benjamin |date=2008-11-03 |access-date=2020-04-20 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0375">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0375/ |title=PEP 375 -- Python 3.1 Release Schedule |last=Peterson |first=Benjamin |date=2009-02-08 |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0392">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0392/ |title=PEP 392 -- Python 3.2 Release Schedule |last=Brandl |first=Georg |date=2009-12-30 |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0398">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0398/ |title=PEP 398 -- Python 3.3 Release Schedule |last=Brandl |first=Georg |date=2011-03-23 |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0404">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0404/ |title=PEP 404 -- Python 2.8 Un-release Schedule |last=Warsaw |first=Barry |date=2011-11-09 |access-date=2012-10-07 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0429">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0429/ |title=PEP 429 -- Python 3.4 Release Schedule |last=Hastings |first=Larry |date=2012-10-17 |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0478">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0478/ |title=PEP 478 -- Python 3.5 Release Schedule |last=Hastings |first=Larry |date=2014-09-22 |access-date=2020-03-17 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0494">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0494/ |title=PEP 494 -- Python 3.6 Release Schedule |last=Deily |first=Ned |date=2015-05-30 |access-date=2021-07-15 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0537">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0537/ |title=PEP 537 -- Python 3.7 Release Schedule |last=Deily |first=Ned |date=2016-12-23 |access-date=2021-07-15 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0569">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0569/ |title=PEP 569 -- Python 3.8 Release Schedule |last=Langa |first=Łukasz |date=2018-01-27 |access-date=2021-07-15 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0596">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0596/ |title=PEP 596 -- Python 3.9 Release Schedule |last=Langa |first=Łukasz |date=2020-10-13 |access-date=2021-07-15 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0602">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0602/ |title=PEP 602 -- Annual Release Cycle for Python |last=Langa |first=Łukasz |date=2019-06-04 |access-date=2019-11-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0619">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0619/ |title=PEP 619 -- Python 3.10 Release Schedule |last=Salgado |first=Pablo |date=2020-05-25 |access-date=2021-07-15 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-0664">{{cite web | url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0664/ |title=PEP 664 -- Python 3.11 Release Schedule |last=Salgado | first=Pablo |date=2021-07-12 |access-date=2021-07-15 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-3000">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3000/ |title=PEP 3000 -- Python 3000 |last=van Rossum |first=Guido |date=2006-04-05 |access-date=December 27, 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-3105">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3105/ |title=PEP 3105 -- Make print a function|last=Brandl |first=Georg |date=2007-11-19 |access-date=December 27, 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-3107">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3107/ |title=PEP 3107 -- Function Annotations |last1=Winter |first1=Collin |last2=Lownds |first2=Tony |date=2006-12-02 |access-date=December 27, 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="pep-3137">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3137/ |title=PEP 3137 -- Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer |last=van Rossum |first=Guido |date=2007-09-26 }}</ref>
<ref name="mail-20211105">{{cite mailing list |url=https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-announce-list@python.org/thread/IZPIHS7DBEDM4HHQGOUSDIZSYTSAOGYY/ |title=[RELEASE] Python 3.9.8 and 3.11.0a2 are now available |date=2021-11-05 |access-date=2021-11-06 |mailing-list=python-announce |last=Langa |first=Łukasz }}</ref>
}}

==External links==
* [http://python-history.blogspot.com/ Guido Van Rossum blog on Python's History]

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Python}}
[[Category:History of software|Python]]
[[Category:Python (programming language)]]
[[Category:Software version histories|Python]]

Python syntax and semantics

2022-01-29T10:08:02Z

Cuaxdon: /* Generator expressions */

{{Short description|Syntax of the Python programming language}}
{{lead too short|date=January 2021}}
{{manual|date=January 2021}}

The [[Syntax (programming languages)|syntax]] of the [[Python (programming language)|Python programming language]] is the set of rules that defines how a Python program will be written and [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreted]] (by both the [[runtime system]] and by human readers). The Python language has many similarities to [[Perl (programming language)|Perl]], [[C (programming language)|C]], and [[Java (programming language)|Java]]. However, there are some definite differences between the languages.

== Design philosophy ==

Python was designed to be a highly [[Readable code|readable]] language.<ref>"Readability counts." - [https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0020/ PEP 20 - The Zen of Python] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205214430/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0020/ |date=2014-12-05 }}</ref> It has a relatively uncluttered visual layout and uses English keywords frequently where other languages [[Syntactic sugar|use punctuation]]. Python aims to be simple and consistent in the design of its syntax, encapsulated in the mantra {{Sic|"There should be one— and preferably only one —obvious way to do it"|hide=y}}, from the [[Zen of Python]].<ref name="PEP20">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0020/ |title=PEP 20 - The Zen of Python |publisher=Python Software Foundation |date=2004-08-23 |access-date=2008-11-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203193726/http://www.python.org./dev/peps/pep-0020/ |archive-date=2008-12-03 |url-status=live }}</ref>

This mantra is deliberately opposed to the [[Perl]] and [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]] mantra, "[[there's more than one way to do it]]".

== Keywords ==

Python has 35 [[Reserved word|keywords]] or ''reserved words''; they cannot be used as [[Identifier (computer languages)|identifiers]].<ref>{{cite web|title=2. Lexical analysis|url=https://docs.python.org/3/reference/lexical_analysis.html#keywords|url-status=live|access-date=2021-03-11|work=Python 3 documentation|publisher=Python Software Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=2. Lexical analysis|url=https://docs.python.org/2/reference/lexical_analysis.html#keywords|url-status=live|access-date=2021-03-11|work=Python v2.7.18 documentation|publisher=Python Software Foundation}}</ref>
{{Div col|colwidth=12em}}
*<code>and</code>
*<code>as</code>
*<code>assert</code>
*<code>async</code>{{refn|group=note|name=keywordIn35|<code>async</code> and <code>await</code> were introduced in Python 3.5.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#new-keywords |title=New Keywords |work=Python v3.5 documentation |publisher=Docs.python.org |access-date=2016-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160618215313/https://docs.python.org/3//whatsnew/3.5.html#new-keywords |archive-date=2016-06-18 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
*<code>await</code>{{refn|group=note|name=keywordIn35}}
*<code>break</code>
*<code>class</code>
*<code>continue</code>
*<code>def</code>
*<code>del</code>
*<code>elif</code>
*<code>else</code>
*<code>except</code>
*<code>False</code>{{refn|group=note|name=becameKeywordIn3|<code>True</code> and <code>False</code> became keywords in Python 3.0. Previously they were [[global variable]]s.}}
*<code>finally</code>
*<code>for</code>
*<code>from</code>
*<code>global</code>
*<code>if</code>
*<code>import</code>
*<code>in</code>
*<code>is</code>
*<code>lambda</code>
*<code>None</code>
*<code>nonlocal</code>{{refn|group=note|name=keywordIn3|<code>nonlocal</code> was introduced in Python 3.0.}}
*<code>not</code>
*<code>or</code>
*<code>pass</code>
*<code>raise</code>
*<code>return</code>
*<code>True</code>{{refn|group=note|name=becameKeywordIn3}}
*<code>try</code>
*<code>while</code>
*<code>with</code>
*<code>yield</code>
{{div col end}}

