Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia

2009-10-24T06:09:57Z

Borgx: +id

{{Infobox UN
| name = United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia
| image = Flag of Cambodia under UNTAC.svg
| image size = 200px
| caption = Flag of Cambodia during UNTAC administration
| type = Monitoring, Peacekeeping
| acronyms = UNTAC
| head =
| status = ended September 1993<ref>http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/untacmandate.html</ref>
| established = 28 February 1992<ref name="UN_SRES7451992">{{UN document |docid=S-RES-745(1992) |type=Resolution |body=Security Council |year=1992 |resolution_number=745 |accessdate=2008-04-09|date=28 February 1992}}</ref>
| website = [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/untac.htm UNTAC Website]
| parent = [[United Nations Security Council]]
| subsidiaries =
| commons =
| footnotes =
}}
{{History of Cambodia}}

The '''United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia''' ('''UNTAC''') was a [[United Nations]] peacekeeping operation in [[Cambodia]] in 1992-93. It was also the first occasion on which the UN had taken over the administration of an independent state, organized and run an [[election]] (as opposed to monitoring or supervising), had its own radio station and [[jail]], and been responsible for promoting and safeguarding [[human rights]] at the national level.
[[Image:Simon Woolley untac.jpg|thumb|left|An UNTAC peacekeeper in 1993.]]

==History==
[[Image:Australia Patch untac.jpg|thumb|left|Australian Army Patch - UNTAC]]
UNTAC was set up in February 1992<ref name="UN_SRES7451992">{{UN document |docid=S-RES-745(1992) |type=Resolution |body=Security Council |year=1992 |resolution_number=745 |accessdate=2008-04-09|date=28 February 1992}}</ref> in agreement with the [[People's Republic of Kampuchea|State of Cambodia]], the ''de facto'' government of the country at that time, in order to implement the Paris Peace Accords of October 1991.

UNTAC was the product of intense diplomatic activity over many years.

Headed by Yasushi Akashi, with Lieutenant-General [[John Sanderson]] as the head of the Military Component, UNTAC involved 15,900 military, 3,600 civilian police, 2,000 civilians and 450 UN Volunteers, as well as locally recruited staff and interpreters. The whole operation cost over $1.5 billion, mostly in salaries for expatriates.<ref>''Cambodia''. Lonely Planet</ref>
===Goals===
UNTAC's aim was to restore peace and civil government in a country ruined by decades of [[civil war]] and [[Cold War]] machinations, to hold free and fair elections leading to a new constitution and to "kick-start" the rehabilitation of the country. It was to exercise 'supervision' or 'supervision or control' over all aspects of government, including foreign affairs, national defence, finance, public security and information, and to supervise, monitor and verify the withdrawal and non-return of foreign military forces; to canton, disarm and demobilize Cambodia's fighting factions, confiscate caches of weapons and military supplies, promote and protect human rights, oversee military security and maintain law and order, repatriate and resettle refugees and displaced persons, assist in mine clearance and the establishment of training programmes in mine clearance and mine awareness, rehabilitate essential infrastructure and assist in economic reconstruction and development.
===Disarmament===
Despite UNTAC's boasting of its effectiveness and being feted by the international community as a success, UNTAC failed to [[disarmament|disarm]] the Khmer Rouge, while effectively disarming the SOC's local militias. This bias allowed the Khmer Rouge to make territorial gains and gave rise to political violence.<ref>Margaret Slocomb, ''The People's Republic of Kampuchea, 1979-1989: The revolution after Pol Pot'' ISBN 9789749575345</ref> The State of Cambodia's military leaders were furious, claiming that UNTAC was extremely exacting with the disarmament of the [[CPAF]], but too lenient and ineffective when it came to disarm the Khmer Rouge.<ref>Benny Widyono, ''Dancing in Shadows: Sihanouk, the Khmer Rouge, and the United Nations in Cambodia'', ISBN 0742555534 - ISBN 978-0742555532 </ref>

===1993 elections===
Over 4 million Cambodians (about 90% of eligible voters) participated in the May 1993 elections, although the [[Khmer Rouge]] or Party of Democratic Kampuchea (PDK), whose forces were never actually disarmed or demobilized, barred some people from participating. [[Prince Ranariddh]]'s [[FUNCINPEC]] Party was the top vote recipient with a 45.5% vote, followed by [[Hun Sen]]'s [[Cambodian People's Party]] and the Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party, respectively. FUNCINPEC then entered into a coalition with the other parties that had participated in the election. The parties represented in the 120-member assembly proceeded to draft and approve a new constitution, which was promulgated September 24, 1993. It established a multiparty liberal democracy in the framework of a constitutional monarchy, with the former Prince Sihanouk elevated to King. Prince Ranariddh and Hun Sen became First and Second Prime Ministers, respectively, in the Royal Cambodian Government (RGC). The constitution provides for a wide range of internationally recognized human rights.<ref>http://www.untac.com/untac.htm</ref>
===Effects of UNTAC presence===
[[Norodom Sihanouk]] had many reservations about the whole UNTAC operation, for the massive presence of foreign troops led in his eyes to the abuse and dishonor of Cambodian women, boosting [[prostitution]]<ref>Milton Osborne, ''Sihanouk, Prince of Light, Prince of Darkness.'' Silkworm 1994</ref> and introducing [[AIDS]], which led Cambodia to become one fo the worst affected countries by AIDS in Asia.<ref>''Cambodia''. Lonely Planet</ref> The number of [[prostitute]]s in the State of Cambodia rose from about 6,000 in 1991, to over 20,000 after the arrival of UNTAC personnel in 1992. By 1995 there were between 50,000 and 90,000 Cambodians affected by AIDS according to a [[WHO]] estimate.<ref>Soizick Crochet, ''Le Cambodge'', Karthala, Paris 1997, ISBN 2-86537-722-9</ref>
===Trials of senior Khmer Rouge leaders===
On October 4, 2004, the Cambodian National Assembly ratified an agreement with the United Nations on the establishment of a tribunal to try senior leaders responsible for the atrocities committed by the Khmer Rouge. Donor countries have pledged the $43 million international share of the three-year tribunal budget, while the Cambodian government's share of the budget is $13.3 million.

Unfortunately the tribunal began its activity far too late. The first [[Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia|trials of senior Khmer Rouge leaders]] took place only in 2007, when many of them were already dead or in ill-health.<ref>[http://www.untac.com/untac.htm UNTAC]</ref>

==Statistics==
Duration: March 1992 - September 1993

Strength: Approximately 22,000 military and civilian personnel

Fatalities: 78 (4 military observers, 41 other military personnel, 14 civilian police, 5 international civilian staff and 14 local staff).

Expenditures: [[United States dollar|US$]]1.62 billion (UNAMIC and UNTAC combined)<ref>http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/untacfacts.html</ref>

==See also==
* [[UN protectorate]]

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/untac.htm Official UNTAC Site from UN]
* [http://www.untac.com UNTAC Website]

[[Category:Former countries in Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:United Nations Security Council mandates|745]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1992]]
[[Category:1993 disestablishments]]
[[Category:History of Cambodia]]

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[[fr:Autorité provisoire des Nations unies au Cambodge]]
[[id:Pemerintahan Transisi Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa di Kamboja]]
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[[ja:国際連合カンボジア暫定統治機構]]

Tak and the Power of Juju

2009-10-24T05:49:55Z

Borgx: +id

{{Unreferenced|date=January 2009}}
{{otheruses4|the video game|the television series|Tak and the Power of Juju (TV series)}}
{{Infobox VG
| title = Tak and the Power of Juju
| image = [[Image:Tak and the Power of Juju (PS2).jpg|256px|PAL region PS2 cover art]]
| caption = PAL region PS2 cover art
| developer = [[Avalanche Software]]
| publisher = [[THQ]]
| released = {{vgrelease|NA=October 15, 2003|PAL=March 12, 2004}}
| genre = [[Action-adventure game|Action-adventure]]
| modes = [[Single-player]]
| ratings = {{vgratings|ESRB=E|PEGI=3+|OFLCA=G8+}}
| platforms = [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], [[PlayStation 2|PS2]], [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]]
}}
'''''Tak and the Power of Juju''''' is a [[video game]] for [[PlayStation 2]], [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], and the [[Game Boy Advance]]. The game spawned four sequels: ''[[Tak 2: The Staff of Dreams]]'', ''[[Tak: The Great Juju Challenge]]'', ''[[Tak and the Guardians of Gross]]'', and ''[[Tak: Mojo Mistake]]''.

The game was developed under the aegis of the [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] television channel, a precedent at the time because the game was not based on any of its then existing shows or films.

The series is populated with characters such as the Belly Juju, who always speaks from the gut, to the unintelligible Jibba-Jabbas and the Grammazons of the latest installment.

==Story==
An ancient prophecy foretells that the Moon Juju, the kind protector of the Pupanunu people, would be weakened by the evil Tlaloc, an embittered Pupanunu shaman, so he could turn the Pupanunu people into sheep as revenge for being turned over as high shaman over another shaman, Jibolba. The prophecy also mentions a great and mighty warrior who would restore the Moon Juju, defeat Tlaloc, and bring peace to the Pupanunu people.

Having escaped Tlaloc's spell, Jibolba believes his apprentice Lok to be the warrior of the prophecy and prepares to send him off; however, it appears that Lok has been killed by a stampede of sheep. Jibolba sends his younger apprentice, Tak, to find magical plants and change him back, though it turns out not to be Lok. Jibolba tells Tak to obtain the Spirit Rattle, which allows the wielder to communicate with powerful Juju spirits to assist him, while he finds Lok.

Tak returns with the Rattle to find that Lok has been trampled to death by a herd of sheep. Jibolba has Tak collect 100 magic Yorbels and Lok's spirit from the spirit world, allowing him to successfully resurrect Lok. An unfortunate side-effect of the resurrection, however, is a severe case of [[diarrhea]]. Tak obtains the Moon Stones instead while Lok recovers, restoring the Moon Juju to full strength.

The Moon Juju reveals that the warrior of the prophecy is not Lok, but Tak, as he has already fulfilled almost everything the prophecy predicted. Using his arsenal of Juju spells, Tak defeats Tlaloc and turns him into a sheep, finally fulfilling the prophecy.

==Gameplay==
{{Gameguide|date=March 2008}}
The gameplay mostly consists of obstacles, puzzles and a colorful platformer. Like most action/adventure video games, the player can jump and attack, The player has a health-meter represented by the feather on Tak's head. One unique feature is the ability to interact with and get past obstacles with the help of animals.

When Tak receives his Spirit Rattle, he is allowed Juju Powers that need to be collected. There are different effects for each one. Such as: Restoration Dance restores Tak to full health. Tak needs to collect feathers to restore his mana. Collecting feathers is a priority in each level and can do multiple things, like restore health or mana. Besides feathers, other collectables are essential for missions, such as Tikis that can summon Juju spirits.

==Television show==
{{main|Tak and the Power of Juju (TV series)}}
''Tak and the Power of Juju'' is also a [[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] television series that debuted on [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] on [[August 31]], [[2007]]. ''Tak and the Power of Juju'' consists of two eleven minute stories per half hour episode. It is Nickelodeon's first CGI series (produced in house) and the company's 29th Nicktoon. The series is directed by [[Mark Risley]] and Jim Schumann.

The television series tells of Tak and his friend, Jeera, including his master, Jibolba, and other characters. Tak is faced with the responsibilities of being a shaman as he daily has to save his village from villains. The series airs every Saturday.

==Sequels==
* [[Tak 2: The Staff of Dreams]]
* [[Tak: The Great Juju Challenge]]
* [[Tak and the Guardians of Gross]]
* [[Tak: Mojo Mistake]]

==External links==
*[http://www.takandthepowerofjuju.com/ Tak and the Power of Juju official site]
*[http://www.tak2game.com/ Tak 2: The Staff of Dreams official Site]
*[http://www.takgame.com/ Tak: The Great Juju Challenge official Site]
*[http://www.avalanchesoftware.com Avalanche Software official site]
*[http://www.mobygames.com/game/tak-and-the-power-of-juju Tak and the Power of Juju at MobyGames]

{{Tak}}

[[Category:Tak and the Power of Juju]]
[[Category:Game Boy Advance games]]
[[Category:GameCube games]]
[[Category:PlayStation 2 games]]
[[Category:2003 video games]]
[[Category:THQ games]]

[[de:Tak (Videospiel)]]
[[id:Tak and the Power of Juju]]
[[pt:Tak and the Power of Juju]]

Category:Audio amplifiers

2009-10-24T05:06:56Z

Borgx: +id

{{catmore|Audio amplifier}}

[[Category:Audio electronics]]
[[Category:Amplifiers]]
[[Category:Sound technology]]

[[id:Kategori:Pengeras suara]]
[[vi:Thể loại:Thiết bị phóng thanh]]

Megaphone

2009-10-24T05:05:42Z

Borgx: ~id

{{otheruses}}

[[Image:MOHAI - firefighter's speaking trumpet 01A.jpg|thumb|A late 19th-century speaking trumpet.]]
[[Image:megaphone-red.jpg|thumb|150px|right|An electronic megaphone.]]

A '''megaphone''', '''speaking-trumpet''', '''bullhorn''', '''blowhorn''', or '''loud hailer''' is a portable, usually hand-held, funnel cone-shaped device whose application is to amplify a person’s voice towards a targeted direction. This is accomplished by channeling the sound through a funnel, which also serves to match the [[acoustic impedance]] of the voice cords to the air. The natural [[human voice]] tends to spread evenly in all directions, whereas when it is sent through a megaphone, the sound is concentrated in a given direction and the coupling of its energy to the air optimised.<ref>[http://www.physics.uiowa.edu/~fskiff/Physics_044/Impedance.pdf See Example 1 of Impedance Matching for description of amplification mechanism]</ref> The trade-off is that if a listener is to the side, it is more difficult to hear what is being said. An electronic megaphone amplifies sound to a higher [[decibel]] level. It consists of a [[microphone]], an [[amplifier]] and a [[loudspeaker]]. Common uses for megaphones are at sporting events, [[political]] functions, and generally when one needs to address congregations of people in open spaces.

Though some instrument of the kind appears to have been in earlier use, the origin of the megaphone, or speaking trumpet as it was called, is connected with the name of [[Athanasius Kircher]] and that of Sir [[Samuel Morland]], who in 1670 proposed to the [[Royal Society]] of London the question of the best form for a speaking trumpet. [[Johann Heinrich Lambert]], in the ''Berlin Memoirs'' for 1763, seems to have been the first to give a theory of the action of this instrument, based on an altogether imaginary analogy with the behaviour of light.<ref>{{Wikisource1911Enc Citation|Trumpet, Speaking and Hearing}}</ref>

A later, [[papier-mache]] trumpet of special design was the Sengerphone.

==See also==
{{commonscat|Megaphones}}
* [[Horn (acoustic)]]
* [[Horn loudspeaker]]

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Audio amplifiers]]
[[Category:Sound technology]]

{{tech-stub}}

[[cs:Megafon]]
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[[es:Megáfono]]
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Category:Data modeling

2009-10-23T01:16:07Z

Borgx: +id

{{Commons cat|Data modeling}}
In information system design, '''[[data modeling]]''' is the analysis and design of the information in the system, concentrating on the logical entities and the logical dependencies between these entities

{{catdiffuse}}

[[Category:Data management|Modeling]]
[[Category:Scientific modeling]]
[[Category:Software design]]

[[ar:تصنيف:نمذجة البيانات]]
[[bs:Kategorija:Modeliranje podataka]]
[[cs:Kategorie:Datové modelování]]
[[de:Kategorie:Datenbankmodellierung]]
[[eo:Kategorio:Modeligo de datumoj]]
[[fa:رده:مدل‌سازی در داده‌ها]]
[[fr:Catégorie:Modélisation des données]]
[[id:Kategori:Pemodelan data]]
[[ja:Category:データモデリング]]
[[ru:Категория:Моделирование данных]]
[[sl:Kategorija:Modeliranje podatkov]]
[[tr:Kategori:Veri modelleme]]
[[uk:Категорія:Моделювання даних]]
[[vi:Thể loại:Mô hình hóa dữ liệu]]
[[zh:Category:数据建模]]

Entity–relationship model

2009-10-23T01:14:47Z

Borgx: +id

[[Image:ER Diagram MMORPG.png|thumb|320px|A sample ER diagram]]
In [[software engineering]], an '''Entity-Relationship Model''' (ERM) is an abstract and conceptual representation of [[data]]. Entity-relationship modeling is a [[database model]]ing method, used to produce a type of [[conceptual schema]] or [[semantic data model]] of a system, often a [[relational database]], and its requirements in a [[top-down]] fashion.

Diagrams created using this process are called ''entity-relationship diagrams'', or ''ER diagrams'' or ''ERDs'' for short.

The definitive reference for entity relationship modelling is generally given as [[Peter Chen]]'s 1976 paper<ref>[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.123.1085 The Entity Relationship Model - Toward A Unified View of Data]</ref>. However, variants of the idea existed previously (see for example A.P.G. Brown<ref>A.P.G. Brown, Modelling a Real-World System and Designing a Schema to Represent It, in Data Base Description, ed Douque and Nijssen, North-Holland, 1975, ISBN 0-7204-2833-5</ref>) and have been devised subsequently.

== Overview ==
The first stage of [[information system]] design uses these models during the [[requirements analysis]] to describe information needs or the type of [[information]] that is to be stored in a [[database]]. The [[data modeling]] technique can be used to describe any [[ontology (computer science)|ontology]] (i.e. an overview and classifications of used terms and their relationships) for a certain [[universe of discourse|area of interest]]. In the case of the design of an information system that is based on a database, the [[conceptual data model]] is, at a later stage (usually called logical design), mapped to a [[logical data model]], such as the [[relational model]]; this in turn is mapped to a physical model during physical design. Note that sometimes, both of these phases are referred to as "physical design".

There are a number of conventions for entity-relationship diagrams (ERDs). The classical notation mainly relates to [[conceptual data model|conceptual modeling]]. There are a range of notations employed in logical and physical [[database design]], such as [[IDEF1X]].

== The building blocks: entities, relationships, and attributes ==
[[Image:Erd-entity-relationship-example1.svg|frame|Two related entities]]
[[Image:Erd-entity-with-attribute.svg|frame|An entity with an attribute]]
[[Image:erd-relationship-with-attribute.png|frame|A relationship with an attribute]]
[[Image:Erd-id-as-primary-key.png|frame|[[Primary key]]]]
An [[entity]] may be defined as a thing which is recognized as being capable of an independent existence and which can be uniquely identified. An entity is an abstraction from the complexities of some domain. When we speak of an entity we normally speak of some aspect of the real world which can be distinguished from other aspects of the real world.<ref>Paul Beynon-Davies (2004). Database Systems. Houndmills, Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave </ref>

An entity may be a physical object such as a house or a car, an event such as a house sale or a car service, or a concept such as a customer transaction or order. Although the term entity is the one most commonly used, following Chen we should really distinguish between an entity and an entity-type. An entity-type is a category. An entity, strictly speaking, is an instance of a given entity-type. There are usually many instances of an entity-type. Because the term entity-type is somewhat cumbersome, most people tend to use the term entity as a synonym for this term.

Entities can be thought of as [[noun]]s. Examples: a computer, an employee, a song, a mathematical theorem. Entities are represented as rectangles.

A relationship captures how two or more entities are related to one another. Relationships can be thought of as [[verb]]s, linking two or more nouns. Examples: an ''owns'' relationship between a company and a computer, a ''supervises'' relationship between an employee and a department, a ''performs'' relationship between an artist and a song, a ''proved'' relationship between a mathematician and a theorem. Relationships are represented as diamonds, connected by lines to each of the entities in the relationship.

The model's linguistic aspect described above is utilized in the database [[query language]] [[ERROL]].

Entities and relationships can both have attributes. Examples: an ''employee'' entity might have a ''Social Security Number'' (SSN) attribute; the ''proved'' relationship may have a ''date'' attribute. Attributes are represented as ellipses connected to their owning entity sets by a line.

Every entity (unless it is a [[weak entity]]) must have a minimal set of uniquely identifying attributes, which is called the entity's [[primary key]].

Entity-relationship diagrams don't show single entities or single instances of relations. Rather, they show entity sets and relationship sets. Example: a particular ''song'' is an entity. The collection of all songs in a database is an entity set. The ''eaten'' relationship between a child and her lunch is a single relationship. The set of all such child-lunch relationships in a database is a relationship set.
In other words, a relationship set corresponds to a [[relation (mathematics)|relation in mathematics]], while a relationship corresponds to a member of the relation.

Certain [[cardinality (data modeling)|cardinality constraint]]s on relationship sets may be indicated as well.

== Diagramming conventions ==

Entity sets are drawn as rectangles, relationship sets as diamonds.
If an entity set participates in a relationship set, they are connected with a line.

Attributes are drawn as ovals and are connected with a line to exactly one entity or relationship set.

Cardinality constraints are expressed as follows:
* a double line indicates a ''participation constraint'', [[total relation|totality]] or [[surjective function|surjectivity]]: all entities in the entity set must participate in ''at least one'' relationship in the relationship set;
* an arrow from entity set to relationship set indicates a [[unique key|key constraint]], i.e. [[injective relation|injectivity]]: each entity of the entity set can participate in ''at most one'' relationship in the relationship set;
* a thick line indicates both, i.e. [[bijection|bijectivity]]: each entity in the entity set is involved in ''exactly one'' relationship.
* an underlined name of an attribute indicates that it is a [[unique key|key]]: two different entities or relationships with this attribute always have different values for this attribute.

Attributes are often omitted as they can clutter up a diagram; related diagram techniques often list entity attributes within the rectangles drawn for entity sets.

[[Image:ERD Representation.svg|320px|right]]
[[Image:ERD-artist-performs-song.svg|thumb|320px|Two related entities shown using Crow's Foot notation]]
Chen's notation for entity-relationship modeling uses rectangles to represent entities, and diamonds to represent relationships appropriate for [[first-class object]]s: they can have [[attribute]]s and [[relationship]]s of their own.

