Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Byzantine–Hungarian War (1180–1185)

2024-02-20T02:06:57Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Aftermath */

{{Short description|12th-century war in Europe}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|image=
|caption=
|conflict=Byzantine–Hungarian War
|partof=
|territory =
* Hungary re-captures [[Croatia in personal union with Hungary|Croatia]], [[Dalmatia]] and [[Syrmia]]
* [[Grand Principality of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Banate of Bosnia|Bosnia]] are freed from Byzantine sphere of interest
|result=Hungarian victory
|date=Autumn 1180 – autumn 1185
|place=[[Balkans]]
|combatant1=[[Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)|Kingdom of Hungary]] [[Grand Principality of Serbia]] (since 1183) [[Banate of Bosnia]] (since 1183)
|combatant2=[[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Byzantine Empire]]
|commander1='''[[Béla III of Hungary|Béla III]]''' [[Farkas Gatal]] [[Denis, Palatine of Hungary|Denis]] [[Maurus Győr]] '''[[Stefan Nemanja]]''' '''[[Ban Kulin|Kulin]]'''
|commander2='''[[Andronikos I Komnenos]]''' [[Alexios Branas]] [[Andronikos Lapardas]]
|units1=
|units2=
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
A '''Byzantine–Hungarian War''' was fought between Byzantine and Hungarian forces in the [[Balkans]] from 1180 to 1185. Taking advantage of the internal conflicts in the Byzantine Empire after Emperor [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel]]'s death, [[Béla III of Hungary]] reoccupied [[Croatia in personal union with Hungary|Croatia]], [[Dalmatia]] and [[Syrmia]], restoring Hungarian suzerainty over these territories after fourteen years.

==Background==
During the reign of Emperor [[Manuel I Komnenos]] (r. 1143–1180), the Byzantine Empire was a constant threat to Hungary's sovereignty along the southern border. The [[Balkans]] served as a [[buffer zone]] between the two powers. The vassal state [[Grand Principality of Serbia]] rebelled in 1149, forcing Manuel to interrupt his preparations for an invasion of [[Southern Italy]] and invade Serbia in 1149.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=224}}{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=50}} Manuel's active foreign policy in the Balkans escalated [[Byzantine–Hungarian War (1149–1155)|brief wars]] between the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in the period between 1149 and 1155, during the reign of [[Géza II of Hungary]].{{sfn|Fine|1991|pp=237–238}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|pp=225–234}}{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=55–62}}

Géza II died in May 1162. His fifteen-year-old son [[Stephen III of Hungary|Stephen III]] ascended the Hungarian throne, but his two uncles, anti-kings [[Ladislaus II of Hungary|Ladislaus II]] (1162–1163) then [[Stephen IV of Hungary|Stephen IV]] (1163), who had joined the court of the Byzantine Empire and enjoyed the support of Manuel, challenged his right to the crown. A [[Byzantine–Hungarian War (1162–1167)|civil war]] broke out between Stephen III and his uncles. The army of Stephen III, along with German mercenaries, defeated his uncle Stephen IV in June 1163. Although Stephen III remained the only legitimate monarch in Hungary, the civil war was followed by a large-scale Byzantine invasion of Hungary. Stephen III was obliged to renounce Syrmia (Sirmium) in favor of the Byzantine Empire, but only after Manuel promised that he would never support his uncle Stephen IV. Clashes and border conflicts between Hungary and the Byzantium lasted until 1167, when Stephen III had to renounce Dalmatia, Croatia and Syrmia to the Byzantine Empire. Prior to that, these lands belonged to the [[appanage]] of Stephen's younger brother Béla, who was sent to [[Constantinople]] in accordance with the peace treaty between Stephen III and Manuel. Béla ascended his brother in the Hungarian throne in 1172. Before his departure, he pledged that he would never make war against the Byzantine Empire. Until Manuel's death, no further confrontation took place between the two countries; Béla even sent reinforcements to Manuel to help him fight against the [[Seljuks of Rum|Seljuks]] in 1176.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=646}}{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=240}}{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=85–113}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|pp=260–261}}

==The last Byzantine–Hungarian war==
The death of Emperor Manuel on 24 September 1180 left the Byzantine Empire in an extremely difficult political situation. His eleven-year-old son [[Alexios II Komnenos]] succeeded him, but the imperial power was held by regents, his mother [[Maria of Antioch]] and the ''[[protosebastos|prōtosebastos]]'' [[Alexios Komnenos (protosebastos)|Alexios Komnenos]] (a namesake cousin of the child monarch). The following period was characterized by internal struggles within the elite, while Manuel's daughter [[Maria Komnene (daughter of Manuel I)|Maria Komnene]] (once engaged to Béla III) also contested her half-brother's right to the crown.{{sfn|B. Szabó|2013|pp=159–160}}

===Recovery of the lost provinces===
Taking advantage of the internal conflicts in the Byzantine Empire, Béla III launched a campaign in the autumn of 1180 in order to restore the Hungarian suzerainty in Dalmatia. The king entrusted his [[Palatine of Hungary|palatine]] [[Farkas Gatal]] to lead the Hungarian troops till the [[Adriatic Sea]]. Within six months, Béla had restored his suzerainty in Dalmatia, but no detailed contemporaneous accounts of the events exist.{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=289}} The citizens of [[Split, Croatia|Split]] and [[Zadar]] also accepted Béla's suzerainty in late 1180 or early 1181. The latter revolted against the Venetian rule, supported by the presence of the Hungarian army.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|pp=281–282}} Historian [[John V. A. Fine]] wrote that Béla retook suzerainty of Dalmatia "seemingly without bloodshed and with imperial consent", because the Byzantine authorities preferred that Béla rule the province rather than the [[Republic of Venice]].{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=289}} Ferenc Makk refused this standpoint, because the "Byzantium was not threatened by Venice in Dalmatia at the time", for instance, Doge [[Orio Mastropiero]] unsuccessfully attempted to regain Zadar from the Hungarians years later, in 1187. Nevertheless, Béla indeed retook suzerainty of Dalmatia seemingly without serious confrontation. Farkas Gatal resided in Zadar in March 1181. Because of the internal struggle, the Byzantine Empire was unable to mount serious resistance. In addition, [[Kilij Arslan II]], the [[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuk Sultan of Rûm]] seized most of the southern coast of [[Asia Minor]] from the empire around the same time.{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=115–116}}

Béla III immediately intended to reorganize the royal administration in Croatia and Dalmatia. His confidant [[Denis, Palatine of Hungary|Denis]] was installed as Ban of Slavonia in 1181. He was also styled as "Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia", then "governor of [[Croatian Littoral|maritime parts]]" in 1183, and "Ban of Maritime Provinces" ({{lang-hr|Primorje}}, {{lang-hu|Tengermellék}}) in 1184, which reflect he had jurisdiction over all Croatia and Dalmatia, and his suzerainty extended until the river [[Danube]]. Historian Judit Gál considered after Béla recovered Dalmatia, Hungary's territories beyond the [[Drava]] were initially consolidated under a single ban after 1183.{{sfn|Gál|2020|p=132}} Simultaneously with Denis' appointment, [[Maurus Győr]] was installed as "governor of the whole coastal province" already by February 1181, when resided in Zadar and was involved in a verdict about some possession rights. Accordingly, Maurus functioned as the deputy of Denis, supervising the coastal territories along the Adriatic Sea.{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=115–116}} King Béla also sought to re-establish pro-Hungarian ecclesiastical organization in Dalmatia: the 13th-century chronicler [[Thomas the Archdeacon]] narrates that the monarch wished the burghers of Split to elect a Hungarian national as [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Split-Makarska|archbishop of Split]] in order to fill the dignity. However, the citizens refused to elect the king's protegee and physician [[Peter, Archbishop of Kalocsa|Peter]] and petitioned to the [[Holy See]]. In 1181, [[Pope Alexander III]] urged Béla III to respect the burghers of Split's privilege to free elect of their archbishop. Under the pressure of the Hungarians, despite the intervention of the [[Roman Curia]], Peter was elected Archbishop of Split by the local citizens in 1185. Nevertheless, Peter already acted as ''de facto'' prelate in the previous years, and royal charters in Hungary styled him as Archbishop of Split since 1180.{{sfn|Gál|2020|p=62}}

Simultaneously with the recovery of Croatia and Dalmatia, the Hungarian army marched into Syrmia too, but the details of the reconquest of the province in the Central Balkans are also obscure. Béla's troops seized and ravaged the region of [[Belgrade]] and [[Braničevo (region)|Barancs]] (now Braničevo in Serbia). Thereafter, the Hungarian army advanced as far as to the [[Morava Valley]]. It took place in the summer of 1181 at the latest. [[Andronikos I Komnenos|Andronikos Komnenos]], marching to [[Constantinople]] with an army, accused Maria of Antioch, the mother and regent of the young Byzantine Emperor, Alexios II, of inciting Béla{{mdash}}her brother-in-law{{mdash}}to ravage the region of Belgrade and Barancs in May 1182, implying that Béla had by that time occupied Syrmia.{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=115–116}}

===Interference in the Byzantine civil war===
After gaining control of Constantinople and the order to [[massacre of the Latins]] in the spring of 1182, Andronikos Komnenos had poisoned Maria Komnene and her husband [[Renier of Montferrat]], while the dowager empress Maria of Antioch was arrested and imprisoned. The empress tried to seek help from her brother-in-law Béla III, according to the verdict. Andronikos had Alexios II sign the order for his mother's execution and Maria was strangled in her prison in late 1182.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=652–653}}{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=117}}

Taking advantage of the emerging anarchy in the Byzantine Empire, Béla advanced as far as [[Niš]] (Naissos) and [[Sofia]] (Serdica) in the first half of 1183.{{sfn|Curta|2006|pp=334–335}} During the campaign, the Hungarian king allied with the [[Serbs]] of [[Raška (region)|Rascia]] and the [[Banate of Bosnia]], who struggled for their independence and the usurpation of Andronikos Komnenos freed them from subordination to the Byzantine Empire under the leadership of [[Stefan Nemanja]] and [[Ban Kulin]], respectively. During the siege, Niš was completely destroyed. In Serdica, Béla III seized the casket containing the relics of [[Saint Ivan of Rila]], and ordered it "to be transported with great honors to his land and to be laid down with honor in the church" of [[Esztergom]], according to the saint's ''Life from the Sofia Prologue''.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=117}} Ferenc Makk considered that Béla withdrew from the regions south of the Danube, but historian Paul Stephenson argued that Béla preserved these lands.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=117}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=282}} According to the Byzantine historian [[Niketas Choniates]], the Byzantine generals [[Alexios Branas]] and [[Andronikos Lapardas]] were fighting against the Hungarian troops in the vicinity of Niš in the autumn of 1183. The two generals achieved limited successes along the defense line of the [[Balkan Mountains]] passes and plausibly forced the Hungarians to retreat till the river [[Sava]]. The Byzantine infighting, however, eventually drove both generals to the interior of the empire within a short time. For instance, Alexios Branas left the Balkans for [[Anatolia]] in the spring of 1184.{{sfn|B. Szabó|2013|pp=162–163}}