In addition, Python also has 3 ''soft keywords''. Unlike regular ''hard keywords'', soft keywords are reserved words only in the limited contexts where interpreting them as keywords would make syntactic sense. These words can be used as identifiers elsewhere; You can define a function or variable named ''match'' or ''case''. <ref>{{cite web|title=2. Lexical analysis|url=https://docs.python.org/3/reference/lexical_analysis.html#soft-keywords|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-22|work=Python 3 documentation|publisher=Python Software Foundation}}</ref><ref name="pep-0622">{{cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0622/#backwards-compatibility |title=PEP 622 -- Structural Pattern Matching |date=2020-06-23 |access-date=2022-01-22 }}</ref>
*<code>_</code>{{refn|group=note|name=keywordIn310|<code>match</code>, <code>case</code> and <code>_</code> were introduced as keywords in Python 3.10.}}
*<code>case</code>{{refn|group=note|name=keywordIn310|<code>match</code>, <code>case</code> and <code>_</code> were introduced as keywords in Python 3.10.}}
*<code>match</code>{{refn|group=note|name=keywordIn310|<code>match</code>, <code>case</code> and <code>_</code> were introduced as keywords in Python 3.10.}}
;Notes
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== Indentation ==

Python uses [[Whitespace character|whitespace]] to delimit [[control flow]] blocks (following the [[off-side rule]]). Python borrows this feature from its predecessor [[ABC (programming language)|ABC]]: instead of punctuation or keywords, it uses indentation to indicate the run of a [[Block (programming)|block]].

In so-called "free-format" languages—that use the block structure derived from [[ALGOL]]—blocks of code are set off with braces (<code>{ }</code>) or keywords. In most [[coding conventions]] for these languages, programmers [[Prettyprint#Programming code formatting|conventionally indent the code]] within a block, to visually set it apart from the surrounding code.

A [[Recursion (computer science)|recursive]] [[Function (computer science)|function]] named <code>foo</code>, which is passed a single [[parameter (computer programming)|parameter]], <code>x</code>, and if the parameter is 0 will call a different function named <code>bar</code> and otherwise will call <code>baz</code>, passing <code>x</code>, and also call itself recursively, passing <code>x-1</code> as the parameter, could be implemented like this in Python:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def foo(x):
if x == 0:
bar()
else:
baz(x)
foo(x - 1)
</syntaxhighlight>

and could be written like this in [[C (programming language)|C]] with [[Indent style#K&R|K&R indent style]]:

<syntaxhighlight lang="c">
void foo(int x)
{
if (x == 0) {
bar();
} else {
baz(x);
foo(x - 1);
}
}
</syntaxhighlight>

Incorrectly indented code could be misread by a human reader differently than it would be interpreted by a [[compiler]] or interpreter. For example, if the function call <code>foo(x - 1)</code> on the last line in the example above was erroneously indented to be outside the <code>if</code>/<code>else</code> block:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def foo(x):
if x == 0:
bar()
else:
baz(x)
foo(x - 1)
</syntaxhighlight>

it would cause the last line to always be executed, even when <code>x</code> is 0, resulting in an [[Infinite loop#Infinite recursion|endless recursion]].

While both [[space (punctuation)|space]] and [[tab key|tab]] characters are accepted as forms of indentation and any multiple of spaces can be used, spaces are recommended<ref>{{Cite web|title=PEP 8 -- Style Guide for Python Code|url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/|access-date=2021-03-17|website=Python.org|language=en}}</ref> and 4 spaces (as in the above examples) are recommended and are by far the most commonly used.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hoffa|first=Felipe|date=2017-07-26|title=400,000 GitHub repositories, 1 billion files, 14 terabytes of code: Spaces or Tabs?|url=https://hoffa.medium.com/400-000-github-repositories-1-billion-files-14-terabytes-of-code-spaces-or-tabs-7cfe0b5dd7fd|access-date=2021-03-11|website=Medium|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Tabs or Spaces|url=https://ukupat.github.io/tabs-or-spaces/|access-date=2021-03-11|website=ukupat.github.io}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=March 2021}} Mixing spaces and tabs on consecutive lines in the same source code file is not allowed starting with Python 3<ref>{{Cite web|title=PEP 8 -- Style Guide for Python Code|url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/|access-date=2021-03-11|website=Python.org|language=en}}</ref> because that can create bugs which are difficult to see, since many tools do not visually distinguish spaces and tabs.

== Data structures ==
{{See also|Python (programming language)#Typing}}
Since Python is a [[dynamic typing|dynamically typed]] language, Python ''values,'' not variables, carry [[Data type|type]] information. All [[Variable (computer science)|variables]] in Python hold [[Reference (computer science)|references]] to [[Object-oriented programming|objects]], and these references are passed to functions. Some people (including [[Guido van Rossum]] himself) have called this parameter-passing scheme "call by object reference". An object reference means a name, and the passed reference is an "alias", i.e. a copy of the reference to the same object, just as in C/[[C++]]. The object's value may be changed in the called function with the "alias", for example:

<syntaxhighlight lang="pycon">
>>> alist = ['a', 'b', 'c']
>>> def my_func(al):
... al.append('x')
... print(al)
...
>>> my_func(alist)
['a', 'b', 'c', 'x']
>>> alist
['a', 'b', 'c', 'x']

</syntaxhighlight>

Function <code>my_func</code> changes the value of <code>alist</code> with the formal argument <code>al</code>, which is an alias of <code>alist</code>. However, any attempt to operate (assign a new object reference to) on the alias itself will have no effect on the original object.{{Clarify|date=March 2021|reason=how do you operate on an alias? the above snippet shows modification to the original object}}

<syntaxhighlight lang="pycon">
>>> alist = ['a', 'b', 'c']
>>> def my_func(al):
... # al.append('x')
... al = al + ['x'] # a new list created and assigned to al means al is no more alias for alist
... print(al)
...
>>> my_func(alist)
['a', 'b', 'c', 'x']
>>> alist
['a', 'b', 'c']

</syntaxhighlight>

For excellent but longer explanation please see: [https://nedbatchelder.com/text/names1.html Facts and myths about Python names and values]

In Python, non-innermost-local and not-declared-global accessible names are all aliases.

Among dynamically typed languages, Python is moderately type-checked. Implicit [[type conversion|conversion]] is defined for [[Numeric (data type)|numeric types]] (as well as [[Boolean data type|booleans]]), so one may validly multiply a [[complex number]] by an [[Integer (computer science)|integer]] (for instance) without explicit [[Type conversion|casting]]. However, there is no implicit conversion between, for example, numbers and [[String (computer science)|strings]]; a string is an invalid argument to a mathematical function expecting a number.

=== Base types ===

Python has a broad range of basic data types. Alongside conventional integer and [[floating-point]] arithmetic, it transparently supports [[arbitrary-precision arithmetic]], [[complex number]]s, and [[Decimal data type|decimal numbers]].