Other diagramming convention techniques:
* [[Charles Bachman|Bachman notation]]
* [[EXPRESS (data modeling language)|EXPRESS]]
* [[IDEF1X]]<ref>[https://idbms.navo.navy.mil/DataModel/IDEF1X.html IDEF1X]{{dead link|date=September 2009}}</ref>
* [[James Martin (author)|Martin notation]]
* (min, max)-notation of [[Jean-Raymond Abrial]] in 1974
* [[Unified Modeling Language|UML]]

=== Crow's Foot ===
Crow's Foot notation is used in [[Barker's Notation]], [[Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method|SSADM]] and [[Information Engineering]]. Crow's Foot diagrams represent entities as boxes, and relationships as lines between the boxes. The ends of these lines are shaped to represent the [[cardinality (data modeling)|cardinality]] of the relationship.

Usage of Chen notation is more prevalent in the United States, while usage of Crow's Foot notation was used primarily in the UK. Crow's Foot notation was used in the 1980s by the consultancy practice [[CACI]]. Many of the consultants at [[CACI]] (including Barker) subsequently moved to [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] UK, where they developed the early versions of Oracle's [[computer-aided software engineering|CASE]] tools, introducing the notation to a wider audience. Crow's Foot notation is used by these tools: [[Architecture of Integrated Information Systems|ARIS]], [[System Architect (software)|System Architect]], [[Microsoft Visio|Visio]], [[PowerDesigner]], [[TOAD (software)|Toad Data Modeler]], [[DeZign for Databases]], [[Devgems Data Modeler]], [[OmniGraffle]], [[MySQL Workbench]] and [[Dia (software)|Dia]].


== ER diagramming tools ==
There are many ER diagramming tools. Some of the proprietary ER diagramming tools are [[Architecture of Integrated Information Systems|ARIS]], [[Avolution]], [[dbForge Studio for MySQL]], [[DeZign for Databases]], [[ConceptDraw]], [[ER/Studio]], [[Devgems Data Modeler]], [[CA ERwin Data Modeler|ERwin]], [[MEGA International]], [[Metastorm]] ProVision[http://www.metastorm.com/], [[OmniGraffle]], [[Oracle Designer]], [[PowerDesigner]], [[Rational Rose]], [[SmartDraw]], [[Sparx Enterprise Architect]], [[SQLyog]], [[System Architect]], [[Toad Data Modeler]], [[SQL Maestro]], [[Microsoft Visio]], and [[Visual Paradigm]]. A freeware ER tool that can generate database and application layer code (webservices) is the [[RISE Editor]].

Some free software ER diagramming tools that can interpret and generate ER models, SQL and do database analysis are [[StarUML]], [[MySQL Workbench]], [http://sourceforge.net/projects/mogwai Mogwai], [http://www.sqlpower.ca/page/architect Power*Architect], SchemaSpy<ref name=schemaspy>{{cite web
| author=John Currier
| url=http://schemaspy.sourceforge.net/
| title=SchemaSpy: Graphical Database Schema Metadata Browser
| work=SourceForge
| accessdate=2009-01-22
}}</ref>, and SchemaCrawler<ref name=schemacrawler>{{cite web
| author=Sualeh Fatehi
| url=http://schemacrawler.sourceforge.net/
| title=SchemaCrawler
| work=SourceForge
}}</ref>.

Some free software diagram tools just draw the shapes without having any knowledge of what they mean, nor do they generate SQL. These include [[Kivio]] and [[Dia (software)|Dia]]. DIA diagrams, however, can be translated with tedia2sql.

== See also ==
* [[Associative Entities|Associative entity]]
* [[Data structure diagram]]
* [[Enhanced Entity-Relationship Model]]
* [[Object role modeling|Object Role Modeling]]
* [[Three schema approach]]
* [[Unified Modeling Language]]
* [[Fundamental modeling concepts#Value range structure diagrams|Value range structure diagrams]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Richard Barker (1990). ''CASE Method: Tasks and Deliverables''. Wokingham, England: Addison-Wesley.
* Paul Beynon-Davies (2004). ''Database Systems''. Houndmills, Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave
* {{cite journal | last = Peter Chen | first = | authorlink = Peter Chen | title = The Entity-Relationship Model - Toward a Unified View of Data | journal = ACM Transactions on Database Systems
| volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–36 | date = March 1976 | doi = 10.1145/320434.320440}}

== External links ==
{{Commons cat|Entity-relationship models}}
* [http://rapidapplicationdevelopment.blogspot.com/2007/06/entity-relationship-diagram-example.html An Entity Relationship Diagram Example]. Demonstrates the crow's feet notation by way of an example.
* [http://bit.csc.lsu.edu/~chen/pdf/Chen_Pioneers.pdf "Entity-Relationship Modeling: Historical Events, Future Trends, and Lessons Learned"] by Peter Chen.
* [http://bit.csc.lsu.edu/~chen/pdf/ER_C.pdf "English, Chinese and ER diagrams"] by Peter Chen.
* [http://www.cilco.co.uk/briefing-studies/acme-fashion-supplies-feasibility-study/slides/logical-data-structure.html Case study: E-R diagram for Acme Fashion Supplies] by Mark H. Ridley.
* [http://www.cems.uwe.ac.uk/~tdrewry/lds.htm Logical Data Structures (LDSs) - Getting started] by Tony Drewry.
* [http://www.utexas.edu/its/archive/windows/database/datamodeling/index.html Introduction to Data Modeling]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Entity-Relationship Model}}
[[Category:Data modeling diagrams]]

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[[el:Μοντέλο Οντοτήτων-Συσχετίσεων]]
[[es:Modelo entidad-relación]]
[[fr:Modèle entité-relation]]
[[ko:개체-관계 모델]]
[[id:Model relasi entitas]]
[[it:Modello E-R]]
[[he:מודל ישויות קשרים]]
[[nl:Entity-relationshipmodel]]
[[ja:実体関連モデル]]
[[pl:Diagram związków encji]]
[[pt:Diagrama entidade relacionamento]]
[[ru:ER-модель данных]]
[[sr:Модел објекти-везе]]
[[th:แบบจำลองความสัมพันธ์เอนทิตี]]
[[uk:Модель сутність-зв'язок]]
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2009-10-23T00:07:09Z

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[[Image:Symbol thumbs down.svg|12px|Negative]] {{{1}}}<noinclude>
==See also==
*{{tl|Thumbs up}}
*{{tl|Yes check}}
</noinclude><noinclude>
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[[id:Templat:Thumbs down]]</noinclude>

Ehningen

2009-10-23T00:00:21Z

Borgx: {{cleanup}}

{{cleanup}}
Geography [edit]

Ehningen is in Korngäu on the northwestern edge of the park Schönbuch. The historical Ehningen is located north of the Würm, related to the growth of the site the Würm now flows through the middle of the town. The second major watercourse is the Ehningen Krebsbach, that flows south-west of the old village in the Würm.
Local subdivisions [edit]

Ehningen belongs to the village Ehningen, the hamlet of Moors and the house and the mill towns dialed Hoingen, Rainmulin, Sulz and Haldenölmühle [2].
History [edit]

The first documented mention Ehningen can be dated to 1185, according to the Knight Albertus de Ondingin purchased a manor in Herrenberg. Albertus This came from the local nobility, and was likely to be a vassal of the Count Calw.

But even before this first mention, there is ample evidence of continued use of this countryside. Thus, a Neolithic arrowhead (3000-1800 BC) and a Bronze Age grave mound (1800-1200 BC were found.). Just south of present-day Ehningen unearthed a Celtic Viereckschanze, which is overbuilt now.

From the third century AD, began the colonization by the Alemanni. This is also evidenced in 1878 by the construction of the Stuttgart-Gäubahn Freudenstadt found Alemannic several graves. With the suffix-ingen can Ehningen the "Swabian Urdörfern assigned. The original name "Ondgingin" or "onding" indicates this may indicate an Alemannic tribe leader named "Ondo".

In medieval times the size Ehningen was relatively constant, the settlement was limited by the so-called "setters". This setter had to penetrate in the main a fence that would prevent the cattle out into the gardens of the houses. There were three streets from the Old City: The Upper Street (now King Street), the eastward direction Böblingen through the Upper Gate and west towards Herrenberg, Aidlingen Gärtringen and led through the lower gate. The Dagersheim road ran north through the gate Weilemer (also Linsentor). Of these three goals, none survived. The course of the setter, is seen in the East even at the present course of "Gängler. The settlement boundary of Etters was not until the 19th Century with a new settlement exceeded Aidlingen direction.

1850 Ehningen three Catholic and Protestant had 1634 inhabitants, in 308 primary and 88 outbuildings have lived and worked. [3] Until World War II Ehningen had about 2,000 inhabitants, a figure that is in time to 2000 steadily increased to just over 7,000. It created the residential contactors maggots hearth, Waag, valley road valley road and glues Gärtringen way to the Black Forest village, Bol, and in 2005 the construction area Buehl.

During the municipal reform in the 1970s there were thought to einzugemeinden Ehningen Boeblingen, but those plans were never realized.
Religions [edit]
Mary in Evangelical Ehningen

Since the Reformation Evangelical Lutheran Ehningen was coined. Only after the end of World War II emerged in the wake of the settlement of displaced again a Catholic parish.

The Protestant Mary's Church dates from the 15th and 16 Century and is built in Gothic style. Probably it is on the same site as an old church in Ehningen.

The Catholic Church St Elizabeth was completed 1957th

Maurener The Church of Our Lady has long been a popular pilgrimage. Since 1554 the Moors had their own parish. This was until 1809. Today, only the chorus is used as a chapel () at irregular intervals. The nave is used as a storeroom.

On the way to Altdorf is the New Apostolic Church.
Districts [edit]
Moors [edit]

→ Main article: Moors (Ehningen)

The Moors Schlossgut or estate is located on the border between the upper and the Gäu Schönbuch in the valley of the Würm. The name originated with the Moors in all probability of the word wall. This refers to a former Roman estate which has been lying near present-day Muslims in Würmtal.

Mauren was first mentioned in 1320, and was then a fief of Württemberg. Over the centuries, Muslims often changed hands. The Maurener castle was built in 1617 by Heinrich Schickard. 1943, it fell to a British air raid victims, was being confused with Arabs because of fog Boeblingen. The outer walls still standing on the ground floor, the vaulted cellar under the ground floor is also retained. Over the ruins of 2005, two houses were built, which are directly on steel pillars on the outer walls of the ruins.
Incorporations [edit]

* 1851: Moors

Demographics [edit]

* 1550: 500
* 1610: 800
* 1650: 300
* 1850: 1637 [3]
* 1939: 1985 [4]
* 1950: 3068 [4]
* 1970: 5890 [4]
* 1987: 6906 [4]
* 2005: 7637 [4]

Politics [edit]
Council [edit]

After the last local elections on 7 June 2009 the council has 18 members. The turnout was 60.56%. The election gave the following results:
ABE1 8 seats (41.39%)
CDU 5 seats (27.16%)
SPD 2 seats (15.07%)
Aufwind2 3 seats (16.38%)

Chairman of the municipal council is the mayor.

1General citizenship 2The alternative Ehningen
Mayor [edit]

The mayor of Ehningen states since 2004, Claus Unger. See also List of provost of Ehningen since 16 Century.
Crest [edit]
Crest Ehningen.png

In blue a golden Entenfuss, who clutched a red apple.
Economy and Infrastructure [edit]

Ehningen is a typical village in the catchment area of Boeblingen, Sindelfingen and Stuttgart, with a very high percentage of commuters. There are three industrial parks in Ehningen: Letts, Birkensee, Bernrain. Major employer is the Bertrandt AG, from 2009 will be Germany Ehningen location of the headquarters of IBM. Furthermore, there are other establishments in the city in commerce, trade, catering and agriculture.
Transportation [edit]

Ehningen located on the 81st Bundesautobahn The "Bodensee motorway runs from Würzburg to Gottmadingen at singing and was built in the late 1970s.

The Gäubahn (Stuttgart-Singen) was published in 1878 and inaugurated Ehningen connects with the national rail network.

The line S1 (Plochingen-Stuttgart-Herrenberg), the Stuttgart S-Bahn commuter trains run on this route since 1991. The train usually runs every half hour in both directions. Which together with the public transport buses Ehningen VVS is involved.
Educational institutions [edit]

In Ehningen there are four school buildings, which is used as a school only the Friedrich Kammerer primary and secondary school (1968). It takes its name from the inventor of the first Reibzündhölzer the world, Jacob Frederick Kammerer. For the students, parents and teachers at the school since 2002, there is a school social worker. The school social work at the Friedrich Kammerer school provides individual assistance and counseling, social education group work and projects, community work and networking as well as open leisure facilities. It is part of the Young People's Commune Ehningen.

The "Fronäckerschule" had been inaugurated 1915th Its name comes from its location on the Fronäckern, which were located outside the old village. It now houses the adult education center and other facilities. The former new school (built 1843) and the former old school (built 1826) are centrally located next to the Lutheran Church (St. Mary). Both have been renovated in the 1980s and now serve as residences.
Department of Family, Youth, Senior Citizens and Social Services [Edit]

The Department of Family, Youth, Seniors and Social Services ( "Family Unit") is part of the (political) community Ehningen and responsible for local children and young people. For Young People are the three areas of work Jugendreferat (eg, cooperation with organizations and associations, youth Juleica training, networking with other institutions of youth), Youth Kulturcafé BOING (open youth work and group work) and the school social work (advice and individual assistance, socio-educational group work and projects, community work and networking open recreational activities) at the Friedrich Kammerer school.
Sports and Leisure [edit]

* Schalkwiesen Gymnasium
* Turn-und Festhalle
* Playground at the school
* Swimming pool
* Four Stables
* Tennis Courts

Miscellaneous [edit]

* House at the rectory garden
* House of Youth
* Zehntscheuer

Culture and Attractions [edit]
Regular Events [edit]

The Pentecostal Ehninger market is known far beyond the borders Ehningen out. It takes place every year on Whit Monday and is visited every year by up to 20,000 people. It is part of Ehninger Pentecost, which takes place from Saturday until Whit Monday on the festival below the Fronäckerschule and is organized alternately by the Musikverein and the sports club. The historic Spring Fair was officially approved already 1837th
Personalities [edit]
Sons and daughters of the town [edit]

* 1796, 24 May, Jacob Friedrich Kammerer, † 23 October 1857 in Ludwigsburg, inventor of the match

Sources [edit]

1. ↑ population development in the municipalities of Baden-Württemberg 2008 (to help)
2. ↑ The state of Baden-Wuerttemberg. Official description for counties and municipalities. Volume III: the administrative district of Stuttgart, Regional Middle Neckar. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1978, ISBN 3-17-004758-2. P. 89-91
3. ↑ Description from the Oberamt Böblingen - Table I.
4. ↑ a b c d e National Institute of Statistics W-W.

References [edit]

* The city halls of our community Ehningen (2000 Mayor Ehningen)
* The field names of Ehningen (1995 Peter Löffelad, home Geschichtsverein Ehningen)
* Ehningen Swabian village with Heart (1995 Geiger-Verlag, Horb am Neckar, ISBN 3-89570-053-3)
* 25 years Frederick Kammerer School Ehningen (1993 Frederick Kammerer School Ehningen)
* Ehningen contributions to local history (1991 Geschichtsverein home Ehningen eV and community Ehningen)
* Houses and inscriptions in Ehningen - witness the Local History (1991 Geiger-Verlag, Horb am Neckar, ISBN 3-89264-533-7)
* Let the church in the village (1989 Evangelical Congregation Ehningen)
* 800 years community Ehningen (1985)
BB * label for the National History District Böblingen (1987 Lutz / mists / Noe Verlag Waldemar Lutz, Lörrach and Ernst Klett Verlag, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-12-258230-9)
* Ehningen contributions to local history (1985 and home to historical society for Schönbuch Gäu eV Volume 16)
* Ehningen images from a village in the Swabian Gäu (1985 Mayor Ehningen)
* Ehningen ... a community imagines (1982 Mayor Ehningen)
* The former parish church of pilgrimage and Moors (1974 Dr Adolf Schahl, Heimangeschichtsverein for Schönbuch and Gäu e. V.)
* St. Elizabeth Ehningen St Michael Gärtringen (1966 J. Hubert tree Pöss Libertas Verlag, Wiesbaden)
* Ehningen chronicle of a village in the Swabian Gäu (1965 Commune Ehningen)
* Families Ehninger (1994 Alfred Benz)
* Ehningen - My hometown (2008 Alfred Benz)

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Irrlicht Engine

2009-10-22T01:30:31Z

Borgx: +id

{{nofootnotes|date=December 2008}}

{{Infobox Software
| logo = [[Image:Irrlicht Logo.png]]
| name = Irrlicht 3D Engine
| developer = Nikolaus Gebhardt et al.
| latest_release_version = 1.6
| latest_release_date = [[September 30]], [[2009]]

| programming language = [[C++]]
| operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Linux]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Windows CE]]
| genre = [[Application framework]]
| license = [[zlib license|zlib]]
| website = [http://irrlicht.sourceforge.net/ Irrlicht 3D Homepage]
}}
{{Portal|Free software|Free Software Portal Logo.svg}}
{{Portal|Video games|Gamepad.svg}}
'''Irrlicht''' ({{pronounced|ˈɪɐ̯lɪçt}} in German) is an [[open source]] [[Game engine|3D engine]] written in [[C++]]. It is cross-platform, officially running on [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Linux]] and [[Windows CE]] and due to its open nature ports to other systems including the [[Xbox]], [[PlayStation Portable]]<ref>[http://www.ltestudios.com/projects/lte-game-engine/ LTE Game Engine]</ref>, [[SymbianOS]]<ref>[https://sourceforge.net/projects/irrlichtfors60/ Irrlicht For S60]</ref> and [[iPhone]]<ref>[http://irrlicht.sourceforge.net/phpBB2/viewtopic.php?p=181454 Announcement about Irrlicht on iPhone]</ref> are available.

Irrlicht is known for its small size and compatibility with new and older hardware alike, a shallow learning curve and a large friendly community<ref>[http://irrlicht.sourceforge.net/phpBB2/index.php Irrlicht support forum]</ref><ref>[irc://chat.freenode.net:6667/irrlicht/ Chat on Irrlicht (IRC)]</ref>. Unofficial bindings for many languages exist including [[Microsoft .NET Framework|.NET]]<ref>[https://sourceforge.net/projects/irrlichtnetcp/ Irrlicht.Net Cross Platform Project Page]</ref>, [[Java (programming language)|Java]]<ref>[http://jirr.sourceforge.net/ Jirr: Irrlicht for Java]</ref>, [[Perl]]<ref>[http://search.cpan.org/~tels/Games-Irrlicht-0.04/lib/Games/Irrlicht.pm Irrlicht for Perl]</ref>, [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]]<ref>[http://irr.rubyforge.org/ IrrRuby]</ref>, [[Python (programming language)|Python]]<ref>[https://sourceforge.net/projects/venom-v2/ Venom: Irrlicht wrapper for Python]</ref>, [[FreeBASIC]], [[Lua (programming language)|Lua]]<ref>[http://irrlua.sourceforge.net/ IrrLua, A Lua front end to Irrlicht]</ref>, [[Delphi]]<ref>[http://irrlicht.sourceforge.net/phpBB2/viewtopic.php?t=10511 Irrlicht 4 Delphi]</ref><ref>[http://sourceforge.net/projects/irr-pascal IrrPascal]</ref>, [[C++ Builder]]<ref>[http://komradstudios.altervista.org/cppbIrrlicht cppbIrrlicht]</ref> and even [[Game Maker]]<ref>[http://gmc.yoyogames.com/lofiversion/index.php/t61910.html GMIrrlicht]</ref>.

Irrlicht's development started in 2003 with only one developer, Nikolaus Gebhardt.<ref>[http://www.linuxdevcenter.com/pub/a/linux/2005/06/02/irrlicht.html Interview with the Irrlicht founder]</ref> Only after the 1.0 release of Irrlicht in 2006 the team grew to currently ten members, most of them developers.<ref>[http://irrlicht.sourceforge.net/author.html Development team members]</ref>

==Features==
Irrlicht supports 3D rendering via [[OpenGL]], [[DirectX]] 8 and 9, [[OpenGL ES]], and internal software rasterizers. External renderers and windowing systems plugged in through simple interfaces, giving rise to community-made [[Simple DirectMedia Layer|SDL]], [[iPhone]] and [[SymbianOS]] devices.
The engine comes with a library of standard material renderers, allowing fallback materials where user hardware is unable to handle advanced techniques. New materials can be added to the engine at run-time, allowing users to write their own as required. In addition to legacy fixed-function pipeline materials, programmable Pixel and Vertex Shaders (1.1 to 3.0), ARB Fragment and Vertex Programs, [[HLSL]] and [[GLSL]] materials are supported.

[[File:IrrlichtPerPixelLighning.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Irrlicht Per Pixel Lightning]]
Irrlicht supports a wealth of file formats. It will load and display 3ds Max files, Quake 2 MD2 Models, Maya .obj objects, Quake 3 .bsp maps, Milkshape3D objects, and DirectX .x files.<ref>[http://freshmeat.net/articles/irrlicht Irrlicht features] on Freashmeat</ref> More 3D format support have been written as external plugins.
Lights, cameras and 3D objects are managed as a tree of 'Scene Nodes', arbitrary groupable entities which are responsible for their own behaviour. Nodes can be managed by generic animators, by each other, or manually by the user.

A large number of built-in node types exist and can be used together to make complex indoor and outdoor scenes, new nodes are trivial to make and can be added at runtime, many extra ones are provided by the community. Internal node types include a terrain renderer and sky domes/boxes for outdoor rendering, [[Binary space partitioning|BSP]]s for indoor rendering, bone based animated meshes, stencil shadows, billboards and particle systems, water surfaces and primitives.

A [[Skin (computing)|skinnable]] 2D [[GUI]] is available, supporting many controls and the ability for users to plug in their own (or community made) custom widgets at runtime. Irrlicht's internal event system provides mouse, keyboard, joystick and GUI events without having to rely on additional libraries.

Filesystem access is abstracted allowing platform-independent file and folder access, and transparent access to files within [[ZIP (file format)|Zip]] archives. Other IO features include an XML reader and writer, the ability to take screenshots, manipulate images and meshes and then save them in several different file formats.