Some Hungarian historians – for instance, József Deér and [[Gyula Moravcsik]] – claimed that Béla III conducted the 1183 campaign in order to defend and support the interests of the late Manuel's family – Alexios II and Maria of Antioch – against the usurper Andronikos Komnenos. Accordingly, the Hungarian monarch had no intention to expand his realm at the expense of the Byzantine Empire and Béla voluntarily retreat from the central Balkans after the execution of Maria. Ferenc Makk emphasized this theory is not corroborated by the sources. Maria of Antioch sought Béla's direct assistance against Andronikos, encouraging him to devastate Belgrade and Barancs. As her verdict stated, Maria would have been willing to recognize Hungarian territorial claims on certain Byzantine lands in exchange for their support against the usurper.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=117}} Andronikos Komnenos murdered Emperor Alexios II in September or October 1183, becoming sole ruler of the empire.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=282}} The contemporaneous [[Eustathius of Thessalonica]] writes that Andronikos's opponents sent letters to many monarchs, including Béla III, urging them to attack Andronikos.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=119}}

===End of the conflict===
No clashes between Hungary and the Byzantium took place in 1184. There is a scholarly theory that Béla III had signed an armistice with Andronikos in that year, but Makk argued the temporary successes of Alexios Branas forced the Hungarians to sort out their queues due to increased losses and costs.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=118}} According to [[History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick|Ansbert]] and other Western European chroniclers, Béla invaded the Byzantine Empire in early 1185.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=118}} The [[Byzantine–Norman wars|Norman invasion]] of the Byzantine Empire led by [[William II of Sicily]] took place around the same time, which made the internal political situation of the tyrannically ruling emperor Andronikos impossible. The Hungarians marched into Niš and Sofia again, towards the valley of Morava. According to some scholars, Béla wanted to seize the imperial crown for himself during his 1185 campaign, and proposed a marriage to Theodora Komnene, the widow of Andronikos Lapardas, who lived in a monastery (Béla's first wife, [[Agnes of Antioch]] died in 1184). The synod at Constantinople did not contribute to the marriage and did not release Theodora from her nun's vow.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=119}}

By the summer of 1185, Constantinople was itself threatened by the Norman invasion, which sparked a rebellion in the city, resulting the dethronement and lynching of Andronikos Komnenos in September. He was succeeded by [[Isaac II Angelos]], who began negotiations with Béla III and sent his envoys to propose a marriage between him and Béla's ten-year-old daughter [[Margaret of Hungary|Margaret]]. Consequently, Béla III signed a peace treaty with Isaac II.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=120}} The new Byzantine emperor married Margaret in January 1186 at the latest, and Béla granted the region of Niš and Barancs to Isaac as his daughter's dowry.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=335}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=283}} The relics of Saint Ivan of Rila were also returned to Sofia on this occasion.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=335}} In exchange, the emperor officially renounced Dalmatia and Syrmia.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=120}} Makk considered Béla's failed proposal to marry Theodora took place after the peace treaty only.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=120}} Due to the Byzantine–Hungarian alliance, Isaac II successfully repelled the Norman invasion at the [[Battle of Demetritzes]] in November 1185.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=120}}

==Aftermath==
Due to the establishment of Serbia and Bosnia as independent powers in the Balkans, in addition to the successful [[uprising of Asen and Peter]] from 1185 to 1187 which led to the reestablishment of the [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]], the Byzantine Empire was gradually pushed out of the Balkan region, which also made the Hungarian–Byzantine confrontation of the 12th century obsolete. In the subsequent decade, Béla supported the political aspirations of Isaac II.{{sfn|B. Szabó|2013|pp=169–173}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book |last=B. Szabó |first=János |year=2013 |title=Háborúban Bizánccal. Magyarország és a Balkán a 11–12. században ''[War with the Byzantium. Hungary and the Balkans in the 11–12th Century]'' |publisher=Corvina |isbn=978-963-13-6150-6 |language=hu}}
* {{cite book |last=Curta |first=Florin |year=2006 |title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250 |url=https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89452-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Fine |first=John Van Antwerp Jr. | author-link=John Van Antwerp Fine, Jr. | title=The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century | publisher=The University of Michigan Press | location=Michigan | year=1991 | isbn=0-472-08149-7| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C}}
* {{cite book |last=Gál |first=Judit |year=2020 |title=Dalmatia and the Exercise of Royal Authority in the Árpád-Era Kingdom of Hungary |publisher=Arpadiana III., Research Centre for the Humanities |isbn=978-963-416-227-8 }}
* {{cite book|last=Makk|first=Ferenc|title=The Arpads and the Comneni: Political Relations between Hungary and Byzantium in the 12th Century|location=Budapest, Hungary|publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó|year=1989|isbn=978-9-63-055268-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YL4hAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Stephenson|first=Paul|title=Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204|year=2000|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILiOI0UgxHoC|isbn=978-0-521-77017-0}}
*{{Cite book |last=Treadgold |first=Warren |year=1997 |title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn= 0-8047-2630-2}}
{{refend}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Byzantine-Hungarian War (1180-1185)}}
[[Category:1180 in Europe]]
[[Category:1181 in Europe]]
[[Category:1182 in Europe]]
[[Category:1183 in Europe]]
[[Category:1184 in Europe]]
[[Category:1185 in Europe]]
[[Category:1180s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:12th century in Hungary]]
[[Category:Byzantine–Hungarian wars]]
[[Category:1180s conflicts]]

Byzantine–Hungarian War (1180–1185)

2024-02-20T01:15:16Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Background */

{{Short description|12th-century war in Europe}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|image=
|caption=
|conflict=Byzantine–Hungarian War
|partof=
|territory =
* Hungary re-captures [[Croatia in personal union with Hungary|Croatia]], [[Dalmatia]] and [[Syrmia]]
* [[Grand Principality of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Banate of Bosnia|Bosnia]] are freed from Byzantine sphere of interest
|result=Hungarian victory
|date=Autumn 1180 – autumn 1185
|place=[[Balkans]]
|combatant1=[[Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)|Kingdom of Hungary]] [[Grand Principality of Serbia]] (since 1183) [[Banate of Bosnia]] (since 1183)
|combatant2=[[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Byzantine Empire]]
|commander1='''[[Béla III of Hungary|Béla III]]''' [[Farkas Gatal]] [[Denis, Palatine of Hungary|Denis]] [[Maurus Győr]] '''[[Stefan Nemanja]]''' '''[[Ban Kulin|Kulin]]'''
|commander2='''[[Andronikos I Komnenos]]''' [[Alexios Branas]] [[Andronikos Lapardas]]
|units1=
|units2=
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
A '''Byzantine–Hungarian War''' was fought between Byzantine and Hungarian forces in the [[Balkans]] from 1180 to 1185. Taking advantage of the internal conflicts in the Byzantine Empire after Emperor [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel]]'s death, [[Béla III of Hungary]] reoccupied [[Croatia in personal union with Hungary|Croatia]], [[Dalmatia]] and [[Syrmia]], restoring Hungarian suzerainty over these territories after fourteen years.

==Background==
During the reign of Emperor [[Manuel I Komnenos]] (r. 1143–1180), the Byzantine Empire was a constant threat to Hungary's sovereignty along the southern border. The [[Balkans]] served as a [[buffer zone]] between the two powers. The vassal state [[Grand Principality of Serbia]] rebelled in 1149, forcing Manuel to interrupt his preparations for an invasion of [[Southern Italy]] and invade Serbia in 1149.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=224}}{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=50}} Manuel's active foreign policy in the Balkans escalated [[Byzantine–Hungarian War (1149–1155)|brief wars]] between the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in the period between 1149 and 1155, during the reign of [[Géza II of Hungary]].{{sfn|Fine|1991|pp=237–238}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|pp=225–234}}{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=55–62}}

Géza II died in May 1162. His fifteen-year-old son [[Stephen III of Hungary|Stephen III]] ascended the Hungarian throne, but his two uncles, anti-kings [[Ladislaus II of Hungary|Ladislaus II]] (1162–1163) then [[Stephen IV of Hungary|Stephen IV]] (1163), who had joined the court of the Byzantine Empire and enjoyed the support of Manuel, challenged his right to the crown. A [[Byzantine–Hungarian War (1162–1167)|civil war]] broke out between Stephen III and his uncles. The army of Stephen III, along with German mercenaries, defeated his uncle Stephen IV in June 1163. Although Stephen III remained the only legitimate monarch in Hungary, the civil war was followed by a large-scale Byzantine invasion of Hungary. Stephen III was obliged to renounce Syrmia (Sirmium) in favor of the Byzantine Empire, but only after Manuel promised that he would never support his uncle Stephen IV. Clashes and border conflicts between Hungary and the Byzantium lasted until 1167, when Stephen III had to renounce Dalmatia, Croatia and Syrmia to the Byzantine Empire. Prior to that, these lands belonged to the [[appanage]] of Stephen's younger brother Béla, who was sent to [[Constantinople]] in accordance with the peace treaty between Stephen III and Manuel. Béla ascended his brother in the Hungarian throne in 1172. Before his departure, he pledged that he would never make war against the Byzantine Empire. Until Manuel's death, no further confrontation took place between the two countries; Béla even sent reinforcements to Manuel to help him fight against the [[Seljuks of Rum|Seljuks]] in 1176.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=646}}{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=240}}{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=85–113}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|pp=260–261}}

==The last Byzantine–Hungarian war==
The death of Emperor Manuel on 24 September 1180 left the Byzantine Empire in an extremely difficult political situation. His eleven-year-old son [[Alexios II Komnenos]] succeeded him, but the imperial power was held by regents, his mother [[Maria of Antioch]] and the ''[[protosebastos|prōtosebastos]]'' [[Alexios Komnenos (protosebastos)|Alexios Komnenos]] (a namesake cousin of the child monarch). The following period was characterized by internal struggles within the elite, while Manuel's daughter [[Maria Komnene (daughter of Manuel I)|Maria Komnene]] (once engaged to Béla III) also contested her half-brother's right to the crown.{{sfn|B. Szabó|2013|pp=159–160}}