Python supports a wide variety of string operations. Strings in Python are [[immutable object|immutable]], so a string operation such as a substitution of [[Character (computing)|characters]], that in other programming languages might alter the string [[In-place algorithm|in place]], returns a new string in Python. Performance considerations sometimes push for using special techniques in programs that modify strings intensively, such as joining character arrays into strings only as needed.

=== Collection types ===

One of the very useful aspects of Python is the concept of [[Collection (abstract data type)|''collection'']] (or ''container'') types. In general a collection is an object that contains other objects in a way that is easily referenced or ''indexed''. Collections come in two basic forms: ''sequences'' and ''mappings''.

The ordered sequential types are lists (dynamic [[array data type|arrays]]), [[tuple]]s, and strings. All sequences are indexed positionally ([[Zero-based numbering|0 through ''length'' − 1]]) and all but strings can contain any type of object, including multiple types in the same sequence. Both strings and tuples are immutable, making them perfect candidates for dictionary keys (see below). Lists, on the other hand, are mutable; elements can be inserted, deleted, modified, appended, or sorted [[in-place algorithm|in-place]].

Mappings, on the other hand, are (often unordered) types implemented in the form of ''dictionaries'' which "map" a set of immutable keys to corresponding elements (much like a mathematical function). For example, one could define a dictionary having a string <code>"toast"</code> mapped to the integer <code>42</code> or vice versa. The keys in a dictionary must be of an immutable Python type, such as an integer or a string, because under the hood they are implemented via a [[hash function]]. This makes for much faster lookup times, but requires keys not change.

Dictionaries are central to the internals of Python as they reside at the core of all objects and classes: the mappings between variable names (strings) and the values which the names reference are stored as dictionaries (see [[Python syntax and semantics#Object system|Object system]]). Since these dictionaries are directly accessible (via an object's <code>__dict__</code> attribute), [[metaprogramming]] is a straightforward and natural process in Python.

A [[set (computer science)|set]] collection type is an unindexed, unordered collection that contains no duplicates, and implements [[naive set theory|set theoretic]] operations such as [[union (set theory)|union]], [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]], [[Relative complement|difference]], [[symmetric difference]], and [[subset]] testing. There are two types of sets: <code>set</code> and <code>frozenset</code>, the only difference being that <code>set</code> is mutable and <code>frozenset</code> is immutable. Elements in a set must be hashable. Thus, for example, a <code>frozenset</code> can be an element of a regular <code>set</code> whereas the opposite is not true.

Python also provides extensive collection manipulating abilities such as built in containment checking and a generic iteration protocol.

=== Object system ===

In Python, everything is an object, even classes. Classes, as objects, have a class, which is known as their [[metaclass]]. Python also supports [[multiple inheritance]] and [[mixin]]s.

The language supports extensive [[Introspection (computer science)|introspection]] of types and classes. Types can be read and compared—types are instances of <code>type</code>. The attributes of an object can be extracted as a dictionary.

Operators can be [[operator overloading|overloaded]] in Python by defining special member functions - for instance, defining a method named <code>__add__</code> on a class permits one to use the <code>+</code> operator on objects of that class.

== Literals ==

=== Strings ===

Python has various kinds of [[string literal]]s.

==== Normal string literals ====

Either single or double quotes can be used to quote strings. Unlike in Unix shell languages, [[Perl]] or Perl-influenced languages such as [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]] or [[Groovy (programming language)|Groovy]], single quotes and double quotes function identically, i.e. there is no string interpolation of ''$foo'' expressions. However, interpolation can be done in various ways: with "f-strings" (since Python 3.6<ref>{{cite web|url=https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.6.html#whatsnew36-pep498|title=PEP 498 - Literal String Interpolation|date=2016-12-23|work=What’s New In Python 3.6|access-date=2017-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330002530/https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.6.html#whatsnew36-pep498|archive-date=2017-03-30|url-status=live}}</ref>), using the <code>format</code> method or the old ''%'' string-format operator.

For instance, all of these Python statements:<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
print(f"I just printed {num} pages to the printer {printer}")

print("I just printed {} pages to the printer {}".format(num, printer))
print("I just printed {0} pages to the printer {1}".format(num, printer))
print("I just printed {num} pages to the printer {printer}".format(num=num, printer=printer))

print("I just printed %s pages to the printer %s" % (num, printer))
print("I just printed %(num)s pages to the printer %(printer)s" % {"num": num, "printer": printer})

</syntaxhighlight>are equivalent to the Perl statement:<syntaxhighlight lang="Perl">
print "I just printed $num pages to the printer $printer\n"
</syntaxhighlight>They build a string using the variables <code>num</code> and <code>printer</code>.

==== Multi-line string literals ====

There are also multi-line strings, which begin and end with a series of three single or double quotes and function like [[here document]]s in [[Perl]] and [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]].

A simple example with [[String interpolation|variable interpolation]] (using the <code>format</code> method) is:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
print("""Dear {recipient},

I wish you to leave Sunnydale and never return.

Not Quite Love,
{sender}
""".format(sender="Buffy the Vampire Slayer", recipient="Spike"))
</syntaxhighlight>

==== Raw strings ====

Finally, all of the previously mentioned string types come in "[[raw string|raw]]" varieties (denoted by placing a literal ''r'' before the opening quote), which do no backslash-interpolation and hence are very useful for [[regular expression]]s; compare [[C Sharp syntax#Literals|"@-quoting"]] in [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]]. Raw strings were originally included specifically for regular expressions. Due to limitations of the tokenizer, raw strings may not have a trailing backslash.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/reference/lexical_analysis.html#string-literals |title=2. Lexical analysis |work=Python v2.7.5 documentation |publisher=Docs.python.org |access-date=2013-08-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023010739/http://docs.python.org/reference/lexical_analysis.html#string-literals |archive-date=2012-10-23 |url-status=live }}</ref> Creating a raw string holding a [[Windows]] path ending with a backslash requires some variety of workaround (commonly, using forward slashes instead of backslashes, since Windows accepts both).

Examples include:

<syntaxhighlight lang="pycon">
>>> # A Windows path, even raw strings cannot end in a backslash
>>> r"C:\Foo\Bar\Baz\"
File "<stdin>", line 1
r"C:\Foo\Bar\Baz\"
^
SyntaxError: EOL while scanning string literal

>>> dos_path = r"C:\Foo\Bar\Baz\ " # avoids the error by adding
>>> dos_path.rstrip() # and removing trailing space
'C:\\Foo\\Bar\\Baz\\'

>>> quoted_dos_path = r'"{}"'.format(dos_path)
>>> quoted_dos_path
'"C:\\Foo\\Bar\\Baz\\ "'

>>> # A regular expression matching a quoted string with possible backslash quoting
>>> re.match(r'"(([^"\\]|\\.)*)"', quoted_dos_path).group(1).rstrip()
'C:\\Foo\\Bar\\Baz\\'

>>> code = 'foo(2, bar)'
>>> # Reverse the arguments in a two-arg function call
>>> re.sub(r'$([^,]*?),([^ ,]*?)$', r'(\2, \1)', code)
'foo(2, bar)'
>>> # Note that this won't work if either argument has parens or commas in it.
</syntaxhighlight>