Irrlicht's provides support for simple collision detection including mouse picking, but users are advised that this is not intended as a replacement for a full featured [[Physics engine]].

==Engine Extensions==

{{main|Irrlicht Engine Extentions}}
The engine's open-ended nature has attracted various programmers and developers to create world editors for Irrlicht to simplify the world-creation process. Irrlicht was designed to be able to load and save the current scene to an XML file. [[Ambiera]], a company consisting mainly of Nikolaus Gebhardt, has developed the [[irrEdit]] World Editor <ref> [http://www.ambiera.com/irredit Official website of the irrEdit Scene editor]</ref>
. Although in early beta, irrEdit contains a powerful [[radiosity]] [[lightmap]] generator and a scripting interface using [[Squirrel (programming language)|Squirrel]] scripts, making it a powerful addition to the Irrlicht engine. Another newly-risen world editor is [[Sourena 3D World Editor]]. The editor however is still in progress.

Since Irrlicht does not support sound by itself, Ambiera has also developed irrKlang, the Irrlicht audio library. Being developed by the same group, irrEdit supports the use of sounds in levels made by irrEdit for use with irrKlang-enabled compiled DLLs.

Another creation handled by Ambiera is irrXML, Irrlicht's XML parser.

More extensions can be found in the Irrlicht forums and in the irrExt project, a side-project of Irrlicht for special purpose add-ons.

== See also ==
* [[OGRE]]
* [[OpenSceneGraph]]
* [[Delta3D]]
* [[CrystalSpace]]
* [[Visualization Library]]

== External links ==
* [http://irrlicht3d.org Blog of author]
* [http://www.irrlicht3d.org/wiki/ Irrlicht Engine Wiki at irrlicht3d.org]
* [http://www.devmaster.net/engines/engine_details.php?id=4 DevMaster.net details and reviews of Irrlicht]
* [http://www.heise.de/kiosk/archiv/ix/2006/9/52_kiosk German Computer Magazine reviewed Irrlicht]
* [http://www.sagamedev.com/magazine.aspx?magazineissueid=38 South African Game Development talking about Irrlicht]
* [http://www.brighthub.com/internet/web-development/articles/15493.aspx An article series on using Irrlicht with Java]
* [http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/10294 Irrlicht in Linux Journal, April 2009]
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/arunv/2254225845/ A modified texture file used in Irrlicht sample program]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:SourceForge projects]]
[[Category:3D Scenegraph APIs]]
[[Category:Free 3D graphics software]]
[[Category:Free software programmed in C++]]

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Category:United States secretaries of state

2009-10-21T13:29:49Z

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The [[United States Secretary of State]] is the head of the [[United States Department of State]], concerned with [[foreign affairs]]. The Secretary is a member of the [[United States Cabinet|U.S. Cabinet]].
{{Commons cat|Secretaries of State of the United States}}

[[Category:Members of the Cabinet of the United States|State]]
[[Category:American diplomats|Secretaries of State]]
[[Category:United States Department of State|Secretaries of State]]
[[Category:Foreign ministers|United States]]

[[ar:تصنيف:وزراء خارجية أمريكيون]]
[[az:Kateqoriya:ABŞ Dövlət katibləri]]
[[bg:Категория:Държавни секретари на САЩ]]
[[cs:Kategorie:Ministři zahraničí USA]]
[[da:Kategori:Udenrigsministre fra USA]]
[[de:Kategorie:Außenminister (Vereinigte Staaten)]]
[[et:Kategooria:Ameerika Ühendriikide riigisekretärid]]
[[es:Categoría:Secretarios de Estado de Estados Unidos]]
[[fr:Catégorie:Secrétaire d'État des États-Unis]]
[[ko:분류:미국의 국무부 장관]]
[[id:Kategori:Menteri Luar Negeri Amerika Serikat]]
[[it:Categoria:Segretari di Stato degli Stati Uniti]]
[[he:קטגוריה:מזכירי המדינה של ארצות הברית]]
[[ka:კატეგორია:აშშ-ის სახელმწიფო მდივნები]]
[[la:Categoria:Secretarii Civitatis Civitatum Foederatarum]]
[[nl:Categorie:Amerikaans minister van Buitenlandse Zaken]]
[[ja:Category:アメリカ合衆国国務長官]]
[[no:Kategori:USAs utenriksministre]]
[[oc:Categoria:Secretari d'Estat dels Estats Units]]
[[pl:Kategoria:Sekretarze stanu Stanów Zjednoczonych]]
[[pt:Categoria:Secretários de Estado dos Estados Unidos da América]]
[[qu:Katiguriya:Kansillir (Hukllachasqa Amirika Suyukuna)]]
[[ru:Категория:Государственные секретари США]]
[[simple:Category:United States Secretaries of State]]
[[fi:Luokka:Yhdysvaltain ulkoministerit]]
[[sv:Kategori:USA:s utrikesministrar]]
[[uk:Категорія:Державні секретарі США]]
[[vi:Thể loại:Ngoại trưởng Hoa Kỳ]]
[[zh:Category:美国国务卿]]

Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom

2009-10-21T13:23:40Z

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[[Category:Battles involving the United Kingdom|World War I]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I by country|United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Military operations of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]

[[id:Kategori:Pertempuran Perang Dunia I melibatkan Britania Raya]]

Sterling Beaumon

2009-10-21T13:14:31Z

Borgx: +id

{{Infobox actor
| name = Sterling Beaumon
| image = SterlingBeaumonByPhilKonstantin.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Sterling Beaumon in 2008
| birthname = Sterling Martin Beaumon
| birthdate = {{birth date and age|1995|6|2}}
| birthplace = [[San Diego, California]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| occupation = Actor/Singer
| yearsactive = 2005–present
| website =
}}

'''Sterling Martin Beaumon''' (born June 2, 1995) is an [[United States|American]] [[teen actor]] and [[singer]]. He is best known for his lead role as Max Doyle in the 2008 film ''[[Mostly Ghostly: Who Let the Ghosts Out?]]'' and young [[Benjamin Linus]] in the ABC television show ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]''.

==Biography==
===Personal life===
Beaumon was born in [[San Diego, California]], and presently resides in [[Santa Clarita, California|Santa Clarita]].
At Los Angeles Lutheran High School is where Sterling goes to school now.

===Career===
Beaumon has been [[figure skating]] since 1999. In 2000, he skated opposite [[Scott Hamilton (figure skater)|Scott Hamilton]] in "[[Stars On Ice]]" in his hometown of San Diego. He now resorts to recreational hockey due to the difficulties of having to take so many long periods of time off from figure skating.{{fact|date=October 2009}}
He started dancing and acting by the time he was six and made his very first professional stage debut at the age of seven in ''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]''. He also danced as a guest artist in the National Ballet of Korea's Nutcracker (Fritz) at the LA Shrine Auditorium.

Sterling began appearing in television commercials when he was six with a [[Disney Cruise Line]] spot. Since then, he has been in several national commercials including those for car manufacturers, pool products, foods, movie studios, [[Verizon]] and most recently, in a big campaign for [[IHOP (restaurant)|IHOP]] restaurant. Beaumon supports numerous charities including [[Ronald McDonald House]], '''Mothers Against Gang Violence''' and arts programs for youths at risk.

He guest-starred on an episode of the hit [[NBC]] series, ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'', portraying a teenage boy who gets in a fight and suffers a subdural hematoma as well as in an episode of ''[[Bones (TV series)|Bones]]''. He also co-starred in West Coast Ensemble's adaptation of the [[Stephen Sondheim]] musical, ''[[Assassins (musical)|Assassins]]''. He also plays the role of a young [[Benjamin Linus]] on the hit [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] series ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]''.

His [[voiceover]] work includes Beaumon as one of the starring English voices in the Japanese anime series ''[[Gunsword]]'' and as one of the stars of the upcoming [[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] created ''[[Astro Boy (film)|Astro Boy]]'' film. He has recently done the English voice of Duke Qubine in the video game ''[[The Last Remnant]]''.

==References==
{{Commons category|Sterling Beaumon}}
*{{imdb name|1869029}}
*[http://www2.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3750711 Star Spotlight: Sterling Beaumon]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Beaumon, Sterling}}
[[Category:1995 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actors from California]]
[[Category:American child actors]]
[[Category:American film actors]]
[[Category:American television actors]]
[[Category:American voice actors]]
[[Category:People from San Diego, California]]
{{US-screen-actor-1990s-stub}}

[[id:Sterling Beaumon]]

Template:±/doc

2009-10-21T13:10:00Z

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{{Documentation subpage}}


== Usage ==
<code><nowiki>{{± | plusValue | minusValue}}</nowiki></code>

:So to get: 70{{±|2.0|1.8}}
:You would use: <nowiki>70{{±|2.0|1.8}}</nowiki>

=== See also ===

<includeonly>

[[Category:Mathematical formatting templates|{{PAGENAME}}]]

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Last Look at Eden

2009-10-21T13:03:27Z

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{{Infobox Album | 
Name = Last Look at Eden |
Type = studio |
Artist = [[Europe (band)|Europe]] |
Cover = Europe last look at eden album.jpg |
Released = {{start date|2009|9|9}} (see [[#Release history|Release history]]) |
Recorded = December 2008–February 2009 at the Bohus Sound Studios, Gothenburg; Playyard Studios and Studio 13, Stockholm |
Genre = [[Hard rock]], [[Heavy metal music|Heavy metal]]||
Length = 46:55 |
Label = Universal (Scandinavia) earMUSIC/Edel (Europe) JVC/Victor(Japan) |
Producer = Tobias Lindell, Europe |
Reviews = [[Allmusic]] {{Rating|3|5}} [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:hxfwxzqald0e link] |
Last album = ''[[Almost Unplugged]]'' (2008) |
This album = '''''Last Look at Eden''''' (2009) |
Next album =
| Misc = {{Singles
| Name = Last Look at Eden
| Type = Studio
| single 1 = [[Last Look at Eden (song)|Last Look at Eden]]
| single 1 date = June 8, 2009
| single 2 = [[New Love in Town]]
| single 2 date = September 3, 2009
}}
}}
'''''Last Look at Eden''''' is the eighth [[studio album]] by the [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[hard rock]] band [[Europe (band)|Europe]]. It was released on September 9, 2009 in Sweden by [[Universal Music Group|Universal]]<ref name="Universal Music">{{cite web |url=http://www.universalmusic.se/artister/europe.aspx |title=Universal Music |language= Swedish |accessdate=2009-09-07 |format= |work=universalmusic.se }}</ref> and was released on September 14, 2009 in the UK, by [[Edel Music|Edel Music's]] international rock music label earMUSIC.<ref name="EarMusic press release">{{cite web |url=http://www.noblepr.co.uk/Press_Releases/earmusic/europealbum.htm |title=EarMusic - Europe |accessdate=2009-07-02 |work=noblepr.co.uk }}</ref>

==Release history==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Region
! Date
|-
| Sweden
| {{start date|2009|9|9}}
|-
| United Kingdom
| {{start date|2009|9|14}}
|-
| Germany
| {{start date|2009|9|18}}
|-
| Japan
| {{start date|2009|10|21}}
|}

==Album information==
The band has described it as a modern retro rock album.<ref name="ETB blog some answers">{{cite web |url=http://europethebandblog.blogspot.com/2008/12/some-answers.html |title=Europetheband blog: Some answers... |accessdate=2008-12-09 |work=europethebandblog.blogspot.com }}</ref> "This time, we're taking some new directions with our songs, and we're exploring different styles," they stated, "There is a definite classic rock vibe on some of the tracks... a tip of the hat to groovin', funkin' 70s rock songs - but ones we have brought into the here and now."<ref name="ETB blog new directions">{{cite web |url=http://europethebandblog.blogspot.com/2008/12/new-directions.html |title=Europetheband blog: New directions |accessdate=2008-12-09 |work=europethebandblog.blogspot.com }}</ref>

During an interview with the [[Chile]]an radio station Radio Universo, vocalist [[Joey Tempest]] said that "''Last Look at Eden'' is more a Europe album than ''[[Secret Society (Europe album)|Secret Society]]'' and ''[[Start from the Dark]]''. ''Last Look at Eden'' is a real Europe album."<ref name="radio universo">{{cite web|url=http://www.universo.cl/prontus_universo/site/artic/20090424/pags/20090424172454.html|title=Radio Universo - Europe: "El mejor público está aquí en Latinoamérica"|publisher=universo.cl|language=Spanish|accessdate=2009-04-26}}</ref> Drummer [[Ian Haugland]] said that ''Start from the Dark'' and ''Secret Society'' had led up to ''Last Look at Eden'', and Tempest agreed, saying, "We had to make those two albums in order to do this."<ref name="radio universo"/>

"With the two first comeback albums [''Start from the Dark'' and ''Secret Society''], we were very focused on trying to modernise the sound," Tempest said in an interview with the British magazine ''[[Classic Rock (magazine)|Classic Rock]]'', "This time we followed our hearts and soul. It's very classic-sounding and melodic. It's almost like we've gone full circle."<ref name="classic rock">{{Cite news | last= | first= | author-link= | title=Europe - The Swedes count down to lightening the heavy load at Bloodstock| newspaper=Classic Rock | volume= | issue=135 | pages=102 | year=2009 | date=August 2009 | url= }}</ref>

Europe premiered one of the album tracks, "Mojito Girl", on the Chilean tour in April 2009.<ref name="chileanskies">{{cite web|url=http://www.chileanskies.com/2009/04/26/review-europe-en-santiago-de-chile-teatro-caupolican/|title=Review: Europe en Santiago de Chile, Teatro Caupolicán|publisher=chileanskies.com|language=Spanish|accessdate=2009-04-26}}</ref> Two other tracks, "[[Last Look at Eden (song)|Last Look at Eden]]" and "Gonna Get Ready", were premiered on a concert in Norway in May.<ref name="ETB blog no sleep">{{cite web|url=http://europethebandblog.blogspot.com/2009/05/no-sleep-till-sweden-rock.html|title=Europetheband blog: NO SLEEP 'TILL SWEDEN ROCK|publisher=europethebandblog.blogspot.com|accessdate=2009-05-24}}</ref>

In May 2009 Europe went to [[Gothenburg]] to work with director [[Patric Ullaeus]] on the [[music video]] for the first single, "Last Look at Eden",<ref name="revolver 1">{{cite web|url=http://www.revolver.se/news/files/30a79218cc23fea4f61a5d4486a74182-33.php|title=Europe in the Revolver Studio|publisher=revolver.se|accessdate=2009-05-14}}</ref> which was released on June 8, 2009. The video was premiered on Europe's MySpace page on June 3. In August Europe went back to Gothenburg to work with Ullaeus on the video for the second single, "[[New Love in Town]]",<ref name="revolver 2">{{cite web|url=http://www.revolver.se/news/files/e32af3a63d27434389618200fb24b192-52.php|title=Europe back to Gothenburg|publisher=revolver.se|accessdate=2009-08-30}}</ref> which was released on September 3, 2009. The video was premiered on Europe's MySpace page on September 5.<ref>http://blogs.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=blog.view&friendId=7751236&blogId=508400165</ref>

The album debuted at number 1 on the Swedish album chart.<ref name="SWE"/>

== Tour ==
{{main|Last Look at Eden Tour}}
The band will support the release of the album with the [[Last Look at Eden Tour]], beginning on November 7, 2009.

==Track listing==
# "Prelude" (Joey Tempest, Mic Michaeli, Tobias Lindell) – 0:52
# "[[Last Look at Eden (song)|Last Look at Eden]]" (Joey Tempest, Andreas Carlsson, Europe) – 3:55
# "Gonna Get Ready" (Joey Tempest, Andreas Carlsson, Europe) – 3:35
# "Catch That Plane" (Joey Tempest, Europe) – 4:46
# "[[New Love in Town]]" (Joey Tempest, Mic Michaeli, Andreas Carlsson, Europe) – 3:33
# "The Beast" (Joey Tempest, John Levén, Europe) – 3:23
# "Mojito Girl" (Joey Tempest, Europe) – 3:44
# "No Stone Unturned" (Joey Tempest, Europe) – 4:48
# "Only Young Twice" (Joey Tempest, John Norum, Europe) – 3:51
# "U Devil U" (Joey Tempest, Europe) – 4:10
# "Run with the Angels" (Joey Tempest, John Norum, Mic Michaeli, Europe) – 4:03
# "In My Time" (Joey Tempest, Andreas Carlsson, Europe) – 6:15

===Limited edition digipak bonus tracks===
# "Yesterday's News" [live] (Joey Tempest, Kee Marcello, John Levén, Mic Michaeli, Ian Haugland)
# "Wake Up Call" [live] (Joey Tempest, John Norum)

===Collector's edition bonus tracks===
# "Sign of the Times" [live] (Joey Tempest)
# "Start from the Dark" [live] (Joey Tempest, John Norum)

===Japanese edition bonus track===
# "Scream of Anger" [live] (Joey Tempest, Marcel Jacob)

== Personnel ==
;Europe
*[[Joey Tempest]] – [[Singing|lead and backing vocals]]
*[[John Norum]] – [[guitar]]s
*[[John Levén]] – [[Bass guitar|bass]]
*[[Mic Michaeli]] – [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], backing vocals
*[[Ian Haugland]] – [[drum kit|drums]]

;Additional personnel
*[[Titiyo]] – backing vocals on tracks 4, 7, 12
*[[Kleerup]] – backing vocals on tracks 4, 7, 8, 12 and backwards piano outro on track 4
*[[Andreas Carlsson]] - backing vocals on tracks 2, 3, 5
*[[Magnus Sjölander]] - percussion
*[[Czech National Symphony Orchestra]]

;Production
*Produced by Tobias Lindell and Europe
*Mixed and engineered by Tobias Lindell
*Mastered by Vlado Meller at Universal Mastering Studios, New York
*Recorded and mixed at Bohus Sound Studios, Gothenburg
*Additional production by Joey Tempest and Mic Michaeli
*Additional recordings at Playyard Studios, Stockholm by Per Stappe and Ronny Bernström; Studio 13, Stockholm by Marcus Englof

;Cover art
*Art direction and design by Dimitrios Dimitriadis at Nightshade Design Collective
*Band photos by Fredrik Etoall at Etoall Production

==Chart positions==
{|class="wikitable"
!Year
!List
!Peak
!Ref.
|-
|rowspan="8"|2009
|[[Sverigetopplistan |Swedish Album Chart]]
|align="center"|1
|<ref name="SWE">{{cite web |url=http://www.hitlistan.se/ |title=Swedish album chart |publisher=sverigetopplistan.se |accessdate=2009-09-18 }}</ref>
|-
|[[UK Albums Chart]]
|align="center"|125
|<ref name="UK">{{cite web |url=http://zobbel.de/cluk/090926cluk.txt |title=Chart Log UK Weekly Updates 2009 - CHART: CLUK Update 26.09.2009 (wk38) |publisher=zobbel.de |accessdate=2009-09-28 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique|French Record Charts]]
|align="center"|86
|<ref name="FRA">{{cite web |url=http://www.disqueenfrance.com/fr/monopage.xml?id=256595 |title=Albums Nouveautés|publisher=disqueenfrance.com|accessdate=2009-10-02 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Federation of the Italian Music Industry|Italian Album Chart]]
|align="center"|37
|<ref name="ITA">{{cite web |url=http://www.fimi.it/classifiche_artisti.php |title=Classifiche Artisti-Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana|publisher=fimi.com||accessdate=2009-10-02 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Czech Album Chart]]
|align="center"|45
|<ref name="CZE">{{cite web |url=http://www.ifpicr.cz/hitparada/index.php?hitp=P |title=IFPI ČR Hitparáda - TOP50 Prodejní Týden - 200939||publisher=ifpi.cz|accessdate=2009-10-02 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Media Control Charts|German Albums Chart]]
|align="center"|31
|<ref name="GER">{{cite web |url=http://www.viva.tv/Charts/Detail/id/5183/part/0/name/VIVA+Album+Top+50|title=Media-Control Charts |publisher=viva.tv||accessdate=2009-10-02 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Ultratop|Belgian Albums Chart]]
|align="center"|89
|<ref name="BEL">{{cite web |url=http://www.ultratop.be/nl/weekchart.asp?cat=a|title=UltraTop Belgian Charts|publisher=ultratop.be|accessdate=2009-10-02 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Swiss Music Charts|Swiss Albums Chart]]
|align="center"|29
|<ref name="SWI">{{cite web |url=http://swisscharts.com/|title=Schweizer Hitparade|publisher=swisscharts.com|accessdate=2009-10-02 }}</ref>
|}

== References ==
*http://www.europetheband.com
{{Reflist}}

{{Europe (band)}}

[[Category:Europe albums]]
[[Category:2009 albums]]

[[fr:Last Look at Eden]]
[[fi:Last Look at Eden]]
[[id:Last Look at Eden]]
[[sv:Last Look at Eden]]

Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics

2009-10-21T04:09:38Z

Borgx: +id

{{redirect|Kerala School|public school|Kerala School, Delhi}}

The '''Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics''' was a school of [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]] and [[Indian astronomy|astronomy]] founded by [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]] in [[Kerala]], [[South India]], which included among its members: [[Parameshvara]], [[Neelakanta Somayaji]], [[Jyeshtadeva]], [[Achyuta Pisharati]], [[Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri]] and [[Achyuta Panikkar]]. The school flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries and the original discoveries of the school seems to have ended with [[Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri|Narayana Bhattathiri]] (1559–1632). In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts. Their most important results—[[Series (mathematics)|series]] expansion for [[trigonometric functions]]—were described in [[Sanskrit]] verse in a book by Neelakanta called ''Tantrasangraha'', and again in a commentary on this work, called ''Tantrasangraha-vakhya'', of unknown authorship. The theorems were stated without proof, but proofs for the series for sine, cosine, and inverse tangent were provided a century later in the work ''[[Yuktibhasa]]'' (c. 1500 – c. 1610), written in [[Malayalam]], by Jyesthadeva, and also in a commentary on ''Tantrasangraha''.<ref name=roy>Roy, Ranjan. 1990. "Discovery of the Series Formula for <math> \pi </math> by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha." ''Mathematics Magazine'' (Mathematical Association of America) 63(5):291-306.</ref>

