Calakmul

2021-04-18T10:19:23Z

2A02:A459:CF2F:1:E060:50B2:2931:86F5: Fixed punctuation typo

{{Short description|Ancient Mayan city in Campeche, Mexico}}
{{For|the surrounding municipality of the same name|Calakmul (municipality)}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name = Calakmul
| alternate_name = Kalakmul
| image = Pirámides de Calakmul.JPG
| image_size = 250px
| alt =
| caption = Temple I, Calakmul Biosphere
| map =
| map_type = Mesoamerica#Mexico Campeche
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location of the site
| map_size =
| relief =
| coordinates = {{coord|18|6|19.41|N|89|48|38.98|W|display=inline}}
| map_dot_label =
| location = [[Campeche]], [[Mexico]]
| region = [[Petén Basin]]
| built =
| abandoned =
| epochs = Middle Preclassic to Late Classic
| cultures = [[Maya civilization]]
| event =
| excavations =
| archaeologists =

| architectural_styles =
| architectural_details =

| notes =

| designation1 = WHS
| designation1_offname = Ancient Maya City and Protected Tropical Forests of Calakmul, Campeche
| designation1_type = Mixed
| designation1_criteria = i, ii, iii, iv
| designation1_date = 2002 <small>(26th [[World Heritage Committee|session]])</small>
| delisted1_date =
| designation1_partof =
| designation1_number = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1061 1061]
| designation1_free1name = State Party
| designation1_free1value = {{MEX}}
| designation1_free2name = Region
| designation1_free2value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in the Americas|Latin America and the Caribbean]]
| designation1_free3name =
| designation1_free3value =
| designation2 =
| designation2_offname =
| designation2_type =
| designation2_criteria =
| designation2_date =
| delisted2_date =
| designation2_partof =
| designation2_number =
| designation2_free1name =
| designation2_free1value =
| designation2_free2name =
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| designation2_free3name =
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| precolumbian = yes 
}}

'''Calakmul''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|ɑː|l|ɑː|k|ˈ|m|uː|l}}; also '''Kalakmul''' and other less frequent variants) is a [[Maya civilization|Maya]] archaeological site in the [[Mexican state]] of [[Campeche]], deep in the jungles of the greater [[Petén Basin]] region. It is {{convert|35|km|mi}} from the [[Guatemala]]n border. Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful [[Maya city|ancient cities]] ever uncovered in the Maya lowlands.

Calakmul was a major Maya power within the northern Petén Basin region of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] of southern Mexico. Calakmul administered a large domain marked by the extensive distribution of their emblem [[glyph]] of the snake head sign, to be read "Kaan". Calakmul was the seat of what has been dubbed the Kingdom of the Snake<ref>[[1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus]] by [[Charles C. Mann]] 2005</ref> or Snake Kingdom. This Snake Kingdom reigned during most of the [[Mesoamerican chronology|Classic period]]. Calakmul itself is estimated to have had a population of 50,000 people and had governance, at times, over places as far away as 150 kilometers (93 mi). There are 6,750 ancient structures identified at Calakmul, the largest of which is the great pyramid at the site. Structure 2 is over {{convert|45|m|ft}} high, making it one of the tallest of the Maya [[Mesoamerican pyramids|pyramids]]. Four tombs have been located within the pyramid. Like many temples or pyramids within [[Mesoamerica]] the pyramid at Calakmul increased in size by building upon the existing temple to reach its current size. The size of the central monumental [[Maya architecture|architecture]] is approximately {{convert|2|km2|sqmi}} and the whole of the site, mostly covered with dense residential structures, is about {{convert|20|km2|sqmi}}.

Throughout the {{C|Mayan Classic Period|Classic Period}}, Calakmul maintained an intense rivalry with the major city of [[Tikal]] to the south, and the political maneuverings of these two cities have been likened to a struggle between two Maya superpowers.

Rediscovered from the air by biologist [[Cyrus Longworth Lundell|Cyrus L. Lundell]] of the Mexican Exploitation Chicle Company on December 29, 1931, the find was reported to [[Sylvanus Morley|Sylvanus G. Morley]] of the [[Carnegie Institution for Science|Carnegie Institute]] at [[Chichen Itza]] in March 1932.

{{TOC limit|4}}

==Etymology==
[[File:Calakmul Structure 13.jpg|thumb|Calakmul's [[stele|Stela]] 88 stands upon the stairway of Structure 13]]
Calakmul is a modern name; according to Cyrus L. Lundell, who named the site. In Maya, ''ca'' means "two", ''lak'' means "adjacent", and ''mul'' signifies any artificial mound or pyramid, so ''Calakmul'' is the "City of the Two Adjacent Pyramids".<ref>{{cite web | title = Zona Arqueológica de Calakmul | publisher = Instituto Nacional de Arqueología e Historia | date = 2013-10-07 | url = http://www.inah.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=5448 | access-date = 2013-04-16 |language=es}}</ref> In ancient times the city core was known as ''Ox Te' Tuun'', meaning "Three Stones". Another name associated with the site, and perhaps a larger area around it, is ''Chiik Naab'''. The lords of Calakmul identified themselves as ''k'uhul kaanal ajaw'', Divine Lords of the Snake, but the connection of the title to the actual site is ambiguous.<ref name="MartinGrube00p104"/>

==Location==
Calakmul is located in [[Campeche]] [[Political divisions of Mexico|state]] in southeastern Mexico, about {{convert|35|km|mi}} north of the border with [[Guatemala]] and {{convert|38|km|mi}} north of the ruins of [[El Mirador]].<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.356. Folan et al. 1995a, p.310.</ref> The ruins of [[El Tintal]] are {{convert|68|km|mi}} to the southwest of Calakmul and were linked to both El Mirador and Calakmul itself by causeway.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313">Folan et al 1995a, p.313.</ref> Calakmul was about {{convert|20|km|mi}} south of the contemporary city of Oxpemul and approximately {{convert|25|km|mi}} southwest of La Muñeca.<ref>Folan et al. 1995a, p.311.</ref> The city is located on a rise about {{convert|35|m|ft}} above a large [[wetland|seasonal swamp]] lying to the west,<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/> known as the El Laberinto ''bajo'' (a [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word used in the region to denote a low-lying area of seasonal marshland).<ref name="Folan&c95a310">Folan et al 1995a, p.310.</ref> This swamp measures approximately {{convert|34|by|8|km|mi}} and was an important source of water during the rainy season.<ref name="Folan&c95a310"/> The ''bajo'' was linked to a sophisticated water-control system including both natural and artificial features such as gullies and canals that encircled a {{convert|22|km2|sqmi|adj=on}} area around the site core, an area considered as Inner Calakmul.<ref name="Folan&c95a310"/> The location of Calakmul at the edge of a ''bajo'' provided two additional advantages: the fertile soils along the edge of the swamp and access to abundant [[flint]] [[Nodule (geology)|nodules]].<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/> The city is situated on a promontory formed by a natural {{convert|35|m|ft|adj=on}} high [[limestone]] dome rising above the surrounding lowlands.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/> This dome was artificially levelled by the Maya.<ref name="Braswell05p167"/> During the [[Mesoamerican chronology|Preclassic]] and Classic periods settlement was concentrated along the edge of the El Laberinto ''bajo'', during the Classic period structures were also built on high ground and small islands in the swamp where flint was worked.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/>

At the beginning of the 21st century the area around Calakmul remained covered by dense forest.<ref name="Braswell&c05p165">Braswell et al. 2005, p.165.</ref> During the 1st millennium AD the area received moderate and regular rainfall, although there is less surface water available than further south in Guatemala.<ref name="Braswell&c05p165"/> Calakumul is now located within the {{convert|1800000|acre|km2|adj=on}} [[Calakmul Biosphere Reserve]]. The area conserved within the Reserve was conceptualized by the Centro de Investigaciones Historicas y Sociales de Universidad Autónomous de Campeche (CIHS/UAC).<ref>Folan, William J. "Calakmul." In [[David Carrasco|Davíd Carrasco]] (ed). ''[https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195108156.001.0001/acref-9780195108156 The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures],'' Vol 1. New York : Oxford University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|9780195108156|9780195188431}}</ref>