==== Concatenation of adjacent string literals ====

String literals (using possibly different quote conventions) appearing contiguously and only separated by whitespace (including new lines), are allowed and are aggregated into a single longer string.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/reference/lexical_analysis.html#string-literal-concatenation |title=2. Lexical analysis |work=Python v2.7.5 documentation |publisher=Docs.python.org |access-date=2013-08-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023010739/http://docs.python.org/reference/lexical_analysis.html#string-literal-concatenation |archive-date=2012-10-23 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Thus
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
title = "One Good Turn: " \
'A Natural History of the Screwdriver and the Screw'
</syntaxhighlight>
is equivalent to
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
title = "One Good Turn: A Natural History of the Screwdriver and the Screw"
</syntaxhighlight>

==== Unicode ====
Since Python 3.0, the default character set is [[UTF-8]] both for source code and the interpreter. In UTF-8, unicode strings are handled like traditional byte strings. This example will work:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
s = "Γειά" # Hello in Greek
print(s)
</syntaxhighlight>

=== Numbers ===

Numeric literals in Python are of the normal sort, e.g. <code>0</code>, <code>-1</code>, <code>3.4</code>, <code>3.5e-8</code>.

Python has arbitrary-length integers and automatically increases their storage size as necessary. Prior to Python 3, there were two kinds of integral numbers: traditional fixed size integers and "long" integers of arbitrary size. The conversion to "long" integers was performed automatically when required, and thus the programmer usually didn't have to be aware of the two integral types. In newer language versions the distinction is completely gone and all integers behave like arbitrary-length integers.

Python supports normal [[IEEE 754-2008|floating point]] numbers, which are created when a dot is used in a literal (e.g. <code>1.1</code>), when an integer and a floating point number are used in an expression, or as a result of some mathematical operations ("true division" via the <code>/</code> operator, or exponentiation with a negative exponent).

Python also supports [[complex number]]s natively. Complex numbers are indicated with the <code>J</code> or <code>j</code> suffix, e.g. <code>3 + 4j</code>.

=== Lists, tuples, sets, dictionaries ===

Python has syntactic support for the creation of container types.

Lists (class <code>list</code>) are mutable sequences of items of arbitrary types, and can be created either with the special syntax
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
a_list = [1, 2, 3, "a dog"]
</syntaxhighlight>
or using normal object creation
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
a_second_list = list()
a_second_list.append(4)
a_second_list.append(5)
</syntaxhighlight>

Tuples (class <code>tuple</code>) are immutable sequences of items of arbitrary types. There is also a special syntax to create tuples
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
a_tuple = 1, 2, 3, "four"
a_tuple = (1, 2, 3, "four")
</syntaxhighlight>
Although tuples are created by separating items with commas, the whole construct is usually wrapped in parentheses to increase readability. An empty tuple is denoted by <code>()</code>.

Sets (class <code>set</code>) are mutable containers of hashable items<ref>Hashable items are usually immutable, but not necessarily so by definition. See [https://docs.python.org/3/glossary.html?highlight=hashable python.org/3/glossary.htm]</ref> of arbitrary types, with no duplicates. The items are not ordered, but sets support iteration over the items. The syntax for set creation uses curly brackets
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
some_set = {0, (), False}
</syntaxhighlight>
Python sets are very much like [[Set (mathematics)|mathematical sets]], and support operations like set [[Set (mathematics)#Intersections|intersection]] and [[Set (mathematics)#Unions|union]]. Python also features a <code>frozenset</code> class for immutable sets, see [[Python syntax and semantics#Collection types|Collection types]].

Dictionaries (class <code>dict</code>) are mutable mappings tying keys and corresponding values. Python has special syntax to create dictionaries (<code>{key: value}</code>)
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
a_dictionary = {"key 1": "value 1", 2: 3, 4: []}
</syntaxhighlight>
The dictionary syntax is similar to the set syntax, the difference is the presence of colons. The empty literal <code>{}</code> results in an empty dictionary rather than an empty set, which is instead created using the non-literal constructor: <code>set()</code>.

== Operators ==

=== Arithmetic ===

Python includes the <code>+</code>, <code>-</code>, <code>*</code>, <code>/</code> ("true division"), <code>//</code> ([[Floor and ceiling functions|floor]] division), <code>%</code> ([[modulo operator|modulus]]), and <code>**</code> ([[exponentiation]]) operators, with their usual [[order of operations|mathematical precedence]].

In Python 3, <code>x / y</code> performs "true division", meaning that it always returns a float, even if both <code>x</code> and <code>y</code> are integers that divide evenly.

<syntaxhighlight lang="pycon">
>>> 4 / 2
2.0
</syntaxhighlight>

and <code>//</code> performs [[integer division]] or ''floor division'', returning the floor of the quotient as an integer.

In Python 2 (and most other programming languages), unless explicitly requested, <code>x / y</code> performed [[integer division]], returning a float only if either input was a float. However, because Python is a dynamically typed language, it was not always possible to tell which operation was being performed, which often led to subtle bugs, thus prompting the introduction of the <code>//</code> operator and the change in semantics of the <code>/</code> operator in Python 3.

=== Comparison operators ===

The comparison operators, i.e. <code>==</code>, <code>!=</code>, <code><</code>, <code>></code>, <code><=</code>, <code>>=</code>, <code>is</code>, <code>is not</code>, <code>in</code> and <code>not in</code><ref>{{Cite web|title=6. Expressions — Python 3.9.2 documentation|url=https://docs.python.org/3/reference/expressions.html#comparisons|access-date=2021-03-17|website=docs.python.org}}</ref> are used on all manner of values. Numbers, strings, sequences, and mappings can all be compared. In Python 3, disparate types (such as a <code>str</code> and an <code>int</code>) do not have a consistent relative ordering. While it was possible to compare whether some string was greater-than or less-than some integer in Python 2, this was considered a historical design quirk and was ultimately removed in Python 3.

Chained comparison expressions such as <code>a have roughly the meaning that they have in mathematics, rather than the unusual meaning found in [[C (programming language)|C]] and similar languages. The terms are evaluated and compared in order. The operation has [[Short-circuit evaluation|short-circuit semantics]], meaning that evaluation is guaranteed to stop as soon as a verdict is clear: if <code>a < b</code> is false, <code>c</code> is never evaluated as the expression cannot possibly be true anymore.

For expressions without side effects, <code>a is equivalent to <code>a . However, there is a substantial difference when the expressions have side effects. <code>a < f(x) < b</code> will evaluate <code>f(x)</code> exactly once, whereas <code>a < f(x) and f(x) < b</code> will evaluate it twice if the value of <code>a</code> is less than <code>f(x)</code> and once otherwise.

=== Logical operators ===

In all versions of Python, boolean operators treat zero values or empty values such as <code>""</code>, <code>0</code>, <code>None</code>, <code>0.0</code>, <code>[]</code>, and <code>{}</code> as false, while in general treating non-empty, non-zero values as true. The boolean values <code>True</code> and <code>False</code> were added to the language in Python 2.2.1 as constants (subclassed from <code>1</code> and <code>0</code>) and were changed to be full blown keywords in Python 3. The binary comparison operators such as <code>==</code> and <code>></code> return either <code>True</code> or <code>False</code>.