Their work, completed two centuries before the invention of [[calculus]] in Europe, provided what is now considered the first example of a [[power series]] (apart from geometric series).<ref>{{Harv|Stillwell|2004|p=173}}</ref> However, they did not formulate a systematic theory of [[derivative|differentiation]] and [[integral|integration]], nor is there any direct evidence of their results being transmitted outside [[Kerala]].<ref> {{Harv|Bressoud|2002|p=12}} Quote: "There is no evidence that the Indian work on series was known beyond India, or even outside Kerala, until the nineteenth century. Gold and Pingree assert [4] that by the time these series were rediscovered in Europe, they had, for all practical purposes, been lost to India. The expansions of the sine, cosine, and arc tangent had been passed down through several generations of disciples, but they remained sterile observations for which no one could find much use."</ref><ref> {{Harvnb|Plofker|2001|p=293}} Quote: "It is not unusual to encounter in discussions of Indian mathematics such assertions as that “the concept of differentiation was understood [in India] from the time of Manjula (... in the 10th century)” [Joseph 1991, 300], or that “we may consider Madhava to have been the founder of mathematical analysis” (Joseph 1991, 293), or that Bhaskara II may claim to be “the precursor of Newton and Leibniz in the discovery of the principle of the differential calculus” (Bag 1979, 294). ... The points of resemblance, particularly between early European calculus and the Keralese work on power series, have even inspired suggestions of a possible transmission of mathematical ideas from the Malabar coast in or after the 15th century to the Latin scholarly world (e.g., in (Bag 1979, 285)). ... It should be borne in mind, however, that such an emphasis on the similarity of Sanskrit (or Malayalam) and Latin mathematics risks diminishing our ability fully to see and comprehend the former. To speak of the Indian “discovery of the principle of the differential calculus” somewhat obscures the fact that Indian techniques for expressing changes in the Sine by means of the Cosine or vice versa, as in the examples we have seen, remained within that specific trigonometric context. The differential “principle” was not generalized to arbitrary functions—in fact, the explicit notion of an arbitrary function, not to mention that of its
derivative or an algorithm for taking the derivative, is irrelevant here" </ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Pingree|1992|p=562}} Quote:"One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400 A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read anymore the ''Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society'', in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the series ''without'' the calculus; but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution."</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Katz|1995|pp=173-174}} Quote:"How close did Islamic and Indian scholars come to inventing the calculus? Islamic scholars nearly developed a general formula for finding integrals of polynomials by A.D. 1000—and evidently could find such a formula for any polynomial in which they were interested. But, it appears, they were not interested in any polynomial of degree higher than four, at least in any of the material that has come down to us. Indian scholars, on the other hand, were by 1600 able to use ibn al-Haytham's sum formula for arbitrary integral powers in calculating power series for the functions in which they were interested. By the same time, they also knew how to calculate the differentials of these functions. So some of the basic ideas of calculus were known in Egypt and India many centuries before Newton. It does not appear, however, that either Islamic or Indian mathematicians saw the necessity of connecting some of the disparate ideas that we include under the name calculus. They were apparently only interested in specific cases in which these ideas were needed. ... There is no danger, therefore, that we will have to rewrite the history texts to remove the statement that Newton and Leibniz invented calculus. Thy were certainly the ones who were able to combine many differing ideas under the two unifying themes of the derivative and the integral, show the connection between them, and turn the calculus into the great problem-solving tool we have today."</ref>

==Contributions==
===Infinite Series and Calculus===
The Kerala school has made a number of contributions to the fields of [[Series (mathematics)|infinite series]] and [[calculus]]. These include the following (infinite) geometric series:

:<math> \frac{1}{1-x} = 1 + x + x^2 + x^3 + \dots </math> for <math>|x|<1 </math><ref name=singh>Singh, A. N. Singh. 1936. "On the Use of Series in Hindu Mathematics." ''Osiris'' 1:606-628.</ref>

This formula, however, was already known in the work of the 10th century [[Iraq]]i [[Islamic mathematics|mathematician]] [[Ibn al-Haytham|Alhazen]] (the [[Latin]]ized form of the name Ibn al-Haytham) (965–1039).<ref>Edwards, C. H., Jr. 1979. ''The Historical Development of the Calculus''. New York: Springer-Verlag.</ref>

The Kerala school made intuitive use of [[mathematical induction]], though the [[Inductive hypothesis#Formal description|inductive hypothesis]] was not yet formulated or employed in proofs.<ref name=roy/> They used this to discover a semi-rigorous proof of the result:

:<math>1^p+ 2^p + \cdots + n^p \approx \frac{n^{p+1}}{p+1}</math> for large ''n''. This result was also known to Alhazen.<ref name=roy/>

They applied ideas from (what was to become) [[Derivative|differential]] and [[integral]] [[calculus]] to obtain ([[Taylor series|Taylor-Maclaurin]]) infinite series for <math>\sin x</math>, <math>\cos x</math>, and <math> \arctan x</math>.<ref name=bressoud>[[David Bressoud|Bressoud, David]]. 2002. "Was Calculus Invented in India?" ''The College Mathematics Journal'' (Mathematical Association of America). 33(1):2-13.</ref> The ''Tantrasangraha-vakhya'' gives the series in verse, which when translated to mathematical notation, can be written as:<ref name=roy/>
:<math>r\arctan(\frac{y}{x}) = \frac{1}{1}\cdot\frac{ry}{x} -\frac{1}{3}\cdot\frac{ry^3}{x^3} + \frac{1}{5}\cdot\frac{ry^5}{x^t} - \cdots , </math> where <math>y/x \leq 1. </math>
:<math>r\sin \frac{x}{r} = x - x\cdot\frac{x^2}{(2^2+2)r^2} + x\cdot \frac{x^2}{(2^2+2)r^2}\cdot\frac{x^2}{(4^2+4)r^2} - \cdot </math>
:<math> r - \cos x = r\cdot \frac{x^2}{(2^2-2)r^2} - r\cdot \frac{x^2}{(2^2-2)r^2}\cdot \frac{x^2}{(4^2-4)r^2} + \cdots , </math> where, for <math> r = 1 </math>, the series reduce to the standard power series for these trigonometric functions, for example:
::<math>\sin x = x - \frac{x^3}{3!} + \frac{x^5}{5!} - \frac{x^7}{7!} + \cdots </math> and
::<math>\cos x = 1 - \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{x^4}{4!} - \frac{x^6}{6!} + \cdots </math> (The Kerala school themselves did not use the "factorial" symbolism.)

The Kerala school made use of the rectification (computation of length) of the arc of a circle to give a proof of these results. (The later method of Leibniz, using quadrature (''i.e.'' computation of area under the arc of the circle), was not yet developed.)<ref name=roy/> They also made use of the series expansion of <math>\arctan x</math> to obtain an infinite series expression (later known as Gregory series) for <math>\pi</math>:<ref name=roy/>
:<math>\frac{\pi}{4} = 1 - \frac{1}{3} + \frac{1}{5} - \frac{1}{7} + \ldots </math>

Their rational approximation of the ''error'' for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. For example, the error, <math>f_i(n+1)</math>, (for ''n'' odd, and ''i = 1, 2, 3'') for the series:
:<math>\frac{\pi}{4} \approx 1 - \frac{1}{3}+ \frac{1}{5} - \cdots (-1)^{(n-1)/2}\frac{1}{n} + (-1)^{(n+1)/2}f_i(n+1)</math>
::where <math>f_1(n) = \frac{1}{2n}, \ f_2(n) = \frac{n/2}{n^2+1}, \ f_3(n) = \frac{(n/2)^2+1}{(n^2+5)n/2}.</math>

They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for <math>\pi</math>:<ref name=roy/>
:<math>\frac{\pi}{4} = \frac{3}{4} + \frac{1}{3^3-3} - \frac{1}{5^3-5} + \frac{1}{7^3-7} - \cdots </math>

They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,<ref name=roy/> <math>104348/33215</math> for <math>\pi</math> correct up to nine decimal places, ''i.e.'' <math>3.141592653 </math>. They made use of an intuitive notion of a [[Limit (mathematics)|limit]] to compute these results.<ref name=roy/> The Kerala school mathematicians also gave a semi-rigorous method of differentiation of some trigonometric functions,<ref name=katz>Katz, V. J. 1995. "Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India." ''Mathematics Magazine'' (Mathematical Association of America), 68(3):163-174.</ref> though the notion of a function, or of exponential or logarithmic functions, was not yet formulated.

The works of the Kerala school were first written up for the Western world by Englishman C. M. Whish in 1835, though there exists some other works, namely '''Kala Sankalita''' by J. Warren in 1825<ref>[http://www.physics.iitm.ac.in/~labs/amp/kerala-astronomy.pdf Current Science]</ref> which briefly mentions the discovery of infinite series by Kerala astronomers. According to Whish, the Kerala mathematicians had "''laid the foundation for a complete system of fluxions''" and these works abounded "''with fluxional forms and series to be found in no work of foreign countries.''"<ref name="charles">{{Citation
| author =Charles Whish
| year = 1835
| title = Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland
| publisher =
}}
</ref>
However, Whish's results were almost completely neglected, until over a century later, when the discoveries of the Kerala school were investigated again by C. Rajagopal and his associates. Their work includes commentaries on the proofs of the arctan series in ''Yuktibhasa'' given in two papers,<ref>Rajagopal, C. and M. S. Rangachari. 1949. "A Neglected Chapter of Hindu Mathematics." ''Scripta Mathematica''. 15:201-209.</ref><ref>Rajagopal, C. and M. S. Rangachari. 1951. "On the Hindu proof of Gregory's series." ''Ibid.'' 17:65-74.</ref> a commentary on the ''Yuktibhasa'''s proof of the sine and cosine series<ref>Rajagopal, C. and A. Venkataraman. 1949. "The sine and cosine power series in Hindu mathematics." ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal (Science)''. 15:1-13.</ref> and two papers that provide the [[Sanskrit]] verses of the ''Tantrasangrahavakhya'' for the series for arctan, sin, and cosine (with English translation and commentary).<ref>Rajagopal, C. and M. S. Rangachari. 1977. "On an untapped source of medieval Keralese mathematics." ''Archive for the History of Exact Sciences''. 18:89-102.</ref><ref>Rajagopal, C. and M. S. Rangachari. 1986. "On Medieval Kerala Mathematics." ''Archive for the History of Exact Sciences''. 35:91-99.</ref>

===Geometry, Arithmetic, and Algebra===
In the fields of [[geometry]], [[arithmetic]], and [[algebra]], the Kerala school discovered a formula for the [[ecliptic]],{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[Lhuilier]]'s formula for the circumradius of a [[cyclic quadrilateral]] by [[Parameshvara]],<ref name=Paramesvara>J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2000). [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Paramesvara.html Paramesvara], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''.</ref><ref name=Mathematicians-of-Kerala>Ian G. Pearce (2002). [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Projects/Pearce/Chapters/Ch9_2.html Mathematicians of Kerala]. ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''. [[University of St Andrews]].</ref> decimal [[floating point]] numbers,<ref>D. F. Almeida, G. G. Joseph (2004). "Eurocentrism in the History of Mathematics: The Case of the Kerala School", ''Race and Class''.</ref> the [[secant method]] and [[iterative method]]s for solution of [[non-linear]] equations by [[Parameshvara]],<ref name=Paramesvara/><ref>K. Plofker (1996). "An Example of the Secant Method of Iterative Approximation in a Fifteenth-Century Sanskrit Text", ''Historia Mathematica'' '''23''' (3), p. 246-256.</ref> and the [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]-[[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] interpolation formula by Govindaswami.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

===Astronomy===
In [[Indian astronomy|astronomy]], Madhava discovered a procedure to determine the positions of the [[Moon]] every 36 minutes, and methods to estimate the motions of the planets.<ref name=Kak>[[Subhash Kak|S. Kak]] (2002). [http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/grolier.pdf History of Indian Science], p. 6. [[Louisiana State University]].</ref> Late Kerala school astronomers gave a formulation for the equation of the center of the planets,<ref name=Kak/><ref>Joseph (2000), p. 298-300.</ref> and a [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] model of the solar system.<ref name=Kak/>

In 1500, [[Nilakantha Somayaji|Nilakanthan Somayaji]] (1444–1544) of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics, in his ''[[Tantrasangraha]]'', revised [[Aryabhata]]'s model for the planets [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] and [[Venus]]. His equation of the [[Center of mass|centre]] for these planets remained the most accurate until the time of [[Johannes Kepler]] in the 17th century.<ref name=Joseph408>George G. Joseph (2000), p. 408.</ref>

Nilakanthan Somayaji, in his 'Aryabhatiyabhasya', a commentary on Aryabhata's 'Aryabhatiya', developed his own computational system for a partially [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]] orbit the [[Sun]], which in turn orbits the [[Earth]], similar to the [[Tychonic system]] later proposed by [[Tycho Brahe]] in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and [[latitude|latitudinal]] motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics who followed him accepted his planetary model.<ref name=Joseph408/><ref>K. Ramasubramanian, M. D. Srinivas, M. S. Sriram (1994). "Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 AD) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion", ''[[Current Science]]'' '''66''', p. 784-790.</ref>

===Linguistics===
In [[linguistics]], the [[Ayurveda|ayurvedic]] and poetic traditions of [[Kerala]] were founded by this school, and the famous poem, ''[[Narayaneeyam]]'', was composed by [[Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri|Narayana Bhattathiri]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

==Prominent mathematicians==
===Madhavan of Sangamagrama===
[[Madhava of Sangamagrama]] (c. 1340–1425) was the founder of the [[Kerala School]]. Although it is possible that he wrote ''Karana Paddhati'', a work written sometime between 1375 and 1475, all we really know of his work comes from works of later scholars.

Little is known about Madhava, who lived at [[Irinjalakuda]],at that time known as Iringattikudal in Thrissur district between the years 1340 and 1425. Sanskrit scholars used to call the town as Sangamagramam, taking into consideration of the meaning of Kudal apprearing in Iringattikudal, which has the meaning Sangamam in Sanskrit.

Nilkantha attributes the series for ''sine'' to him. It is not known if Madhava discovered the other series as well, or whether they were discovered later by others in the Kerala school.

Madhava's discoveries include the Taylor series for the sine,<ref name=katz/> cosine, tangent and arctangent functions;<ref name=MacTutor>{{MacTutor Biography|id=Madhava}} [[St Andrews University]], 2000.</ref> the second-order Taylor series approximations of the sine and cosine functions and the third-order Taylor series approximation of the sine function; the power series of [[π]], usually attributed to [[Leibniz]]<ref name=Madhava>Ian G. Pearce (2002). [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Projects/Pearce/Chapters/Ch9_3.html Madhava of Sangamagramma]. ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''. [[University of St Andrews]].</ref> but now known as the [[Leibniz formula for pi|Madhava-Leibniz series]];<ref>{{citation|title=Special Functions|last=George E. Andrews, Richard Askey|first=Ranjan Roy|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1999|isbn=0521789885|page=58}}</ref><ref>{{citation|first=R. C.|last=Gupta|title=On the remainder term in the Madhava-Leibniz's series|journal=Ganita Bharati|volume=14|issue=1-4|year=1992|pages=68–71}}</ref> the solution of [[Transcendental function|transcendental equations]] by [[iteration]];{{Fact|date=February 2007}} and the approximation of [[transcendental number]]s by [[continued fraction]]s.<ref name=Madhava/> Madhava correctly computed the value of <math>\pi</math> to 9 decimal places<ref name=roy/> and 13 decimal places,<ref name=Madhava/> and produced sine and cosine tables to 9 decimal places of accuracy.<ref>Joseph (2000), p. 293</ref> He also extended some results found in earlier works, including those of [[Bhaskara]].<ref name=Madhava/>

===Narayanan Pandit===
[[Narayana Pandit]] (1340–1400), had written two works, an arithmetical treatise called ''Ganita Kaumudi'' and an [[algebra]]ic treatise called ''Bijganita Vatamsa''. Narayanan is also thought to be the author of an elaborate commentary of [[Bhaskara II]]'s [[Lilavathi]], titled ''Karmapradipika'' (or ''Karma-Paddhati'').<ref name=Narayana>J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2000). [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Narayana.html Narayana], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''.</ref>

Although the ''Karmapradipika'' contains little original work, it contains seven different methods for squaring numbers, a contribution that is wholly original to the author, as well as contributions to algebra and [[magic square]]s.<ref name=Narayana/>

Narayanan's other major works contain a variety of mathematical developments, including a rule to calculate approximate values of square roots, investigations into the second order [[indeterminate equation]] ''nq''2 + 1 = ''p''2 ([[Pell's equation]]), solutions of indeterminate [[Degree of a polynomial|higher-order equations]], mathematical operations with [[0 (number)|zero]], several [[geometry|geometrical]] rules, and a discussion of [[magic square]]s and similar figures.<ref name=Narayana/> Evidence also exists that Narayana made minor contributions to the ideas of [[Derivative|differential calculus]] found in Bhaskara II's work. Narayana has also made contributions to the topic of [[cyclic quadrilateral]]s.<ref name=Mathematicians-of-Kerala/>

===Parameshvaran===
[[Parameshvara]] (1370–1460), the founder of the Drigganita system of Astronomy, was a prolific author of several important works. He belonged to the Alathur village situated on the bank of Bharathappuzha.He is stated to have made direct astronomical observations for fifty-five years before writing his famous work, Drigganita. He also wrote commentaries on the works of [[Bhaskara I]], [[Aryabhata]] and [[Bhaskara II]]. His ''Lilavathi Bhasya'', a commentary on Bhaskara II's ''Lilavathi'', contains one of his most important discoveries: an early version of the [[mean value theorem]].<ref name=Paramesvara/> This is considered one of the most important results in differential calculus and one of the most important theorems in mathematical analysis, and was later essential in proving the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]].

The ''Siddhanta-Deepika'' by Paramesvara is a commentary on the commentary of [[Govindsvamin]] on [[Bhaskara I]]'s ''Maha-bhaskareeya''. This work contains some of his eclipse observations, including one made at Navakshethra in 1422 and two made at Gokarna in 1425 and 1430. It also presents a mean value type formula for inverse interpolation of the sine function, a one-point iterative technique for calculating the sine of a given angle, and a more efficient approximation that works using a two-point iterative algorithm, which is essentially the same as the modern [[secant method]].<ref name=Paramesvara/>

Parameshvaran was also the first mathematician to give the radius of a circle with an inscribed [[cyclic quadrilateral]], an expression that is normally attributed to [[Simon Antoine Jean L'Huillier|L'Huilier]] (1782).<ref name=Paramesvara/>

===Nilakanthan Somayaji===
[[Nilakantha Somayaji|Nilakantha]] (1444–1544) was a disciple of Govinda, son of Parameshvara. He was a brahmin from Trkkantiyur in Ponnani taluk. His younger brother Sankara was also a scholar in astronomy. Nilakantha's most notable work ''Tantra Samgraha'' (which 'spawned' a later anonymous commentary ''Tantrasangraha-vyakhya'' and a further commentary by the name ''Yukthideepika'', written in 1501) he elaborates and extends the contributions of Madhava.<ref name=Nilakantha>J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2000). [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Nilakantha.html Nilakantha], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''.</ref>

Nilakantha was also the author of ''Aryabhatiya-bhashya'', a commentary of the ''[[Aryabhatiya]]''. Of great significance in Nilakantha's work includes the presence of [[Mathematical induction|inductive]] mathematical proofs, a derivation and proof of the Madhava-Gregory series of the arctangent trigonometric function, improvements and proofs of other infinite series expansions by Madhava, an improved series expansion of π that converges more rapidly, and the relationship between the power series of π and arctangent.<ref name=Nilakantha/> He also gave sophisticated explanations of the irrationality of π, the correct formulation for the equation of the center of the planets, and a [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] model of the solar system.<ref name=Kak/>

===Chitrabhanu===
[[Citrabhanu]] (c. 1530) was a 16th century mathematician from Kerala who gave integer solutions to 21 types of systems of two [[simultaneous equation|simultaneous]] [[Diophantine]] equations in two unknowns. These types are all the possible pairs of equations of the following seven forms:<ref name=Indian-mathematics>J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2000). [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_mathematics.html An overview of Indian mathematics], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''.</ref>

:<math>\ x + y = a, x - y = b, xy = c, x^2 + y^2 = d, x^2 - y^2 = e, x^3 + y^3 = f, x^3 - y^3 = g.</math>

For each case, Chitrabhanu gave an explanation and justification of his rule as well as an example. Some of his explanations are algebraic, while others are geometric.<ref name=Indian-mathematics/>

===Jyesthadevan===
[[Jyesthadeva]] (c. 1500–1600) was another member of the Kerala School. His key work was the ''[[Yuktibhasa]]'' (written in [[Malayalam]], a regional language of the Indian state of [[Kerala]]), the world's first [[Calculus]] text. It contained most of the developments of earlier Kerala School mathematicians, particularly from Madhava. Similar to the work of Nilakantha, it is unique in the history of Indian mathematics, in that it contains proofs of theorems, derivations of rules and series, a derivation and proof of the Madhava-Gregory series of the arctangent function, proofs of most mathematical theorems and infinite series earlier discovered by Madhava and other mathematicians of the Kerala School. It also contains a proof of the series expansion of the arctangent function (equivalent to Gregory's proof), and the sine and cosine functions.<ref name=Nilakantha>J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2000). [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Nilakantha.html Nilakantha], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''.</ref>

He also studied various topics found in many previous Indian works, including integer solutions of systems of first degree equations solved using ''kuttaka'' method, and rules of finding the sines and the cosines of the sum and difference of two angles.<ref name=Nilakantha/> Jyesthadevan also gave the earliest statement of [[John Wallis|Wallis]]' theorem, and geometrical derivations of infinite series.