==Population and extent==
At its height in the [[Mesoamerican chronology|Late Classic period]] the city is estimated to have had a population of 50,000 inhabitants and to have covered an area of over {{convert|70|km2|sqmi}}. The city was the capital of a large regional state with an area of about {{convert|13000|km2|sqmi}}.<ref name="Braswell&c05p171">Braswell et al. 2005, p.171.</ref> During the Terminal Classic the city's population declined dramatically and the rural population plummeted to 10% of its former level.<ref>Braswell et al. 2005, pp.164, 188.</ref>

The Late Classic population density of Calakmul has been calculated at 1000/km² (2564 per square mile) in the site core and 420/km² (1076 per square mile) in the periphery (an area of {{convert|122|km2|sqmi}}.<ref name="Braswell05p170">Braswell et al. 2005, p.170.</ref> Calakmul was a true urban city and not just an elite centre surrounded by commoner residences.<ref name="Braswell05p170"/> The site core of Calakmul was known in ancient times as Ox Te' Tuun ("Three Stones") which may have been because of the [[triadic pyramid]] Structure 2.<ref name="Braswell05p167">Braswell et al. 2005, p.167.</ref>

[[File:Calacmul.png|thumb|The Emblem Glyph of Kaan, a politic entity that ruled Calakmul]]
The Calakmul kingdom included 20 secondary centres, among which were large cities such as La Muñeca, [[Naachtun]], [[Sasilha]], Oxpemul and [[Uxul]].<ref name="Braswell05p170"/> The total population of these secondary centres has been estimated at 200,000.<ref name="Braswell05p170"/> The kingdom also included a large number of tertiary and quaternary sites, mostly fairly small and consisting of a number of groups arranged around courtyards, although there are also larger rural sites situated on ridges along the edges of the ''bajos'' that include temples, palaces and [[stele|stelae]].<ref name="Braswell05p170"/> The total rural population of the kingdom is calculated at 1.5 million people.<ref name="Braswell05p170"/> The entire population of the Calakmul kingdom, including the city itself and the rural population in the {{convert|13000|km2|sqmi}} area of the regional state, is calculated at 1.75 million people in the Late Classic period.<ref name="Braswell&c05p171"/>

The [[Maya script#Emblem glyphs|Emblem Glyph]] of Calakmul has a greater distribution than the Emblem Glyph of any other Maya city. The Glyph is also found in more hieroglyphic texts than any other Emblem Glyph, including that of Tikal.<ref name="Braswell05p162">Braswell et al. 2005, p.162.</ref> Calakmul administered a large domain marked by the extensive distribution of their emblem glyph of the snake head sign,<ref>Schele and Freidel 1990, pp.456–457 n.21.</ref> to be read "Kaan".<ref>Nikolai Grube, "Hieroglyphs" in ''Divine Kings of the Rain Forest'' (Könemann, 2000), 115f; 120</ref> Calakmul was the seat of what has been dubbed the Snake Kingdom.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp.101, 104.</ref> At times the city had governance over places as far away as 150 kilometers.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/>

==Known rulers==
[[File:Stele51CalakmulMuseum.JPG|thumb|right|Stela 51, dated to AD 731, depicts Yuknoom Took' K'awiil.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000 p.113.</ref>]]
The kings of Calakmul were known as ''k'uhul kan [[ajaw]]ob'' ({{IPA|/k’uːˈχuːl kän äχäˈwoɓ/}}) ("Divine Lords of the Snake Kingdom").<ref name="Braswell05p162"/> This list is not continuous, as the archaeological record is incomplete. All dates AD.
{|class="wikitable"
! Name (or nickname)<ref>Martin & Grube 2000 pp.102-115. Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.360-361.</ref>!!Ruled !!Alternative Names
|-
|[[Yuknoom Ch'een I]]
| ?
| –
|-
| [[Tuun K'ab' Hix]]
| -520-546+
| Cu Ix, Ku Ix
|-
| [[Sky Witness (ruler)|Sky Witness]]
| -561-572+
| –
|-
| [[Yax Yopaat]]
| 572-579
| First Axewielder
|-
| [[Scroll Serpent]]
| 579-611+
| –
|-
| [[Yuknoom Ti' Chan]]
| –619+
| Chan
|-
| [[Tajoom Uk'ab K'ahk']]
| 622-630
| Ta Batz'
|-
| [[Yuknoom Head]]
| 630-636
| Cauac Head
|-
| [[Yuknoom the Great|Yuknoom Ch'een II]]
| 636–686
| Yuknom Ch'en, Yuknoom the Great
|-
| [[Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ahk']]
| 686–''c''. 695
| Jaguar Paw Smoke, Jaguar Paw
|-
| Split Earth
| ''c''. 695+
| –
|-
| [[Yuknoom Took' K'awiil]]
| -702–731+
| Ruler 5, Ruler 6, Ruler 7
|-
| [[Wamaw K'awiil]]
| ''c''. 736
| –
|-
| [[Calakmul Ruler Y|Ruler Y]]
| ''c''. 741
| Ruler 8, B'olon K'awiil I
|-
| [[Great Serpent]]
| ''c''. 751
| Ruler 8, Ruler Z
|-
| [[Bolon K'awiil II|B'olon K'awiil]]
| -771-''c''. 789+
| Ruler 9, B'olon K'awiil II
|-
| Chan Pet
| ''c''. 849
| –
|-
| Aj Took'
| ''c''. 909
| –
|}

==Emblem Glyph==
At Calakmul's peak in the 7th century, the polity was known as Kan. The Preclassic political state in the Mirador Basin also used the title Kan. There is the idea that, after the collapse of the Mirador state, its refugees migrated north towards Calakmul, where they founded a new Kan polity. However, [[Epigraphy|epigraphical]] studies of the monuments at Calakmul show that prior to the 7th century AD the emblem glyph of Calakmul had nothing to do with a snake, but with a bat. It seems that a different polity ruled there. The Kan emblem glyph, before being associated with Calakmul, is found (once) at Dzibanché, a site more towards the east. Perhaps during the late 6th/early 7th century, the polity at Dzibanché moved to Calakmul in order to establish a more strategically placed capital. After Calakmul's power dwindled in the 8th century, after the rule of Yuknoom Took K'awiil, it appears that the bat emblem glyph made its resurgence. Still, many uncertainties remain and new epigraphical studies have to be done to fill the gaps.<ref>. Martin, S. (2005). Of Snakes and Bats: Shifting Identities At Calakmul. The PARI Journal, 6(2), 5-15.</ref>

==History==
Calakmul has a long occupational history and excavations have revealed evidence from the Middle Preclassic right through to the [[Mesoamerican chronology|Postclassic]].<ref name="Folan&c95a310"/> The causeway network that linked Calakmul with the cities of El Mirador, Nakbe and El Tintal suggest strong political links between the four cities that may have begun in the Preclassic, when both Calakmul and El Mirador were important cities, and continued into the Classic period when Calakmul itself was the most powerful city in the region.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/> Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful ancient [[Maya city|cities]] ever uncovered in the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] lowlands.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p.101. Braswell et al. 2005, p.162.</ref>

===Calakmul vs. Tikal===
{{main|Tikal-Calakmul Wars}}
[[File:Tikal mayan ruins 2009.jpg|thumb|right|The history of Classic Maya civilization was dominated by the rivalry between the opposed alliance networks of Calakmul and Tikal (pictured)]]
The history of the Maya Classic period is dominated by the rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul, likened to a struggle between two Maya "superpowers".<ref>Webster 2002, pp.168-169.</ref> Earlier times tended to be dominated by a single larger city and by the Early Classic Tikal was moving into this position after the dominance of El Mirador in the Late Preclassic and [[Nakbe]] in the Middle Preclassic.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.495.</ref> However Calakmul was a rival city with equivalent resources that challenged the supremacy of Tikal and engaged in a strategy of surrounding it with its own network of allies.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p495-496">Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.495-496.</ref> From the second half of the 6th century AD through to the late 7th century Calakmul gained the upper hand although it failed to extinguish Tikal's power completely and Tikal was able to turn the tables on its great rival in a decisive battle that took place in AD 695.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p496">Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.496.</ref> Half a century later Tikal was able to gain major victories over Calakmul's most important allies.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p496"/> Eventually both cities succumbed to the spreading [[Classic Maya collapse]].<ref name="SharerTraxler06p497">Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.497.</ref>