The boolean operators <code>and</code> and <code>or</code> use [[minimal evaluation]]. For example, <code>y == 0 or x/y > 100</code> will never raise a divide-by-zero exception. These operators return the value of the last operand evaluated, rather than <code>True</code> or <code>False</code>. Thus the expression <code>(4 and 5)</code> evaluates to <code>5</code>, and <code>(4 or 5)</code> evaluates to <code>4</code>.

== Functional programming ==

As mentioned above, another strength of Python is the availability of a [[functional programming]] style. As may be expected, this makes working with lists and other collections much more straightforward.

=== Comprehensions ===
{{Main|List comprehension}}

One such construction is the [[list comprehension]], which can be expressed with the following format:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
L = [mapping_expression for element in source_list if filter_expression]
</syntaxhighlight>

Using list comprehension to calculate the first five powers of two:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
powers_of_two = [2**n for n in range(1, 6)]
</syntaxhighlight>

The [[Quicksort]] algorithm can be expressed elegantly (albeit inefficiently) using list comprehensions:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def qsort(L):
if L == []:
return []
pivot = L[0]
return (qsort([x for x in L[1:] if x < pivot]) +
[pivot] +
qsort([x for x in L[1:] if x >= pivot]))
</syntaxhighlight>

Python 2.7+<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.7/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2016-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127021350/https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.7/ |archive-date=2016-01-27 |url-status=live }}</ref> also supports set comprehensions<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#sets |title=Archived copy |access-date=2016-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126161121/https://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#sets |archive-date=2016-01-26 |url-status=live }}</ref> and dictionary comprehensions.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#dictionaries |title=Archived copy |access-date=2016-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126161121/https://docs.python.org/2/tutorial/datastructures.html#dictionaries |archive-date=2016-01-26 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== First-class functions ===

In Python, functions are [[first-class function|first-class]] objects that can be created and passed around dynamically.

Python's limited support for [[anonymous function]]s is the <code>lambda</code> construct. An example is the anonymous function which squares its input, called with the argument of 5:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
f = lambda x: x**2
f(5)
</syntaxhighlight>

Lambdas are limited to containing an [[Expression (programming)|expression]] rather than [[Statement (programming)|statements]], although control flow can still be implemented less elegantly within lambda by using short-circuiting,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gnosis.cx/publish/programming/charming_python_13.html|publisher=IBM developerWorks|title=Functional Programming in Python|author=David Mertz|access-date=2007-08-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220181222/http://gnosis.cx/publish/programming/charming_python_13.html|archive-date=2007-02-20|url-status=dead}}</ref> and more idiomatically with conditional expressions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0308/|title=PEP 308 -- Conditional Expressions|access-date=2016-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313113147/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0308/|archive-date=2016-03-13|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Closures ===

Python has had support for [[Closure (computer science)|lexical closures]] since version 2.2. Here's an example function that returns a function that [[Finite difference|approximates the derivative]] of the given function:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def derivative(f, dx):
"""Return a function that approximates the derivative of f
using an interval of dx, which should be appropriately small.
"""
def function(x):
return (f(x + dx) - f(x)) / dx
return function
</syntaxhighlight>

Python's syntax, though, sometimes leads programmers of other languages to think that closures are not supported. [[scope (computer science)|Variable scope]] in Python is implicitly determined by the scope in which one assigns a value to the variable, unless scope is explicitly declared with <code>global</code> or <code>nonlocal</code>.<ref>The <code>nonlocal</code> keyword was adopted by [https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3104/ PEP 3104] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202225741/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3104 |date=2014-12-02 }}</ref>

Note that the closure's binding of a name to some value is not mutable from within the function. Given:
<syntaxhighlight lang="pycon">
>>> def foo(a, b):
... print(f'a: {a}')
... print(f'b: {b}')
... def bar(c):
... b = c
... print(f'b*: {b}')
... bar(a)
... print(f'b: {b}')
...
>>> foo(1, 2)
a: 1
b: 2
b*: 1
b: 2
</syntaxhighlight>
and you can see that <code>b</code>, as visible from the closure's scope, retains the value it had; the changed binding of <code>b</code> inside the inner function did not propagate out. The way around this is to use a <code>nonlocal b</code> statement in <code>bar</code>. In Python 2 (which lacks <code>nonlocal</code>), the usual workaround is to use a mutable value and change that value, not the binding. E.g., a list with one element.

=== Generators ===

Introduced in Python 2.2 as an optional feature and finalized in version 2.3, [[Generator (computer science)|generators]] are Python's mechanism for [[lazy evaluation]] of a function that would otherwise return a space-prohibitive or computationally intensive list.

This is an example to lazily generate the prime numbers:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
from itertools import count

def generate_primes(stop_at=None):
primes = []
for n in count(start=2):
if stop_at is not None and n > stop_at:
return # raises the StopIteration exception
composite = False
for p in primes:
if not n % p:
composite = True
break
elif p ** 2 > n:
break
if not composite:
primes.append(n)
yield n
</syntaxhighlight>

When calling this function, the returned value can be iterated over much like a list:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
for i in generate_primes(100): # iterate over the primes between 0 and 100
print(i)

for i in generate_primes(): # iterate over ALL primes indefinitely
print(i)
</syntaxhighlight>

The definition of a generator appears identical to that of a function, except the keyword <code>yield</code> is used in place of <code>return</code>. However, a generator is an object with persistent state, which can repeatedly enter and leave the same scope. A generator call can then be used in place of a list, or other structure whose elements will be iterated over. Whenever the <code>for</code> loop in the example requires the next item, the generator is called, and yields the next item.

Generators don't have to be infinite like the prime-number example above. When a generator terminates, an internal exception is raised which indicates to any calling context that there are no more values. A <code>for</code> loop or other iteration will then terminate.

=== Generator expressions ===
{{Further | List comprehension}}

Introduced in Python 2.4, generator expressions are the [[lazy evaluation]] equivalent of list comprehensions. Using the prime number generator provided in the above section, we might define a lazy, but not quite infinite collection.

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
from itertools import islice

primes_under_million = (i for i in generate_primes() if i < 1000000)
two_thousandth_prime = islice(primes_under_million, 1999, 2000).next()
</syntaxhighlight>

Most of the memory and time needed to generate this many primes will not be used until the needed element is actually accessed. Unfortunately, you cannot perform simple indexing and slicing of generators, but must use the ''itertools'' module or "roll your own" loops. In contrast, a list comprehension is functionally equivalent, but is ''greedy'' in performing all the work:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
primes_under_million = [i for i in generate_primes(2000000) if i < 1000000]
two_thousandth_prime = primes_under_million[1999]
</syntaxhighlight>

The list comprehension will immediately create a large list (with 78498 items, in the example, but transiently creating a list of primes under two million), even if most elements are never accessed. The generator comprehension is more parsimonious.

