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Wa people

2021-04-07T04:02:47Z

2806:10A6:5:74BA:5966:398F:DBD6:3555:

{{About|the ethnic group that lives primarily in the [[Wa States]] area|the archaic term for Japanese people|Wajin (ancient people)}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = Wa {{resize|75%|(Va, Ava, Parauk, Ba rāog)}} {{nobold|{{linktext|lang=zh|佤族}}}}
|image = Wa villagers 02.jpg
|caption = Two Wa women in traditional clothing
|population = approx. 1.2 million
|region1 = {{Plainlist|*{{flag|Myanmar}}
* '''∟'''{{flag|Shan State}}
* '''∟'''{{flag|Kachin State}}}}
|pop1 = 800,000
|ref1 =
|region2 = {{Plainlist|*{{flag|China}}
* '''∟'''[[Yunnan Province|Yunnan]]}}
|pop2 = 400,000
|region3 = {{Plainlist|*{{flag|Thailand}}
* '''∟'''[[Chiang Rai Province|Chiang Rai]]}}
|pop3 = 10,000
|ref2 =
|languages = [[Wa language|Wa]] {{small|Secondary languages:}}{{hlist|[[Southwestern Mandarin]]|[[Burmese language|Burmese]]}}
|religions = [[Animism]] [[Buddhism]]<ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-va.htm], [http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/religion.htm] Ethnic Groups - china.org.cn</ref> [[Christianity]]
|related =
}}
[[File:Wa States -IGI.jpg|thumb|260px|The [[Wa States]] in an early 20th century ''[[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]]'' map.]]
The '''Wa people''' ([[Wa language|Wa]]: Vāx; {{lang-my|ဝလူမျိုး}}, {{IPA-my|wa̰ lùmjóʊ|}}; {{zh|c={{linktext|佤|族}} |p=Wǎzú}}; {{lang-th|ว้า}}) are a Southeast Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in Northern [[Myanmar]], in the northern part of [[Shan State]] and the eastern part of [[Kachin State]], near and along [[China–Myanmar border|Myanmar's border with China]], as well as in China's [[Yunnan|Yunnan Province]].

Historically, the Wa have inhabited the [[Wa States]], a territory that they have claimed as their ancestral land since time immemorial. It is a rugged [[mountain]]ous area located between the [[Mekong]] and the [[Salween River]], with the [[Nam Hka]] flowing across it. The Wa traditionally practiced subsistence agriculture by cultivating [[rice]], peas, beans, [[Poppy (flower)|poppies]] and [[walnut]]s. They bred [[water buffalo]]es, which they used mainly for [[animal sacrifice|sacrificial purposes]].<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/imperialgazettee22hunt/imperialgazettee22hunt_djvu.txt The Imperial gazetteer of India]</ref> Generally, the traditional customs of the Wa, as well as their lifestyle, are very similar to those of the [[Naga people]] further to the Northwest.<ref>[http://newdoc.nccu.edu.tw/teasyllabus/113721265905/Fiskesjo%20on%20Fortified%20Villages.pdf M. Fiskesjo, ''On the Ethnoarchaeology of Fortified Settlements in the Northern part of Mainland Southeast Asia'']</ref>

Many of the Wa are [[Animism|animists]] and a small proportion of the population follows a derivative of either [[Buddhism]] or [[Christianity]]. The Wa were once known as the "Wild Wa" by the British due to their practice of [[headhunting]].<ref name="reuters.com"/>

== Cultural history ==
{{See also|Wa States}}
[[File:Wa tribe depiction, 1900s.jpg|thumb|left|An early Burmese depiction of Wa]]
[[File:翁丁村01.jpg|thumb|[[:zh:翁丁村|Om Diem]], a Wa people village in [[Cangyuan Va Autonomous County]], [[Yunnan]]]]
According to [[James George Scott|Sir George Scott]] in the Wa [[origin myth]]s the first Wa originated from two female ancestors ''Ya Htawm'' and ''Ya Htai'' who spent their early phase as [[tadpole]]s ''(rairoh)'' in a small lake known as ''Nawng Hkaeo''. The lake is located in the northeastern Wa territory in the border area between China and Myanmar.<ref>Scott, James George, Sir. 1935. ''The Wa or Lawa: Head-Hunters. In Burma and Beyond.'' p. 292</ref>