The great rivalry between these two cities may have been based on more than competition for resources. Their dynastic histories reveal different origins and the intense competition between the two powers may have had an ideological grounding. Calakmul's dynasty seems ultimately derived from the great Preclassic city of El Mirador while the dynasty of Tikal was profoundly affected by the intervention of the distant central Mexican metropolis of [[Teotihuacan]].<ref name="SharerTraxler06p497"/> With few exceptions, Tikal's monuments and those of its allies place great emphasis upon single male rulers while the monuments of Calakmul and its allies gave greater prominence to the [[Gender in Maya society|female line]] and often the joint rule of [[Women rulers in Maya society|king and queen]].<ref name="SharerTraxler06p495-496"/>

===Preclassic===
Calakmul was already a large city in the Preclassic period.<ref name="MartinGrube00p103">Martin & Grube 2000, p.103.</ref> The early history of Calakmul is obscure, although a dynastic list has been pieced together that extends back into an ancestral past. This dynasty has been reconstructed in part from Late Classic ceramics from the region of great Preclassic cities of El Mirador and Nakbe.<ref name="MG00p102ST06p357">Martin & Grube 2000, p.102. Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.357.</ref> This may mean that Calakmul ultimately inherited its political authority from one of these cities, with its dynasty originating in the Late Preclassic in the [[Mirador Basin]] and relocating itself to Calakmul in the Classic period after the collapse of these cities.<ref name="MG00p102ST06p357"/>

===Early Classic===
[[File:Calakmul - Stele on Base of Structure II.jpg|thumb|left|Stela 43 dates to AD 514, in the Early Classic period.<ref>Folan et al. 1995a, p.326.</ref>]]
Both Calakmul and Tikal were sizeable Preclassic cities that survived into the Classic Period.<ref name="MartinGrube00p103"/> Early [[Maya script|hieroglyphic texts]] from [[stele|stelae]] found in Structure 2 record the probable enthronement of a king of Calakmul in AD 411 and also records a non-royal site ruler in 514.<ref name="MartinGrube00p103"/> After this there is a gap in the hieroglyphic records that lasts over a century, although the Kaan dynasty experienced a major expansion of its power at this time. The lack of inscriptions recording the events of this period may be either due to the fact that the Kaan dynasty was located elsewhere during this time or perhaps that the monuments were later destroyed.<ref name="MartinGrube00p103"/>

The earliest legible texts referring to the kings of the Kaan dynasty come from excavations of the large city of [[Dzibanche]] in [[Quintana Roo]], far north of Calakmul.<ref name="MartinGrube00p103"/> A hieroglyphic stairway depicts bound captives, their names and the dates they were captured together with the name of king Yuknoom Che'en I, although the exact context of the king's name is unclear - the captives may have been his vassals captured by an enemy or they may have been rulers captured by the king of Calakmul. The dates are uncertain but two of them may fall within the 5th century AD.<ref name="MartinGrube00p103"/> The nearby Quintana Roo site of [[El Resbalón]] has a jumbled hieroglyphic text, including a date in 529, that indicates that the city was within the control of the Kaan dynasty.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp.103-104.</ref>

By the middle of the 6th century AD Calakmul was assembling a far-reaching political alliance, activity that brought the city into conflict with the great city of Tikal.<ref name="MartinGrube00p104">Martin & Grube 2000, p.104.</ref> The influence of Calakmul extended deep into the [[Petén Basin|Petén]]; king [[Tuun K'ab' Hix]] of Calakmul oversaw the enthronement of Aj Wosal to the rulership of [[Naranjo]] in 546.<ref name="MartinGrube00p104"/> Another vassal of Tuun K'ab' Hix was taken captive by [[Yaxchilan]] on the banks of the [[Usumacinta River]] in 537.<ref name="MartinGrube00p104"/>

In 561, the king now known as [[Sky Witness (ruler)|Sky Witness]] installed a ruler at the site of [[Los Alacranes]].<ref name="MartinGrube00p104"/> Sky Witness played a major part in the political events of the Maya region. He became the overlord of the city of [[Caracol]], to the south of Naranjo, which had previously been a vassal of Tikal.<ref name="MartinGrube00p104"/> In 562, according to a damaged text at Caracol, Sky Witness defeated Tikal itself and sacrificed its king [[Wak Chan K'awiil]], thus ending his branch of the royal dynasty at Tikal.<ref name="MartinGrube00p104"/> This catastrophic defeat began a 130-year hiatus for Tikal, reflecting an extended period of dominance by Calakmul.<ref name="MartinGrube00p104"/> This event is used as a marker to divide the Early Classic from the Late Classic.<ref>Miller 1999, p.89.</ref> Sky Witness is also mentioned at [[Yo'okop|Okop]], a site much further north in Quintana Roo.<ref name="MartinGrube00p104"/> The last reference to Sky Witness occurs at Caracol and is dated to AD 572. The text is damaged but probably records the death of this powerful king.<ref name="MartinGrube00p104"/>

===Late Classic===

====War with Palenque====
{{Maya civilization}}
[[Sky Witness (ruler)|Sky Witness]] was quickly succeeded by First Axewielder, who is mentioned in a text from Dzibanche celebrating the [[K'atun]]-ending of 573.<ref name="MartinGrube00p104"/> First Axewielder ruled for about six years.<ref name="MartinGrube00p104"/> In 579 Uneh Chan became king of Calakmul.<ref name="MartinGrube00p105">Martin & Grube 2000, p.105.</ref> Uneh Chan engaged in an aggressive campaign in the western Maya region and attacked [[Palenque]] on 23 April 599 with his ally Lakam Chak, lord of the small city of Santa Elena {{convert|70|km|mi}} east of Palenque, defeating Palenque's queen [[Yohl Ik'nal|Lady Yohl Ik'nal]] and sacking the city.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p.105, 159-160. Stuart & Stuart 2008, pp.140-141, 143.</ref> The defeat is recorded on a series of hieroglyphic steps at Palenque itself and the event initiated a long-lasting grudge against Calakmul.<ref>Stuart & Stuart 2008, p.141.</ref> Lady Yohl Ik'nal survived the battle and ruled for several more years, although she perhaps paid tribute to Calakmul.<ref name="StuartStuart08p142">Stuart & Stuart 2008, p.142.</ref>

Uneh Chan maintained his alliances with cities in the east and he is depicted on Caracol Stela 4 supervising an event involving king Yajaw Te' K'inich of that city that occurred before 583.<ref name="MartinGrube00p105"/> Calakmul again sacked Palenque on 7 April 611 under the personal direction of Uneh Chan.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp.105, 161. Stuart & Stuart 2008, p.142.</ref> Palenque was now ruled by king [[Aj Ne' Yohl Mat|Ajen Yohl Mat]] who had gained some sort of independence from Calakmul, provoking the new invasion.<ref name="StuartStuart08p142"/> The immediate aftermath of this second victory over Palenque involved the deaths of the two most important nobles at the city, Ajen Yohl Mat himself and [[Janaab' Pakal|Janab Pakal]], a high-ranking member of the royal family and possibly co-ruler. Janab Pakal died in March 612 and Ajen Yohl Mat a few months later. Their deaths so soon after the sacking of the city suggests that their demise was directly linked to Calakmul's triumph.<ref>Stuart & Stuart 2008, p.145.</ref> Palenque suffered a lengthy decline in its fortunes after this date before it was able to recover from its disastrous [[Maya warfare|war]] with Calakmul.<ref>Stuart & Stuart 2008, pp.145-146.</ref> The wars against Palenque may have been undertaken by Uneh Chan in order to seize control of wealthy [[Trade in Maya civilization|trade routes]] that passed through the western Maya region.<ref>Stuart & Stuart 2008, p.143.</ref>

====Rebellion at Naranjo====
King Yuknoom Chan of Calakmul supervised an event at Caracol in 619.<ref name="MartinGrube00p106">Martin & Grube 2000, p.106.</ref> Caracol Stela 22 records the accession of Tajoom Uk'ab' K'ak' to the Calakmul throne in 622.<ref name="MartinGrube00p106"/> Two stelae were erected at Calakmul in 623 but their texts are too badly damaged to reveal the names of the royal couple involved.<ref name="MartinGrube00p106"/> Approximately at this time Naranjo, a vassal of Calakmul, broke away when its king Aj Wosal died relatively soon after the death of Uneh Chan of Calakmul.<ref name="MartinGrube00p106"/> Naranjo was independent of Calakmul by at least AD 626, when it was twice defeated by Caracol and Yuknoom Chan may have been attempting to bring Naranjo back under Calakmul control. His attempts were brought to an end by his death in 630.<ref name="MartinGrube00p106"/> In 631 Yuknoom Head, the new king of Calakmul, finally regained control of Naranjo. Texts relate that the king of Naranjo was already captive at Calakmul on the day that his city was overrun and his punishment on the very same day is described by the word ''k'uxaj'' ({{IPA|/k’uːˈʃäχ/}}) meaning either "tortured" or "eaten".<ref name="MartinGrube00p106"/> Yuknoom Head conquered another city in March 636, although the exact site is unknown.<ref name="MartinGrube00p106"/>