=== Dictionary and set comprehensions ===

While lists and generators had comprehensions/expressions, in Python versions older than 2.7 the other Python built-in collection types (dicts and sets) had to be kludged in using lists or generators:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">>>> dict((n, n*n) for n in range(5))
{0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16}
</syntaxhighlight>

Python 2.7 and 3.0 unified all collection types by introducing dictionary and set comprehensions, similar to list comprehensions:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">>>> [n*n for n in range(5)] # regular list comprehension
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16]
>>>
>>> {n*n for n in range(5)} # set comprehension
{0, 1, 4, 9, 16}
>>>
>>> {n: n*n for n in range(5)} # dict comprehension
{0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16}
</syntaxhighlight>

== Objects ==

Python supports most object oriented programming (OOP) techniques. It allows [[Polymorphism (computer science)|polymorphism]], not only within a [[class hierarchy]] but also by [[duck typing]]. Any object can be used for any type, and it will work so long as it has the proper methods and attributes. And everything in Python is an object, including classes, functions, numbers and modules. Python also has support for [[metaclass]]es, an advanced tool for enhancing classes' functionality. Naturally, [[Inheritance (computer science)|inheritance]], including [[multiple inheritance]], is supported. Python has very limited support for private variables using [[Name mangling#Python|name mangling]] which is rarely used in practice as [[information hiding]] is seen by some as [[Python (programming language)#Design philosophy and features|unpythonic]], in that it suggests that the class in question contains unaesthetic or ill-planned internals. The slogan "we're all responsible users here" is used to describe this attitude.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.python-guide.org/en/latest/writing/style/#we-are-all-responsible-users |title=Python Style Guide |publisher=docs.python-guide.org |access-date=2015-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309074305/http://docs.python-guide.org/en/latest/writing/style/#we-are-all-responsible-users |archive-date=2015-03-09 |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Blockquote
|text=As is true for modules, classes in Python do not put an absolute barrier between definition and user, but rather rely on the politeness of the user not to "break into the definition."
|title=[https://docs.python.org/2.6/tutorial/classes.html 9. Classes]
|source=''The Python 2.6 Tutorial'' (2013)
}}

{{Abbr|OOP|Object Oriented Programming}} doctrines such as the use of accessor methods to read data members are not enforced in Python. Just as Python offers functional-programming constructs but does not attempt to demand [[referential transparency]], it offers an object system but does not demand {{Abbr|OOP|Object Oriented Programming}} behavior. Moreover, it is always possible to redefine the class using ''properties'' (see [[Python syntax and semantics#Properties|Properties]]) so that when a certain variable is set or retrieved in calling code, it really invokes a function call, so that <code>spam.eggs = toast</code> might really invoke <code>spam.set_eggs(toast)</code>. This nullifies the practical advantage of accessor functions, and it remains {{Abbr|OOP|Object Oriented Programming}} because the property <code>eggs</code> becomes a legitimate part of the object's interface: it need not reflect an implementation detail.

In version 2.2 of Python, "new-style" classes were introduced. With new-style classes, objects and types were unified, allowing the subclassing of types.
Even entirely new types can be defined, complete with custom behavior for infix operators. This allows for many radical things to be done syntactically within Python. A new [https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.3/mro/ method resolution order] for multiple inheritance was also adopted with Python 2.3. It is also possible to run custom code while accessing or setting attributes, though the details of those techniques have evolved between Python versions.

=== With statement ===

The <code>with</code> statement handles resources, and allows users to work with the Context Manager protocol.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0343/ |title=PEP 343 -- The "with" Statement |access-date=2014-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214110002/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0343/ |archive-date=2014-12-14 |url-status=live }}</ref> One function (<code>__enter__()</code>) is called when entering scope and another (<code>__exit__()</code>) when leaving. This prevents forgetting to free the resource and also handles more complicated situations such as freeing the resource when an exception occurs while it is in use. Context Managers are often used with files, database connections, test cases, etc.

=== Properties ===

Properties allow specially defined methods to be invoked on an object instance by using the same syntax as used for attribute access. An example of a class defining some properties is:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
class MyClass:
def __init__(self):
self._a = None

@property
def a(self):
return self._a

@a.setter # makes the property writable
def a(self, value):
self._a = value
</syntaxhighlight>

=== Descriptors ===

A class that defines one or more of the three special methods <code>__get__(self, instance, owner)</code>, <code>__set__(self, instance, value)</code>, <code>__delete__(self, instance)</code> can be used as a descriptor. Creating an instance of a descriptor as a class member of a second class makes the instance a property of the second class.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Glossary — Python 3.9.2 documentation|url=https://docs.python.org/3/glossary.html#term-descriptor|access-date=2021-03-23|website=docs.python.org}}</ref>

=== Class and static methods ===

Python allows the creation of class methods and static methods via the use of the <code>@classmethod</code> and <code>@staticmethod</code> [[#Decorators|decorators]]. The first argument to a class method is the class object instead of the self-reference to the instance. A static method has no special first argument. Neither the instance, nor the class object is passed to a static method.

== Exceptions ==

Python supports (and extensively uses) [[exception handling]] as a means of testing for error conditions and other "exceptional" events in a program. Indeed, it is even possible to trap the exception caused by a [[syntax error]].

Python style calls for the use of exceptions whenever an error condition might arise. Rather than testing for access to a file or resource before actually using it, it is conventional in Python to just go ahead and try to use it, catching the exception if access is rejected.

Exceptions can also be used as a more general means of non-local transfer of control, even when an error is not at issue. For instance, the [[GNU Mailman|Mailman]] mailing list software, written in Python, uses exceptions to jump out of deeply nested message-handling logic when a decision has been made to reject a message or hold it for moderator approval.

Exceptions are often used as an alternative to the <code>if</code>-block, especially in [[Thread (computer science)|threaded]] situations. A commonly invoked motto is EAFP, or "It is Easier to Ask for Forgiveness than Permission,"<ref>[https://docs.python.org/glossary.html#term-eafp EAFP] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026064048/http://docs.python.org/glossary.html#term-eafp |date=2012-10-26 }}, Python Glossary</ref> which is attributed to [[Grace Hopper#Anecdotes|Grace Hopper]].<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114165606/http://www.chips.navy.mil/archives/86_jul/interview.html|archive-date=January 14, 2009|url= http://www.chips.navy.mil/archives/86_jul/interview.html |title= Only the Limits of Our Imagination: An exclusive interview with RADM Grace M. Hopper |publisher= Department of the Navy Information Technology Magazine |first= Diane |last= Hamblen |access-date=2007-01-31}}</ref><ref name="nutshell" /> The alternative, known as LBYL, or "Look Before You Leap", explicitly tests for pre-conditions.<ref>[https://docs.python.org/3/glossary.html#term-lbyl LBYL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180121071609/https://docs.python.org/3/glossary.html#term-lbyl |date=2018-01-21 }}, Python Glossary</ref>

In this first code sample, following the LBYL approach, there is an explicit check for the attribute before access:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
if hasattr(spam, 'eggs'):
ham = spam.eggs
else:
handle_missing_attr()
</syntaxhighlight>