===Recovery of the lost provinces===
Taking advantage of the internal conflicts in the Byzantine Empire, Béla III launched a campaign in the autumn of 1180 in order to restore the Hungarian suzerainty in Dalmatia. The king entrusted his [[Palatine of Hungary|palatine]] [[Farkas Gatal]] to lead the Hungarian troops till the [[Adriatic Sea]]. Within six months, Béla had restored his suzerainty in Dalmatia, but no detailed contemporaneous accounts of the events exist.{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=289}} The citizens of [[Split, Croatia|Split]] and [[Zadar]] also accepted Béla's suzerainty in late 1180 or early 1181. The latter revolted against the Venetian rule, supported by the presence of the Hungarian army.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|pp=281–282}} Historian [[John V. A. Fine]] wrote that Béla retook suzerainty of Dalmatia "seemingly without bloodshed and with imperial consent", because the Byzantine authorities preferred that Béla rule the province rather than the [[Republic of Venice]].{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=289}} Ferenc Makk refused this standpoint, because the "Byzantium was not threatened by Venice in Dalmatia at the time", for instance, Doge [[Orio Mastropiero]] unsuccessfully attempted to regain Zadar from the Hungarians years later, in 1187. Nevertheless, Béla indeed retook suzerainty of Dalmatia seemingly without serious confrontation. Farkas Gatal resided in Zadar in March 1181. Because of the internal struggle, the Byzantine Empire was unable to mount serious resistance. In addition, [[Kilij Arslan II]], the [[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuk Sultan of Rûm]] seized most of the southern coast of [[Asia Minor]] from the empire around the same time.{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=115–116}}

Béla III immediately intended to reorganize the royal administration in Croatia and Dalmatia. His confidant [[Denis, Palatine of Hungary|Denis]] was installed as Ban of Slavonia in 1181. He was also styled as "Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia", then "governor of [[Croatian Littoral|maritime parts]]" in 1183, and "Ban of Maritime Provinces" ({{lang-hr|Primorje}}, {{lang-hu|Tengermellék}}) in 1184, which reflect he had jurisdiction over all Croatia and Dalmatia, and his suzerainty extended until the river [[Danube]]. Historian Judit Gál considered after Béla recovered Dalmatia, Hungary's territories beyond the [[Drava]] were initially consolidated under a single ban after 1183.{{sfn|Gál|2020|p=132}} Simultaneously with Denis' appointment, [[Maurus Győr]] was installed as "governor of the whole coastal province" already by February 1181, when resided in Zadar and was involved in a verdict about some possession rights. Accordingly, Maurus functioned as the deputy of Denis, supervising the coastal territories along the Adriatic Sea.{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=115–116}} King Béla also sought to re-establish pro-Hungarian ecclesiastical organization in Dalmatia: the 13th-century chronicler [[Thomas the Archdeacon]] narrates that the monarch wished the burghers of Split to elect a Hungarian national as [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Split-Makarska|archbishop of Split]] in order to fill the dignity. However, the citizens refused to elect the king's protegee and physician [[Peter, Archbishop of Kalocsa|Peter]] and petitioned to the [[Holy See]]. In 1181, [[Pope Alexander III]] urged Béla III to respect the burghers of Split's privilege to free elect of their archbishop. Under the pressure of the Hungarians, despite the intervention of the [[Roman Curia]], Peter was elected Archbishop of Split by the local citizens in 1185. Nevertheless, Peter already acted as ''de facto'' prelate in the previous years, and royal charters in Hungary styled him as Archbishop of Split since 1180.{{sfn|Gál|2020|p=62}}

Simultaneously with the recovery of Croatia and Dalmatia, the Hungarian army marched into Syrmia too, but the details of the reconquest of the province in the Central Balkans are also obscure. Béla's troops seized and ravaged the region of [[Belgrade]] and [[Braničevo (region)|Barancs]] (now Braničevo in Serbia). Thereafter, the Hungarian army advanced as far as to the [[Morava Valley]]. It took place in the summer of 1181 at the latest. [[Andronikos I Komnenos|Andronikos Komnenos]], marching to [[Constantinople]] with an army, accused Maria of Antioch, the mother and regent of the young Byzantine Emperor, Alexios II, of inciting Béla{{mdash}}her brother-in-law{{mdash}}to ravage the region of Belgrade and Barancs in May 1182, implying that Béla had by that time occupied Syrmia.{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=115–116}}

===Interference in the Byzantine civil war===
After gaining control of Constantinople and the order to [[massacre of the Latins]] in the spring of 1182, Andronikos Komnenos had poisoned Maria Komnene and her husband [[Renier of Montferrat]], while the dowager empress Maria of Antioch was arrested and imprisoned. The empress tried to seek help from her brother-in-law Béla III, according to the verdict. Andronikos had Alexios II sign the order for his mother's execution and Maria was strangled in her prison in late 1182.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=652–653}}{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=117}}

Taking advantage of the emerging anarchy in the Byzantine Empire, Béla advanced as far as [[Niš]] (Naissos) and [[Sofia]] (Serdica) in the first half of 1183.{{sfn|Curta|2006|pp=334–335}} During the campaign, the Hungarian king allied with the [[Serbs]] of [[Raška (region)|Rascia]] and the [[Banate of Bosnia]], who struggled for their independence and the usurpation of Andronikos Komnenos freed them from subordination to the Byzantine Empire under the leadership of [[Stefan Nemanja]] and [[Ban Kulin]], respectively. During the siege, Niš was completely destroyed. In Serdica, Béla III seized the casket containing the relics of [[Saint Ivan of Rila]], and ordered it "to be transported with great honors to his land and to be laid down with honor in the church" of [[Esztergom]], according to the saint's ''Life from the Sofia Prologue''.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=117}} Ferenc Makk considered that Béla withdrew from the regions south of the Danube, but historian Paul Stephenson argued that Béla preserved these lands.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=117}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=282}} According to the Byzantine historian [[Niketas Choniates]], the Byzantine generals [[Alexios Branas]] and [[Andronikos Lapardas]] were fighting against the Hungarian troops in the vicinity of Niš in the autumn of 1183. The two generals achieved limited successes along the defense line of the [[Balkan Mountains]] passes and plausibly forced the Hungarians to retreat till the river [[Sava]]. The Byzantine infighting, however, eventually drove both generals to the interior of the empire within a short time. For instance, Alexios Branas left the Balkans for [[Anatolia]] in the spring of 1184.{{sfn|B. Szabó|2013|pp=162–163}}

Some Hungarian historians – for instance, József Deér and [[Gyula Moravcsik]] – claimed that Béla III conducted the 1183 campaign in order to defend and support the interests of the late Manuel's family – Alexios II and Maria of Antioch – against the usurper Andronikos Komnenos. Accordingly, the Hungarian monarch had no intention to expand his realm at the expense of the Byzantine Empire and Béla voluntarily retreat from the central Balkans after the execution of Maria. Ferenc Makk emphasized this theory is not corroborated by the sources. Maria of Antioch sought Béla's direct assistance against Andronikos, encouraging him to devastate Belgrade and Barancs. As her verdict stated, Maria would have been willing to recognize Hungarian territorial claims on certain Byzantine lands in exchange for their support against the usurper.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=117}} Andronikos Komnenos murdered Emperor Alexios II in September or October 1183, becoming sole ruler of the empire.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=282}} The contemporaneous [[Eustathius of Thessalonica]] writes that Andronikos's opponents sent letters to many monarchs, including Béla III, urging them to attack Andronikos.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=119}}

===End of the conflict===
No clashes between Hungary and the Byzantium took place in 1184. There is a scholarly theory that Béla III had signed an armistice with Andronikos in that year, but Makk argued the temporary successes of Alexios Branas forced the Hungarians to sort out their queues due to increased losses and costs.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=118}} According to [[History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick|Ansbert]] and other Western European chroniclers, Béla invaded the Byzantine Empire in early 1185.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=118}} The [[Byzantine–Norman wars|Norman invasion]] of the Byzantine Empire led by [[William II of Sicily]] took place around the same time, which made the internal political situation of the tyrannically ruling emperor Andronikos impossible. The Hungarians marched into Niš and Sofia again, towards the valley of Morava. According to some scholars, Béla wanted to seize the imperial crown for himself during his 1185 campaign, and proposed a marriage to Theodora Komnene, the widow of Andronikos Lapardas, who lived in a monastery (Béla's first wife, [[Agnes of Antioch]] died in 1184). The synod at Constantinople did not contribute to the marriage and did not release Theodora from her nun's vow.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=119}}

By the summer of 1185, Constantinople was itself threatened by the Norman invasion, which sparked a rebellion in the city, resulting the dethronement and lynching of Andronikos Komnenos in September. He was succeeded by [[Isaac II Angelos]], who began negotiations with Béla III and sent his envoys to propose a marriage between him and Béla's ten-year-old daughter [[Margaret of Hungary|Margaret]]. Consequently, Béla III signed a peace treaty with Isaac II.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=120}} The new Byzantine emperor married Margaret in January 1186 at the latest, and Béla granted the region of Niš and Barancs to Isaac as his daughter's dowry.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=335}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=283}} The relics of Saint Ivan of Rila were also returned to Sofia on this occasion.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=335}} In exchange, the emperor officially renounced Dalmatia and Syrmia.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=120}} Makk considered Béla's failed proposal to marry Theodora took place after the peace treaty only.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=120}} Due to the Byzantine–Hungarian alliance, Isaac II successfully repelled the Norman invasion at the [[Battle of Demetritzes]] in November 1185.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=120}}

==Aftermath==
Due to the establishment of Serbia and Bosnia as independent powers in the Balkans, in addition to the successful [[uprising of Asen and Peter]] from 1185 to 1187 which led to the reestablishment of the [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]], the Byzantine Empire gradually pushed out of the Balkan region, which also made the Hungarian–Byzantine confrontation of the 12th century obsolete. In the subsequent decade, Béla supported the political aspirations of Isaac II.{{sfn|B. Szabó|2013|pp=169–173}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book |last=B. Szabó |first=János |year=2013 |title=Háborúban Bizánccal. Magyarország és a Balkán a 11–12. században ''[War with the Byzantium. Hungary and the Balkans in the 11–12th Century]'' |publisher=Corvina |isbn=978-963-13-6150-6 |language=hu}}
* {{cite book |last=Curta |first=Florin |year=2006 |title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250 |url=https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89452-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Fine |first=John Van Antwerp Jr. | author-link=John Van Antwerp Fine, Jr. | title=The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century | publisher=The University of Michigan Press | location=Michigan | year=1991 | isbn=0-472-08149-7| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C}}
* {{cite book |last=Gál |first=Judit |year=2020 |title=Dalmatia and the Exercise of Royal Authority in the Árpád-Era Kingdom of Hungary |publisher=Arpadiana III., Research Centre for the Humanities |isbn=978-963-416-227-8 }}
* {{cite book|last=Makk|first=Ferenc|title=The Arpads and the Comneni: Political Relations between Hungary and Byzantium in the 12th Century|location=Budapest, Hungary|publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó|year=1989|isbn=978-9-63-055268-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YL4hAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Stephenson|first=Paul|title=Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204|year=2000|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILiOI0UgxHoC|isbn=978-0-521-77017-0}}
*{{Cite book |last=Treadgold |first=Warren |year=1997 |title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn= 0-8047-2630-2}}
{{refend}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Byzantine-Hungarian War (1180-1185)}}
[[Category:1180 in Europe]]
[[Category:1181 in Europe]]
[[Category:1182 in Europe]]
[[Category:1183 in Europe]]
[[Category:1184 in Europe]]
[[Category:1185 in Europe]]
[[Category:1180s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:12th century in Hungary]]
[[Category:Byzantine–Hungarian wars]]
[[Category:1180s conflicts]]