====Apogee====
The Kaan dynasty was not originally established at Calakmul but rather re-located there in the 7th Century from another city.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Martin|first1=Simon|title=Of Snakes and Bats: Shifting Identities at Calakmul|journal=PARI Journal|date=2005|volume=6|issue=2|pages=5–15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Stuart|first1=David|title=Notes on a New Text from La Corona|url=http://decipherment.wordpress.com/2012/06/30/notes-on-a-new-text-from-la-corona/|website=Maya Decipherment|access-date=2014-09-30}}</ref> Calakmul experienced its highest achievements during the reign of king Yuknoom Che'en II, sometimes called Yuknoom the Great by scholars.<ref name="MartinGrube00p108">Martin & Grube 2000, p.108.</ref> Yuknoom Che'en II was 36 years old when he came to the throne of Calakmul in AD 636.<ref name="MartinGrube00p108"/> A significant increase in the production of stelae at the city began with his reign and 18 stelae were commissioned by the king.<ref name="MartinGrube00p108"/> Yuknoom Che'en II was probably responsible for the construction of the palace complexes that form a major part of the site core.<ref name="MartinGrube00p108"/>

=====Calakmul and Dos Pilas=====
In 629 Tikal had founded [[Dos Pilas]] in the [[Petexbatún]] region, some {{convert|110|km|mi}} to its southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the [[Pasión River]].<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, p.1.</ref> B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635, and for many years served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal.<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, pp.2-3.</ref> In AD 648 Calakmul attacked Dos Pilas and gained an overwhelming victory that included the death of a Tikal lord.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p387">Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.387.</ref> B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by Yuknoom Che'en II but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of the Calakmul king,<ref>Salisbury et al. 2002, p.2. Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.387.</ref> and went on to attack Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, the then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years.<ref>Webster 2002, p.276.</ref> Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as [[El Perú (Maya site)|El Peru]], Dos Pilas and Caracol.<ref>Hammond 2000, p.220.</ref> In 677 Calakmul counterattacked against Dos Pilas, driving Tikal out and reinstalled B'alaj Chan K'awiil on his throne.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p387"/> In 679 Dos Pilas, probably aided by Calakmul, gained an important victory over Tikal, with a hieroglyphic description of the battle describing pools of blood and piles of heads.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p387"/>

Troubles continued in the east, with renewed conflict between Naranjo and Caracol. Naranjo completely defeated Caracol in 680 but Naranjo's dynasty disappeared within two years and a daughter of B'alaj Chan K'awiil founded a new dynasty there in 682, indicating that Calakmul had probably intervened decisively to place a loyal vassal on the throne.<ref name="MartinGrube00p109">Martin & Grube 2000, p.109.</ref> The patronage of Yuknoom Che'en II as overlord is recorded at a range of important cities, including El Peru where he oversaw the installation of K'inich B'alam as king and strengthened the tie with the marriage of a Calakmul princess to that king.<ref name="MartinGrube00p109"/> The power of Calakmul extended as far as the north shore of [[Lake Petén Itzá]], where [[Motul de San José]] is recorded as its vassal in the 7th century, although it was traditionally aligned with Tikal.<ref>Reents-Budet et al. 2007, p.1421. Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 45-46.</ref> Yuknoom Che'en II commanded the loyalty of three generations of kings at [[Cancuen]], {{convert|245|km|mi}} to the south, and supervised the enthronement of at least two of them, in 656 and 677.<ref name="MartinGrube00p109"/> King Yuknoom Che'en II was involved, directly or indirectly, in the crowning of a king at [[Moral (Maya site)|Moral]] to the west in [[Tabasco]] and one of Yuknoom's nobles supervised a ritual at [[Piedras Negras (Maya site)|Piedras Negras]] on the Guatemalan bank of the [[Usumacinta River]].<ref name="MartinGrube00p109"/> Yuknoom Che'en II died in his eighties, probably at the beginning of 686. When he died, Calakmul was the most powerful city in the central Maya lowlands.<ref name="MartinGrube00p109"/>

Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' succeeded Yuknoom Che'en II, his crowning on 3 April 686 was recorded on monuments at Dos Pilas and El Peru.<ref name="MartinGrube00p110">Martin & Grube 2000, p.110.</ref> He was born in 649 and was likely to have been the son of his predecessor. He already held high office before he was named king and may have been responsible for the major successes of the latter part of Yuknoom Che'en II's reign.<ref name="MartinGrube00p110"/> He retained the loyalty of K'inich B'alam of El Peru and B'alaj Chan K'awiil of Dos Pilas and gained that of K'ak' Tiliw Chan Chaak in 693, when he was installed on the throne of Naranjo at the age of five.<ref name="MartinGrube00p110"/> However, the texts on sculpted monuments do not reveal the full complexity of diplomatic activity, as revealed by a painted ceramic vase from Tikal, which depicts an ambassador of Calakmul's king kneeling before the enthroned king of Tikal and delivering tribute.<ref name="MartinGrube00p110"/> Just four years later, in August 695, the two states were once again at war. Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' led his warriors against [[Jasaw Chan K'awiil I]] in a catastrophic battle that saw the defeat of Calakmul and the capture of the image of a Calakmul deity named Yajaw Maan.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp.110-111.</ref> It is unknown what happened to Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak'; a stucco sculpture from Tikal shows a captive and the king is mentioned in the accompanying caption but it is not certain if the captive and the king are the same person.<ref name="MartinGrube00p111">Martin & Grube 2000, p.111.</ref> This event marked the end of Calakmul's apogee, with diplomatic activity dropping away and fewer cities recognising Calakmul's king as overlord.<ref name="MartinGrube00p111"/> No stelae remain standing in the site core recording Yuknoom Yich'aal K'ak, although there are some in the Northeast Group and 2 broken stelae were buried in Structure 2.<ref name="MartinGrube00p111"/>

====Later kings====
The next ruler of Calakmul, Split Earth, is mentioned on a pair of carved bones in the tomb of Tikal king Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. He was ruling by November 695 but it is not known if he was a legitimate member of the Calakmul dynasty or whether he was a pretender placed on the throne by Tikal.<ref name="MartinGrube00p111"/>

The next known king used a number of name variants, and is referred to by different name segments within and outside of Calakmul.<ref name="MartinGrube00p112">Martin & Grube 2000, p.112.</ref> A partial reading of his name is Yuknoom Took' K'awiil.<ref name="MartinGrube00p112"/> He erected seven stelae to celebrate a calendrical event in 702 and is named at Dos Pilas in that year, presumably demonstrating that Dos Pilas was still a vassal of Calakmul. El Peru also continued as a vassal and Yuknoom Took' K'awiil installed a new king there at an unknown date.<ref name="MartinGrube00p112"/> [[La Corona]] received a queen from Yuknoom Took'. Naranjo also remained loyal.<ref name="MartinGrube00p112"/> Yuknoom Took' K'awiil commissioned seven more stelae to mark the [[k'atun]]-ending of 731.<ref name="MartinGrube00p112"/> A new defeat at the hands of Tikal is evidenced by a sculpted altar at that city, probably dating to sometime between 733 and 736, depicting a bound lord from Calakmul and possibly names Yuknoom Took' K'awiil.<ref name="MartinGrube00p113">Martin & Grube 2000, p.113.</ref>