This second sample follows the EAFP paradigm:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
try:
ham = spam.eggs
except AttributeError:
handle_missing_attr()
</syntaxhighlight>

These two code samples have the same effect, although there will be performance differences. When <code>spam</code> has the attribute <code>eggs</code>, the EAFP sample will run faster. When <code>spam</code> does not have the attribute <code>eggs</code> (the "exceptional" case), the EAFP sample will run slower. The Python [https://docs.python.org/library/profile.html profiler] can be used in specific cases to determine performance characteristics. If exceptional cases are rare, then the EAFP version will have superior [[average performance]] than the alternative. In addition, it avoids the whole class of [[time-of-check-to-time-of-use]] (TOCTTOU) vulnerabilities, other [[race conditions]],<ref name="nutshell">''Python in a nutshell,'' [[Alex Martelli]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=JnR9hQA3SncC&pg=PA134 p. 134]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://code.activestate.com/lists/python-list/337643/|title=EAFP v. LBYL|author=Alex Martelli|author-link=Alex Martelli|publisher=python-list mailing list|date=19 May 2003|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714062801/http://code.activestate.com/lists/python-list/337643/|archive-date=14 July 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> and is compatible with [[duck typing]]. A drawback of EAFP is that it can be used only with statements; an exception cannot be caught in a generator expression, list comprehension, or lambda function.

== Comments and docstrings ==

Python has two ways to annotate Python code. One is by using comments to indicate what some part of the code does. Single-line comments begin with the hash character (<code>#</code>) and continue until the end of the line. Comments spanning more than one line are achieved by inserting a multi-line string (with <code>"""</code> or <code><nowiki>'''</nowiki></code> as the delimiter on each end) that is not used in assignment or otherwise evaluated, but sits in between other statements.

Commenting a piece of code:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
import sys

def getline():
return sys.stdin.readline() # Get one line and return it
</syntaxhighlight>

Commenting a piece of code with multiple lines:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def getline():
return sys.stdin.readline() """this function
gets one line
and returns it"""
</syntaxhighlight>

[[Docstring]]s (documentation strings), that is, strings that are located alone without assignment as the first indented line within a module, class, method or function, automatically set their contents as an attribute named <code>__doc__</code>, which is intended to store a human-readable description of the object's purpose, behavior, and usage. The built-in <code>help</code> function generates its output based on <code>__doc__</code> attributes. Such strings can be delimited with <code>"</code> or <code><nowiki>'</nowiki></code> for single line strings, or may span multiple lines if delimited with either <code>"""</code> or <code><nowiki>'''</nowiki></code> which is Python's notation for specifying multi-line strings. However, the style guide for the language specifies that triple double quotes (<code>"""</code>) are preferred for both single and multi-line docstrings.<ref>{{Cite web|title=PEP 8 -- Style Guide for Python Code|url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/|access-date=2021-03-23|website=Python.org|language=en}}</ref>

Single line docstring:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def getline():
"""Get one line from stdin and return it."""
return sys.stdin.readline()
</syntaxhighlight>

Multi-line docstring:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def getline():
"""Get one line
from stdin
and return it.
"""
return sys.stdin.readline()
</syntaxhighlight>

Docstrings can be as large as the programmer wants and contain [[Newline|line breaks]]. In contrast with comments, docstrings are themselves Python objects and are part of the interpreted code that Python runs. That means that a running program can retrieve its own docstrings and manipulate that information, but the normal usage is to give other programmers information about how to invoke the object being documented in the docstring.

There are tools available that can extract the docstrings from Python code and generate documentation. Docstring documentation can also be accessed from the interpreter with the <code>help()</code> function, or from the shell with the [[pydoc]] command <code>pydoc</code>.

The [[doctest]] standard module uses interactions copied from Python shell sessions into docstrings to create tests, whereas the [http://docopt.org docopt] module uses them to define command-line options.

== Function annotations ==

Function annotations (type hints) are defined in PEP 3107.<ref name='pep3107'>{{Cite web |url=https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3107/ |title=PEP 3107 -- Function Annotations |access-date=2014-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150106050429/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3107/ |archive-date=2015-01-06 |url-status=live }}</ref> They allow attaching data to the arguments and return of a function. The behaviour of annotations is not defined by the language, and is left to third party frameworks. For example, a library could be written to handle static typing:<ref name='pep3107'/>

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def haul(item: Haulable, *vargs: PackAnimal) -> Distance
</syntaxhighlight>

== Decorators ==
{{See also|Advice (computer science)}}

A decorator is any callable Python object that is used to modify a function, method or class definition. A decorator is passed the original object being defined and returns a modified object, which is then bound to the name in the definition. Python decorators were inspired in part by [[Java annotation]]s, and have a similar syntax; the decorator syntax is pure [[syntactic sugar]], using <code>@</code> as the keyword:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
@viking_chorus
def menu_item():
print("spam")
</syntaxhighlight>

is equivalent to

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def menu_item():
print("spam")
menu_item = viking_chorus(menu_item)
</syntaxhighlight>

Decorators are a form of [[metaprogramming]]; they enhance the action of the function or method they decorate. For example, in the sample below, <code>viking_chorus</code> might cause <code>menu_item</code> to be run 8 times (see [[Spam (Monty Python)|Spam sketch]]) for each time it is called:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def viking_chorus(myfunc):
def inner_func(*args, **kwargs):
for i in range(8):
myfunc(*args, **kwargs)
return inner_func
</syntaxhighlight>

Canonical uses of function decorators are for creating [[class method]]s or [[static method]]s, adding function attributes, [[tracing (software)|tracing]], setting [[precondition|pre-]] and [[postcondition]]s, and [[synchronization]],<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.ddj.com/184406073#l11
|title=Python 2.4 Decorators: Reducing code duplication and consolidating knowledge
|work=Dr. Dobb's
|date=2005-05-01
|access-date=2007-02-08
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206063944/http://www.ddj.com/184406073#l11
|archive-date=2007-02-06
|url-status=live
}}</ref> but can be used for far more, including [[tail recursion elimination]],<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://aspn.activestate.com/ASPN/Cookbook/Python/Recipe/496691
|title=New Tail Recursion Decorator
|work=ASPN: Python Cookbook
|date=2006-11-14
|access-date=2007-02-08
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209010200/http://aspn.activestate.com/ASPN/Cookbook/Python/Recipe/496691
|archive-date=2007-02-09
|url-status=live
}}</ref> [[memoization]] and even improving the writing of other decorators.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~micheles/python/documentation.html
|title=The decorator module
|access-date=2007-02-08
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210000956/http://www.phyast.pitt.edu/%7Emicheles/python/documentation.html
|archive-date=2007-02-10
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

Decorators can be chained by placing several on adjacent lines:

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
@invincible
@favourite_colour("Blue")
def black_knight():
pass
</syntaxhighlight>

is equivalent to

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def black_knight():
pass
black_knight = invincible(favourite_colour("Blue")(black_knight))
</syntaxhighlight>

or, using intermediate variables

<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def black_knight():
pass
blue_decorator = favourite_colour("Blue")
decorated_by_blue = blue_decorator(black_knight)
black_knight = invincible(decorated_by_blue)
</syntaxhighlight>

In the example above, the <code>favourite_colour</code> decorator [[factory (software concept)|factory]] takes an argument. Decorator factories must return a decorator, which is then called with the object to be decorated as its argument:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def favourite_colour(colour):
def decorator(func):
def wrapper():
print(colour)
func()
return wrapper
return decorator
</syntaxhighlight>
This would then decorate the <code>black_knight</code> function such that the colour, <code>"Blue"</code>, would be printed prior to the <code>black_knight</code> function running. [[Closure (computer programming)|Closure]] ensures that the colour argument is accessible to the innermost wrapper function even when it is returned and goes out of scope, which is what allows decorators to work.