Very little is known about the early history of the Wa. What is known is mostly made up of local legends telling that in the distant past the historical [[Wa States]] and all the territories of eastern Shan State, as well as large swathes of the adjacent areas of present-day China had belonged to the Wa. In the area of the former [[Kengtung State]] the Wa were displaced around 1229 and were later defeated by King [[Mangrai]]. At the time of [[British rule in Burma]] the [[Shan people|Shan]] were the majority in Kengtung state, with other groups such as [[Akha people|Akha]] and [[Lahu people|Lahu]] forming sizable communities. The Wa now form a minority of only about 10% in Kengtung District despite having been the original inhabitants.<ref name="DM">Donald M. Seekins, ''Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar)'', p. 251</ref>

The Wa originally had [[animism|animist]] religious beliefs<ref name="reuters.com">[https://www.reuters.com/article/2007/09/10/idUSBKK83023 "Headhunting days are over for Myanmar's "Wild Wa"", Reuters, Sep 10, 2007.]</ref> centered around ritual blood sacrifices. Villages had a spirit healer ''(Tax Cao Chai)'' and the traditional way of dealing with sickness or other problems was to sacrifice a chicken, a pig or a larger animal, depending from the magnitude of the affliction. According to local legend, the practice of cutting a [[headhunting|human head]] was intended as a ritual sacrifice in order to improve the [[fertility rite|fertility]] of the rice fields. Traditional villages had also shrines ''(Nyiex Moeg)'' where a buffalo was sacrificed once every year at a special Y-shaped post named ''Khaox Si Gang'' with an offering of the blood, meat and skin performed at it. Animals were also sacrificed at celebrations such as marriages and funerary rituals among the traditional spirit-worshiping Wa, a practice that still endures among the Christian Wa. However, the Wa that were under Buddhist influence developed different traditions.<ref>Interview with Sara Yaw Shu (Joshua) Chin, co-inventor of the Wa alphabet and long-time Wa Baptist Church leader, 27 February 2006</ref>

In the traditional Wa society monogamous marriage was the norm and there was sexual freedom for both men and women before marriage. The chewing of [[betel]] with [[areca nut]] was formerly also an important custom.<ref>[http://english.people.com.cn/102774/7566393.html The Va ethnic minority (People's Daily)]</ref> The Wa have different kinds of traditional dances. One important dance in their culture is accompanied by the beating of a large hollow wooden drum. This way of dancing, among other Wa dances<ref>[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90782/7689629.html Folk dancing of Va ethnic group attracts tourists in SW China (Xinhua)]</ref> such as the hair dance<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QLZfxYDNaz4 Grawng klieh yam lih khaing sigien rang, sigang lih dix.]</ref> and festivals,<ref>[http://www.yunnanadventure.com/tour-p131-6day-cangyuan-wa-ethnic-minority-monihei-carnival-tour.html 6 Days Cangyuan Wa Ethnic Minority Monihei Carnival]</ref> is being promoted as a tourist attraction by the Yunnan tourism authorities in China.<ref>[http://www.yunnanadventure.com/index.php/Attraction/show/id/639.html The Wa Ethnic Scenic Region in Ximeng Autonomous County]</ref>

The Wa people also have a well-engrained [[drinking culture]], with large amounts of local moonshine being produced and are widely believed to on average consume the largest amount of alcohol in China.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.vice.com/en_uk/video/drinking-tour-ximeng-222 | title=Drinking Tour: Ximeng| date=27 December 2014}}</ref>

===Language and script===
[[File:Wa4886.JPG|thumb|Wa writing and cultural symbols on a T-shirt]]
The [[Wa language]] forms a language group belonging to the [[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]] branch of the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic language family]]. It formerly had no script and the few Wa that were literate used [[Chinese characters]], while others used the [[Shan language]] and its script. [[Christian mission]]ary work among the Wa began at the beginning of the 20th century first in the Burmese and later in the Chinese areas of the Wa territory. It was led by [[William Marcus Young]] of [[Nebraska]]. The first transcription of the Wa language was devised by Young and Sara Yaw Shu Chin in 1931 with the purpose of translating the Bible. This first Wa alphabet was based on the [[Latin script]] and the first publication was a compilation of Wa [[hymn]]s in 1933,<ref>[http://www.humancomp.org/wadict/young_family.html The Young Family’s Work with the Wa People]</ref> the Wa [[New Testament]] being completed in 1938. This transcription, known as "Bible orthography" is known as "{{lang|zh|老佤文}}" ({{zh|labels=no|p=lǎowǎwén |l=old Wa orthography}}) in Chinese, and is now used mainly in the Burmese Wa areas and among the Wa in Thailand. A revised Bible orthography has been adopted as "official Wa spelling" by the authorities of the [[Wa Self-Administered Division]] in Pangkham, which have published a series of primers in order to improve the literacy of the United Wa State Army troops. Also, after 2000 Wa people in social networks such as [[Facebook]] and other online media, as well as Wa songwriters in [[karaoke]] lyrics<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Hv57b2WZx4 Wa Song (Lox rhax meung vax)]</ref> of Wa songs<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=63cU34x25UY Krax moh aux daux ju pa hoik luan mai pa simie sivoe ngai.]</ref> use this Myanmar (revised Bible) "official Wa orthography" in its main variations.<ref>Justin Watkins, ''Wa Dictionary'', 2 vols. Introduction</ref>