=====Calakmul and Quiriguá=====
After this the historical record of Calakmul becomes very vague, due both to the poor state of the heavily eroded monuments at the city itself and also its reduced political presence on the wider Maya stage.<ref name="MartinGrube00p114">Martin & Grube 2000, p.114.</ref> Wamaw K'awiil is named at [[Quiriguá]] on the southern periphery of Mesoamerica.<ref name="MartinGrube00p114"/> Quiriguá traditionally had been a vassal of its southern neighbour [[Copán]], and in 724 [[Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil]], king of Copán, installed [[K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat]] upon Quiriguá's throne as his vassal.<ref>Drew 1999, p.241. Looper 2003, p.79.</ref> By 734 K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat had shown that he was no longer an obedient subordinate of Copán when he started to refer to himself as ''k'ul [[ajaw|ahaw]]'', holy lord, instead of using the lesser term ''ahaw'', subordinate lord; at the same time he began to use his own Quiriguá [[Maya script#Emblem glyphs|emblem glyph]].<ref>Drew 1999, p.241.</ref> This local act of rebellion appears to have been part of the larger political struggle between Tikal and Calakmul. In 736, only two years later, K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat received a visit from Wamaw K'awiil of Calakmul, while Copán was one of Tikal's oldest allies. The timing of this visit by the king of Calakmul is highly significant, falling between the accession of K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat to the throne of Quiriguá as a vassal of Copán and the outright rebellion that was to follow. This strongly suggests that Calakmul sponsored Quiriguá's rebellion in order to weaken Tikal and to gain access to the rich trade route of the [[Motagua River|Motagua Valley]].<ref>Looper 2003, p.79. Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.482.</ref> It is likely that contact with Calakmul had been initiated soon after K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat acceded to the throne.<ref>Looper 2003, p.79.</ref> In 738 K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat captured the powerful but elderly king of Copán, Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil.<ref>Webster 2002, p.300. Drew 1999, p.240.</ref> An inscription at Quiriguá, although difficult to interpret, suggests that the capture took place on 27 April 738, when Quiriguá seized and burned the wooden images of Copán's patron [[deity|deities]].<ref>Looper 2003, p.78.</ref> The captured lord was taken back to Quiriguá and on 3 May 738 he was decapitated in a public ritual.<ref>Miller 1999, pp.134–35. Looper 2003, p.76.</ref>

In the Late Classic, alliance with Calakmul was frequently associated with the promise of military support. The fact that Copán, a much more powerful city than Quiriguá, failed to retaliate against its former vassal implies that it feared the military intervention of Calakmul. Calakmul itself was far enough away from Quiriguá that K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat was not afraid of falling directly under its power as a full vassal state, even though it is likely that Calakmul sent warriors to help in the defeat of Copán. The alliance instead seems to have been one of mutual advantage: Calakmul managed to weaken a powerful ally of Tikal while Quiriguá gained its independence.<ref>Looper 1999, p.271. Looper 2003, p.81.</ref>

====Collapse====
Five large stelae were raised in 741, although the name of the king responsible is illegible on all of them and he has been labelled as Ruler Y.<ref name="MartinGrube00p114"/> Calakmul's presence in the wider Maya area continued to wane, with two of the city's major allies suffering defeats at the hands of Tikal.<ref name="MartinGrube00p114"/> El Peru was defeated in 743 and Naranjo a year later and this resulted in the final collapse of Calakmul's once powerful alliance network, while Tikal underwent a resurgence in its power.<ref name="MartinGrube00p114"/>

In 751 Ruler Z erected a stela that was never finished, paired with another with the portrait of a queen.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115">Martin & Grube 2000, p.115.</ref> A hieroglyphic stairway mentions someone called B'olon K'awiil at about the same time.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/> B'olon K'awiil was king by 771 when he raised two stelae and he was mentioned at Toniná in 789.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/> Sites to the north of Calakmul showed a reduction in its influence at this time, with new architectural styles influenced by sites further north in the [[Yucatán Peninsula]].<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/>

A monument was raised in 790 although the name of the ruler responsible is not preserved. Two more were raised in 800 and three in 810.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/> No monument was erected to commemorate the important [[Baktun|Bak'tun]]-ending of 830 and it is probable that political authority had already collapsed at this time.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/> Important cities such as [[Oxpemul]], [[Nadzcaan]] and [[La Muñeca]] that were Calakmul's vassals at one time now erected their own monuments, where before they had raised very few; some continued producing new monuments until as late as 889.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/> This was a process that paralleled events at Tikal.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/> However, there is strong evidence of an elite presence at the city continuing until AD 900, possibly even later.<ref name="Braswell&c05p165"/>

In 849, Calakmul was mentioned at [[Seibal]] where a ruler named as Chan Pet attended the [[K'atun]]-ending ceremony; his name may also be recorded on a broken ceramic at Calakmul itself. However, it is unlikely that Calakmul still existed as a state in any meaningful way at this late date.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/> A final flurry of activity took place at the end of the 9th century or the beginning of the 10th. A new stela was erected, although the date records only the day, not the full date. The recorded day may fall either in 899 or 909 with the latter date the most likely.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/> A few monuments appear to be even later although their style is crude, representing the efforts of a remnant population to maintain the Classic Maya tradition. Even the inscriptions on these late monuments are meaningless imitations of writing.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/>

Ceramics dating to the Terminal Classic period are uncommon outside of the site core, suggesting that the population of the city was concentrated in the city centre in the final phase of Calakmul's occupation.<ref name="Braswell&c05p165"/> The majority of the surviving population probably consisted of commoners who had occupied the elite architecture of the site core but the continued erection of stelae into the early 10th century and the presence of high status imported goods such as metal, obsidian, jade and shell, indicate a continued occupation by royalty until the final abandonment of the city.<ref name="Braswell&c05p165"/> The [[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatec]]-speaking [[Kejache]] Maya who lived in the region at the time of Spanish contact in the early 16th century may have been the descendants of the inhabitants of Calakmul.<ref>Rice and Rice 2005, p. 152.</ref>

===Modern history===
Calakmul was first reported by [[Cyrus Lundell]] in 1931.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/> A year later he informed [[Sylvanus Morley]] of the site's existence and the presence of more than 60 stelae.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/> Morley visited the ruins himself on behalf of the [[Carnegie Institution for Science|Carnegie Institution of Washington]] in 1932.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/> In the 1930s surveys mapped the site core and recorded 103 stelae.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/> Investigations stopped in 1938 and archaeologists did not return to the site until 1982 when William J. Folan directed a project on behalf of the [[Universidad Autónoma de Campeche]], working at Calakmul until 1994.<ref name="ST06p356&MG00p101">Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.356. Martin & Grube 2000, p.101.</ref> Calakmul is now the subject of a large-scale project of the [[National Institute of Anthropology and History]] (INAH) under the direction of Ramón Carrasco.<ref name="ST06p356&MG00p101"/>

==Site description==
[[File:Calakmul95.jpg|thumb|right|Structure 2 at Calakmul, one of the most massive structures in the Maya world, was originally built in the Preclassic and continued in use through to the Late Classic.<ref name="MartinGrube00p107">Martin & Grube 2000, p.107.</ref>]]
The site core of Calakmul covers an area of approximately {{convert|2|km2|sqmi}}, an area that contains the remains of roughly 1000 structures.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/> The periphery occupied by smaller residential structures beyond the site core covers an area of more than {{convert|20|km2|sqmi}} within which archaeologists have mapped approximately 6250 structures.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/> Calakmul matches the great city of Tikal in size and estimated population, although the density of the city appears to have been greater than that city.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/>

The stone used in construction at the site is a soft [[limestone]]. This has resulted in severe erosion of the site's sculpture.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356">Sharer and Traxler 2006, p.356.</ref> The city of Calakmul was built in a strongly concentric fashion and can be divided into zones as one moves outwards from the centre of the site.<ref>Braswell et al. 2005, p.167. Folan et al. 1995a, p.314.</ref> The innermost zone covers an area of approximately {{convert|1.75|km2|sqmi}} It contains most of the monumental architecture and has 975 mapped structures, about 300 of which are built from vaulted stone masonry.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap314">Folan et al 1995a, p.314.</ref> About 92 structures were built on large pyramids laid out around plazas and courtyards.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap314"/> The city's core was bordered on the north side by a {{convert|6|m|ft|adj=on}} high wall that controlled access from the north and may also have had a defensive function.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap314"/>

Many commoners residences were built along the edge of El Laberinto swamp to the west of the site core, although some high-status residences and public buildings were interspersed among these. The area between the residences was used for horticulture.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap316"/>

===Water control===
The site is surrounded by an extensive network of canals and reservoirs.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/> There are five major reservoirs, including the largest example in the Maya world, measuring {{convert|242|by|212|m|ft}}.<ref name="MartinGrube00p106"/> This reservoir is filled by a small seasonal river during the rainy season and continues to hold enough water for it to be used by archaeologists in modern times.<ref name="MartinGrube00p106"/>