Despite the name, Python decorators are not an implementation of the [[decorator pattern]]. The decorator pattern is a [[design pattern]] used in [[statically typed]] [[object-oriented programming language]]s to allow functionality to be added to objects at run time; Python decorators add functionality to functions and methods at definition time, and thus are a higher-level construct than decorator-pattern classes. The decorator pattern itself is trivially implementable in Python, because the language is [[duck typed]], and so is not usually considered as such.{{Clarify|date=April 2015}}

== Easter eggs ==

Users of [[curly bracket programming language|curly bracket language]]s, such as [[C (programming language)|C]] or [[Java (programming language)|Java]], sometimes expect or wish Python to follow a block-delimiter convention. Brace-delimited block syntax has been repeatedly requested, and consistently rejected by core developers. The Python interpreter contains an [[easter egg (virtual)|easter egg]] that summarizes its developers' feelings on this issue. The code <code>from __future__ import braces</code> raises the exception <code>SyntaxError: not a chance</code>. The <code>__future__</code> module is normally used to [[Backporting|provide features from future versions]] of Python.

Another hidden message, the [[Zen of Python]] (a summary of [[Python (programming language)#Design philosophy and features|Python design philosophy]]), is displayed when trying to <code>import this</code>.

The message <code>Hello world!</code> is printed when the import statement <code>import __hello__</code> is used. In Python 2.7, instead of <code>Hello world!</code> it prints <code>Hello world...</code>.

Importing the <code>antigravity</code> module opens a web browser to [[xkcd]] comic [https://xkcd.com/353/ 353] that portrays a humorous fictional use for such a module, intended to demonstrate the ease with which Python modules enable additional functionality.<ref>{{Citation|title=cpython: The Python programming language|date=2017-10-15|url=https://github.com/python/cpython|publisher=Python|access-date=2017-10-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915183846/https://github.com/python/cpython|archive-date=2017-09-15|url-status=live}}</ref> In Python 3, this module also contains an implementation of the "geohash" algorithm, a reference to [[xkcd]] comic [https://xkcd.com/426/ 426].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://github.com/python/cpython/commit/b1614a7b6705f939b29df4045e591fcf53a8611b|title=Another hidden treasure. · python/cpython@b1614a7|website=GitHub|language=en|access-date=2017-10-15}}</ref>

== References ==

{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* [https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/ Python tutorial] written by the author of Python, Guido van Rossum.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Python Syntax And Semantics}}
[[Category:Programming language syntax]]
[[Category:Python (programming language)]]
[[Category:Articles with example Python (programming language) code]]
[[Category:Articles with example C code]]

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-24T18:41:50Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]] ([[Ɛ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]] ([[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]] ([[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ꙑ]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ꙑ]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ы]] ([[Ɯ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ɯ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-24T05:28:07Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]] ([[Ɛ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]] ([[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]] ([[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ꙑ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ꙑ]] ([[Ɯ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ɯ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-24T03:27:18Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]] ([[Ɛ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]] ([[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]] ([[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ꙑ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ꙑ]] ([[Dotless I|Ɯ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ɯ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-24T03:26:37Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]] ([[Ɛ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|æ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]] ([[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]] ([[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ꙑ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ꙑ]] ([[Dotless I|Ɯ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ɯ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-24T02:52:35Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]] ([[Æ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|æ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]] ([[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]] ([[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ꙑ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ꙑ]] ([[Dotless I|Ɯ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ɯ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-21T10:51:54Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]] ([[Æ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|æ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]] ([[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]] ([[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ꙑ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ꙑ]] ([[Dotless I|I]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ı]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-21T10:50:56Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]] ([[Æ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|æ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]] ([[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]] ([[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ꙑ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ꙑ]] ([[I (無上句點)|I]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ı]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-21T10:47:05Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]] ([[Æ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|æ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]] ([[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]] ([[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ꙑ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ꙑ]] ([[Ɯ]]/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ɯ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-21T10:31:32Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]] ([[Æ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|æ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|З]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|з]] ([[Z]]/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]] ([[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-21T10:18:13Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Southern Min|Minnanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]] ([[Æ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|æ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]] ([[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-21T10:15:30Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]] ([[Æ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|æ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Х]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|х]] ([[X]]/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-21T10:07:33Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]] ([[Æ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|æ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-21T10:06:46Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Э]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|э]] ([[Æ]]/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|æ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-21T09:42:51Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|д]] ([[D]]/[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]])}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-21T09:36:03Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]])}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-21T09:32:02Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]])}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]])}}
{{nowrap|[[Yery|Ы]]/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ы]] (<s>İ</s>/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}

User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril

2022-01-21T09:25:18Z

Cuaxdon:

<onlyinclude>{{navbox
|name=:User:Cuaxdon/Alphabet nan kiril
|title=[[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] [[cyrillic script]]
|list1= <div>
{{nowrap|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|а]] ([[A]]/[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|б]] ([[B]]/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|г]] ([[G]]/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|е]] ([[E]]/[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]])}}
{{nowrap|[[Dhe (Cyrillic)|Ҙ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ҙ]] ([[Ƶ]]/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ƶ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|и]] ([[İ]]/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|к]] ([[K]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Ka with hook|Ӄ]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|ӄ]] ([[₭]]/[[Voiceless velar plosive|<s>k</s>]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|л]] ([[L]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|м]] ([[M]]/[[Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|н]] ([[N]]/[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|n]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[En with hook|Ӈ]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|ӈ]] ([[Eng (letter)|<s>N</s>]]/[[Voiced velar nasal|<s>n</s>]]) |}}

{{nowrap|[[En (Cyrillic)|Н̃]]/[[Nasal vowel|н̃]] ([[Ñ]]/[[Nasal vowel|ñ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|о]] ([[O]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|o]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|п]] ([[P]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Pe with middle hook|Ҧ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ҧ]] ([[Ᵽ]]/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|ᵽ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|с]] ([[S]]/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|т]] ([[T]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|t]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Te with middle hook|Ꚋ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ꚋ]] ([[Ŧ]]/[[Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives|ŧ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|у]] ([[U]]/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Shha|Ӿ]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|ӿ]] ([[H]]/[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ц]] ([[C]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|c]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Tswe|Ꚏ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꚏ]] ([[Ꞓ]]/[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ꞓ]]) |}}
{{nowrap|[[Schwa (Cyrillic)|Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]] ([[Ә]]/[[Mid central vowel|ә]])}}
</div>}}</onlyinclude>
{{collapsible option}}