===Sankaran Varma===
There remains a final Kerala work worthy of a brief mention, ''Sadratnamala'' an astronomical treatise written by [[Shankara Variyar|Sankara Varma]] (1800–1838) that serves as a summary of most of the results of the Kerala School. What is of most interest is that it was composed in the early 19th century and the author stands out as the last notable name in Keralan mathematics. A remarkable contribution was his compution of π correct to 17 decimal places.<ref name=Madhava/>

==Possibility of transmission of Kerala School results to Europe==
A. K. Bag suggested in 1979 that knowledge of these results might have been transmitted to Europe through the trade route from [[Kerala]] by traders and [[Jesuit]] missionaries.<ref>A. K. Bag (1979) ''Mathematics in ancient and medieval India''. Varanasi/Delhi: Chaukhambha Orientalia. page 285.</ref> Kerala was in continuous contact with [[China]] and [[Arabia]], and [[Europe]]. The suggestion of some communication routes and a chronology by some scholars<ref> C. K. Raju (2001). "Computers, Mathematics Education, and the Alternative Epistemology of the Calculus in the Yuktibhasa", ''Philosophy East and West'' '''51''' (3), p. 325-362.</ref><ref name=almeida/> could make such a transmission a possibility; however, there is no direct evidence by way of relevant manuscripts that such a transmission took place.<ref name=almeida>Almeida, D. F., J. K. John, and A. Zadorozhnyy. 2001. "Keralese Mathematics: Its Possible Transmission to Europe and the Consequential Educational Implications." ''Journal of Natural Geometry'', 20:77-104.</ref> According to [[David Bressoud]], "there is no evidence that the Indian work of series was known beyond India, or even outside of Kerala, until the nineteenth century."<ref name=bressoud/><ref name=gold> Gold, D. and D. Pingree. 1991. "A hitherto unknown Sanskrit work concerning Madhava's derivation of the power series for sine and cosine." ''Historia Scientiarum''. 42:49-65.</ref>

Both [[Islamic mathematics|Arab]] and Indian scholars made discoveries before the 17th century that are now considered a part of calculus.<ref name=katz/> However, they were not able to, as [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] and [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] were, to "combine many differing ideas under the two unifying themes of the [[derivative]] and the [[integral]], show the connection between the two, and turn calculus into the great problem-solving tool we have today."<ref name=katz/> The intellectual careers of both Newton and Leibniz are well-documented and there is no indication of their work not being their own;<ref name=katz/> however, it is not known with certainty whether the immediate ''predecessors'' of Newton and Leibniz, "including, in particular, Fermat and Roberval, learned of some of the ideas of the Islamic and Indian mathematicians through sources of which we are not now aware."<ref name=katz/> This is an active area of current research, especially in the manuscript collections of [[Spain]] and [[Maghreb]], research that is now being pursued, among other places, at the [[Centre national de la recherche scientifique]] in [[Paris]].<ref name=katz/>

==Notes==
<div style="font-size: 90%">
<references/>
</div>

==References==

*{{Harvard reference
| last=Bressoud
| first=David
| authorlink=David Bressoud
| title=Was Calculus Invented in India?
| journal=The College Mathematics Journal (Math. Assoc. Amer.)
| volume=33
| issue=1
| year=2002
| pages=2-13
| url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0746-8342%28200201%2933%3A1%3C2%3AWCIII%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5
}}.
*Gupta, R. C. (1969) "Second Order of Interpolation of Indian Mathematics", Ind, J.of Hist. of Sc. 4 92-94
*{{Harvard reference
| last1=Hayashi
| first1=Takao
| chapter=Indian Mathematics
| year=2003
| editor1-last=Grattan-Guinness
| editor1-first=Ivor
| title=Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences
| volume=1, pp. 118-130
| place=Baltimore, MD
| publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press, 976 pages
| publication-year=
| isbn=0801873967
}}.
*{{Harvard reference
| last=Joseph
| first=G. G.
| authorlink=
| year=2000
| title=The Crest of the Peacock: The Non-European Roots of Mathematics
| place=Princeton, NJ
| publisher=Princeton University Press, 416 pages
| isbn=0691006598
| url=http://www.amazon.com/Crest-Peacock-George-Gheverghese-Joseph/dp/0691006598/
}}.
*{{Harvard reference
| last=Katz
| first=Victor J.
| title=Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India
| journal=Mathematics Magazine (Math. Assoc. Amer.)
| volume=68
| issue=3
| year=1995
| pages=163-174
| url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0025-570X%28199506%2968%3A3%3C163%3AIOCIIA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2
}}.
*Parameswaran, S., ‘Whish’s showroom revisited’, Mathematical gazette 76, no. 475 (1992) 28-36
*{{Harvard reference | last = Pingree | first = David | authorlink = David Pingree | title = Hellenophilia versus the History of Science | year = 1992 | journal = Isis | volume = 83 | issue = 4 | pages = 554-563 | url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/234257?origin=JSTOR-pdf}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last=Plofker
| first=Kim
| title=An Example of the Secant Method of Iterative Approximation in a Fifteenth-Century Sanskrit Text
| journal=Historia Mathematica
| volume=23
| issue=3
| year=1996
| pages=246-256
| doi=10.1006/hmat.1996.0026
}}.
*{{Harvard reference
| last=Plofker
| first=Kim
| title=The "Error" in the Indian "Taylor Series Approximation" to the Sine
| journal=Historia Mathematica
| volume=28
| issue=4
| year=2001
| pages=283-295
| doi=10.1006/hmat.2001.2331
}}.
*{{Harvard reference
| last1=Plofker
| first1=K.
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| chapter=Mathematics of India
| pages = 385-514
| date=[[July 20]] [[2007]]
| year=2007
| editor1-last=Katz
| editor1-first=Victor J.
| editor2-last=
| editor2-first=
| title=The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook
| volume=
| place=Princeton, NJ
| publisher=Princeton University Press, 685 pages
| publication-year=2007
| isbn=0691114854
}}.
*C. K. Raju. 'Computers, mathematics education, and the alternative epistemology of the calculus in the Yuktibhâsâ', ''Philosophy East and West'' '''51''', University of Hawaii Press, 2001.
*{{Harvard reference
| last=Roy
| first=Ranjan
| title=Discovery of the Series Formula for <math> \pi </math> by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha
| journal=Mathematics Magazine (Math. Assoc. Amer.)
| volume=63
| issue=5
| year=1990
| pages=291-306
| url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0025-570X%28199012%2963%3A5%3C291%3ATDOTSF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C
}}.
*Sarma, K. V. and S. Hariharan: ''Yuktibhasa of Jyesthadeva : a book of rationales in Indian mathematics and astronomy - an analytical appraisal'', Indian J. Hist. Sci. 26 (2) (1991), 185-207
*{{Harvard reference
| last=Singh
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*{{Harvard reference
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*Tacchi Venturi. 'Letter by Matteo Ricci to Petri Maffei on 1 Dec 1581', ''Matteo Ricci S.I., Le Lettre Dalla Cina 1580–1610'', vol. 2, Macerata, 1613.
</div>

==External links==
* ''[http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_agraw_kerala.htm The Kerala School, European Mathematics and Navigation]'', 2001.
*[http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_mathematics.html An overview of Indian mathematics], ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]'', 2002.
*[http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Projects/Pearce/index.html Indian Mathematics: Redressing the balance], ''MacTutor History of Mathematics archive'', 2002.
*[http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Projects/Pearce/Chapters/Ch9_1.html Keralese mathematics], ''MacTutor History of Mathematics archive'', 2002.
*[http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Projects/Pearce/Chapters/Ch9_4.html Possible transmission of Keralese mathematics to Europe], ''MacTutor History of Mathematics archive'', 2002.
*[http://www.canisius.edu/topos/rajeev.asp Neither Newton nor Leibnitz - The Pre-History of Calculus and Celestial Mechanics in Medieval Kerala], 2005.
*[http://www.physorg.com/news106238636.html "Indians predated Newton 'discovery' by 250 years"] ''phys.org,'' 2007

==See also==
*[[Indian astronomy]]
*[[Indian mathematics]]
*[[Indian mathematicians]]
*[[History of mathematics]]

[[Category:Hindu astronomy]]
[[Category:History of mathematics]]
[[Category:History of astronomy]]
[[Category:Kerala school|*]]

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[[id:Mazhab astronomi dan matematika Kerala]]
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[[File:World population.PNG|thumb|350px|Map of [[Country|countries]] by population]]
[[File:World population growth - time between each billion-person growth.jpg|thumb|350px|Population growth showing projections for later this century. (See also [[:File:World population growth - time between each billion-person growth--MKII.jpg|alternative view of chart]]).]]
'''Demography''' is the [[statistical study]] of all [[populations]]. It can be a very general science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic population, that is, one that changes over time or space (see [[population dynamics]]). It encompasses the study of the size, structure and distribution of populations, and spatial and/or temporal changes in them in response to [[birth]], [[Migration (human)|migration]], [[aging]] and [[death]].

[[Demographic analysis]] can be applied to whole societies or to groups defined by criteria such as [[education]], [[nationality]], [[religion]] and [[ethnicity]]. In academia, demography is often regarded as a branch of either [[anthropology]], [[economics]], or [[sociology]]. '''Formal demography''' limits its object of study to the measurement of populations processes, while the more broad field of social demography population studies also analyze the relationships between economic, social, cultural and biological processes influencing a population.<ref>Andrew Hinde ''Demographic Methods'' Ch. 1 ISBN 0-340-71892-7</ref>

The term [[demographics]] is often used erroneously for demography, but refers rather to selected population characteristics as used in government, [[marketing]] or [[Opinion poll|opinion research]], or the [[demographic profile]]s used in such research. 

==Data and methods==
There are two methods of data collection: direct and indirect. Direct data come from vital statistics registries that track all births and deaths as well as certain changes in legal status such as marriage, divorce, and migration (registration of place of residence). In developed countries with good registration systems (such as the United States and much of Europe), registry statistics are the best method for estimating the number of births and deaths.

The [[census]] is the other common direct method of collecting demographic data. A census is usually conducted by a national government and attempts to enumerate every person in a country. However, in contrast to vital statistics data, which are typically collected continuously and summarized on an annual basis, censuses typically occur only every 10 years or so, and thus are not usually the best source of data on births and deaths. Analyses are conducted after a census to estimate how much over or undercounting took place. Censuses do more than just count people. They typically collect information about families or households, as well as about such individual characteristics as age, sex, marital status, literacy/education, employment status and occupation, and geographical location. They may also collect data on migration (or place of birth or of previous residence), language, religion, nationality (or ethnicity or race), and citizenship. In countries in which the vital registration system may be incomplete, the censuses are also used as a direct source of information about fertility and mortality; for example the censuses of the [[People's Republic of China]] gather information on births and deaths that occurred in the 18 months immediately preceding the census.

Indirect methods of collecting data are required in countries where full data are not available, such as is the case in much of the developing world. One of these techniques is the sister method, where survey researchers ask women how many of their sisters have died or had children and at what age. With these surveys, researchers can then indirectly estimate birth or death rates for the entire population. Other indirect methods include asking people about siblings, parents, and children.

There are a variety of demographic methods for modeling population processes. They include [[models of mortality]] (including the [[life table]], [[Gompertz curve|Gompertz models]], [[Proportional hazards models|hazards models]], [[Proportional hazards models|Cox proportional hazards models]], [[Decrement table|multiple decrement life tables]], [[Brass relational logits]]), [[fertility]] ([[Hernes model]], [[Ansley J. Coale|Coale]]-Trussell models, [[parity progression ratios]]), marriage (Singulate Mean at Marriage, [[Page model]]), disability ([[Sullivan's method]], [[multistate life tables]]), [[population projections]] ([[Lee-Carter methods for estimating mortality|Lee Carter]], the [[Leslie matrix|Leslie Matrix]]), and [[population momentum]] ([[Keyfitz]]).

==Important concepts==
[[Image:Population pyramid 1 (triangle).PNG|300px|right|thumb|A [[population pyramid]] is an age/sex distribution diagram.]]
Important concepts in demography include:
* The '''crude [[birth rate]]''', the annual number of live births per 1000 people.
* The '''general [[fertility rate]]''', the annual number of live births per 1000 women of childbearing age (often taken to be from 15 to 49 years old, but sometimes from 15 to 44).
* '''age-specific fertility''' rates, the annual number of live births per 1000 women in particular age groups (usually age 15-19, 20-24 etc.)
* The '''crude [[death rate]]''', the annual number of deaths per 1000 people.
* The '''[[infant mortality rate]]''', the annual number of deaths of children less than 1 year old per 1000 live births.
* The '''expectation of life''' (or [[life expectancy]]), the number of years which an individual at a given age could expect to live at present mortality levels.
* The '''[[total fertility rate]]''', the number of live births per woman completing her reproductive life, if her childbearing at each age reflected current age-specific fertility rates.
* The '''[[gross reproduction rate]]''', the number of daughters who would be born to a woman completing her reproductive life at current age-specific fertility rates.
* The '''net reproduction ratio''' is the expected number of daughters, per newborn prospective mother, who may or may not survive to and through the ages of childbearing.

Note that the crude death rate as defined above and applied to a whole population can give a misleading impression. For example, the number of deaths per 1000 people can be higher for developed nations than in less-developed countries, despite standards of health being better in developed countries. This is because developed countries have relatively more older people, who are more likely to die in a given year, so that the overall mortality rate can be higher even if the mortality rate at any given age is lower. A more complete picture of mortality is given by a [[life table]] which summarises mortality separately at each age. A life table is necessary to give a good estimate of life expectancy.

The fertility rates can also give a misleading impression that a population is growing faster than it in fact is, because measurement of fertility rates only involves the reproductive rate of women, and does not adjust for the sex ratio. For example, if a population has a total fertility rate of 4.0 but the sex ratio is 66/34 (twice as many men as women), this population is actually growing at a slower natural increase rate than would a population having a fertility rate of 3.0 and a sex ratio of 50/50. This distortion is greatest in [[India]] and [[Myanmar]], and is present in [[China]] as well.

==Basic demographic equation==
Suppose that a country (or other entity) contains ''Populationt'' persons at time ''t''.
What is the size of the population at time ''t'' + 1 ?

:<math>Population_{t+1} = Population_t + Natural increase_t + Net migration_t</math>

Natural increase from time ''t'' to ''t'' + 1:

:<math>Natural increase_t = Births_t - Deaths_t</math>

Net migration from time ''t'' to ''t'' + 1:

:<math>Net migration_t = Immigration_t - Emigration_t</math>

This basic equation can also be applied to subpopulations. For example, the population size of ethnic groups or nationalities within a given society or country is subject to the same sources of change. However, when dealing with ethnic groups, "net migration" might have to be subdivided into physical migration and ethnic reidentification ([[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]]). Individuals who change their ethnic self-labels or whose ethnic classification in government statistics changes over time may be thought of as migrating or moving from one population subcategory to another.<ref>See, for example, Barbara A. Anderson and Brian D. Silver, "Estimating Russification of Ethnic Identity Among Non-Russians in the USSR," ''Demography'', Vol. 20, No. 4 (Nov., 1983): 461-489.</ref>

More generally, while the basic demographic equation holds true by definition, in practice the recording and counting of events (births, deaths, immigration, emigration) and the enumeration of the total population size are subject to error. So allowance needs to be made for error in the underlying statistics when any accounting of population size or change is made.

==History==
[[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406) is regarded as the "father of demography" for his [[economics|economic]] analysis of [[sociology|social]] organization which produced the first scientific and theoretical work on population, development, and group dynamics. His
''[[Muqaddimah]]'' also laid the groundwork for his observation of the role of [[Sovereign state|state]], [[communication]] and [[propaganda]] in [[history]].<ref>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.</ref>

The ''Natural and Political Observations ... upon the Bills of Mortality'' (1662) of [[John Graunt]] contains a primitive form of [[actuarial table|life table]]. Mathematicians, such as [[Edmond Halley]], developed the life table as the basis for life insurance mathematics. [[Richard Price]] was credited with the first textbook on life contingencies published in 1771,<ref>“Our Yesterdays: the History of the Actuarial Profession in North America, 1809-1979,” by E.J. (Jack) Moorhead, FSA, ( 1/23/10 – 2/21/04), published by the Society of Actuaries as part of the profession’s centennial celebration in 1989.</ref> followed later by [[Augustus de Morgan]], ‘On the Application of Probabilities to Life Contingencies’, (1838).<ref>The History of Insurance, Vol 3, Edited by David Jenkins and Takau Yoneyama (1 85196 527 0): 8 Volume Set: ( 2000) Availability: Japan: Kinokuniya)</ref>

At the end of the 18th century, [[Thomas Malthus]] concluded that, if unchecked, populations would be subject to [[exponential growth]]. He feared that population growth would tend to outstrip growth in food production, leading to ever increasing famine and poverty (see [[Malthusian catastrophe]]); he is seen as the intellectual father of ideas of [[overpopulation]] and the limits to growth. Later more sophisticated and realistic models were presented by e.g. [[Benjamin Gompertz]] and [[Pierre François Verhulst|Verhulst]].

The period 1860-1910 can be characterized as a period of transition wherein demography emerged from statistics as a separate field of interest. This period included a panoply of international ‘great demographers’ like [[Adolphe Quételet]] (1796-1874), [[William Farr]] (1807-1883), [[Louis-Adolphe Bertillon]] (1821-1883) and his son [[Jacques Bertillon|Jacques]] (1851-1922), [[Joseph Körösi]] (1844-1906), [[Anders Nicolas Kaier]] (1838-1919), [[Richard Böckh]] (1824-1907), [[Wilhelm Lexis]] (1837-1914) and [[Luigi Bodio]] (1840-1920) contributed to the development of demography and to the toolkit of methods and techniques of demographic analysis. <ref>de Gans, Henk and Frans van Poppel (2000) Contributions from the margins. Dutch statisticians, actuaries and medical doctors and the methods of demography in the time of Wilhelm Lexis. Workshop on ‘Lexis in Context: German and Eastern& Northern European Contributions to Demography 1860-1910’ at the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock , August 28 and 29, 2000.</ref>

==The demographic transition==

[[File:World-Population-500CE-2150.png|thumb|400px|World population from 500CE to 2150, based on UN 2004 projections<ref name=UN_prediction>{{cite web|url= http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/longrange2/WorldPop2300final.pdf|title=World Population to 2300|date=2004|publisher=United Nations|format=PDF|author=United Nations|authorlink=United Nations|location=New York|accessdate=2008-11-13}}</ref> (red, orange, green) and US Census Bureau historical estimates<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html|title=Historical Estimates of World Population|author=US Census Bureau|authorlink=US Census Bureau|accessdate=2008-11-13|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division}}</ref> (black). Only the section in blue is from reliable counts, not estimates or projections.]]
{{main|Demographic transition}}

Contrary to Malthus' predictions and in line with his thoughts on moral restraint, natural population growth in most developed countries has diminished to close to zero, without being held in check by famine or lack of resources, as people in developed nations have shown a tendency to have fewer children. The fall in population growth has occurred despite large rises in life expectancy in these countries. This pattern of population growth, with slow (or no) growth in [[pre-industrial society|pre-industrial societies]], followed by fast growth as the society develops and industrializes, followed by slow growth again as it becomes more affluent, is known as the [[demographic transition]].

Similar trends are now becoming visible in ever more developing countries, so that far from spiraling out of control, world population growth is expected to slow markedly in the next century, coming to an eventual standstill or even declining. The change is likely to be accompanied by major shifts in the proportion of world population in particular regions. The [[United Nations]] Population Division expects the absolute number of infants and toddlers in the world to begin to fall by 2015, and the number of children under 15 by 2025.<ref name=UN_prediction/> The figure in this section shows the latest (2004) UN projections of world population out to the year 2150 (red = high, orange = medium, green = low). The UN "medium" projection shows world population reaching an approximate equilibrium at 9 billion by 2075. Working independently, demographers at the [[International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis]] in Austria expect world population to peak at 9 billion by 2070.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://ace1.ma.utexas.edu/users/davis/375/reading/worldbirthrate.pdf|title=Doubling of world population unlikely|first=Wolfgang|last=Lutz|coauthors=Sanderson, Warren; Scherbov, Sergei|journal=Nature|volume=387|pages=803-805|date=1997-06-19|accessdate=2008-11-13|format=PDF}}</ref> Throughout the 21st century, the average age of the population is likely to continue to rise.

====The science of population====
Populations can change through three processes: fertility, mortality, and migration. Fertility involves the number of children that women have and is to be contrasted with fecundity (a woman's childbearing potential).<ref>John Bongaarts. The Fertility-Inhibiting Effects of the Intermediate Fertility Variables. Studies in Family Planning, Vol. 13, No. 6/7. (Jun. - Jul., 1982), pp. 179-189. </ref> Mortality is the study of the causes, consequences, and measurement of processes affecting death to members of the population. Demographers most commonly study mortality using the [[Life Table]], a statistical device which provides information about the mortality conditions (most notably the life expectancy) in the population.<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/lftbls/lftbls.htm N C H S - Life Tables]</ref> Migration refers to the movement of persons from an origin place to a destination place across some pre-defined, political boundary. Migration researchers do not designate movements 'migrations' unless they are somewhat permanent. Thus demographers do not consider tourists and travelers to be migrating. While demographers who study migration typically do so through census data on place of residence, indirect sources of data including tax forms and labor force surveys are also important.<ref>Donald T. Rowland ''Demographic Methods and Concepts'' Ch. 11 ISBN 0-19-875263-6</ref>

Demography is today widely taught in many universities across the world, attracting students with initial training in social sciences, statistics or health studies. Being at the crossroads of several disciplines such as [[geography]], [[economics]], [[sociology]] or [[epidemiology]], demography offers tools to approach a large range of population issues by combining a more technical quantitative approach that represents the core of the discipline with many other methods borrowed from social or other sciences. Demographic research is conducted in universities, in research institutes as well as in statistical departments and in several international agencies. Population institutions are part of the [[Cicred]] (International Committee for Coordination of Demographic Research) network while most individual scientists engaged in demographic research are members of the [http://www.iussp.org/ International Union for the Scientific Study of Population – IUSSP] or, in the United States, in the [[Population Association of America]].