Thirteen reservoirs have been identified at Calakmul.<ref name="Braswell&c05p165"/> The combined capacity of all the reservoirs is estimated at over {{convert|200000000|L|impgal}}.<ref name="Braswell&c05p165"/> This quantity of water could have supported 50,000 to 100,000 people; there is no evidence that the reservoirs were used to irrigate crops.<ref>Braswell et al. 2005, pp.165-166.</ref>

'''Aguada 1''' is the largest of the reservoirs and has a surface area of {{convert|5|ha|sqft}}.<ref name="Braswell&c05p165"/>

===Causeways===
Eight ''[[sacbeob|sacbe]]'' (causeways) have been located around Calakmul.<ref>Dominguez & Folan 1996, p.147.</ref> Two of these have been mapped, three have been identified visually on the ground and three more identified with remote sensing.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/> They have been numbered as Sacbe 1 through to Sacbe 7.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/> The causeway network not only linked Calakmul with local satellite sites but also with more distant allies and rivals, such as the great cities of El Mirador, El Tintal and Nakbe.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313-95Bp281">Folan et al. 1995a, p.313. Folan et al. 1995b, p.281.</ref> Those causeways that cross swampy land are elevated above the surrounding wetland and they now tend to support denser vegetation than the surrounding forest.<ref>Folan et al. 1995b, p.279.</ref>

'''Sacbe 1''' is {{convert|450|m|ft}} long and is lined and filled with stone.<ref name="Folan&c95Bp280">Folan et al 1995b, p.280.</ref> It is located within the mapped urban area of the site core.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/> Sacbe 1 was first mapped in the 1930s by the Carnegie Institution of Washington.<ref name="Folan&c95Bp280"/>

'''Sacbe 2''' is {{convert|70|m|ft}} long. It has been mapped within the urban area of the site core.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/> Sacbe 2 is built of packed earth and was discovered during the archaeological excavation of a nearby quarry.<ref name="Folan&c95Bp280"/> This causeway may have been built to transport stone from the quarry in order to build Structures 1 and 3.<ref name="Folan&c95Bp280"/>

'''Sacbe 3''' extends {{convert|8|km|mi}} northeast from the site core and is visible from the summit of Structure 1. It was first discovered in 1982.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313-95Bp280">Folan et al. 1995a, p.313. Folan et al. 1995b, p.280.</ref>

'''Sacbe 4''' runs {{convert|24|km|mi}} southeast from the site core, it is also visible from the summit of Structure 1 and was discovered in 1982.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313-95Bp280"/>

'''Sacbe 5''' runs westwards from the main watering hole, across El Laberinto seasonal swamp and carries on for a total distance of {{convert|16|km|mi}} or more towards Sasilhá.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313-95Bp281"/>

'''Sacbe 6''' runs southwest across El Laberinto ''bajo'' and links Calakmul with El Mirador ({{convert|38.25|km|mi}} to the southwest) and, beyond it, [[El Tintal]] (an additional {{convert|30|km|mi}}.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313-95Bp281"/>

'''Sacbe 7''' is located south of Sacbe 6. It is at least {{convert|5.1|km|mi}} long and runs across El Laberinto swamp.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap313"/>

'''Sacbe 8''' is on the west side of the swamp and does not appear to cross it to the site core.<ref>Folan et al. 1995b, p.281.</ref>

===Structures===
[[File:Calakr4.jpg|right|thumb|Structure I.]]
[[File:Calakmul6.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mesoamerican ballcourts|Ballcourt]] at Calakmul]]
'''Structure 1''' (or '''Structure I''') is a {{convert|50|m|ft|adj=mid|-high}} [[Mesoamerican pyramids|pyramid]] to the east of the site core.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p.113. Folan et al. 1995a, p.316.</ref> A number of stelae were erected at its base by Yuknoom Took' K'awiil in 731.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp.111-112.</ref> Because it was built on a low hill, Structure 1 appears to be higher than Structure 2, although this is not the case.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap316">Folan et al 1995a, p.316.</ref>

'''Structure 2''' (or '''Structure II''') is a massive north-facing pyramid temple, one of the largest in the Maya world.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp.100, 107.</ref> Its base measures {{convert|120|m|ft}} square and it stands over {{convert|45|m|ft}} high.<ref name="MartinGrube00p107"/> In common with many temple pyramids in the Mesoamerican cultural region, the pyramid at Calakmul increased in size by building upon the pre-existing temple in order to increase its bulk.<ref>Folan et al. 1995a, p.316.</ref> The core of the building (Structure 2A) is a triadic pyramid dating to the Late Preclassic period, with this ancient building still forming the highest point of the structure.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p.107. Folan et al. 1995a, p.316. Braswell et al. 2005, p.167.</ref> In the Early Classic a massive extension was added to the front of the pyramid, covering an earlier stucco-covered building on the north side. Three new shrines were built upon this extension (Structures 2B, 2C and 2D), each of these shrines had its own access stairway.<ref name="MartinGrube00p107"/> Structure 2B was the central shrine, 2C was to the east and 2D to the west.<ref name="MartinGrube00p107"/> The facade possessed six large masks set between these stairways, three arranged vertically on each side of the central stairway.<ref name="MartinGrube00p107"/> Structure 2 is similar in date, size and design to the El Tigre pyramid at El Mirador, and associated ceramics are also similar.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap317">Folan et al 1995a, p.317.</ref> At a later time buildings were erected along the base of the facade, each of these contained stelae.<ref name="MartinGrube00p107"/> In the 8th century AD, Structure 2B was entombed under a large pyramid and a stepped facade covered the giant masks.<ref name="MartinGrube00p107"/> Later another facade was built over this 8th century stepped frontage but it may never have been finished.<ref name="MartinGrube00p107"/> In the Late Classic a nine-room palace was built on top of the pyramid, supporting a [[roof comb]] that had painted stucco bas-relief decoration.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap317"/> The rooms were arranged in three groups of three, each room positioned behind the next.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap317"/> The entire Late Classic palace measured {{convert|19.4|by|12|m|ft}}.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap317"/> The front two rows of rooms (Rooms 1 through to 6) were used for food preparation, [[metate]]s and hearths were found in each of them.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap317"/> Room 7, the southwest room, was a [[sauna|sweatbath]].<ref>Folan et al. 1995a, p.318.</ref>

'''Structure 3''' (or '''Structure III''', also known as the '''Lundell Palace''') is southeast of Structure 4, on the east side of the Central Plaza. It is a building with multiple rooms.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap316"/>

'''Structure 4''' (or '''Structure IV''') is a group of three temples on the east side of the Central Plaza. It is divided into three sections, labelled Structures 4a, 4b and 4c. The central Structure 4b is built upon a substructure dating to the Preclassic period.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap314"/> Together with Structure 6 on the opposite side of the plaza, these buildings form an [[E-Group]] that may have been used to determine the [[solstice]]s and the [[equinox]]es.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap314"/>

'''Structure 5''' (or '''Structure V''') is a large building located on the plaza to the north of Structure 2.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap314"/> It was surrounded by 10 stelae, many dated to the 7th century AD although the building itself was first erected in the Preclassic period.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap314"/>

'''Structure 6''' (or '''Structure VI''') is on the west side of the Central Plaza and, together with Structures 4a, 4b and 4c, forms an E-Group astronomical complex.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap314"/> In 1989 observations verified that on March 21, the [[March equinox|vernal equinox]], the sun rose behind Structure 4b as seen from Structure 6.<ref>Folan et al. 1995a, pp.314-315.</ref>

'''Structure 7''' (or '''Structure VII''') is a temple pyramid on the north side of the Central Plaza.<ref name="MartinGrube00p113"/> It faces south and stands {{convert|24|m|ft}} high. Five plain stelae were erected on the south side of the pyramid.<ref>Folan et al. 1995a, p.315.</ref> It underwent several construction phases from in the Late to Terminal Classic.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap319">Folan et al 1995a, p.319.</ref> The pyramid was topped by a three-room temple that possessed a tall stucco-covered roof comb.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap319"/> A [[patolli]] game board was carved into the floor of the outermost room of the temple.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap319"/>

'''Structure 8''' (or '''Structure VIII''') is a small building located on the north side of the Central Plaza, to the east of Structure 7. It is associated with Stela 1 and its altar.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap316"/>

===Stelae, murals and ceramics===
[[File:Calakmul Wall Painting.jpg|thumb|right|Calakmul, building on central square, detail of a wall painting]]
Calakmul is one of the most structure-rich sites within the Maya region. The site contains 117 [[Maya stelae|stelae]], the largest total in the region.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/> Most are in paired sets representing rulers and their wives.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p356"/> However, because these carved stelae were produced in soft limestone, most of these stelae have been eroded beyond interpretation. Also many elaborate murals were discovered at Calakmul. These murals do not represent activities of the elite class. Rather, they depict elaborate market scenes of people preparing or consuming products such as atole, tamales, or tobacco as an ointment. Also items being sold were textiles and needles. These murals also have glyphs within them describing the actions occurring.<ref>Martin 2005.</ref> The most prominent figure in these murals is identified as Lady Nine Stone; she appears in many scenes. This brings a world of the Maya marketplace to vibrant life for archaeologists. Another highly beneficial resource to Maya archaeological understanding at Calakmul is the ceramic remains. The composition of the ceramic materials identifies the region or more specifically the polity that produced them. Ceramics with the snake emblem glyph found at several sites also give more evidence to identify ties or control over that site by Calakmul.