In China, a transcription adapted to the new [[pinyin]] [[romanization]], known as "PRC orthography" or "China official orthography", was developed for the Wa people in 1956. However, its publications, mainly propagated through the Yunnan administration, are yet to reach a wider public beyond academics.<ref>[http://www.humancomp.org/wadict/wa_orthography.html SOAS - Writing of the Wa Language]</ref> This new Wa alphabet is treated as the first formal script of the Wa.<ref>[http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat5/sub31/item181.html Large Minority Groups in Southern China - Wa Ethnic Group]</ref>

The [[Lawa people|Western Lawa]] are officially considered part of the Wa minority in China and are also known as 'tame Wa'.<ref>[http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?peo3=15375&rog3=TH Lawa, Western in Thailand]</ref>

=== British rule and enduring prejudices ===
[[File:Wa headmen.jpg|thumb|Wa headmen in British Burma.]]
Very little has been written about the Wa people except in the [[Chinese language]].<ref name="ReferenceT">[https://web.archive.org/web/20040201221535/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/FA24Ae06.html Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy, ''Myanmar's Wa: Likely losers in the opium war'']</ref> The area where they live had been traditionally administered by a ''[[Saopha]]'', a Shan hereditary chief. In the second half of the 19th century, the British authorities in Burma judged the Wa territory remote and of difficult access. Thus, excepting [[Mang Lon]] where the ''Saopha'' resided, the British left the Wa State without administration, its border with China undefined. That situation suited the Wa well, for throughout their history they had consistently preferred being left alone.<ref>N Ganesan & Kyaw Yin Hlaing eds. ''Myanmar: State, Society and Ethnicity'' Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, February 1, 2007, p. 269</ref>

The Wa were largely portrayed by colonial administrators as wild and dirty people owing to their practice of headhunting.<ref name="reuters.com"/> However, Chinese documents written prior to the twentieth century rarely mentioned the Wa as headhunters and yet it is this aspect of Wa culture that has been cited more than any other in order to emphasize the primitiveness of the Wa.<ref>Magnus Fiskesjö, ''The Fate of Sacrifice and the Making of Wa History'', 2000: 3-5</ref>

The prejudice continues in modern times when the Wa, who are economically not that different from other ethnic [[Hill tribe (Thailand)|hill tribe]]s in the area such as the [[Lahu people]], are largely known for their rebel army and as being involved in drug trafficking, overshadowing other aspects of their culture.<ref name="ReferenceA">Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy, ''Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy'', Harvard University Press</ref>

=== Post World War II ===
[[File:Wa5364.JPG|thumb|Wa woman feeding a little girl]]
The international border that had been defined between Burma and China made that the Wa people were divided between the two countries. The Wa regions in Burma were largely left alone until the 1950s, when remnants of [[Chiang Kai-shek]]'s [[National Revolutionary Army]] fled the 1949 communist revolution in China. A decade and a half later, the region was under the influence of the [[Communist Party of Burma]], which was very active in the area. During that time opium cultivation and sales grew and the ancient traditional life became disrupted, but also an administrative system that collected revenue and maintained a significant armed force, as well as a rudimentary infrastructure, ushered the Wa region into the modern era.<ref name="ReferenceB">Ronald D. Renard, ''The Wa Authority and Good Governance, 1989 – 2007''</ref>

In 1989 the Wa authorities expelled the Burma Communist Party and negotiated a cease-fire with the then leader of Burma's military junta [[Khin Nyunt]]. They founded the [[United Wa State Army]] and [[United Wa State Party]] with a centralized command. In return for agreeing to the ban of poppy cultivation and opium production the region experienced a massive influx of international development aid. The [[Wa State|Wa Special Region 2]] was created within the northeastern Shan State, with its de facto capital in [[Pangkham]].<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