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Demographics of present-day nations and states]]
* [[Biodemography]]
* [[Biodemography of human longevity]]
* [[Demographic analysis]]
* [[Demographic economics]]
* [[Linguistic demography]]
* [[Nurgaliev's law]]
* [[Religious demography]]
* [[Gompertz-Makeham law of mortality]]
* [[Globalization and Health]]
* [[List of publications in sociology#Social demography|Important publications in demography]]
* [[Medieval demography]]
* [[Population]]
* [[Population geography]]
* [[Population statistics]]
* [[Reproductive health]]
* [[Sociology]]
* Social surveys: [[General Social Survey]], [[ALLBUS]], [[GSOEP]], [http://psidonline.isr.umich.edu/ PSID], [[European Social Survey]], [[World Values Survey]], [[National Longitudinal Survey]]

* Organizations
** [[Population Reference Bureau]]
** [[The Carolina Population Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] established in 1966 and currently one of the preeminent population centers, known for its high-quality research and training.
** [[Population Studies Center at the University of Michigan]] one of the oldest and most active demography research centers in the United States.
** [[IIASA|International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA)]] a non-governmental research institution studying sustainability and the human dimensions of global change for the scientific community, policy makers and the public.
** [[Institut national d'études démographiques]] French National Institute
** [[Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research]] The MPIDR began its activities in October 1996, but it has already become one of the largest non-governmental research bodies in demography in the world.
** [[Population Research Institute (Penn State)]]

==Further reading==
{{Wiktionary}}
* Glad, John. 2008. ''Future Human Evolution: Eugenics in the Twenty-First Century''. Hermitage Publishers, ISBN 1-55779-154-6 [http://www.whatwemaybe.org/txt/txt0000/Glad.John.2008.FHE.Meisenberg-abridgement.en.pdf]
* Preston, Samuel, Patrick Heuveline, and Michel Guillot. 2000. ''Demography: Measuring and Modeling Population Processes''. Blackwell Publishing.
* [[Paul R. Ehrlich]] (1968), ''[[The Population Bomb]]'' Controversial Neo-Malthusianist pamphlet
* Leonid A. Gavrilov & Natalia S. Gavrilova (1991), ''The Biology of Life Span: A Quantitative Approach''. New York: Harwood Academic Publisher, ISBN 3-7186-4983-7
* [[Phillip Longman]] (2004), ''The Empty Cradle: how falling birth rates threaten global prosperity and what to do about it''
*Joe McFalls (2007), ''Population: A Lively Introduction,'' [[Population Reference Bureau]] [http://prb.org/Publications/PopulationBulletins/2007/PopulationALivelyIntroduction.aspx]
* [[Ben J. Wattenberg]] (2004), ''How the New Demography of Depopulation Will Shape Our Future''. Chicago: R. Dee, ISBN 1-56663-606-X
* [[Andrey Korotayev]], Artemy Malkov, & Daria Khaltourina (2006). ''Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Compact Macromodels of the World System Growth''. Moscow: URSS, ISBN 5-484-00414-4 [http://urss.ru/cgi-bin/db.pl?cp=&page=Book&id=34250&lang=en&blang=en&list=14]
* [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5405261826557501257 ''Demographic Winter''] 52 minute documentary on demography and global underpopulation
* [http://www.demographicbomb.com ''Demographic Bomb''] Part II documentary (to Demographic Winter) on demography and the effects of population control

==External links==
{{linkfarm}}

===Centers===
*[http://www.cpc.unc.edu Carolina Population Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]
*[http://www.socsci.soton.ac.uk/go/demog Demography at the University of Southampton]
*[http://www.demog.berkeley.edu/ Department of Demography, University of California, Berkeley]
*[http://www.demo.umontreal.ca/ Département de démographie, Université de Montréal]
*[http://www.cedeplar.ufmg.br/pos_em_demografia/apresentacao.php Department of Demography, Cedeplar, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil]
*[http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/cde/ Center for Demography and Ecology at the University of Wisconsin, Madison] one of the leading centers of demographic research in the world.
* [http://www.lshtm.ac.uk/cps/ Centre for Population Studies], London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, the UK's largest research centre focusing on demography and reproductive health.
* [http://www.cicred.org/index.htm Committee for International Cooperation in National Research in Demography] aims at developing cooperation amongst national population research centres, and encouraging new research
* [http://web.jhu.edu/popcenter/ Hopkins Population Center] Hopkins Population Center was established in 1971 with a mandate to stimulate and facilitate interdisciplinary population research. It is the only NICHD funded center in a school of public health.
* [http://web.jhu.edu/popcenter Population and Health graduate program] Population and Health Graduate Program in the Dept of Population and Family Health Sciences at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
* [http://www.pop.upenn.edu/ Population Studies Center at the University of Pennsylvania]
* [http://www.popassoc.org/ PAA] The [[Population Association of America]] is a society of professionals working in the population field. PAA members include demographers, sociologists, economists and public health professionals.
** [http://www.popassoc.org/publications.html Demography] Demography is the official journal of the Population Association of America.

===Journals===
* [http://www.sieds.it/rivista.html Rivista Italiana di Economia Demografia e Statistica RIEDS], Italian Review of Economics Demography and Statistics, [[Sieds]] (in Italian, some articles are in English).
* [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/00324728.asp Population Studies] a journal of demography.
* [http://www.demographic-research.org/ Online Journal Demographic Research] A free, open access, expedited, peer-reviewed journal of the population sciences published regularly on the web.

===Other===
* [http://www.cartogen.co.uk/ Demographic mapping and reporting for the UK]
* [http://www.historicalstatistics.org Historicalstatistics.org] Links to historical demographic and economic statistics
* [http://www.prb.org/ The Population Reference Bureau] has two introduction to demography texts on line. "Population Handbook" and "Population: A Lively Introduction".
* [http://www.censusscope.org CensusScope] U.S. Social Demography site containing data, charts, and color coded maps for country, state, county, and metropolitan geographies.
* [http://www.populationdata.net PopulationData.net] Information and maps about populations around the world. French, with Babelfish translation.
* Phillip Longman, ''[[New Statesman]]'', [[31 May]] [[2004]], [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_4690_133/ai_n6155344 "Everywhere, even in Africa, the world is running out of children"]
* [http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/timeline.demography.html Ed Stephan's Timeline of Demography] Highlights in the history of demography from 3800 BC to 2000 AD.
* [http://www.un.org/esa/population/unpop.htm United Nations Population Division Homepage] (e.g. Population Estimates and Projections Data Online)
* [http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/longrange2/WorldPop2300final.pdf UN 2004 population projections]
* [http://www.aetheling.com/NL/sim/population/population1.html Java Simulation of Population Dynamics].
* [http://sasi.group.shef.ac.uk/ Social and Spatial Inequalities]
*[http://gsociology.icaap.org/basicguide.html Basic Guide to the World: Population changes and trends, 1960 to 2003]
*[http://gsociology.icaap.org/report/demsum.html Brief review of world basic demographic trends]

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[[Category:Battles of World War I by country|France]]
[[Category:Military operations of World War I involving France]]

[[id:Kategori:Pertempuran Perang Dunia I melibatkan Perancis]]

Winnenden

2009-10-20T07:03:42Z

Borgx: +id

{{Expand German|topic=geo|date=February 2009}}

{{Infobox German location
|Art = Stadt
|Wappen = Wappen Winnenden.png
|lat_deg = 48 |lat_min = 52 |lat_sec = 35
|lon_deg = 09 |lon_min = 23 |lon_sec = 52
|image_photo = BlickWinnenden.JPG
|image_caption = Winnenden
|Bundesland = Baden-Württemberg
|Regierungsbezirk = Stuttgart
|Landkreis = Rems-Murr-Kreis
|Höhe = 292
|Fläche = 28.05
|Einwohner = 27732
|Stand = 2009-03-11
|PLZ = 71349–71364
|PLZ-alt = 7057
|Vorwahl = 07195
|Kfz = WN
|Gemeindeschlüssel = 08 1 19 085
|Gliederung = town center and 8 Quarters
|Adresse = Torstraße 10 71364 Winnenden
|Website = [http://www.winnenden.de/ www.winnenden.de]
|Bürgermeister = Bernhard Fritz
|Bürgermeistertitel = Oberbürgermeister
}}
'''Winnenden''' is a small town in the [[Rems-Murr]] district of the [[Stuttgart Region]], in [[Baden-Württemberg]], southwestern [[Germany]]. It is situated approx. {{convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} northeast of [[Stuttgart]]'s city center with a population of less than 28,000. The town is home to the [[Kärcher]] Company, makers of cleaning equipment namely [[pressure washers]].

== History ==
The earliest mention of Winnenden is in a document of 1181, in which one Gottfried of Schauenburg Winnenden is mentioned as a witness that [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Friedrich I]] held the castle in the town. Around 1200 the castle, which was then called Windin, came into the possession of [[Heinrich of Neuffen]]. In 1277 it was transferred to [[Konrad von Weinsberg]]. On 10 October 1325 the castle and town were sold to [[Württemberg]].

In the [[Peasants' War]], Winnenden was first under the control of the "Armer Konrad" or the peasant's army, but by 1519 was under the control of the [[Swabian League]]. An epidemic in 1616 took the lives of approximately half of the population. During the [[Thirty Year's War]] the city was pillaged twice, in 1638 and 1643. [[Holy Roman Empire|Imperial]], French and Swedish troops occasionally occupied Winnenden during that conflict.

In March 2008, Winnenden and the nearby town of Backnang jointly hosted the [[World Individual Debating and Public Speaking Championships]], in cooperation with the German Debating Society. The competition was conducted at the Lessinggymnasium in Winnenden and the Max-Borngymnasium in Backnang.

==Politics==
The council, according to the 2004 municipal elections the following parties: the [[Christian_Democratic_Union_(Germany)|CDU]] (10 seats), voter Free Association (8), [[Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany|SPD]] (5), and [[Alliance_%2790/The_Greens|Green Alternative List]] (3)

== 2009 School shooting incident ==
{{main|Winnenden school shooting}}
On 11 March 2009, the town made international headlines following a school shooting at Albertville-Realschule Winnenden school. The gunman was a former pupil who opened fire without warning. The shooting resulted in the death of 16 people. The attacker committed suicide. Most of the victims at the school were female — eight female students, three female teachers and one male student, said Heribert Rech, interior minister for [[Baden-Württemberg]] state.<ref>http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/europe/03/11/germany.school.shooting/index.html</ref>

== Sister Cities ==

* {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Albertville]], [[France]]
* {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Santo Domingo de la Calzada]], [[Spain]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{commonscat|Winnenden}}

{{Cities and towns in Rems-Murr (district)}}

[[Category:Rems-Murr-Kreis]]

{{RemsMurr-geo-stub}}

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Template:Cities and towns in Rems-Murr (district)

2009-10-20T07:00:27Z

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{{Navbox
|name=Cities and towns in Rems-Murr (district)
|image=[[Image:De remsmurr coat.png|right|30px|Coat of arms]]
|title=Towns and municipalities in [[Rems-Murr-Kreis|Rems-Murr (district)]]
|liststyle=font-size:95%;
|list1= [[Alfdorf]] {{!}} [[Allmersbach|Allmersbach im Tal]] {{!}} [[Althütte]] {{!}} [[Aspach, Baden-Württemberg|Aspach]] {{!}} [[Auenwald]] {{!}} [[Backnang]] {{!}} [[Berglen]] {{!}} [[Burgstetten]] {{!}} [[Fellbach]] {{!}} [[Großerlach]] {{!}} [[Kaisersbach]] {{!}} [[Kernen]] {{!}} [[Kirchberg an der Murr]] {{!}} [[Korb]] {{!}} [[Leutenbach, Baden-Württemberg|Leutenbach]] {{!}} [[Murrhardt]] {{!}} [[Oppenweiler]] {{!}} [[Plüderhausen]] {{!}} [[Remshalden]] {{!}} [[Rudersberg]] {{!}} [[Schorndorf]] {{!}} [[Schwaikheim]] {{!}} [[Spiegelberg]] {{!}} [[Sulzbach an der Murr]] {{!}} [[Urbach, Baden-Württemberg|Urbach]] {{!}} [[Waiblingen]] {{!}} [[Weinstadt]] {{!}} [[Weissach im Tal]] {{!}} [[Welzheim]] {{!}} [[Winnenden]] {{!}} [[Winterbach, Baden-Württemberg|Winterbach]]
}}<noinclude>

[[Category:Baden-Württemberg cities and towns by district templates|Rems-Murr]]
[[de:Vorlage:Navigationsleiste Städte und Gemeinden im Landkreis Rems-Murr]]
[[id:Templat:Cities and towns in Rems-Murr-Kreis]]
</noinclude>

Waiblingen

2009-10-20T06:36:59Z

Borgx: +id

{{Expand German|topic=geo|date=February 2009}}

{{Infobox German Location
|Art = Town
|image_photo = Waiblingen in 2007.jpg
|image_caption = Waiblingen
|Wappen = Wappen Waiblingen.svg
|lat_deg = 48 |lat_min = 49 |lat_sec = 49
|lon_deg = 09 |lon_min = 19 |lon_sec = 01
|Bundesland = Baden-Württemberg
|Regierungsbezirk = Stuttgart
|Landkreis = Rems-Murr-Kreis
|Höhe = 230
|Fläche = 42.76
|Einwohner = 52932
|Stand = 2006-12-31
|PLZ = 71331–71336
|PLZ-alt = 7050
|Vorwahl = 07151, 07146
|Kfz = WN
|Gemeindeschlüssel = 08 1 19 079
|Website = [http://www.waiblingen.de www.waiblingen.de]
|Bürgermeister = Andreas Hesky
|Partei = parteilos
}}
'''Waiblingen''' is a town in the southwest of [[Germany]], located in the center of the densely populated [[Stuttgart Region]], directly neighboring [[Stuttgart]]. It is the capital of the [[Rems-Murr]] district. As of [[September 30]] [[2004]] Waiblingen accommodated 52,948 inhabitants (25,953 men and 26,995 women).

As of [[December 31]] [[2004]] the area of the town (including all external proprieties, such as forests) was 42.76 km².

==History==
Waiblingen was first mentioned in [[Carolingian]] documents in [[885]] at the time of [[Charles the Fat]]. It received its town charter in [[1250]].

Waiblingen was property of the [[Salian]] kings, from whom the [[Hohenstaufen]] dukes and kings inherited it. It is assumed that the Italian name of the Hohenstaufen party, [[Ghibelline]], is derived from "Waiblingen".

The town was almost completely destroyed in [[1634]] during the [[Thirty Years' War]], and its citizens either killed or deported. It was rebuilt after the war; the existing old central part of the town dates back to the years between [[1640]] and [[1700]]. Its fortifications are now well restored.

==Incorporation==
The following towns were incorporated into Waiblingen:
*December 1, 1971: [[Beinstein]]
*January 1, 1975: [[Bittenfeld]], [[Hegnach]], [[Hohenacker]] and [[Neustadt an der Rems|Neustadt]]

==Economy==
Waiblingen houses the principal office of the world's biggest [[chainsaw]] manufacturer, [[Stihl]].
Also the [[Robert Bosch GmbH]] has two factories there, for polymer and packaging technology.

==Twin towns==
* {{flagicon|France}} [[Mayenne, Mayenne|Mayenne]], [[France]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Devizes]], [[United Kingdom]]
* {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Jesi]], [[Italy]]
* {{flagicon|Hungary}} [[Baja]], [[Hungary]]

==Honorary citizen==
*1883: Dr. med. Gustav Pfeilsticker
*1907: Ferdinand Küderli
*1930: Theodor Kaiser
*1932: Friedrich Schofer
*1934: Albert Roller
*1953: Emil Münz
*1967: Alfred Diebold
*1968: Adolf Bauer
*1997: Dr. Ulrich Gauß
*1997: [[Hans Peter Stihl]]
*1997: [[Albrecht Villinger]]

==External links==
* [http://www.waiblingen.de Official homepage of Waiblingen]
* [http://www.waiblingen-webcam.de Waiblingen Webcam]
* [http://www.safaribears.de/content.php?page=SlideshowWaiblingen&image=1 Pictures of Waiblingen] (German/English)
* [http://panoblog.de/?page_id=104 Galerie Stihl Waiblingen in 360°-Panoramapictures]
{{Commonscat-inline|Waiblingen}}
*{{Wikisource1911Enc Citation|Waiblingen}}

{{Cities and towns in Rems-Murr (district)}}

[[Category:Towns in Baden-Württemberg]]
[[Category:Rems-Murr-Kreis]]

{{RemsMurr-geo-stub}}

[[da:Waiblingen]]
[[de:Waiblingen]]
[[es:Waiblingen]]
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[[fr:Waiblingen]]
[[id:Waiblingen]]
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[[no:Waiblingen]]
[[nn:Waiblingen]]
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[[ro:Waiblingen]]
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[[fi:Waiblingen]]
[[vo:Waiblingen]]
[[zh:魏布林根]]

Cartoon Network Studios

2009-10-20T06:35:28Z

Borgx: +id

{{Infobox_Company
| company_name = Cartoon Network Studios
| company_type = [[Subsidiary]] of [[Turner Broadcasting]] System (TBS)
| company_logo = [[File:Cartoon network.jpg|center]]
| owner = TBS (2000-present) [[Time Warner]] (1996-present)
| parent = [[Hanna-Barbera]] (1994-2001) TBS (2001-present)
| foundation = 2000
| industry = [[Animation]]
| products = [[Television program]](s)
}}

'''Cartoon Network Studios''' is an American [[List of animation studios|animation studio]]. A subsidiary of the [[Turner Broadcasting System]] (an arm of the [[Time Warner]] [[media conglomerate]]), Cartoon Network Studios focuses on producing and developing animated programs for and related to [[Cartoon Network]]. Some programming produced by Cartoon Network Studios has also been broadcast, on the now-defunct [[Kids' WB]], Cartoon Network's sister network.

The studio began in 2000 it's roots firmly based in the former [[Hanna-Barbera Cartoons]] which was dedicated to producing original programming for the Cartoon Network, including latter-day Hanna-Barbera creations such as ''[[Dexter's Laboratory]]'', ''[[Johnny Bravo]]'', ''[[Cow and Chicken]]'', ''[[I Am Weasel]]'' and ''[[The Powerpuff Girls]]''. In 1997, the company's productions were released under of the banner of its then-parent company '''[[Hanna-Barbera]]'''.

In 1997, the Hanna-Barbera name was dropped as a production entity and the H-B studio was folded into [[Warner Bros. Animation]]. Cartoon Network Studios became a separate entity from Hanna-Barbera, growing out of the animation studio. The studio has continued to thrive with productions such as ''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]'' and ''[[Samurai Jack]]'' and newer productions such as ''[[Chowder (TV series)|Chowder]]'', ''[[The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack]]'' and ''[[Adventure Time with Finn and Jake]]''.

==Filmography==
===Cartoon Network original series===
*''[[What a Cartoon! Show]]'' (co-production with Hanna-Barbera)
*''[[Dexter’s Laboratory]]'' (co-production with Hanna-Barbera)
*''[[Johnny Bravo]]'' (co-production with Hanna-Barbera)
*''[[Cow and Chicken]]'' (co-production with Hanna-Barbera)
*''[[I Am Weasel]]'' (co-production with Hanna-Barbera)
*''[[The Powerpuff Girls]]'' (co-production with Hanna-Barbera)
*''[[Time Squad]]''
*''[[Samurai Jack]]''
*''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]''
*''[[Evil Con Carne]]''
*''[[Whatever Happened to Robot Jones?]]''
*''[[Megas XLR]]''
*''[[Foster's Home For Imaginary Friends]]''
*''[[The Life and Times of Juniper Lee]]''
*''[[Camp Lazlo]]''
*''[[My Gym Partner's a Monkey]]''
*''[[Ben 10]]''
*''[[Squirrel Boy]]''
*''[[Class of 3000]]'' (co-production with Tom Lynch Company)
*''[[Chowder]]''
*''[[Transformers Animated]]'' (co-production with [[Studio 4°C]])
*''[[Ben 10: Alien Force]]''
*''[[The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack]]''

===Other productions===
*''[[Star Wars: Clone Wars (2003 TV series)]]'' (co-production with [[Lucasfilm]])

==See also==
* [[Hanna-Barbera]]
* [[List of works produced by Hanna-Barbera]]
* [[Williams Street]]

==External links==
* [http://www.bcdb.com/cartoons/Other_Studios/C/Cartoon_Network_Studios/index.html Big Cartoon DataBase: Cartoon Network Studios]

{{Cartoon Network Original Series}}
{{TBS}}
{{Time Warner}}

[[Category:Hanna-Barbera and Cartoon Network Studios]]
[[Category:Cartoon Network|Studios]]
[[Category:Media companies of the United States]]
[[Category:American animation studios]]
[[Category:Entertainment companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Film production companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Time Warner subsidiaries]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1994]]

[[ar:استوديوهات شبكة الرسوم المتحركة]]
[[de:Cartoon Network Studios]]
[[es:Cartoon Network Studios]]
[[fr:Cartoon Network Studios]]
[[id:Cartoon Network Studios]]
[[it:Cartoon Network Studios]]
[[ja:ハンナ・バーベラ・プロダクション]]
[[pt:Cartoon Network Studios]]
[[fi:Cartoon Network Studios]]
[[sv:Cartoon Network Studios]]
[[tr:Cartoon Network Stüdyoları]]
[[zh:Cartoon Network Studios]]

Template:Cities and towns in Enz (district)

2009-10-20T06:34:50Z

Borgx: +id

{{Navbox
|name=Cities and towns in Enz (district)
|image=[[Image:Wappen Enzkreis.svg|right|30px|Coat of arms]]
|title=Towns and municipalities in [[Enz (district)]]
|liststyle=font-size:95%;
|list1= [[Birkenfeld (Enz)]] {{!}} [[Eisingen]] {{!}} [[Engelsbrand]] {{!}} [[Friolzheim]] {{!}} [[Heimsheim]] {{!}} [[Illingen, Baden-Württemberg|Illingen]] {{!}} [[Ispringen]] {{!}} [[Kämpfelbach]] {{!}} [[Keltern]] {{!}} [[Kieselbronn]] {{!}} [[Knittlingen]] {{!}} [[Königsbach-Stein]] {{!}} [[Maulbronn]] {{!}} [[Mönsheim]] {{!}} [[Mühlacker]] {{!}} [[Neuenbürg]] {{!}} [[Neuhausen (Enz)|Neuhausen]] {{!}} [[Neulingen]] {{!}} [[Niefern-Öschelbronn]] {{!}} [[Ölbronn-Dürrn]] {{!}} [[Ötisheim]] {{!}} [[Remchingen]] {{!}} [[Sternenfels]] {{!}} [[Straubenhardt]] {{!}} [[Tiefenbronn]] {{!}} [[Wiernsheim]] {{!}} [[Wimsheim]] {{!}} [[Wurmberg]]
}}<noinclude>