Byzantine–Hungarian War (1180–1185)

2024-02-20T01:14:20Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Background */

{{Short description|12th-century war in Europe}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|image=
|caption=
|conflict=Byzantine–Hungarian War
|partof=
|territory =
* Hungary re-captures [[Croatia in personal union with Hungary|Croatia]], [[Dalmatia]] and [[Syrmia]]
* [[Grand Principality of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Banate of Bosnia|Bosnia]] are freed from Byzantine sphere of interest
|result=Hungarian victory
|date=Autumn 1180 – autumn 1185
|place=[[Balkans]]
|combatant1=[[Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)|Kingdom of Hungary]] [[Grand Principality of Serbia]] (since 1183) [[Banate of Bosnia]] (since 1183)
|combatant2=[[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Byzantine Empire]]
|commander1='''[[Béla III of Hungary|Béla III]]''' [[Farkas Gatal]] [[Denis, Palatine of Hungary|Denis]] [[Maurus Győr]] '''[[Stefan Nemanja]]''' '''[[Ban Kulin|Kulin]]'''
|commander2='''[[Andronikos I Komnenos]]''' [[Alexios Branas]] [[Andronikos Lapardas]]
|units1=
|units2=
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
A '''Byzantine–Hungarian War''' was fought between Byzantine and Hungarian forces in the [[Balkans]] from 1180 to 1185. Taking advantage of the internal conflicts in the Byzantine Empire after Emperor [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel]]'s death, [[Béla III of Hungary]] reoccupied [[Croatia in personal union with Hungary|Croatia]], [[Dalmatia]] and [[Syrmia]], restoring Hungarian suzerainty over these territories after fourteen years.

==Background==
During the reign of Emperor [[Manuel I Komnenos]] (r. 1143–1180), the Byzantine Empire was a constant threat to Hungary's sovereignty along the southern border. The [[Balkans]] served as a [[buffer zone]] between the two powers. The vassal state [[Grand Principality of Serbia]] rebelled in 1149, forcing Emperor Manuel to interrupt his preparations for an invasion of [[Southern Italy]] and invade Serbia in 1149.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=224}}{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=50}} Manuel's active foreign policy in the Balkans escalated [[Byzantine–Hungarian War (1149–1155)|brief wars]] between the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in the period between 1149 and 1155, during the reign of [[Géza II of Hungary]].{{sfn|Fine|1991|pp=237–238}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|pp=225–234}}{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=55–62}}

Géza II died in May 1162. His fifteen-year-old son [[Stephen III of Hungary|Stephen III]] ascended the Hungarian throne, but his two uncles, anti-kings [[Ladislaus II of Hungary|Ladislaus II]] (1162–1163) then [[Stephen IV of Hungary|Stephen IV]] (1163), who had joined the court of the Byzantine Empire and enjoyed the support of Emperor Manuel, challenged his right to the crown. A [[Byzantine–Hungarian War (1162–1167)|civil war]] broke out between Stephen III and his uncles. The army of Stephen III, along with German mercenaries, defeated his uncle Stephen IV in June 1163. Although Stephen III remained the only legitimate monarch in Hungary, the civil war was followed by a large-scale Byzantine invasion of Hungary. Stephen III was obliged to renounce Syrmia (Sirmium) in favor of the Byzantine Empire, but only after Manuel promised that he would never support his uncle Stephen IV. Clashes and border conflicts between Hungary and the Byzantium lasted until 1167, when Stephen III had to renounce Dalmatia, Croatia and Syrmia to the Byzantine Empire. Prior to that, these lands belonged to the [[appanage]] of Stephen's younger brother Béla, who was sent to [[Constantinople]] in accordance with the peace treaty between Stephen III and Manuel. Béla ascended his brother in the Hungarian throne in 1172. Before his departure, he pledged that he would never make war against the Byzantine Empire. Until Manuel's death, no further confrontation took place between the two countries; Béla even sent reinforcements to Emperor Manuel to help him fight against the [[Seljuks of Rum|Seljuks]] in 1176.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=646}}{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=240}}{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=85–113}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|pp=260–261}}

==The last Byzantine–Hungarian war==
The death of Emperor Manuel on 24 September 1180 left the Byzantine Empire in an extremely difficult political situation. His eleven-year-old son [[Alexios II Komnenos]] succeeded him, but the imperial power was held by regents, his mother [[Maria of Antioch]] and the ''[[protosebastos|prōtosebastos]]'' [[Alexios Komnenos (protosebastos)|Alexios Komnenos]] (a namesake cousin of the child monarch). The following period was characterized by internal struggles within the elite, while Manuel's daughter [[Maria Komnene (daughter of Manuel I)|Maria Komnene]] (once engaged to Béla III) also contested her half-brother's right to the crown.{{sfn|B. Szabó|2013|pp=159–160}}

===Recovery of the lost provinces===
Taking advantage of the internal conflicts in the Byzantine Empire, Béla III launched a campaign in the autumn of 1180 in order to restore the Hungarian suzerainty in Dalmatia. The king entrusted his [[Palatine of Hungary|palatine]] [[Farkas Gatal]] to lead the Hungarian troops till the [[Adriatic Sea]]. Within six months, Béla had restored his suzerainty in Dalmatia, but no detailed contemporaneous accounts of the events exist.{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=289}} The citizens of [[Split, Croatia|Split]] and [[Zadar]] also accepted Béla's suzerainty in late 1180 or early 1181. The latter revolted against the Venetian rule, supported by the presence of the Hungarian army.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|pp=281–282}} Historian [[John V. A. Fine]] wrote that Béla retook suzerainty of Dalmatia "seemingly without bloodshed and with imperial consent", because the Byzantine authorities preferred that Béla rule the province rather than the [[Republic of Venice]].{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=289}} Ferenc Makk refused this standpoint, because the "Byzantium was not threatened by Venice in Dalmatia at the time", for instance, Doge [[Orio Mastropiero]] unsuccessfully attempted to regain Zadar from the Hungarians years later, in 1187. Nevertheless, Béla indeed retook suzerainty of Dalmatia seemingly without serious confrontation. Farkas Gatal resided in Zadar in March 1181. Because of the internal struggle, the Byzantine Empire was unable to mount serious resistance. In addition, [[Kilij Arslan II]], the [[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuk Sultan of Rûm]] seized most of the southern coast of [[Asia Minor]] from the empire around the same time.{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=115–116}}

Béla III immediately intended to reorganize the royal administration in Croatia and Dalmatia. His confidant [[Denis, Palatine of Hungary|Denis]] was installed as Ban of Slavonia in 1181. He was also styled as "Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia", then "governor of [[Croatian Littoral|maritime parts]]" in 1183, and "Ban of Maritime Provinces" ({{lang-hr|Primorje}}, {{lang-hu|Tengermellék}}) in 1184, which reflect he had jurisdiction over all Croatia and Dalmatia, and his suzerainty extended until the river [[Danube]]. Historian Judit Gál considered after Béla recovered Dalmatia, Hungary's territories beyond the [[Drava]] were initially consolidated under a single ban after 1183.{{sfn|Gál|2020|p=132}} Simultaneously with Denis' appointment, [[Maurus Győr]] was installed as "governor of the whole coastal province" already by February 1181, when resided in Zadar and was involved in a verdict about some possession rights. Accordingly, Maurus functioned as the deputy of Denis, supervising the coastal territories along the Adriatic Sea.{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=115–116}} King Béla also sought to re-establish pro-Hungarian ecclesiastical organization in Dalmatia: the 13th-century chronicler [[Thomas the Archdeacon]] narrates that the monarch wished the burghers of Split to elect a Hungarian national as [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Split-Makarska|archbishop of Split]] in order to fill the dignity. However, the citizens refused to elect the king's protegee and physician [[Peter, Archbishop of Kalocsa|Peter]] and petitioned to the [[Holy See]]. In 1181, [[Pope Alexander III]] urged Béla III to respect the burghers of Split's privilege to free elect of their archbishop. Under the pressure of the Hungarians, despite the intervention of the [[Roman Curia]], Peter was elected Archbishop of Split by the local citizens in 1185. Nevertheless, Peter already acted as ''de facto'' prelate in the previous years, and royal charters in Hungary styled him as Archbishop of Split since 1180.{{sfn|Gál|2020|p=62}}

Simultaneously with the recovery of Croatia and Dalmatia, the Hungarian army marched into Syrmia too, but the details of the reconquest of the province in the Central Balkans are also obscure. Béla's troops seized and ravaged the region of [[Belgrade]] and [[Braničevo (region)|Barancs]] (now Braničevo in Serbia). Thereafter, the Hungarian army advanced as far as to the [[Morava Valley]]. It took place in the summer of 1181 at the latest. [[Andronikos I Komnenos|Andronikos Komnenos]], marching to [[Constantinople]] with an army, accused Maria of Antioch, the mother and regent of the young Byzantine Emperor, Alexios II, of inciting Béla{{mdash}}her brother-in-law{{mdash}}to ravage the region of Belgrade and Barancs in May 1182, implying that Béla had by that time occupied Syrmia.{{sfn|Makk|1989|pp=115–116}}

===Interference in the Byzantine civil war===
After gaining control of Constantinople and the order to [[massacre of the Latins]] in the spring of 1182, Andronikos Komnenos had poisoned Maria Komnene and her husband [[Renier of Montferrat]], while the dowager empress Maria of Antioch was arrested and imprisoned. The empress tried to seek help from her brother-in-law Béla III, according to the verdict. Andronikos had Alexios II sign the order for his mother's execution and Maria was strangled in her prison in late 1182.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=652–653}}{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=117}}

Taking advantage of the emerging anarchy in the Byzantine Empire, Béla advanced as far as [[Niš]] (Naissos) and [[Sofia]] (Serdica) in the first half of 1183.{{sfn|Curta|2006|pp=334–335}} During the campaign, the Hungarian king allied with the [[Serbs]] of [[Raška (region)|Rascia]] and the [[Banate of Bosnia]], who struggled for their independence and the usurpation of Andronikos Komnenos freed them from subordination to the Byzantine Empire under the leadership of [[Stefan Nemanja]] and [[Ban Kulin]], respectively. During the siege, Niš was completely destroyed. In Serdica, Béla III seized the casket containing the relics of [[Saint Ivan of Rila]], and ordered it "to be transported with great honors to his land and to be laid down with honor in the church" of [[Esztergom]], according to the saint's ''Life from the Sofia Prologue''.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=117}} Ferenc Makk considered that Béla withdrew from the regions south of the Danube, but historian Paul Stephenson argued that Béla preserved these lands.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=117}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=282}} According to the Byzantine historian [[Niketas Choniates]], the Byzantine generals [[Alexios Branas]] and [[Andronikos Lapardas]] were fighting against the Hungarian troops in the vicinity of Niš in the autumn of 1183. The two generals achieved limited successes along the defense line of the [[Balkan Mountains]] passes and plausibly forced the Hungarians to retreat till the river [[Sava]]. The Byzantine infighting, however, eventually drove both generals to the interior of the empire within a short time. For instance, Alexios Branas left the Balkans for [[Anatolia]] in the spring of 1184.{{sfn|B. Szabó|2013|pp=162–163}}