[[File:Messico, maya, piatto da calakmul, 600-800 ca..JPG|thumb|Calakmul ceramic plate, AD 600-800]]
'''Stela 1''' is associated with an altar and located by Structure 8.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap316"/>

'''Stela 8''' records the celebration of an event in AD 593 by Uneh Chan and was erected after his death.<ref name="MartinGrube00p105-106">Martin & Grube 2000, pp.105-106.</ref>

'''Stela 9''' is a thin [[slate]] monument dated to 662. Its text describes the birth of king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' and gives him his full royal title.<ref name="MartinGrube00p110"/>

'''Stela 28''' and '''Stela 29''' were erected in 623 and are the earliest monuments to survive from Late Classic Calakmul. They depict a royal couple but the texts are too poorly preserved to reveal their names.<ref name="MartinGrube00p106"/>

'''Stela 33''' was erected by Yuknoom Che'en II in 657 and records an event in the reign of Uneh Chan, who may have been his father. The event was celebrated in 593.<ref name="MartinGrube00p105-106"/>

'''Stela 38''' stands at the base of Structure 2.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap316"/>

'''Stela 42''' is also located at the base of Structure 2.<ref name="Folan&c95Ap316"/>

'''Stela 43''' dates to AD 514. It was set in a vaulted chamber near the base of Structure 2. The text is damaged but carries an early spelling of the ''k'uhul chatan winik'' non-royal noble title used in Calakmul and the Mirador Basin.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 103, 107.</ref>

'''Stela 50''' is one of the last monuments erected during the final decline of the city. It bears a crude, clumsily executed portrait.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/>

'''Stela 51''' is the best preserved monument at Calakmul. It depicts Yuknoom Took' K'awiil and dates to AD 731.<ref name="MartinGrube00p113"/>

'''Stela 54''' dates to 731 and depicts a wife of Yuknoom Took' K'awiil.<ref name="MartinGrube00p113"/>

'''Stela 57''' is a tall stela erected in 771 by B'olon K'awiil. It is paired with Stela 58 and stands to the east of Structure 13.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/>

'''Stela 58''' is the second of a pair erected by B'olon K'awiil in 771, the other being Stela 57. It was erected to the east of Structure 13.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/>

'''Stela 61''' is a late monument bearing the name Aj Took'. It is a stunted stela with a badly eroded portrait and a shortened date form that is equivalent to a date either in 899 or 909, probably the latter.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/>

'''Stela 62''' was unfinished. It was carved to mark the K'atun-ending ceremony of 751 and bears the damaged name of Ruler Z.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/>

'''Stela 76''' and '''Stela 78''' are a pair of monuments dated to AD 633. They are badly eroded but should date to the reign of king Yuknoom Head.<ref name="MartinGrube00p106"/>

'''Stela 84''' is one of the last monuments erected at Calakmul and bears an inscription that is an illiterate imitation of writing. It probably dates to the early 10th century AD.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/>

'''Stela 88''' may have been paired with Stela 62. The monument has the image of a queen but her name is unknown. B'olon K'awiil also appears to be mentioned on the stela. It dates to around 751 and stands on the stairway of Structure 13.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/> '''Stela 91''' is another very late monument probably dating to the early 10th century. Like Stela 84, it bears an inscription that is a meaningless imitation of hieroglyphic writing.<ref name="MartinGrube00p115"/>

'''Stela 114''' dates to AD 435, in the Early Classic. It was moved in antiquity to be reset into the base of Structure 2. The stela has a long hieroglyphic text that has resisted translation but probably commemorates a royal enthronement in 411.<ref name="MartinGrube00p103"/>

'''Stela 115''' and '''Stela 116''' date to the reign of Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak'. They were broken and buried in Structure 2 and may be associated with the royal burial in Tomb 4.<ref name="MartinGrube00p111"/>

===Royal burial===
'''Tomb 4''' was set into the floor of Structure 2B in the 8th century AD and is the richest burial known from Calakmul.<ref name="MartinGrube00p107"/> The tomb contained a male skeleton wrapped in textiles and jaguar pelts that were partially preserved with [[resin]]. The tomb contained rich offerings that included jade ear ornaments handed down from the Early Classic, a jade mosaic mask, shell and bone beads, spiny oyster shells, [[Eccentric flint (archaeology)|eccentric obsidian blades]], fine ceramics and the remains of wooden objects. One of the ceramics was a plate with a hieroglyphic text that specifically named king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' as its owner.<ref name="MartinGrube00p111"/> The remains and the offering were placed in an arched wooden bier carved with elaborate decoration and hieroglyphs that was painted in a variety of colours. The bier has almost completely decayed but left an impression in the mud packed around it.<ref name="MartinGrube00p111"/> Due to the plate and the possible association of Stelae 115 and 116 with the burial the tomb is believed to be that of the late 7th-century king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak'.<ref name="MartinGrube00p111"/>

==See also==
* [[El Zotz]]
* [[List of Mesoamerican pyramids]]
* {{C|Mayan Classic Period}}
* [[K'àak' Chi']]