[[Category:Baden-Württemberg cities and towns by district templates|Enz]]
[[de:Vorlage:Navigationsleiste_Städte_und_Gemeinden_im_Landkreis_Enz]]
[[id:Templat:Cities and towns in Enzkreis]]
</noinclude>

Template:Cities and towns in Reutlingen (district)

2009-10-20T06:22:18Z

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{{Navbox
|name=Cities and towns in Reutlingen (district)
|image=[[Image:Wappen Landkreis Reutlingen.svg|right|30px|Coat of arms]]
|title=Towns and municipalities in [[Reutlingen (district)]]
|liststyle=font-size:95%;
|list1= [[Bad Urach]] {{!}} [[Dettingen an der Erms]] {{!}} [[Engstingen]] {{!}} [[Eningen]] {{!}} [[Gomadingen]] {{!}} [[Grabenstetten]] {{!}} [[Grafenberg (Reutlingen)|Grafenberg]] {{!}} [[Hayingen]] {{!}} [[Hohenstein (Reutlingen)|Hohenstein]] {{!}} [[Hülben]] {{!}} [[Lichtenstein (Reutlingen)|Lichtenstein]] {{!}} [[Mehrstetten]] {{!}} [[Metzingen]] {{!}} [[Münsingen, Germany|Münsingen]] {{!}} [[Pfronstetten]] {{!}} [[Pfullingen]] {{!}} [[Pliezhausen]] {{!}} [[Reutlingen]] {{!}} [[Riederich]] {{!}} [[Römerstein]] {{!}} [[Sonnenbühl]] {{!}} [[St. Johann (Reutlingen)|St. Johann]] {{!}} [[Trochtelfingen]] {{!}} [[Walddorfhäslach]] {{!}} [[Wannweil]] {{!}} [[Zwiefalten]]
}}<noinclude>

[[Category:Baden-Württemberg cities and towns by district templates|Reutlingen]]
[[da:Skabelon:Byer i Landkreis Reutlingen]]
[[de:Vorlage:Navigationsleiste Städte und Gemeinden im Landkreis Reutlingen]]
[[id:Templat:Cities and towns in Reutlingen (district)]]</noinclude>

Category:Pisces (constellation)

2009-10-20T06:02:51Z

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{{catmore}}

[[Image:Pisces constellation map.png|thumb|Constellation map]]
{{Commons cat|Pisces (constellation)}}

[[Category:Constellations]]
[[Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy]]
[[Category:Northern constellations]]
[[Category:Eastern constellations]]

[[cs:Kategorie:Souhvězdí Ryb]]
[[de:Kategorie:Fische (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Categoría:Constelación de Piscis]]
[[eo:Kategorio:Fiŝoj (konstelacio)]]
[[fr:Catégorie:Constellation des Poissons]]
[[ko:분류:물고기자리]]
[[hr:Kategorija:Ribe (zviježđe)]]
[[id:Kategori:Rasi bintang Pisces]]
[[it:Categoria:Costellazione dei Pesci]]
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[[nn:Kategori:Fiskane]]
[[pl:Kategoria:Gwiazdozbiór Ryb]]
[[pt:Categoria:Constelação de Pisces]]
[[ru:Категория:Рыбы (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Kategória:Súhvezdie Ryby]]
[[sl:Kategorija:Ribi (ozvezdje)]]
[[sr:Категорија:Сазвежђе Рибе]]
[[fi:Luokka:Kalojen tähdistö]]
[[sv:Kategori:Stjärnbilden Fiskarna]]
[[tr:Kategori:Balıklar takımyıldızı]]
[[uk:Категорія:Риби (сузір'я)]]
[[zh:Category:雙魚座]]

Category:Industrial equipment

2009-10-20T00:58:50Z

Borgx: +id

Pertains to equipment usually found in industrial production settings.

[[Category:Equipment]]
[[Category:Industry|Equipment]]
[[Category:Engineering]]

[[id:Kategori:Peralatan industri]]
[[pt:Categoria:Equipamentos de indústria]]
[[ro:Categorie:Echipament industrial]]

Template:Yoga

2009-10-19T13:50:38Z

Borgx: +id

{{navbox
|name = Yoga
|title = [[Yoga]]

|titlestyle = background-color:#ecc199;
|groupstyle = background-color:#ecc199;

|group1 = Classic Yogas
|list1 = [[Bhakti yoga]]{{·}} [[Karma Yoga]]{{·}} [[Jnana Yoga]]{{·}} [[Raja Yoga]]

|group2 = Other Yogas
|list2 = [[Agni Yoga]]{{·}} [[Anahata Yoga]]{{·}} [[Anusara Yoga]]{{·}} [[Artistic Yoga]]{{·}} [[Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga]]{{·}} [[Atma Yoga]]{{·}} [[Dream Yoga]]{{·}} [[Hatha yoga]]{{·}} [[Integral yoga]]{{·}} [[Kriya yoga]]{{·}} [[Kundalini yoga]]{{·}} [[Nada yoga]]{{·}} [[Natya Yoga]]{{·}} [[Sahaja Yoga]]{{·}} [[Sivananda Yoga]]{{·}} [[Six Yogas of Naropa]] ([[Tummo]]){{·}} [[Surat Shabd Yoga]]{{·}} [[Viniyoga]]{{·}} [[Yantra Yoga]]{{·}} [[Yoga Nidra]]

|group3 = Texts
|list3 = [[Bhagavad Gita]]{{·}} [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga Sutras]]{{·}} [[Hatha_Yoga_Pradipika|Hatha Yoga Pradipika]]{{·}} [[Gherand_Samhita|Gheranda Samhita]]{{·}} [[Shiva_Samhita|Shiva Samhita]]

|group4 = Raja Yoga limbs
|list4 = [[Yamas|Yama]]{{·}} [[Niyama]]{{·}} [[Asana]]{{·}} [[Pranayama]]{{·}} [[Pratyahara]]{{·}} [[Dharana]]{{·}} [[Dhyana in Hinduism|Dhyana]]{{·}} [[Samādhi|Samadhi]]
|group5 = Lists
|list5 = [[List of yoga schools|Yoga schools and their gurus]]{{·}} [[List of Hatha yoga postures|Hatha yoga postures]]

|group6 = Related topics
|list6 = [[Ayurveda]]{{·}} [[Chakra]]{{·}} [[Mantra]]{{·}} [[Tantra]]{{·}} [[Vedanta]]{{·}} [[Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine]]{{·}} [[Nadi (yoga)|Nadi]]

|below=[[:Category:Yoga|'''Category''']]
|belowstyle=background:#ecc199;

}}<noinclude>
[[Category:Hinduism templates|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[id:Templat:Yoga]]</noinclude>

JAWS (screen reader)

2009-10-19T13:28:58Z

Borgx: +id

{{Infobox Software
| name = JAWS
| logo =
| screenshot =
| caption =
| collapsible =
| author =
| developer = [[Freedom Scientific]]
| released = {{Start date|1995|01}}
| latest_release_version = 10.0.1154
| latest_release_date = June 15, 2009
| latest_preview_version = 11.0.611
| latest_preview_date = October 6, 2009
| frequently updated =
| programming language =
| operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows]]
| platform =
| size =
| language =
| status =
| genre = [[Screen reader]]
| license = [[Proprietary software|Proprietary]]
| website = [http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_products/JAWS_HQ.asp freedomscientific.com]
}}
{{selfref|For help using JAWS to navigate and edit Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:Using JAWS]].}}

'''JAWS''' (an acronym for ''Job Access With Speech'') is a [[screen reader]], a software program for [[Blindness|visually impaired]] users, produced by the Blind and Low Vision Group at [[Freedom Scientific]] of [[St. Petersburg, Florida]], [[United States|USA]]. Its purpose is to make personal computers using [[Microsoft Windows]] accessible to blind and visually impaired users. It accomplishes this by providing the user with access to the information displayed on the screen via [[text-to-speech]] or by means of a [[Refreshable Braille display|braille display]] and allows for comprehensive keyboard interaction with the computer.

It also allows users to create custom [[Scripting programming language|scripts]] using the [[JAWS Scripting Language]], which can alter the amount and type of information which is presented by applications, and ultimately makes programs that were not designed for accessibility (such as programs that do not use standard Windows controls) usable through JAWS.

==History==
JAWS was originally released in 1989 by [[Ted Henter]], a former motorcycle racer who lost his sight in a 1978 automobile accident. In 1985, Henter, along with a $180,000USD investment from Bill Joyce, founded the ''Henter-Joyce Corporation'' in [[St. Petersburg, Florida]]. Joyce sold his interest in the company back to Ted Henter sometime in 1990. In April 2000, Henter-Joyce, Blazie Engineering, and Arkenstone, Inc. merged to form Freedom Scientific.

JAWS was originally created for the [[MS-DOS]] [[operating system]]. It was one of several screen readers giving blind users access to text-mode MS-DOS applications. A feature unique to JAWS at the time was its use of cascading menus, in the style of the popular Lotus 1-2-3 application. What set JAWS apart from other screen readers of the era was its use of [[Macro (computer science)|macros]] that allowed users to customize the user interface and work better with various applications.

Ted Henter and Rex Skipper wrote the original JAWS code in the mid-1980s, releasing version 2.0 in mid-1990. Skipper left the company after the release of version 2.0, and following his departure, [[Charles Oppermann]] was hired to maintain and improve the product. Oppermann and Henter regularly added minor and major features and frequently released new versions. Freedom Scientific now offers JAWS for MS-DOS as a [[freeware]] download from their web site.<ref>[http://www.freedomscientific.com/downloads/jaws/JAWS-previous-downloads.asp More JAWS downloads]. Retrieved 31 August 2008.</ref>

In 1993, Henter-Joyce released a highly-modified version of JAWS for people with learning disabilities. This product, called WordScholar, is no longer available.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nfbnet.org/files/newsletters/H-J_9309.TXT
|title=HENTER-JOYCE NEWSLETTER
|month=September
|year=1993
}}</ref>

===JAWS for Windows===
In 1992, as [[Microsoft Windows]] became more popular, Oppermann began work on a new version of JAWS. A principal design goal was not to interfere with the natural user interface of Windows and to continue to provide a strong macro facility. Test and beta versions of JAWS for Windows (JFW) were shown at conferences throughout 1993 and 1994. During this time, developer Glen Gordon started working on the code, ultimately taking over its development when Oppermann was hired by Microsoft in November 1994. Shortly afterwards, in January 1995, JAWS for Windows 1.0 was released.

Currently a new revision of JAWS for Windows is released about once a year, with minor updates in between. The latest version is 10.0, released in November 2008.

==Release history==
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Version
! Release date
! Significant changes
|-
| JFW 1.0
| January 1995
|First version for Windows, supported [[Windows 3.1]] and [[Windows for Workgroups 3.11]]
|-
| JFW 2.0
| About 1996
|
Added support for [[Windows 95]]
|-
| JFW 4.0
| September 14, 2001
|
*Many changes to user interface
*Optional tutor and access key help added <ref> [http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_products/software_jaws40F&E.asp What's New in JAWS 4.0]. Retrieved 24 November 2006</ref>
|-
| JFW 4.5
| August 30, 2002
|
* Quick navigation keys added to Internet Explorer, for navigating between HTML elements on a page <ref> [http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_products/software_jaws45newfea.asp What's New in JAWS 4.5]. Retrieved 24 November 2006</ref>
|-
| JFW 5.0
| October 9, 2003<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_news/nr_JAWS50R.asp |title=Freedom Scientific Newsroom: JAWS for Windows 5.0 is released |publisher=Freedom Scientific |work=Press Release |date=October 9, 2003 |location=St. Petersburg, Florida |accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref>
|
*Many improvements with Internet support
*Speech and Sounds Manager, for indication of fonts, controls and web page elements. <ref> [http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_products/software_jaws5fea.asp What's New in JAWS 5.0]. Retrieved 24 November 2006 </ref>
|-
| JFW 6.0
| March 3, 2005<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_news/PressRoom/en/2005/nr_JAWS6-Shipping_3-3-2005.asp |title=JAWS 6.0 is Shipping to New Purchasers and SMA Holders |publisher=Freedom Scientific |work=Press Release |date=March 3, 2005 |location=St. Petersburg, Florida |accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref>
|
* Introduction of [[Product activation|Internet licencing]]
*Introduction of separate user settings <ref> [http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_products/software_jaws60fea.asp What's new in JAWS 6.0]. Retrieved 24 November 2006</ref>
|-
| JFW 7.0
| 14 October 2005<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_news/PressRoom/en/2005/nr_JAWS-7-Ships_10-14-2005.asp |title=JAWS 7.0 Ships to New Buyers and SMA Holders |publisher=Freedom Scientific |work=Press Release |date=October 14, 2005 |location=St. Petersburg, Florida |accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref>
|
* Release of [[USB flash drive|thumb drive]] version
* Support for [[Mozilla Firefox]] amongst other applications
*No longer supports [[Windows 95]] <ref> [http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_products/software_jaws70fea.asp What's New in JAWS 7.0]. Retrieved 24 November 2006</ref>
|-
| JFW 7.1
| June 21, 2006
|
* Automatic updates
* Switched to a [[Document Object Model]] engine for [[HTML]] rendering <ref> [http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_products/software_jaws710fea.asp What's New in JAWS 7.10]. Retrieved 24 November 2006 </ref>
|-
| JFW 8.0
|November 17, 2006
|
*Ships with RealSpeak Solo [[Speech Application Programming Interface|SAPI 5]] Speech Synthesizers
*No longer supports [[Windows 98]] or [[Windows ME]]
*Supports [[Windows Vista]] <ref> [http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_products/software_jaws80fea.asp What's New in JAWS 8.0]. Retrieved 22 November 2007 </ref>
|-
| JFW 9.0
|November 19, 2007
|
*HTML composition support
*New "adjust JAWS options" dialogue box <ref> [http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_products/software_jaws90fea.asp What's New in JAWS 9.0]. Retrieved 22 November 2007 </ref>
|-
|JFW 10.0
|November 3, 2008
|
*Introduction of JAWS Tandem, to allow a person using JAWS to access another computer running JAWS, much like [[Remote Desktop Connection|Remote Desktop]]
*Support for [[iTunes]] version 8 and the [[iTunes Store]]<ref>[http://www.freedomscientific.com/downloads/JAWS/JAWS-whats-new.asp What's New in JAWS 10]. Retrieved 9 November 2008.</ref>
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_products/JAWS_HQ.asp Freedom Scientific: JAWS for Windows Headquarters]

[[Category:Computer accessibility]]
[[Category:Screen readers]]

[[cs:JAWS]]
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[[pl:JAWS]]
[[ru:JAWS]]

Category:Naval battles involving Canada

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{{Naval battle category by participant|British Dominion or independent state of [[Canada]]|18th century|present}}

[[Category:Battles involving Canada|*]]
[[Category:Naval battles by country|Canada]]
[[Category:Naval history of Canada]]

[[fr:Catégorie:Bataille navale du Canada]]
[[id:Kategori:Pertempuran laut melibatkan Kanada]]

Category:Conflicts in 1918

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[[Category:1918 in military history]]
[[Category:20th-century conflicts]]
[[fr:Catégorie:Bataille de 1918]]
[[id:Kategori:Konflik tahun 1918]]
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[[tr:Kategori:1918'de çatışmalar]]
[[sv:Kategori:Krigsåret 1918]]

Category:Conflicts in 1917

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[[Category:1917 in military history]]
[[Category:20th-century conflicts]]

[[ar:تصنيف:نزاعات في 1917]]
[[fr:Catégorie:Bataille de 1917]]
[[id:Kategori:Konflik tahun 1917]]
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Category:Conflicts in 1916

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[[Category:1916 in military history]]
[[Category:20th-century conflicts]]

[[fr:Catégorie:Bataille de 1916]]
[[id:Kategori:Konflik tahun 1916]]
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[[tr:Kategori:1916'da çatışmalar]]

Category:Conflicts in 1915

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[[Category:1915 in military history]]
[[Category:20th-century conflicts]]
[[fr:Catégorie:Bataille de 1915]]
[[id:Kategori:Konflik tahun 1915]]
[[ru:Категория:Конфликты 1915 года]]
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Category:Conflicts in 1914

2009-10-19T06:18:50Z

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[[Category:1914 in military history]]
[[Category:20th-century conflicts]]

[[fr:Catégorie:Bataille de 1914]]
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Category:North Sea operations of World War I

2009-10-19T06:17:44Z

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{{Commonscat|North Sea theatre of World War I}}

[[Category:Naval battles of World War I|North Sea]]
[[Category:History of the North Sea|WWI]]

[[id:Kategori:Operasi militer Perang Dunia I di Laut Utara]]

Category:Atlantic operations of World War I

2009-10-19T06:15:41Z

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{{Commonscat|Atlantic theatre of World War I}}

[[Category:Naval battles of World War I|Atlantic]]
[[Category:Military history of the Atlantic Ocean|WWI]]

[[id:Kategori:Operasi militer Perang Dunia I di Atlantik]]

Category:German Empire in World War I

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{{Commons cat|Germany in World War I}}

[[Category:World War I by country| 4]]
[[Category:Military history of Germany]]
[[Category:German Empire]]

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Category:Submarine warfare

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Celtic languages

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{{Infobox Language family
|name = Celtic
|region = Formerly widespread in Europe; today [[British Isles]], [[Brittany]], [[Patagonia]] and [[Nova Scotia]]
|familycolor = Indo-European
|fam1 = [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
|child1 = [[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]]
|child2 = [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
|iso2=cel
|iso5=cel
}}
{{Indo-European topics}}
The '''Celtic languages''' are descended from [[Proto-Celtic]], or "Common Celtic", a branch of the greater [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[language family]]. The term "Celtic" was used to describe this language group by [[Edward Lhuyd]] in 1707, having much earlier been used by Greek and Roman writers to describe tribes in central [[Gaul]]. During the 1st millennium BC, they were spoken across Europe, from the [[Bay of Biscay]] and the [[North Sea]], up the [[Rhine]] and down the [[Danube]] to the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Balkans|Upper Balkan Peninsula]], and into [[Asia Minor]] ([[Galatia]]). Today, Celtic languages are limited to a few areas on the western fringe of [[Europe]], notably [[Ireland]], the peninsula of [[Brittany]] in [[France]], and areas of the [[United Kingdom]] including [[Wales]], [[Scotland]] and [[Cornwall]]. Celtic languages are also spoken on the [[Isle of Man]], [[Cape Breton Island]] and in [[Patagonia]]. The spread to Cape Breton and Patagonia occurred in modern times. In all these areas the Celtic languages are now only spoken by minorities although there are continuing efforts at revival. Although Celtic languages were spoken in Australia before federation in 1901, these have died out.

==Divisions==
Proto-Celtic apparently divided into four sub-families:

*[[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] and its close relatives [[Lepontic]], [[Noric language|Noric]], and [[Galatian language|Galatian]]. These languages were once spoken in a wide arc from [[France]] to [[Turkey]] and from [[Belgium]] to northern [[Italy]]. They are now all extinct.
*[[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], anciently spoken in the [[Iberian peninsula]],<ref>[http://www.arkeotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm Ethnographic Map of Pre-Roman Iberia (circa 200 B.C.)]</ref> in the areas of modern Northern [[Portugal]], and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[Asturias]], [[Cantabria]], [[Aragón]], and [[León (province)|León]] in [[Spain]]. [[Lusitanian language|Lusitanian]] may also have been a Celtic language. These are now also extinct.
*[[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]], including [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]], and [[Manx language|Manx]]. At one time there were Irish on the coast of southwest England and on the coast of north and south Wales.
*[[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]] (also called British or Brittonic), including [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]], and possibly also [[Pictish language|Pictish]] though this may be a sister language rather than a daughter of [[British language (Celtic)|British]] (Common Brythonic).<ref>[[Kenneth H. Jackson]] suggested that there were two Pictish languages, a pre-Indo-European one and a ''Pretenic'' Celtic one. This has been challenged by some scholars. See Katherine Forsyth's ''"Language in Pictland : the case against 'non-Indo-European Pictish'" '' {{PDFlink|[http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/archive/00002081/01/languagepictland.pdf Etext]|27.8 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]}}. See also the introduction by James & Taylor to the ''"Index of Celtic and Other Elements in W.J.Watson's 'The History of the Celtic Place-names of Scotland'"'' {{PDFlink|[http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/institutes/sassi/spns/INDEX2INTRO.pdf Etext]|172 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]}}. Compare also the treatment of Pictish in Price's ''The Languages of Britain'' (1984) with his ''Languages in Britain & Ireland'' (2000).</ref> Before the arrival of Scotti on the Isle of Man in the 9th century there may have been a Brythonic language in the Isle of Man. Kenneth Jackson used the term "Brittonic" for the form of the British language after the changes in the 6th century.

Scholarly handling of the Celtic languages has been rather argumentative owing to lack of much primary source data. Some scholars distinguish [[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]] and [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]], arguing that the differences between the Goidelic and Brythonic languages arose after these split off from the Continental Celtic languages. Other scholars distinguish between [[P-Celtic and Q-Celtic]], putting most the Gaulish and Brythonic languages in the former group and the Goidelic and Celtiberian languages in the latter. The P-Celtic languages (also called [[Gallo-Brittonic]]) are sometimes seen as a central innovating area as opposed to the more conservative peripheral Q-Celtic languages.