Some Hungarian historians – for instance, József Deér and [[Gyula Moravcsik]] – claimed that Béla III conducted the 1183 campaign in order to defend and support the interests of the late Manuel's family – Alexios II and Maria of Antioch – against the usurper Andronikos Komnenos. Accordingly, the Hungarian monarch had no intention to expand his realm at the expense of the Byzantine Empire and Béla voluntarily retreat from the central Balkans after the execution of Maria. Ferenc Makk emphasized this theory is not corroborated by the sources. Maria of Antioch sought Béla's direct assistance against Andronikos, encouraging him to devastate Belgrade and Barancs. As her verdict stated, Maria would have been willing to recognize Hungarian territorial claims on certain Byzantine lands in exchange for their support against the usurper.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=117}} Andronikos Komnenos murdered Emperor Alexios II in September or October 1183, becoming sole ruler of the empire.{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=282}} The contemporaneous [[Eustathius of Thessalonica]] writes that Andronikos's opponents sent letters to many monarchs, including Béla III, urging them to attack Andronikos.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=119}}

===End of the conflict===
No clashes between Hungary and the Byzantium took place in 1184. There is a scholarly theory that Béla III had signed an armistice with Andronikos in that year, but Makk argued the temporary successes of Alexios Branas forced the Hungarians to sort out their queues due to increased losses and costs.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=118}} According to [[History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick|Ansbert]] and other Western European chroniclers, Béla invaded the Byzantine Empire in early 1185.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=118}} The [[Byzantine–Norman wars|Norman invasion]] of the Byzantine Empire led by [[William II of Sicily]] took place around the same time, which made the internal political situation of the tyrannically ruling emperor Andronikos impossible. The Hungarians marched into Niš and Sofia again, towards the valley of Morava. According to some scholars, Béla wanted to seize the imperial crown for himself during his 1185 campaign, and proposed a marriage to Theodora Komnene, the widow of Andronikos Lapardas, who lived in a monastery (Béla's first wife, [[Agnes of Antioch]] died in 1184). The synod at Constantinople did not contribute to the marriage and did not release Theodora from her nun's vow.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=119}}

By the summer of 1185, Constantinople was itself threatened by the Norman invasion, which sparked a rebellion in the city, resulting the dethronement and lynching of Andronikos Komnenos in September. He was succeeded by [[Isaac II Angelos]], who began negotiations with Béla III and sent his envoys to propose a marriage between him and Béla's ten-year-old daughter [[Margaret of Hungary|Margaret]]. Consequently, Béla III signed a peace treaty with Isaac II.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=120}} The new Byzantine emperor married Margaret in January 1186 at the latest, and Béla granted the region of Niš and Barancs to Isaac as his daughter's dowry.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=335}}{{sfn|Stephenson|2000|p=283}} The relics of Saint Ivan of Rila were also returned to Sofia on this occasion.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=335}} In exchange, the emperor officially renounced Dalmatia and Syrmia.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=120}} Makk considered Béla's failed proposal to marry Theodora took place after the peace treaty only.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=120}} Due to the Byzantine–Hungarian alliance, Isaac II successfully repelled the Norman invasion at the [[Battle of Demetritzes]] in November 1185.{{sfn|Makk|1989|p=120}}

==Aftermath==
Due to the establishment of Serbia and Bosnia as independent powers in the Balkans, in addition to the successful [[uprising of Asen and Peter]] from 1185 to 1187 which led to the reestablishment of the [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]], the Byzantine Empire gradually pushed out of the Balkan region, which also made the Hungarian–Byzantine confrontation of the 12th century obsolete. In the subsequent decade, Béla supported the political aspirations of Isaac II.{{sfn|B. Szabó|2013|pp=169–173}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book |last=B. Szabó |first=János |year=2013 |title=Háborúban Bizánccal. Magyarország és a Balkán a 11–12. században ''[War with the Byzantium. Hungary and the Balkans in the 11–12th Century]'' |publisher=Corvina |isbn=978-963-13-6150-6 |language=hu}}
* {{cite book |last=Curta |first=Florin |year=2006 |title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250 |url=https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89452-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Fine |first=John Van Antwerp Jr. | author-link=John Van Antwerp Fine, Jr. | title=The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century | publisher=The University of Michigan Press | location=Michigan | year=1991 | isbn=0-472-08149-7| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C}}
* {{cite book |last=Gál |first=Judit |year=2020 |title=Dalmatia and the Exercise of Royal Authority in the Árpád-Era Kingdom of Hungary |publisher=Arpadiana III., Research Centre for the Humanities |isbn=978-963-416-227-8 }}
* {{cite book|last=Makk|first=Ferenc|title=The Arpads and the Comneni: Political Relations between Hungary and Byzantium in the 12th Century|location=Budapest, Hungary|publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó|year=1989|isbn=978-9-63-055268-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YL4hAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Stephenson|first=Paul|title=Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204|year=2000|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILiOI0UgxHoC|isbn=978-0-521-77017-0}}
*{{Cite book |last=Treadgold |first=Warren |year=1997 |title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn= 0-8047-2630-2}}
{{refend}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Byzantine-Hungarian War (1180-1185)}}
[[Category:1180 in Europe]]
[[Category:1181 in Europe]]
[[Category:1182 in Europe]]
[[Category:1183 in Europe]]
[[Category:1184 in Europe]]
[[Category:1185 in Europe]]
[[Category:1180s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:12th century in Hungary]]
[[Category:Byzantine–Hungarian wars]]
[[Category:1180s conflicts]]

Third Crusade

2024-02-20T01:12:19Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Mustering an army */

{{Short description|1189–1192 attempted re-conquest of the Holy Land}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = The Third Crusade
| partof = the [[Crusades]]
| image = The Third Crusade (1189-1192).png
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Map showing the routes of the crusader armies
| date = 11 May 1189 – 2 September 1192
| place = [[Levant]], [[Sicily]], [[Iberia]], [[Balkans]] and [[Anatolia]]
| territory =
| result = See [[Third Crusade#Outcome|outcome]]
* [[Treaty of Jaffa (1192)|Treaty of Jaffa]]
| combatant1 = '''[[Crusades|Crusade]]:''' 
{{Collapsible list|title=[[Angevin Empire]]|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Kingdom of England]]
* [[Duchy of Normandy]]
* [[Duchy of Aquitaine]]
* [[County of Anjou]]
* [[County of Poitou]]
* [[Duchy of Brittany]]
}}
{{Collapsible list|title=[[France in the Middle Ages|Kingdom of France]]|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Duchy of Burgundy]]
* [[County of Blois]]
* [[County of Champagne]]
* [[County of Flanders]]}}
{{Collapsible list|title=[[Holy Roman Empire]]|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Duchy of Swabia]]
* [[Duchy of Austria]]
* [[Duchy of Bohemia]]
* [[Landgraviate of Thuringia]]
* [[Margraviate of Brandenburg]]
* [[March of Montferrat|Margraviate of Montferrat]]
* [[Margraviate of Baden]]
* [[County of Holland]]
* [[County of Holstein]]
}}{{Plainlist|
* [[Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)|Kingdom of Hungary]]
* [[Republic of Genoa]]
* [[Kingdom of Navarre]]
* [[Kingdom of Leon]]
* [[Republic of Pisa]]
* [[Danish Realm|Kingdom of Denmark]]}}
'''Levantine [[Crusader states]]:''' 
*[[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
*[[County of Tripoli]]
*[[Principality of Antioch]]
{{Collapsible list|title='''[[Military order (society)|Military orders]]'''|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Knights Templar]]
* [[Knights Hospitaller]]
* [[Teutonic Order]]
* [[Order of the Holy Sepulchre]]
* [[Order of Mountjoy]]
* [[Order of Saint Lazarus|Order of St Lazarus]]
}}
'''[[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] allies:'''
{{plainlist|
* [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Armenian Principality of Cilicia]]}}
| combatant2 = '''[[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslim]] states:'''
{{Collapsible list|title=[[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid Sultanate]]|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Sultan of Egypt|Sultanate of Egypt]]
* [[List of Ayyubid rulers#Sultans and Emirs of Damascus|Emirate of Damascus]]
* [[List of Ayyubid rulers#Emirs of Hamah|Emirate of Hamah]]
* [[List of Ayyubid rulers#Emirs of Mesopotamia|Emirate of Mesopotamia]]
}}[[Sultanate of Rûm|Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm]]
<hr />
'''[[Shia Islam|Shia Muslim]] states:'''
[[Nizari Ismaili state]] (the [[Order of Assassins|Assassins]])<hr />
'''[[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] opponents:'''
{{plainlist|
* [[Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty|Byzantine Empire]]
* [[Cyprus (theme)|Cyprus]]
}}
| commander1 = '''Crusaders:'''
*[[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]]
*[[Philip II of France|Philip Augustus]]
**[[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy|Hugh III of Burgundy]]{{KIA}}
** [[Theobald V, Count of Blois|Theobald V of Blois]]{{KIA}}
**[[Henry II, Count of Champagne|Henry II of Champagne]]
**[[Philip I, Count of Flanders|Philip of Flanders]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
* [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]]
** [[Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia|Frederick VI of Swabia]]{{KIA}}
** [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria|Leopold V of Austria]]
** [[Děpolt II|Děpolt of Bohemia]]{{KIA}}
** [[Louis III, Landgrave of Thuringia|Louis III of Thuringia]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
** [[Floris III, Count of Holland|Floris III of Holland]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
** [[Herman IV, Margrave of Baden|Herman IV of Baden]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
** [[Adolf III, Count of Holstein|Adolf III of Holstein]]
** [[Markward von Annweiler]]
* [[Géza, son of Géza II of Hungary|Prince Géza of Hungary]]
* [[Rodrigo Alvarez]]
* [[Margaritus of Brindisi]]
'''Levantine Crusader states:'''
* [[Guy of Lusignan]]
* [[Sibylla, Queen of Jerusalem|Sibylla of Jerusalem]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
* [[Conrad of Montferrat]]{{Assassinated|bold=no}}
* [[Humphrey IV of Toron]]
* [[Balian of Ibelin]]
* [[Bohemond IV of Antioch]]
* [[Joscelin III, Count of Edessa|Joscelin III of Edessa]]{{KIA}}
'''Military orders:'''
* [[Robert IV de Sablé|Robert de Sablé]]
* [[Armengol de Aspa]]
* [[Garnier de Nablus]]
* [[Master Sibrand]]
'''Eastern Christian allies:'''
* [[Leo I, King of Armenia|Leo of Armenia]]
| commander2 = '''Sunni Muslim forces:'''
* [[Saladin]]
** [[Al-Muzaffar Umar]]
** [[Al-Adil I]]
** [[Al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din|Al-Afdal]]
** [[Gökböri]]
* [[Kilij Arslan II]]
** [[Kaykhusraw I]]
<hr />
'''Eastern Christian opponents:'''
* [[Isaac II Angelos]]
* [[Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus|Isaac Komnenos]]
| strength1 = 36,000–74,000 troops in total (estimate)
* 8,000–9,000 Angevin (English, Normans, Aquitanians, Welsh, Navarrese, etc.) troops with Richard I,<ref name = "McLynn219">Frank McLynn. ''Richard and John: Kings at War''. p. 219.</ref> up to 17,000 or 50,000 according to some sources including non-combatants and sailors<ref>Tyerman, p. 436</ref>
* 7,000+ French with Phillip II (inc. 650 knights and 1,300 squires)<ref name = "McLynn219"/>
* 12,000–20,000 Germans with Frederick I (inc. 3–4,000 knights){{sfn|Loud|2010|p= 19}}{{sfn|Bachrach|Bachrach|2017|p=197}}
* 2,000 Hungarians with Géza<ref>Hunyadi, Zsolt (2011), ''A keresztes háborúk világa'', p. 41.</ref>
Two additional contingents also joined Frederick's army while travelling through Byzantine Empire. Numbered about 1000 men.
* From 7,000<ref>McLynn, p. 219: breakdown includes 2,000 Outremer levies, 1,000 Templars and Hospitallers, 2,000 Genoese and Pisans, and 2,000 Danes, Norwegians, and Turcopoles.</ref> to 40,000{{sfn|Hosler|2018|pp=72–73}} from the rest of Europe and Outremer
| strength2 = '''Ayyubids''': 40,000 (Saladin's field army, 1189 – estimate){{Sfn|Hosler|2018|p=54}} 5,000–20,000 (Acre's garrison, 1189){{Sfn|Hosler|2018|p=34}}<ref>Pryor, John H. (2015). "A Medieval Siege of Troy: The Fight to the Death at Acre, 1189–1191 or The Tears of Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn". In Halfond, Gregory I. (ed.). ''The Medieval Way of War: Studies in Medieval Military History in Honor of Bernard S. Bachrach''. Farnham: Ashgate. p. 108.</ref> '''Seljuks''': 22,000+ (Qutb al-Din's field army only, 1190)<ref name=Tyerman3>Tyerman p. 422: "After desperate fighting involving the Emperor himself, the Turks outside the city were defeated [by the Imperial and Hungarian army], apparently against numerical odds."</ref><ref>Loud 2010, p. 104: The Seljuks lost 5,000+ men per their own body count estimates on May 7, 1190, soon before the Battle of Iconium.</ref>
| strength3 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| casualties3 =
| notes =
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Third Crusade}}
{{Campaignbox Crusades}}
}}