=== Military activity and drug production ===
The [[United Wa State Army]] was one of the world's largest [[narcotic|narco]]-armies, with up to 10,000 men under arms.<ref name="reuters.com"/> Until 1996 the UWSA was involved in a conflict against the [[Mong Tai Army]] which suited the objectives of the [[Tatmadaw]] in the area. During this conflict the Wa army occupied areas close to the Thai border, ending up with the control of two separate swathes of territory north and south of Kengtung. In 1999 when the Burmese military requested the Wa fighters to return to the northern area the UWSA refused.<ref>[http://www.english.panglong.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=5430:wa-will-not-budge-from-thai-border-areas&catid=86:war&Itemid=284 Wa will not budge from Thai border areas]</ref>

During the 1990s the areas controlled by the UWSA were involved in heroin production.<ref name="Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud & Meissonnier, Joël">{{Cite web|url=http://www.geopium.org/yaabaa-methamphetamine-production-traffic-consumption.htm|author1=Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud |author2=Meissonnier, Joël |name-list-style=amp |title= Yaa Baa. Production, traffic, and consumption of methamphetamine in Mainland Southeast Asia|publisher=[[Singapore]] University Press, 2004|access-date=2006-03-13}}</ref><ref name="Davis">{{Cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/security/law_enforcement/news/jir/jir041119_1_n.shtml |first=Anthony |last=Davis |title=Thai drugs smuggling networks reform |publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]] |date=19 November 2004 |access-date=2009-03-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050308072952/http://www.janes.com/security/law_enforcement/news/jir/jir041119_1_n.shtml |archive-date=March 8, 2005 }}</ref> During the 2000s, the United Wa State Army shifted focus into amphetamine production.<ref name="Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud & Meissonnier, Joël"/><ref name="Davis"/> Records of official seizures compiled by the United Nations suggest that in 2006 Myanmar was the source of half of Asia's methamphetamine, known in Thailand as [[ya ba|yaba]], and some experts believe that most drug labs are in areas under Wa control.<ref name="reuters.com"/>

== Geographic distribution ==
[[File:Wa5303.JPG|thumb|180px|left|Young Wa people from Pyinghsai, near [[Kengtung]]]]
[[File:SAZs & SAD of Burma.png|thumb|250px|A map of Burma showing the Wa Self-Administered Division, coloured brown.]]
The land where the Wa have been traditionally living is divided between Burma and China. The international border cuts the ancestral Wa region roughly in half.

===China===
The Wa are one of the [[list of ethnic groups in China and Taiwan#Ethnic groups recognized by the People.27s Republic of China|56 ethnic groups]] officially recognized by China.
In China, the Wa live in compact communities in the [[Ximeng Va Autonomous County]] (in Wa: ''Mēng Ka'' or ''Si Moung''), [[Cangyuan Va Autonomous County]], [[Menglian Dai, Lahu and Va Autonomous County]] (''Gaeng Līam''), [[Gengma Dai and Va Autonomous County]] (''Gaeng Mīex'' or ''Gaeng Māx''), [[Lincang]] (''Mēng Lām''), [[Shuangjiang Lahu, Va, Blang and Dai Autonomous County]] (''Si Nblāeng'' or ''Mēng Mēng''), [[Zhenkang County]], and [[Yongde County]] in southwestern Yunnan. Their population in China is estimated at around 400,000.

====Benren====
The "Benren" ({{lang|zh|本人}}) of Yongde County and Zhenkang County, Yunnan are officially classified as Wa by the Chinese government, but consider themselves to be a separate ethnicity from the Wa.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Zhao |first1=Mingsheng (赵明生) |last2=Gao |first2=Honghui (高宏慧) |date=2012 |url=http://www.doc88.com/p-212753943335.html |script-title=zh:佤族支系“本人(佤)”的产生及其特征}}</ref> Their autonym is "Siwa" ({{lang|zh|斯佤}}). The Benren are distributed in:

*Menggong Township {{lang|zh-Hans|勐汞佤族乡}} (recently incorporated into Dedang Town {{lang|zh-Hans|德党镇}}), Yongde County:<ref>[http://www.ynszxc.gov.cn/villagePage/vdefault.aspx?departmentid=100276 Yonde County]</ref> in Menggong {{lang|zh-Hans|勐汞}}, Daba {{lang|zh-Hans|大坝}}, Songlin {{lang|zh|松林}}, Dapingzhang {{lang|zh-Hans|大平掌}}, Hunai {{lang|zh-Hans|户乃}}, Xiaodifang {{lang|zh|小地方}}, Lielie {{lang|zh|列列}}. There are 10,289 Benren in the township as of 2010.
*Desili Township {{lang|zh-Hans|德思里彝族佤族乡}}, [[Fengqing County]]
*Mangka Township {{lang|zh-Hans|芒卡镇}}, Cangyuan Va Autonomous County