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== References ==
{{refbegin|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |author=Braswell, Geoffrey E. |author2=Gunn, Joel D. |author3=Dominguez Carrasco, María del Rosario |author4=Folan, William J. |author5=Fletcher, Laraine A. |author6=Morales López, Abel |author7=Glascock, Michael D. |year=2005 |chapter=Defining the Terminal Classic at Calakmul, Campeche |editor=Arthur A. Demarest |editor2=Prudence M. Rice |editor3=Don S. Rice |title=The Terminal Classic in the Maya lowlands: Collapse, transition, and transformation |url=https://archive.org/details/terminalclassici00arth |url-access=registration |location=Boulder |publisher=[[University Press of Colorado]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/terminalclassici00arth/page/162 162–194]|isbn=0-87081-822-8 |oclc=61719499}}
*{{cite journal |author=Domínguez, María del Rosario |author2=William J. Folan |year=1996 |title=Calakmul, México: Aguadas, bajos, precipitación y asentamiento en el Petén Campechano. |journal=IX Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1995 |editor=J.P. Laporte |editor2=H. Escobedo |pages=147–173 |publisher=Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología |location=Guatemala |url=http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/11.95_-_Rosario.pdf |format=versión digital |access-date=2009-11-15 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904132332/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/11.95_-_Rosario.pdf |archive-date=2011-09-04 }}
*{{cite book |author=Drew, David |year=1999 |title=The Lost Chronicles of the Maya Kings |location=London |publisher=[[Weidenfeld & Nicolson]] |isbn=0-297-81699-3 |oclc=43401096 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/lostchroniclesof0000drew_j2y5 }}
*{{cite web |author=Fahsen, Federico |year=2002 |title=Rescuing the Origins of Dos Pilas Dynasty: A Salvage of Hieroglyphic Stairway #2, Structure L5-49 |url=http://www.famsi.org/reports/01098/index.html |work=The Foundation Granting Department: Reports Submitted to FAMSI |publisher=[[Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc.|Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. (FAMSI)]] |access-date=2010-07-12}}
*{{cite journal|author=Folan, William S. |author2=Joyce Marcus |author3=Sophia Pincemin |author4=Maria del Rosario Dominguez Carrasco |author5= Loraine Fletcher |author6= Abel Morales Lopez |name-list-style= amp |title=Calakmul: New Data from an Ancient Maya Capitol in Campeche, Mexico |journal=Latin American Antiquity |volume=6 |issue=4 |date=December 1995a |pages=310–334 |doi=10.2307/971834 |jstor=971834}}
*{{cite journal|author=Folan, William J. |author2=Joyce Marcus |author3=W. Frank Miller |title=Verification of a Maya Settlement Model through Remote Sensing. |journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=277–283 |doi=10.1017/S0959774300015067 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1995b}}
*{{cite book |author=Folan, William J. |year=2001 |chapter= "Calakmul" |editor=Davíd Carrasco |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures, Vol. I|location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn= 9780195108156 |oclc=1169898498}}
*{{cite book |author=Hammond, Norman |year=2000 |chapter=The Maya Lowlands: Pioneer Farmers to Merchant Princes |editor=Richard E.W. Adams |editor2=Murdo J. Macleod |title=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1 |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=197–249|isbn=0-521-35165-0 |oclc=33359444}}
*{{cite book |author=Looper, Matthew G. |year=2003 |title=Lightning Warrior: Maya Art and Kingship at Quirigua |series=Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies |location=Austin |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |isbn=0-292-70556-5 |oclc=52208614 |url=https://archive.org/details/lightningwarrior0000loop }}
*{{citation|author=Martin, Simon |author-link=Simon Martin (Mayanist) |title=Recently Uncovered Murals and Facades at Calakmul |work=The Maya Mural Symposium | date=October 2005 }}
*{{cite book |author=Martin, Simon |author-link=Simon Martin (Mayanist) |author2=Nikolai Grube |author2-link=Nikolai Grube |year=2000 |title=Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya |location=London and New York |publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] |isbn=0-500-05103-8 |oclc=47358325 |url=https://archive.org/details/chronicleofmayak00mart }}
*{{cite book |author=Miller, Mary Ellen |author-link=Mary Miller (art historian) |year=1999 |title=Maya Art and Architecture |location=London and New York |publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] |isbn=0-500-20327-X |oclc=41659173 |url=https://archive.org/details/mayaartarchitect00mill }}
*{{cite journal |author=Reents-Budet, Dorie |author2=Antonia E. Foias |author3=Ronald L. Bishop |author4=M. James Blackman |author5=Stanley Guenter |name-list-style=amp |year=2007 |title=Interacciones políticas y el Sitio Ik' (Motul de San José): Datos de la cerámica. |url=http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/87_-_Reents_et_al.pdf |format=[[PDF]] online publication |journal=XX Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 2006 |editor=J.P. Laporte |editor2=B. Arroyo |editor3=H. Mejía |pages=1416–1436 |publisher=Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, Guatemala |access-date=2010-07-15 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914133722/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/87_-_Reents_et_al.pdf |archive-date=2011-09-14 }}
*{{cite book |author=Rice, Prudence M. |author2=Don S. Rice |title=The Postclassic to Spanish-Era Transition in Mesoamerica: Archaeological Perspectives |chapter=Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Maya Political Geography |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sc8wQYn4LrAC&pg=PA152 |year=2005 |editor=Susan Kepecs |editor2=Rani T. Alexander |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |location=Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA |oclc=60550555 |isbn=9780826337399}}
*{{cite journal |author=Salisbury, David |author2=Mimi Koumenalis |author3=Barbara Moffett |date=19 September 2002 |title=Newly revealed hieroglyphs tell story of superpower conflict in the Maya world |url=http://exploration.vanderbilt.edu/print/pdfs/news/news_dospilas_feature.pdf |format=[[PDF]] online publication |journal=Exploration: The Online Research Journal of Vanderbilt University |publisher=[[Vanderbilt University]] Office of Science and Research Communications |location=Nashville, TN |oclc=50324967 |access-date=2009-09-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102134600/http://exploration.vanderbilt.edu/print/pdfs/news/news_dospilas_feature.pdf |archive-date=2 November 2014 }}
*{{cite book |author=Schele, Linda |author-link=Linda Schele |author2=David Freidel |year=1990 |title=A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya |url=https://archive.org/details/forestofkingsunt0034sche |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=[[William Morrow and Company]] |isbn=0-688-11204-8 |oclc=24501607}}
*{{cite book |author=Sharer, Robert J. |author-link=Robert Sharer |author2=Loa P. Traxler |year=2006 |title=The Ancient Maya |edition=6th (fully revised) |location=Stanford, CA |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=0-8047-4817-9 |oclc=57577446 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientmaya0006shar }}
*{{cite book |author=Stuart, David |author-link=David Stuart (Mayanist) |author2=George Stuart |year=2008 |title=Palenque: Eternal City of the Maya |location=London |publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] |isbn=978-0-500-05156-6|oclc=227016561}}
*{{cite book |author=Webster, David L. |year=2002 |title=The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse |location=London |publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] |isbn=0-500-05113-5 |oclc=48753878 |url=https://archive.org/details/fallofancientmay0000webs }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|indent=yes}}
*{{cite journal |author=Boucher Le Landais, Sylviane |title=Vasijas estilo códice de Calakmul: Narraciones mitológicas y contextos arqueológicos |journal=Arqueología Mexicana |volume=XXII |issue=128 |pages=58–65 |date=Jul–Aug 2014 |location=Mexico City, Mexico |publisher=Editorial Raíces |issn=0188-8218 |oclc=29789840|language=es}}
*{{cite journal |author=Carrasco, Ramón |author2=María Cordeiro |title=El origen de la montaña |journal=Arqueología Mexicana |volume=XXII |issue=128 |pages=41–45 |date=Jul–Aug 2014a |location=Mexico City, Mexico |publisher=Editorial Raíces |issn=0188-8218 |oclc=29789840|language=es}}
*{{cite journal |author=Carrasco, Ramón |author2=María Cordeiro |title=Chick Naab: La pintura mural de Calakmul |journal=Arqueología Mexicana |volume=XXII |issue=128 |pages=46–51 |date=Jul–Aug 2014b |location=Mexico City, Mexico |publisher=Editorial Raíces |issn=0188-8218 |oclc=29789840|language=es}}
*{{cite journal |author=Salvador Rodríguez, Eduardo |title=La ciudad de Calakmul |journal=Arqueología Mexicana |volume=XXII |issue=128 |pages=28–35 |date=Jul–Aug 2014 |location=Mexico City, Mexico |publisher=Editorial Raíces |issn=0188-8218 |oclc=29789840|language=es}}
*{{cite journal |author=Valencia Rivera, Rogelio |author2=Octavio Q. Esparza Olguín |title=La conformación política de Calakmul durante el Clásico Temprano |journal=Arqueología Mexicana |volume=XXII |issue=128 |pages=36–40 |date=Jul–Aug 2014 |location=Mexico City, Mexico |publisher=Editorial Raíces |issn=0188-8218 |oclc=29789840|language=es}}
*{{cite journal |author=Zimmermann, Mario |title=Los nuevos hallazgos en la Estructura III |journal=Arqueología Mexicana |volume=XXII |issue=128 |pages=52–57 |date=Jul–Aug 2014 |location=Mexico City, Mexico |publisher=Editorial Raíces |issn=0188-8218 |oclc=29789840|language=es}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Calakmul}}
* [http://www.inah.gob.mx/calakmul/htme/calak001.html Calakmul - Patrimonio Cultural de la Humanidad] [[INAH]] site on Calakmul
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080706162006/http://www.mayanroutes.com/calakmul.html Calakmul] (from ''The State of Campeche Book'')
* [http://www.calakmul.org/ Friends of Calakmul]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070609231337/http://www.conanp.gob.mx/dcei/didact/CALAKMUL%20PA%20PDF.pdf Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, information from Mexico's National Parks Commission]
* [http://www.mesoamerican-archives.com Virtual Walking Tour of Calakmul by David R. Hixson] (click on "Calakmul" for photo gallery)
* Kaan Emblem Principal Glyphs at FAMSI: [http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=1403 A], [http://research.famsi.org/montgomery_dictionary/mt_entry.php?id=1402 B]

{{Clear}}
{{Maya sites}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Mexico}}

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[[Category:Calakmul| ]]
[[Category:1931 archaeological discoveries]]
[[Category:Maya sites in Campeche]]
[[Category:Maya Classic Period]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Mexico]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Campeche]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Mexico]]

Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Calakmul