The '''Third Crusade''' (1189–1192) was an attempt led by three European monarchs of [[Latin Christianity|Western Christianity]] ([[Philip II of France]], [[Richard I of England]] and [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]]) to reconquer the [[Holy Land]] following the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|capture of Jerusalem]] by the [[Ayyubid]] sultan [[Saladin]] in 1187. For this reason, the Third Crusade is also known as the '''Kings' Crusade'''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Third Crusade|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Third_Crusade/|access-date=2021-04-09|website=World History Encyclopedia|language=en}}</ref>

It was partially successful, recapturing the important cities of [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)|Acre]] and [[Battle of Jaffa (1192)|Jaffa]], and reversing most of Saladin's conquests, but it failed to recapture Jerusalem, which was the major aim of the Crusade and its religious focus.

After the failure of the [[Second Crusade]] of 1147–1149, the [[Zengid dynasty]] controlled a unified [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Syria]] and engaged in a conflict with the [[Fatimid dynasty|Fatimid]] rulers of [[Egypt in the Middle Ages|Egypt]]. Saladin ultimately brought both the Egyptian and Syrian forces under his own control, and employed them to reduce the [[Crusader states]] and to recapture Jerusalem in 1187. Spurred by religious zeal, King [[Henry II of England]] and King Philip II of France (later known as "Philip Augustus") ended their conflict with each other to lead a new crusade. The death of Henry (6 July 1189), however, meant the English contingent came under the command of his successor, King Richard I of England. The elderly German Emperor Frederick Barbarossa also responded to the call to arms, leading a massive army across the Balkans and Anatolia. He achieved some victories against the [[Sultanate of Rûm|Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm]], but he died whilst crossing a river on 10 June 1190 before reaching the Holy Land. His death caused tremendous grief among the German Crusaders, and most of his troops returned home.

After the Crusaders had driven the Ayyubid army from Acre, Philip—in company with Frederick's successor in command of the German crusaders, [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria]]—left the Holy Land in August 1191. Following a major victory by the Crusaders at the [[Battle of Arsuf]], most of the coastline of the [[Levant]] was returned to Christian control. On 2 September 1192 Richard and Saladin finalized the [[Treaty of Jaffa (1192)|Treaty of Jaffa]], which recognised Muslim control over Jerusalem but allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims and merchants to visit the city. Richard departed the Holy Land on 9 October 1192. The military successes of the Third Crusade allowed the Christians to maintain considerable states in [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus]] and on the Syrian coast, restoring the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] on a narrow strip from [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] to [[Jaffa]].

The failure to re-capture Jerusalem inspired the subsequent [[Fourth Crusade]] of 1202–1204, but Europeans would only regain the city—and only briefly—in the [[Sixth Crusade]] in 1229.
{{toclimit|3}}

==Background==
{{main|Battle of Hattin|Siege of Jerusalem (1187)}}
[[File:Crusader States 1190.svg|thumb|The Near East, c. 1190, at the inception of the Third Crusade]]

King [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]] died in 1185, leaving the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] to his nephew [[Baldwin V]], whom he had crowned as co-king in 1183. Count [[Raymond III of Tripoli]] again served as regent. The following year, Baldwin V died before his ninth birthday, and his mother, [[Sibylla of Jerusalem|Sybilla]], sister of Baldwin IV, crowned herself queen and her husband, [[Guy of Lusignan]], king. [[Raynald of Châtillon]], who had supported Sybilla's claim to the throne, raided a rich caravan travelling from Egypt to Syria, and had its travelers thrown in prison, thereby breaking a truce between the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Saladin.{{sfn|Hamilton|1978|pp=106–107}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=297}} Saladin demanded the release of the prisoners and their cargo. The newly crowned King Guy appealed to Raynald to give in to Saladin's demands, but Raynald refused to follow the king's orders.

This final act of outrage by Raynald gave Saladin the opportunity he needed to take the offensive against the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and in 1187 he laid siege to the city of [[Tiberias]]. Raymond advised patience, but Guy, acting on advice from Raynald, marched his army to the [[Hittin|Horns of Hattin]] outside of Tiberias. Saladin's forces fought the Frankish army, thirsty and demoralized, and destroyed it in the ensuing [[Battle of Hattin]] (July 1187).

Guy and Raynald were brought to Saladin's tent, where Guy was offered a goblet of water because of his great thirst. Guy took a drink and then passed the goblet to Raynald. Raynald's having received the goblet from Guy rather than from Saladin meant that Saladin would not be forced to offer protection to the treacherous Raynald (custom prescribed that if one were personally offered a drink by the host, one's life was safe). When Raynald accepted the drink from Guy's hands, Saladin told his interpreter, "say to the King: 'it is you who have given him to drink'".<ref>Lyons, Malcolm Cameron and D. E. P. Jackson, ''Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 264.</ref> Afterwards, Saladin beheaded Raynald for past betrayals. Saladin honored tradition with Guy, sending him to Damascus and eventually allowing him to be ransomed by his people.

By the end of 1187 Saladin had taken [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] and [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|Jerusalem]]. Christians would not hold the city of Jerusalem again until 1229.<ref>{{cite book|last= Riley-Smith|first= Jonathan|title= What were the Crusades?|date= 2009|publisher= Ignatius Press|page= 15|isbn= 9781137013927|edition= Fourth|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6-QcBQAAQBAJ|access-date= 6 August 2020|quote= The city of Jerusalem was lost to Saladin in 1187 and was to be held by the Christians again only from 1229 to 1244.}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Pope [[Urban III]] is said to have collapsed and died (October 1187) upon hearing the news of the [[Battle of Hattin]].<ref>
Hans E. Mayer, ''The Crusades''. [[Oxford University Press]], 1965 (trans. John Gillingham, 1972), p. 139.</ref>

The new pope, [[Gregory VIII]], in the bull ''[[Audita tremendi]]'' dated 29 October 1187, interpreted the capture of Jerusalem as punishment for the sins of Christians across Europe. In the bull, he called for a new crusade to the [[Holy Land]].<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/10.1484/J.VIATOR.5.119574 | doi=10.1484/J.VIATOR.5.119574 | title=''Audita Tremendi'' and the Call for the Third Crusade Reconsidered, 1187–1188 | date=2018 | last1=Smith | first1=Thomas W. | journal=Viator | volume=49 | issue=3 | pages=63–101 | s2cid=216914511 }}</ref>

==Barbarossa's crusade==
The crusade of [[Frederick Barbarossa]], [[Holy Roman Emperor]], was "the most meticulously planned and organized" yet.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}} Frederick was sixty-six years old when he set out.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=512}} Two accounts dedicated to his expedition survive: the ''[[Historia de expeditione Friderici imperatoris|History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick]]'' and the ''[[History of the Pilgrims]]''. There is also a short tract, the ''[[Letter on the Death of the Emperor Frederick]]''.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=7–8}}

===Taking the cross===
On 27 October 1187, just over three weeks after Saladin's capture of Jerusalem, Pope Gregory VIII sent letters to the German episcopate announcing his election and ordering them to win the German nobility over to a new crusade. Around 23 November, Frederick received letters that had been sent to him from the rulers of the Crusader states in the East urging him to come to their aid.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}}

By 11 November, Cardinal [[Henry of Marcy]] had been appointed to preach the crusade in Germany. He preached before Frederick and a public assembly in [[Strasbourg]] around 1 December, as did Bishop [[Henry of Hasenburg|Henry of Strasbourg]]. About 500 knights took the cross at Strasbourg, but Frederick demurred on the grounds of his ongoing conflict with Archbishop [[Philip I (archbishop of Cologne)|Philip of Cologne]]. He did, however, send envoys to Philip of France (at the time his ally) to urge him to take the cross. On 25 December, Frederick and Philip met in person on the border between [[Ivois]] and [[Mouzon, Ardennes|Mouzon]] in the presence of Henry of Marcy and [[Joscius, Archbishop of Tyre]], but he could not convince Philip to go on a crusade because he was at war with England.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}}