===Burma===
[[File:Wa-cicadas5515.JPG|thumb|left|[[Cicada]]s caught by Wa people in order to crush them with chilies in a mixture similar to the Thai ''[[Nam phrik]]'']]
The Wa are one of the 135 [[list of ethnic groups in Myanmar|officially recognized ethnic groups of Myanmar]]. Their proportion to Myanmar's total population is 0.16.<ref>[http://www.economonitor.com/analysts/2012/04/25/myanmar-and-chinas-complex-relationship/ Economonitor - Myanmar and China’s Complex Relationship]</ref> Although little is known about the ancient history of the Wa, they are acknowledged by other dominant ethnic groups in Shan State, such as the Tai Yai, to be the original inhabitants of the area.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

In Burma, the Wa live mostly in small villages near [[Kengtung]] and north and northeastwards close to the Chinese border, as well as a small area east of [[Tachileik]]. The Wa Special Region 2 of the Northern Shan State or [[Wa State]] was formed by the [[United Wa State Army]] (UWSA) and the remains of the former Burmese Communist Party rebel group that collapsed in 1989. The Wa State and the UWSA are in a fragile cease-fire agreement with the Burmese military government.<ref>[http://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/wa-03252010115930.html Tensions Rise in Wa Region]</ref> They have been accused by Western governments of involvement in drug trafficking but have banned opium production since 2005 and have received United Nations aid in improving legitimate agriculture.

As stipulated by the 2008 Burmese Constitution, on 20 August 2010 the [[Wa Self-Administered Division]] has been established.<ref name="2008constbur">{{cite web|script-title=my:ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတမြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော် ဖွဲ့စည်းပုံအခြေခံဥပဒေ (၂၀၀၈ ခုနှစ်)|language=my |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/election/component/filecabinet/?ask=download&cid[0]=1 |trans-title=2008 Constitution PDF |format=PDF}}{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501121420/http://www.irrawaddy.org/election/component/filecabinet/?task=download&cid |date=2011-05-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |script-title=my:တိုင်းခုနစ်တိုင်းကို တိုင်းဒေသကြီးများအဖြစ် လည်းကောင်း၊ ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရ တိုင်းနှင့် ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရ ဒေသများ ရုံးစိုက်ရာ မြို့များကို လည်းကောင်း ပြည်ထောင်စုနယ်မြေတွင် ခရိုင်နှင့်မြို့နယ်များကို လည်းကောင်း သတ်မှတ်ကြေညာ |newspaper=[[Weekly Eleven|Weekly Eleven News]] |date=2010-08-20 |url=http://www.news-eleven.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4375:2010-08-20-12-39-51&catid=42:2009-11-10-07-36-59&Itemid=112 |access-date=2010-08-23 |language=my}}</ref> It is set to be administered by the Wa people and its territory is between the gorges of the Mekong and Salween, in the east part of the Shan State, near the border with the Chinese province of Yunnan.

===Thailand===
In recent times some Wa communities from Burma have crossed the border and settled in [[Thailand]], where they have no official status as a [[Hill tribe (Thailand)|Hill Tribe]]. The Wa live mainly in the [[Mae Sai District]] and [[Mae Yao]] subdistrict of [[Chiang Rai Province]], as well as in [[Wiang Pa Pao District]] in southern Chiang Rai Province and [[Chiang Dao District]] in [[Chiang Mai Province]].<ref>[http://www.joshuaproject.net/peoples.php?peo3=15759 Wa, Parauk]</ref> In Thailand the Wa having come recently from Burma are often referred to as '[[Lawa people|Lawa]]', although they do not strictly belong to the latter ethnic subgroup.