The Breton language is Brythonic, not Gaulish, though there may be some input from the latter. When the [[Anglo-Saxons]] moved into [[Great Britain]], several waves of the native [[Britons (historical)|Britons]] or "[[Walha|Welsh]]" (from a Germanic word for "foreigners") crossed the [[English Channel]] and landed in [[Brittany]]. They brought their Brythonic language with them, which evolved into Breton – which is still partially intelligible with Modern Welsh and Cornish.

In the P/Q classification scheme the first language to split off from Proto-Celtic was Gaelic. It has characteristics that some scholars see as archaic but others see as also being in the Brythonic languages (see Schmidt). With the Insular/Continental classification scheme the split of the former into Gaelic and Brythonic is seen as being late.

The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families most likely occurred about 900 BC according to Gray and Atkinson but, because of estimation uncertainty, it could be any time between 1200 and 800 BC. However, they only considered Gaelic and Brythonic. The controversial paper by Forster and Toth included Gaulish and put the break-up much earlier at 3200 BC ± 1500 years. They support the Insular Celtic hypothesis. The early Celts were commonly associated with the archaeological [[Urnfield culture]], the [[Hallstatt culture]], and the [[La Tène culture]], though the earlier assumption of association between language and culture is now considered to be less strong.

==Pronunciation==
{{main|Pronunciation of Celtic}}
The term ''Celtic'' is pronounced either {{IPA|/ˈkɛltɪk/}} or {{IPA|/ˈsɛltɪk/}}, but {{IPA|/ˈkɛltɪk/}} is more common,{{Fact|date=December 2008}} as the word ''Celtic'' is derived from the [[Classical Greek|Greek]], ''[[Keltoi]]''. The term is sometimes spelled either ''Keltic'' or ''Celtick'' in old documents.

==Classifications==
[[Image:Celtic Nations.svg|right|thumb|175px|The [[Celtic nations]] where most Celtic speakers are now concentrated]]
There are two main competing schemata of categorization. The older scheme, argued for by Schmidt (1988) among others, links Gaulish with Brythonic in a '''P-Celtic''' node, originally leaving just Goidelic as '''Q-Celtic'''. The difference between P and Q languages is the treatment of [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]] *''kʷ'', which became *''p'' in the P-Celtic languages but *''k'' in Goidelic. An example is the Proto-Celtic verb root *''kʷrin-'' "to buy", which became ''pryn-'' in Welsh but ''cren-'' in [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]]. However, a classification based on a single feature is seen as risky by its critics, particularly as the sound change occurs in other language groups ([[Oscan language|Oscan]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]).

The other scheme, defended for example by McCone (1996), links Goidelic and Brythonic together as an [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]] branch, while Gaulish and Celtiberian are referred to as [[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]]. According to this theory, the "P-Celtic" sound change of {{IPA|[kʷ]}} to {{IPA|[p]}} occurred independently or [[areal feature|areally]]. The proponents of the Insular Celtic hypothesis point to other shared innovations among Insular Celtic languages, including inflected prepositions, VSO word order, and the lenition of intervocalic {{IPA|[m]}} to {{IPA|[β̃]}}, a [[nasalization|nasalized]] [[voiced bilabial fricative]] (an extremely rare sound). There is, however, no assumption that the Continental Celtic languages descend from a common "Proto-Continental Celtic" ancestor. Rather, the Insular/Continental schemata usually considers Celtiberian the first branch to split from Proto-Celtic, and the remaining group would later have split into Gaulish and Insular Celtic.

There are legitimate scholarly arguments in favour of both the Insular Celtic hypothesis and the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis. Proponents of each schema dispute the accuracy and usefulness of the other's categories. However, since the 1970s the division into Insular and Continental Celtic has become the more widely held view (Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; Schrijver 1995).

When referring only to the modern Celtic languages, since no Continental Celtic language has living descendants, "Q-Celtic" is equivalent to "Goidelic" and "P-Celtic" is equivalent to "Brythonic".

Within the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family, the Celtic languages have sometimes been placed with the [[Italic languages]] in a common [[Italo-Celtic]] subfamily, a hypothesis that is now largely discarded, in favour of the assumption of [[language contact]] between pre-Celtic and pre-Italic communities.

How the family tree of the Celtic languages is ordered depends on which hypothesis is used -

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
'''Insular/Continental hypothesis'''

*[[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic or Common Celtic]]
**[[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]]
***[[Gaulish language|Gaulish]]
****[[Lepontic language|Lepontic]]
****[[Noric language|Noric]]
****[[Galatian language|Galatian]]
***[[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]
**[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
***[[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
****[[Primitive Irish language|Primitive Irish]]
****[[Old Irish language|Old Irish]]
****[[Middle Irish language|Middle Irish]]
*****[[Irish language|Irish]]
*****[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
*****[[Manx language|Manx]]
***[[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]]
****[[Pictish language|Pictish]]
****[[British language (Celtic)|British]]
*****[[Cumbric language|Cumbric]]
*****[[Old Welsh language|Old Welsh]]
******[[Middle Welsh language|Middle Welsh]]
*******[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
*****[[Southwestern Brythonic language|Southwestern Brythonic]]
******[[Breton language|Breton]]
******[[Cornish language|Cornish]]
{{col-break}}
'''P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis'''

*[[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic or Common Celtic]]
**[[P-Celtic]]
***[[Gaulish language|Gaulish]]
****[[Lepontic language|Lepontic]]
****[[Noric language|Noric]]
****[[Galatian language|Galatian]]
***[[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]]
****[[Cumbric language|Cumbric]]
****[[Pictish language|Pictish]]
****[[Old Welsh language|Old Welsh]]
****[[Middle Welsh language|Middle Welsh]]
*****[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
****[[Southwestern Brythonic language|Southwestern Brythonic]]
*****[[Breton language|Breton]]
*****[[Cornish language|Cornish]]
**[[Q-Celtic]]
***[[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]
***[[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
****[[Primitive Irish language|Primitive Irish]]
****[[Old Irish language|Old Irish]]
****[[Middle Irish language|Middle Irish]]
*****[[Irish language|Irish]]
*****[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
*****[[Manx language|Manx]]
{{col-end}}

==Characteristics of Celtic languages==
{{Cleanup-jargon|date=March 2008}}
Although there are many differences between the individual Celtic languages, they do show many family resemblances. While none of these characteristics is necessarily unique to the Celtic languages, there are few if any other languages which possess them all. They include:

*[[consonant mutation]]s (Insular Celtic only)
*[[inflected preposition]]s (Insular Celtic only)
*two [[grammatical gender]]s (modern Insular Celtic only; Old Irish and the Continental languages had three genders)
*a [[vigesimal]] number system (counting by twenties)
*verb-subject-object (VSO) word order (probably Insular Celtic only)
*an interplay between the subjunctive, future, imperfect, and habitual, to the point that some tenses and moods have ousted others
*an impersonal or autonomous verb form serving as a passive or intransitive
**Welsh ''dysgaf'' "I teach" vs. ''dysgir'' "is taught, one teaches", Irish "déanaim" "I do/make" vs. "déantar" "is done"
*no infinitives, replaced by a quasi-nominal verb form called the verbal noun or verbnoun
*frequent use of vowel mutation as a morphological device, e.g. formation of plurals, verbal stems, etc.
*use of preverbal particles to signal either subordination or illocutionary force of the following clause
**mutation-distinguished subordinators/relativizers
**particles for negation, interrogation, and occasionally for affirmative declarations
*infixed pronouns positioned between particles and verbs
*lack of simple verb for the imperfective "have" process, with possession conveyed by a composite structure, usually BE + preposition
*use of periphrastic phrases to express verbal tense, voice, or aspectual distinctions
*distinction by function of the two versions of BE verbs traditionally labelled substantive (or existential) and [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]]
*bifurcated demonstrative structure
*suffixed pronominal supplements, called confirming or supplementary pronouns
*use of singulars and/or special forms of counted nouns, and use of a singulative suffix to make singular forms from plurals, where older singulars have disappeared

Examples: 
(Irish) ''Ná bac le mac an bhacaigh is ní bhacfaidh mac an bhacaigh leat.'' 
(Literal translation) Don't bother with son the beggar's and not will-bother son the beggar's with-you. 
*''bhacaigh'' is the genitive of ''bacach''. The ''igh'' the result of [[affection (linguistics)|affection]]; the ''bh'' is the [[lenition|lenited]] form of ''b''.
*''leat'' is the second person singular inflected form of the preposition ''le''.
*The order is verb subject object (VSO) in the second half - compare this to English or French which are normally Subject Verb Object in word order.

(Welsh) ''pedwar ar bymtheg a phedwar ugain'' 
(literally) four on fifteen and four twenties
*''bymtheg'' is a mutated form of ''pymtheg'', which is ''pump'' ("five") plus ''deg'' ("ten"). Likewise, ''phedwar'' is a mutated form of ''pedwar''.
*The multiples of ten are ''deg, ugain, deg ar hugain, deugain, hanner cant, trigain, deg a thrigain, pedwar ugain, deg a phedwar ugain, cant''.

==Mixed languages==
* [[Bungee language]], a [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] mix of [[Scottish Gaelic]], [[Cree language|Cree]] and other languages.
* [[Shelta]], a mix of the [[Irish language|Irish]], [[English language|English]] and [[Romany language]]s.
* Some forms of [[Romany language]] in Wales, also combined Romany itself with [[Welsh language]] and [[English language]] forms.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[wikt:Appendix:Celtic Swadesh lists|A Swadesh list of the modern Celtic languages]]
*[[Language families and languages]]
*[[Celtic League (political organisation)]]
*[[Celtic Congress]]

==References==
*Ball, Martin J. & James Fife (ed.) (1993). ''The Celtic Languages''. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415010357.
*Borsley, Robert D. & Ian Roberts (ed.) (1996). ''The Syntax of the Celtic Languages: A Comparative Perspective''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521481600.
*{{cite book| last=Cowgill |first=Warren |authorlink=Warren Cowgill |year=1975 |chapter=The origins of the Insular Celtic conjunct and absolute verbal endings |editor=H. Rix (ed.) |title=Flexion und Wortbildung: Akten der V. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Regensburg, 9.–14. September 1973 |location=Wiesbaden |pages=40–70 |publisher=Reichert |isbn=3-920153-40-5}}
*''Celtic Linguistics, 1700-1850'' (2000). London; New York: Routledge. 8 vol.s comprising 15 texts originally published between 1706 and 1844.
* Forster, Peter and Toth, Alfred. ''Towards a phylogenetic chronology of ancient Gaulish, Celtic and Indo-European'' PNAS Vol 100/13, July 22, 2003.
* Gray, Russell and Atkinson, Quintin. ''Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin'' Nature Vol 426, 27 Nov 2003.
*Hindley, Reg (1990). ''The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary''. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415043395.
*Lewis, Henry & [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] (1989). ''A Concise Comparative Celtic Grammar''. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3525261020.
*{{cite journal| last=McCone |first=Kim |year=1991 |title=The PIE stops and syllabic nasals in Celtic |journal=Studia Celtica Japonica |volume=4 |pages=37–69}}
*{{cite book| last=McCone |first=Kim |year=1992 |chapter=Relative Chronologie: Keltisch |title=Rekonstruktion und relative Chronologie: Akten Der VIII. Fachtagung Der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Leiden, 31. August–4. September 1987 |editor=R. Beekes, A. Lubotsky, and J. Weitenberg (eds.) |pages=12–39 |publisher=Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck |isbn=3-85124-613-6}}
*{{cite book|author=McCone, K.|year=1996|title=Towards a Relative Chronology of Ancient and Medieval Celtic Sound Change|location=Maynooth | publisher=Department of Old and Middle Irish, St. Patrick's College|isbn=0-901519-40-5}}
*Russell, Paul (1995). ''An Introduction to the Celtic Languages''. London; New York: Longman. ISBN 0582100828.
*{{cite book | author=Schmidt, K. H. | year=1988 | chapter=On the reconstruction of Proto-Celtic | editor=G. W. MacLennan | title=Proceedings of the First North American Congress of Celtic Studies, Ottawa 1986 | pages=231–48 | location=Ottawa | publisher=Chair of Celtic Studies | isbn=0-09-693260-0}}
*{{cite book| last=Schrijver |first=Peter |year=1995 |title=Studies in British Celtic historical phonology |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=90-5183-820-4}}

==External links==
* [http://www.abdn.ac.uk/celtic Aberdeen University Celtic Department]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1164-16 Ethnologue report for Celtic languages]
*[http://www.summerlands.com/crossroads/celticlanguage/labara1.html "Labara: An Introduction to the Celtic Languages", by Meredith Richard]
*[http://www.breizh.net/icdbl/saozg/Celtic_Languages.pdf Celts and Celtic Languages]

{{Celtic languages}}
{{Celts}}
{{Celtic nations|state=autocollapse}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Celtic Languages}}
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Celtic languages| ]]

[[af:Kelties]]
[[als:Keltische Sprachen]]
[[an:Luengas zeltas]]
[[ast:Llingües céltiques]]
[[az:Kelt qrupu]]
[[bn:কেল্টীয় ভাষাসমূহ]]
[[be:Кельцкія мовы]]
[[bs:Keltski jezici]]
[[br:Yezhoù keltiek]]
[[bg:Келтски езици]]
[[ca:Llengües celtes]]
[[cv:Кельт чĕлхисем]]
[[cs:Keltské jazyky]]
[[cy:Ieithoedd Celtaidd]]
[[da:Keltiske sprog]]
[[de:Keltische Sprachen]]
[[et:Keldi keeled]]
[[el:Κελτικές γλώσσες]]
[[es:Lenguas celtas]]
[[eo:Kelta lingvaro]]
[[eu:Hizkuntza zeltak]]
[[fa:زبان‌های سلتی]]
[[fo:Keltisk mál]]
[[fr:Langues celtiques]]
[[fy:Keltyske talen]]
[[ga:Teangacha Ceilteacha]]
[[gv:Çhengaghyn Celtiagh]]
[[gd:Cànanan Ceilteach]]
[[gl:Linguas célticas]]
[[id:Bahasa Keltik]]
[[ko:켈트어파]]
[[hsb:Keltiske rěče]]
[[hr:Keltski jezici]]
[[os:Кельтаг æвзæгтæ]]
[[id:Bahasa Keltik]]
[[is:Keltnesk tungumál]]
[[it:Lingue celtiche]]
[[he:שפות קלטיות]]
[[kw:Yethow Keltek]]
[[ku:Zimanên keltî]]
[[la:Linguae Celticae]]
[[lv:Ķeltu valodas]]
[[lt:Keltų kalbos]]
[[li:Keltische taole]]
[[hu:Kelta nyelvek]]
[[mk:Келтски јазици]]
[[nl:Keltische talen]]
[[ja:ケルト語派]]
[[no:Keltiske språk]]
[[nn:Keltiske språk]]
[[nrm:Langue Celtique]]
[[oc:Lengas celticas]]
[[pl:Języki celtyckie]]
[[pt:Línguas celtas]]
[[ro:Limbile celtice]]
[[qu:Kilta rimaykuna]]
[[ru:Кельтские языки]]
[[se:Kelttalaš gielat]]
[[sco:Celtic Leids]]
[[stq:Keltisk]]
[[simple:Celtic languages]]
[[sk:Keltské jazyky]]
[[sl:Keltski jeziki]]
[[sr:Келтски језици]]
[[fi:Kelttiläiset kielet]]
[[sv:Keltiska språk]]
[[tr:Kelt dilleri]]
[[tk:Kelt dilleri]]
[[uk:Кельтські мови]]
[[vi:Nhóm ngôn ngữ gốc Celt]]
[[wa:Gayel]]
[[bat-smg:Keltu kalbas]]
[[zh:凯尔特语族]]

Theia

2009-10-19T05:36:19Z

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{{alternateuses}}
{{unreferenced|date=July 2009}}
{{Greek myth (Titan)}}
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Theia''', ''goddess'' or ''divine'', (sometimes written '''Thea''' or '''Thia'''), also called '''Euryphaessa''', ''wide-shining'', was a [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]]. The name ''Theia'' alone means simply, "goddess"; ''Theia Euryphaessa'' (Θεία Εὐρυφάεσσα) brings overtones of extent (εὐρύς ''eurys'' "wide", root: εὐρυ-/εὐρε-) and brightness (φάος ''phaos'' "light", root: φαεσ-).
[[File:Pergamonmuseum - Antikensammlung - Pergamonaltar 32.JPG|thumb|left|Status]]

==Earlier myths==
In 1.d of ''The Greek Myths'' by Robert Graves, he relates that in the [[Pelasgian]] creation myth, she was the child of [[Eurynome]]—the creator called the ''goddess of all things''—who created Theia as a Titaness ruling the sun. The Pelasgian culture is identified by some as pre-Hellene or early Hellene. In 42.a Graves also relates that later Theia is referred to as the ''cow-eyed Euryphaessa'' who gave birth to Helius, the sun, in myths dating to [[Classical Antiquity]].

==Later myths==
Once paired in later myths with her Titan brother [[Hyperion (mythology)|Hyperion]] as her husband, "mild-eyed Euryphaessa, the far-shining one" of the [[Homeric Hymn]] to Helios, was said to be the mother of [[Helios]] (the Sun), [[Selene]] (the Moon), and [[Eos]] (the Dawn).

[[Pindar]] praises Theia in his Fifth [[Isthmian Games|Isthmian]] ode:
{{quote|Mother of the Sun, Theia of many names, for your sake men honor gold as more powerful than anything else; and through the value you bestow on them, o queen, ships contending on the sea and yoked teams of horses in swift-whirling contests become marvels.}}

She seems here a goddess of glittering in particular and of glory in general, but Pindar's allusion to her as "Theia of many names" is telling, since it suggests assimilation, referring not only to similar mother-of-the-sun goddesses such as [[Phoebe (mythology)|Phoebe]] and [[Leto]], but perhaps also to more universalizing [[mother goddess|mother-figures]] such as [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] and [[Cybele]].

==In the sciences==
{{main|Giant impact hypothesis}}
Theia's mythological role as the mother of the Moon goddess [[Selene]] is alluded to in the application of the name to a [[Theia (hypothetical planet)|hypothetical planet]] which, according to the [[giant impact hypothesis]], collided with the [[Earth]], resulting in the Moon's creation.

Theia's alternate name ''Euryphaessa'' has been adopted for a species of Australian [[leafhopper]]s ''Dayus euryphaessa'' (Kirkaldy, 1907).

== See also ==
* [[Greek mythology in popular culture]]

==External links==
*[http://www.theoi.com/Titan/TitanisTheia.html Theoi Project - Theia]

{{Greek mythology (deities)}}

[[Category:Greek goddesses]]
[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Titans]]

[[ast:Tea (mitoloxía)]]
[[bn:থেইয়া]]
[[bs:Teja]]
[[br:Theia]]
[[bg:Тея (митология)]]
[[ca:Teia]]
[[cs:Theia]]
[[da:Thea]]
[[de:Theia]]
[[et:Theia]]
[[el:Ευρυφάεσσα]]
[[es:Tea]]
[[eo:Teja]]
[[eu:Tea]]
[[fa:تئا]]
[[fr:Théia]]
[[ko:테이아 (신화)]]
[[hr:Teja]]
[[id:Theia]]
[[it:Teia (mitologia)]]
[[he:תאה]]
[[lb:Theia]]
[[lt:Tėja]]
[[hu:Theia (mitológia)]]
[[nl:Theia]]
[[ja:テイアー]]
[[no:Theia]]
[[nn:Theia]]
[[pl:Thea (mitologia)]]
[[pt:Teia (mitologia)]]
[[ro:Theia]]
[[ru:Тейя]]
[[scn:Ziana (za)]]
[[simple:Theia]]
[[sr:Теја (митологија)]]
[[sh:Teja]]
[[fi:Theia]]
[[sv:Theia]]
[[tr:Theia]]
[[uk:Тейя]]
[[zh:忒亚]]

Abiotic component

2009-10-18T14:30:25Z

Borgx: +id

In [[biology]], '''abiotic components''' are non-living [[chemical]] and [[physical]] factors in the [[Natural environment|environment]].<ref>[http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/sci_ed/grade10/ecology/abiotic/abiot.htm Abiotic Components] from the Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, [[University of the Western Cape]]([[Republic of South Africa]])</ref> Despite being non-living, abiotic components can impact [[evolution]]. Things that were once living but now dead are usually considered [[biotic]] (for example, [[corpse]]s and spilled [[blood]]). However, depending upon the definition, components from living things that are no longer living can be considered part of the biotic or abiotic component. Generally, things that were once living are considered part of the biotic component, but [[body waste]] such as [[feces]], [[urine]] (and [[carbon dioxide]], [[oxygen]], and [[water]] from [[respiration]]) are considered abiotic because those components were never living in an organism.

==References==
{{Refimprove|date=February 2009}}
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Environmental science]]

{{biology-stub}}

[[cs:Abiotický faktor]]
[[da:Biotisk]]
[[de:Abiotische Umweltfaktoren]]
[[es:Abiótico]]
[[eo:Abiotaj medifaktoroj]]
[[id:Abiotik]]
[[kk:Абиотикалық факторлар]]
[[lb:Abiotesch Ëmweltfaktoren]]
[[nl:Abiotische factor]]
[[no:Abiotisk faktor]]
[[nn:Abiotisk faktor]]
[[pl:Czynniki abiotyczne]]
[[pt:Fator abiótico]]
[[ru:Абиотические факторы]]
[[sk:Abiotický]]
[[fi:Abioottinen ympäristötekijä]]
[[sv:Abiotisk]]

Category:20th-century introductions

2009-10-18T14:17:01Z

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[[Category:20th century|Introductions]]
[[Category:Introductions by year]]

[[cy:Categori:Cyflwyniadau'r 20fed ganrif]]
[[id:Kategori:Perkenalan abad ke-20]]
[[tr:Kategori:20. yüzyıl tanıtımları]]

Category:1983 introductions

2009-10-18T14:15:23Z

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{{Year by category
| m = 1
| c = 9
| d = 8
| y = 3
| cat = introductions
| sortkey = Introductions
| in =
| parent = 20th-century introductions
}}

[[Category:1983|Introductions]]
[[Category:20th-century introductions]]

[[id:Kategori:Perkenalan tahun 1983]]