Frederick held [[Curia Christi|a diet in Mainz]] on 27 March 1188. Because of its purpose, he named the diet the "Court of Christ". The archbishop of Cologne submitted to Frederick and peace was restored to the empire. Bishop [[Godfrey of Spitzenberg|Godfrey of Würzburg]] preached a crusade sermon and Frederick, at the urging of the assembly, took the cross. He was followed by his son, Duke [[Frederick VI of Swabia]],{{efn|Frederick's eldest son, [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]], who had already been elected [[king of the Romans]], was to remain behind as regent. On 10 April 1189, Frederick wrote to Pope Clement III asking for a postponement of Henry's planned coronation as co-emperor because he did not want Henry to leave Germany during the regency.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=479}} Frederick formally appointed his son as regent at Regensburg on the eve of his departure.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}}}} and by Duke [[Frederick of Bohemia]],{{efn|The duke of Bohemia died before the crusade began.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}}}} Duke [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria|Leopold V of Austria]], Landgrave [[Louis III of Thuringia]]{{efn|Both Leopold V and Louis III sailed with their armies from Italy rather than march overland with Frederick.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}} Leopold was delayed by a border dispute with Hungary.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=488}}}} and a host of lesser nobles.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=472–473}}

After taking the cross, Frederick proclaimed a "general expedition against the pagans" in accordance with the pope's instructions. He set the period of preparation as 17 April 1188 to 8 April 1189 and scheduled the army to assemble at [[Regensburg]] on [[Saint George's Day]] (23 April 1189). To prevent the crusade from degenerating into an undisciplined mob, participants were required to have at least three [[Mark (currency)|marks]], which was enough to be able support oneself for two years.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=472–473}}

===Protecting the Jews===
At Strasbourg, Frederick imposed a small tax on the [[History of the Jews in Germany|Jews of Germany]] to fund the crusade. He also put the Jews under his protection and forbade anyone to preach against the Jews.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}} The First and Second Crusades in Germany had been marred by [[Rhineland massacres|violence against the Jews]]. The Third Crusade itself occasioned an outbreak of [[12th century English pogroms|violence against the Jews in England]]. Frederick successfully prevented a repetition of those events inside Germany.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=473–474}}

On 29 January 1188, a mob invaded the Jewish quarter in Mainz and many Jews fled to the imperial [[Münzenberg Castle|castle of Münzenberg]]. There were further incidents connected with the "Court of Christ" in March. According to Rabbi Moses ha-Cohen of Mainz,{{efn|Moses's account is known from a letter he wrote to his brother-in-law, [[Eleazar of Worms]].{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=473–474}}}} there were minor incidents from the moment people began arriving for the Court of Christ on 9 March. This culminated in a mob gathering to invade the Jewish quarter on 26 March. It was dispersed by the imperial marshal [[Henry of Kalden]]. The rabbi then met with the emperor, which resulted in an imperial edict threatening maiming or death for anyone who maimed or killed a Jew. On 29 March, Frederick and the rabbi then rode through the streets together to emphasise that the Jews had imperial protection. Those Jews who had fled in January returned at the end of April.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=473–474}}

===Diplomatic preparations===
Shortly after the Strasbourg assembly, Frederick dispatched legates to negotiate the passage of his army through their lands: Archbishop [[Conrad of Wittelsbach|Conrad of Mainz]] to Hungary, [[Godfrey of Wiesenbach]] to the Seljuk sultanate of Rûm and an unnamed ambassador to the Byzantine Empire. He may also have sent representatives to Prince [[Leo I, King of Armenia|Leo II of Armenia]].{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=480}}

Because Frederick had signed a treaty of friendship with Saladin in 1175,{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=355}} he felt it necessary to give Saladin notice of the termination of their alliance.{{efn|There is a published correspondence, almost certainly forged, between Frederick and Saladin concerning the end of their friendship.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=626 n.44}}}} On 26 May 1188, he sent Count [[Henry II of Dietz]] to present an ultimatum to Saladin. The sultan was ordered to withdraw from the lands he had conquered, to return the [[True Cross]] to the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] and to make satisfaction for those Christians who had been killed in his conquests, otherwise Frederick would abrogate their treaty.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=480–481}}

A few days after Christmas 1188, Frederick received Hungarian, Byzantine, Serbian, Seljuk and possibly Ayyubid envoys in [[Nuremberg]]. The Hungarians and Seljuks promised provisions and safe-conduct to the crusaders. The envoys of [[Stefan Nemanja]], grand prince of Serbia, announced that their prince would receive Frederick in [[Niš]]. An agreement was reached with the Byzantine envoy, [[John Kamateros (logothetes tou dromou)|John Kamateros]], but it required Godfrey of Würzburg, Frederick of Swabia and Leopold of Austria to swear oaths for the crusaders' good behaviour. Bishop [[Hermann of Katzenelnbogen|Hermann of Münster]], Count [[Rupert III of Nassau]], the future [[Henry III of Dietz]] and the imperial chamberlain [[Markward von Neuenburg]] with a large entourage{{efn|Sources give their entourage as 100, 300 or 500 knights.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=481}}}} were sent ahead to make preparations in Byzantium.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=480–481}}

===Mustering an army===
At the Strasbourg assembly in December 1187, Bishop Godfrey of Würzburg urged Frederick to sail his army to the Holy Land rather than proceed overland. Frederick declined{{efn|The emperor had been on the Second Crusade in 1147 and so was familiar with the overland route.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=51–53}}}} and Pope [[Clement III]] even ordered Godfrey not to discuss it further. Ultimately, many Germans ignored the rendezvous at Regensburg and went to the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], hoping to sail to the Holy Land on their own. Frederick wrote to King [[William II of Sicily]] asking him to bar such sailings. The emperor and the pope may have feared that Saladin would soon seize all the crusader ports.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=480}}

Frederick was the first of the three kings to set out for the Holy Land. On 15 April 1189 in [[Haguenau]],{{efn|This place may have had personal significance for Frederick.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}} It was the closest place Frederick, an [[itinerant king]], had to a home and may also have been where he was born.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=9–10}}}} Frederick formally and symbolically accepted the staff and scrip of a pilgrim.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}} He arrived in Regensburg for the muster between 7 and 11 May.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=486}} The army had begun to gather on 1 May. Frederick was disappointed by the small force awaiting him, but he was dissuaded from calling off the enterprise when he learned that an international force had already advanced to the Hungarian border and was waiting for the imperial army.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}}

Frederick set out on 11 May 1189 with an army of 12,000–20,000 men, including 2,000–4,000 knights.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=19}}<ref>Frank McLynn, "Richard and John: Kings at War," 2007, page 174.</ref>{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=487–488}}{{sfn|Bachrach|Bachrach|2017|p=197}} Contemporary chroniclers gave a range of estimates for Frederick's army, from 10,000 to 600,000 men,{{efn|Christian estimates of the size of Frederick's army vary from 13,000 to 100,000, while Muslim sources wildly exaggerate its size from 200,000 to 300,000.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=487–488}}}} including 4,000–20,000 knights.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=19}}{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=45}}<ref name=Tyerman2>Tyerman p. 418</ref><ref name = "Phillips66"/> After leaving Germany, Frederick's army was increased by the addition of a contingent of 2,000 men led by the Hungarian prince [[Géza, son of Géza II of Hungary|Géza]], the younger brother of the King [[Béla III of Hungary]], and Bishop [[Ugrin Csák, Archbishop of Esztergom|Ugrin Csák]].<ref name="Konstam124">A. Konstam, ''Historical Atlas of The Crusades'', 124</ref> Two contingents from the Empire, from [[Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles|Burgundy]] and [[Duchy of Lorraine|Lorraine]], also joined the army during its transit of Byzantium. The army that Frederick led into Muslim territory was probably larger than the one with which he had left Germany.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=487–488}}

===Passage through the Balkans===
{{Location map+
| Europe without the extreme north
| width = 250
| float =
| border =
| caption = Key stops along the route of Barbarossa's crusade from his taking the cross to his death
| alt =
| places =
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Haguenau
| position = left
| lat_deg = 48.82
| lon_deg = 7.78 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Regensburg
| position = top
| lat_deg = 49.01
| lon_deg = 12.10 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 48.24
| lon_deg = 14.52 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 48.2
| lon_deg = 16.37 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 48.15
| lon_deg = 17.11 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Esztergom
| position = right
| lat_deg = 47.79
| lon_deg = 18.74 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Belgrade
| position = left
| lat_deg = 44.81
| lon_deg = 20.46 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 44.70
| lon_deg = 21.54 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 43.93
| lon_deg = 21.38 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 43.32
| lon_deg = 21.90 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 42.70
| lon_deg = 23.32 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 42.19
| lon_deg = 24.33 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| position = bottom
| lat_deg = 42.14
| lon_deg = 24.75 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 42.20
| lon_deg = 25.32 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 41.68
| lon_deg = 26.56 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Gallipoli
| position = right
| lat_deg = 40.41
| lon_deg = 26.67 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 38.35
| lon_deg = 28.52 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 37.83
| lon_deg = 29.11 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 38.36
| lon_deg = 31.42 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 37.87
| lon_deg = 32.49 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 37.18
| lon_deg = 33.22 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Seleucia
| position = bottom
| lat_deg = 36.40
| lon_deg = 33.86 }}
}}

====Hungary====
Frederick sailed from Regensburg on 11 May 1189, but most of the army had left earlier by land for the Hungarian border. On 16 May, Frederick ordered the village of [[Mauthausen, Upper Austria|Mauthausen]] burned because it had levied a toll on the army. In [[Vienna]], Frederick expelled 500 men from the army for various infractions. He celebrated [[Pentecost]] on 28 May encamped across from Hungarian [[Bratislava|Pressburg]]. During his four days encamped before Pressburg, Frederick issued an ordinance for the good behaviour of the army, a "law against malefactors" in words of one chronicle. It apparently had a good effect.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=488–489}}

From Pressburg, the Hungarian envoys escorted the crusaders to [[Esztergom]], where King [[Béla III of Hungary]] greeted them on 4 June. He provided boats, wine, bread and barley to the army. Frederick stayed in Esztergom for four days. The king of Hungary accompanied the army to the Byzantine border at [[Belgrade]]. There were incidents during the crossing of the [[Drava]] and [[Tisza]] rivers, but the [[Sava]] was crossed on 28 June without incident. In Belgrade, Frederick staged a tournament, held a court, conducted a census of the army and wrote to the Byzantine emperor [[Isaac II Angelos|Isaac II]] to inform him that he had entered Byzantine territory.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=489–490}}

====Byzantine Empire====
The army, still accompanied by Béla III, left Belgrade on 1 July, crossed the [[Great Morava|Morava]] and headed for [[Braničevo (Golubac)|Braničevo]], which was the seat of the local Byzantine administration since Belgrade had been devastated in the [[Byzantine–Hungarian War (1180–1185)]] with the Hungarians and Serbs. The head of the Byzantine administration was a ''[[Dux|doux]]'' (duke). At Braničevo, Béla III took leave and returned to Hungary. He gave the crusaders wagons and in return Frederick gave him his boats, since they would no longer be travelling up the Danube.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=490–491}}