==See also==
* [[Pangkham]]
* ''[[The Art of Not Being Governed]]''

==Bibliography==
* [http://mercury.soas.ac.uk/wadict/wa_bibliography.html A Bibliography of materials in or about Wa language and culture]
* [http://www.niu.edu/burma/publications/jbs/vol17.1/index.shtml Journal of Burma Studies 17.1 (2013), a special issue on the Wa people]
*Harvey, G. E. ''Wa Précis''. Rangoon, 1933.
*[[Bertil Lintner|Lintner, Bertil]]. ''Burma in Revolt: Opium and Insurgency Since 1948''. Chiang Mai, 1999.
*[[Andrew Marshall (Asia journalist)|Marshall, Andrew]]. ''The Trouser People: a Story of Burma in the Shadow of the Empire''. London: Penguin; Washington: Counterpoint, 2002. {{ISBN|1-58243-120-5}}.
*[[Geraldine Mitton|Mitton, Geraldine]] ''Scott of the Shan Hills''. London: John Murray, 1936.
*Scott, J. G. ''Burma and Beyond''. London, 1932.
*[[J. G. Scott|Scott, J. G.]] ''Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States''. 5 vols. Rangoon, 1900-1901.
*Winnington, Alan. ''The Slaves of the Cool Mountains''. Berlin: Seven Seas, 1959.
*Winnington, Alan. The Slaves of the Cool Mountains: The Ancient Social Conditions and Changes Now in Progress on the Remote South-Western Borders of China. London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1959.
*Fiskesjö, Magnus. "Introduction to Wa Studies." Journal of Burma Studies 17.1 (2013), 1-27.
*Fiskesjö, Magnus. "The autonomy of naming: Kinship, power and ethnonymy in the Wa lands of the Southeast Asia-China frontiers." In Charles Macdonald & Yangwen Zheng, eds. Personal Names in Asia: History, Culture and Identity. Singapore: Singapore University Press, 2009, pp 150–74. {{ISBN|9971-69-380-1}}.
*Fiskesjö, Magnus. "Slavery as the commodification of people: Wa 'slaves' and their Chinese 'sisters'." Focaal-Journal of Global and Historical Anthropology 59 (Spring 2011), 3-18.
*Fiskesjö, Magnus. "Mining, history, and the anti-state Wa: The politics of autonomy between Burma and China." Journal of Global History 5.2 (June 2010), 241-64.
*Fiskesjö, Magnus. "Participant intoxication and self-other dynamics in the Wa context." The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology 11.2 (June 2010), 111-27.
*Takano, Hideyuki. "The Shore Beyond Good and Evil: A Report from Inside Burma's Opium Kingdom." Tokyo: Kotan Publishing, 2002. In English.
*Kramer, Tom. "The United Wa State Party: Narco-army or ethnic nationalist party?" Washington, DC: East-West Center Washington; Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2007.
*Kramer, Tom. "From golden triangle to rubber belt?: The future of opium bans in the Kokang and Wa regions." Amsterdam: Transnational Institute, 2009. http://www.tni.org/

===Fiction===
*Scott, J. G., and Mitton, Geraldine. ''In the Grip of the Wild Wa''. London, 1913.
*Winnington, Alan. "Kopfjäger" [ins Deutsche übertragen von K. Heinz]. Berlin: Verlag Volk und Welt, 1983. Series: Roman-Zeitung; Heft 398. [German translation of the novel "Headhunters"].

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{commons category-inline}}
*[[s:The Tribes of Burma/Bibliographical notes/Was|Wikisource]]
* [http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-va.htm The Wa ethnic minority] (Chinese government website, in English)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060426024127/http://www.chinastyle.cn/chinese-ethnic-group/wa.htm Wa page] from China Style site
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=wbm Wa page] from Ethnologue site
*[https://www.facebook.com/groups/212696568823260/ Wa people Facebook group]
*[http://www.peoplesoftheworld.org/text?people=Wa Peoples of the World - The Wa]
*[http://berclo.net/page00/00en-sea-people.html People of South East Asia]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ThcbdjVC9ec Sway long hair dance by Wa people]
*[http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/node/1417 United Wa State Army - South Asia Analysis Group]
*[http://englishnews.thaipbs.or.th/wa-leaders-ask-thein-sein-autonomous-state/ Wa leaders ask Thein Sein for autonomous state]
*[http://www.culturalsurvival.org/news/thailand-shan-speak-out-against-thailand-s-support-wa#sthash.xnwNcdnq.dpuf Shan speak out against Thailand’s support for the Wa]
*http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)
*[[hdl:10050/00-0000-0000-0003-7BBF-9@view|http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-7BBF-9@view]] Parauk in RWAAI Digital Archive

{{Ethnic groups in China}}
{{Ethnic groups in Burma}}

{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Wa people| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups officially recognized by China]]
[[Category:Headhunting]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Yunnan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Myanmar]]

Wa people

2021-04-07T03:59:13Z

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