The Burgundian contingent under Archbishop [[Aimo II of Tarentaise]] and a contingent from [[Metz]] caught up with the army at Braničevo. The duke of Braničevo gave the army eight days' worth of provisions. The enlarged army, including a Hungarian contingent, left Braničevo on 11 July following the [[Via Militaris]] that led to Constantinople. They were harassed by bandits along the route. According to crusader sources, some captured bandits confessed that they were acting on the orders of the duke of Braničevo.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=490–491}}

On 25 July, Frederick was in [[Ćuprija]] when he received word that [[Peter of Brixey]] had arrived in Hungary with the contingent from Lorraine. It was there that the problems of communication between Frederick and Isaac became apparent. Frederick's envoys had reached Constantinople, but Isaac was away besieging rebels in [[Alasehir|Philadelphia]] under a pretender named [[Theodore Mangaphas]]. Nonetheless, John Kamateros wrote to inform Frederick that a market would be available in [[Sofia]].{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=491–492}} It was probably from Ćuprija that Frederick sent another envoy, a Hungarian count named Lectoforus, to Constantinople to see what was going on.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=494}}

Frederick was welcomed by Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja in Niš with pomp on 27 July. Although the Serbian ruler asked the emperor to [[Investiture|invest]] him with his domains, Frederick refused on the grounds that he was on a pilgrimage and did not wish to harm Isaac as the Serbians rebelled against the Byzantines earlier. A marriage alliance was arranged between a daughter of Duke [[Berthold of Merania]] and a nephew of Nemanja, [[Toljen of Hum|Toljen]]. Frederick also received messages of support from Tsar [[Peter II of Bulgaria]], but refused an outright alliance. Despite Frederick's care not to be drawn into Balkan politics, the events at Niš were regarded by the Byzantines as hostile acts.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=491–492}}

Before leaving Niš, Frederick had Godfrey of Würzburg preach a sermon on the importance of discipline and maintaining the peace. He also reorganized the army, dividing it into four, because it would be entering territory more firmly under Byzantine control and less friendly. The vanguard of Swabians and Bavarians was put under the command of the Duke of Swabia assisted by [[Herman IV, Margrave of Baden|Herman IV of Baden]] and [[Berthold III of Vohburg]]. The second division consisted of the Hungarian and Bohemian contingents with their separate standard-bearers. The third was under the command of the Duke of Merania assisted by Bishop [[Diepold of Passau]]. The fourth was under Frederick's personal command and Rupert of Nassau was named its standard-bearer ''in absentia''.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=492–493}}

The crusaders left Niš on 30 July and arrived in Sofia on 13 August. They found the city practically abandoned. There was no Byzantine delegation to meet them and no market. The following day the crusaders left Sofia and the Lorrainers under Peter of Brixey finally caught up with the main army. The [[Gate of Trajan]] was held by a Byzantine force of 500 men. According to Diepold of Passau, the garrison retreated at the sight of Frederick's scouts, but the ''History of the Expedition'' says that it retreated only after being engaged by Frederick and a small group of knights. The army arrived at [[Pazardzhik]] on 20 August, finding an abundance of supplies.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=493–494}}

===Conflict with Byzantium===
Lectoforus met the army at Pazardzhik and informed Frederick of the disrespect shown to his envoys. On 24 August, the imperial army reached [[Plovdiv|Philippopolis]], the Byzantine forces in the area having fled at their approach. On 25 August, Lectoforus' report was confirmed: Hermann of Münster, Rupert of Nassau, Henry of Dietz and Markward von Neuenburg had been stripped of their possessions and openly mocked in presence of the Ayyubid ambassador. That same day, a Byzantine envoy, James of Pisa, arrived with a letter from Isaac, who referred to Frederick as "king of Germany", refusing him the imperial title, and accused him of plotting to put his son Frederick on the throne of Constantinople. He nonetheless offered to fulfill the agreement of December 1188 to ferry the crusaders across the [[Dardanelles]] if he received hostages (including Duke Frederick and six bishops) in addition to the envoys he had arrested. Frederick's response that he would consider the offer only after the envoys were released.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=494–495}}

According to the ''History of the Expedition'', the receipt of Isaac's letter marked a break in crusader–Byzantine relations. Thereafter, the crusaders resorted to plunder and a scorched earth policy. On 26 August, the crusaders seized Philippopolis and its plentiful supplies. Frederick tried to communicate with the nearest Byzantine commander, the ''[[protostrator]]'' [[Manuel Kamytzes]]. When he received no response, he attacked his army on 29 August, killing fifty. The following day (30 August) or a week later (6 September), Duke Frederick and Duke Berthold occupied [[Berrhoë]] unopposed. Henry of Kalden occupied a castle called Scribention, while Bishop Diepold and Duke Berthold took a further two towns and ten castles. At this point, the local [[Armenians|Armenian]] and [[Bulgars|Bulgarian]] population swore oaths to Frederick to supply the market in Philippopolis as long as the crusaders stayed. They remained there and in partial occupation of Macedonia until 5 November.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=494–495}}

Isaac ordered Kamytzes to shadow the crusaders and harass their foraging parties.{{sfn|Magoulias|1984|p=222}} About 22 November 1189, with some 2,000 horsemen, Kamytzes set up an ambush for the crusaders' supply train near Philippopolis. The crusaders were informed of this from the Armenian inhabitants of the fortress of [[Prousenos]], where Kamytzes had set up his main camp. They set out with 5,000 cavalry to attack the Byzantine camp. The two forces met by accident near Prousenos, and in the ensuing battle, Kamytzes was routed. The historian [[Niketas Choniates]], who was an eyewitness, writes that the Byzantines fled as far as [[Ohrid]], and that Kamytzes did not rejoin his men until three days after the battle.{{sfn|Magoulias|1984|pp=224–225}}

===Turkish territory===
After reaching Anatolia, Frederick was promised safe passage through the region by the Turkish Sultanate of Rum, but was faced instead with constant Turkish hit-and-run attacks on his army.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=102–103}} A Turkish army of 10,000 men was defeated at the [[Battle of Philomelion (1190)|Battle of Philomelion]] by 2,000 Crusaders, with 4,174–5,000 Turks slain.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=104}} After continued Turkish raids against the Crusader army, Frederick decided to replenish his stock of animals and foodstuffs by conquering the Turkish capital of [[Iconium]]. On 18 May 1190, the German army defeated its Turkish enemies at the [[Battle of Iconium (1190)|Battle of Iconium]], sacking the city and killing 3,000 Turkish troops.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=109–111}}

While crossing the [[Saleph River]] on 10 June 1190, Frederick's horse slipped, throwing him against the rocks; he then drowned in the river. After this, much of his army returned to Germany by sea in anticipation of the upcoming Imperial election. The Emperor's son, [[Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia|Frederick of Swabia]], led the remaining 5,000 men to [[Antioch]]. There, the Emperor's body was [[mos Teutonicus|boiled to remove the flesh]], which was interred in the [[Church of Saint Peter]]; his bones were put in a bag to continue the crusade. In Antioch, however, the German army was further reduced by fever.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=181}} Young Frederick had to ask the assistance of his kinsman [[Conrad of Montferrat]] to lead him safely to Acre, by way of Tyre, where his father's bones were buried. While the Imperial army did not achieve its objective of capturing Jerusalem, it did capture the capital of the Seljuk Sultanate and had inflicted considerable damage on Turkish forces, with more than 9,000 Turkish soldiers killed in all battles and skirmishes combined.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=97–111}}

==Maritime crusades==
{{further|Alvor massacre|Siege of Silves (1189)}}
There were two main international maritime expeditions that travelled independently of the main armies from northern European waters between the spring and autumn of 1189. In addition, there were probably numerous unrecorded sailings on a smaller scale. Some may have sailed as early as 1188.{{sfn|David|1939|p=666}}

The earlier of the two fleets departed England during Lent. It was already a large international fleet, including some 10,000 men and 50–60 ships from England, [[Denmark]], [[Frisian involvement in the Crusades|Frisia]], [[County of Flanders|Flanders]], [[County of Holland|Holland]] and the [[Rhineland]].{{sfn|Wilson|2020|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Mol|2002|p=94}} After a stop in [[Lisbon]], the fleet [[Alvor massacre|sacked Alvor]] and massacred its [[Almohad]] defenders.{{sfn|David|1939|p=666}}{{sfn|Wilson|2020|pp=1–2}} It arrived in Acre on 1 September.{{sfn|David|1939|p=664}}

The later of the two main fleets is the better recorded, since a short eyewitness account of its feats has survived, the ''[[De itinere navali]]''. It was composed mainly of commoners.{{sfn|David|1939|pp=603–604}} It departed from Germany in April with eleven ships, although this was augmented after it arrived in Lisbon in early July by an English fleet that had set out in May.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=193}}{{sfn|David|1939|pp=611–616}} It was recruited by King [[Sancho I of Portugal]] to assist in an attack on [[Silves, Portugal|Silves]]. At the ensuing [[siege of Silves (1189)|siege of Silves]], the fleet had 38 vessels, including two from [[Duchy of Brittany|Brittany]] and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]].{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=196–197}}{{sfn|David|1939|p=618}} The city capitulated after 45 days.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=202–203}} The second fleet arrived at Acre between April and June 1190.{{sfn|Hosler|2018|p=62}} According to the ''[[Narratio de primordiis ordinis theutonici]]'', wood and sail from its cogs was used to construct a field hospital, which ultimately became the [[Teutonic Order]].{{sfn|Morton|2009|p=10}}

According to the ''[[Al-Bayān|Bayān]]'' of [[Ibn Idhari]], a northern fleet fought a naval battle with the [[Almohad navy]] near the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] in the spring of 1190 and was defeated, with its men being either killed or captured. The fleet may have wintered in Portugal. This incident is not mentioned in Christian sources.{{sfn|David|1939|p=666}} In the summer of 1190, a lone English ship separated from its fleet sailed into Silves while the city was [[Siege of Silves (1190)|besieged by the Almohads]]. Upon the request of Bishop [[Nicholas (bishop of Silves and Viseu)|Nicholas]]—himself a former member of the 1189 expedition—the English crusaders participated in the successful defence.{{sfn|Lay|2009|p=157}}

==Richard and Philip's crusade==
[[Henry II of England]] and [[Philip II of France]] ended their war with each other in a meeting at [[Gisors]] in January 1188 and then both took the cross.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}} Both imposed a "[[Saladin tithe]]" on their citizens to finance the venture. (No such tithe had been levied in the Empire.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}}) In Britain, [[Baldwin of Forde]], the [[archbishop of Canterbury]], made a tour through Wales, convincing 3,000 men-at-arms to take up the cross, recorded in the ''Itinerary'' of [[Gerald of Wales]]. Baldwin would later accompany Richard on the Crusade and would die in the Holy Land.<ref>Hunt, William (1885). "[[wikisource:Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Baldwin (d.1190)|Baldwin (d. 1190)]]". In ''Dictionary of National Biography''. '''3.''' London. pp. 32–34.</ref>

===Passage===
King Henry II of England died on 6 July 1189. Richard succeeded him and immediately began raising funds for the crusade. In the meantime, some of his subjects departed in multiple waves by sea.<ref>{{cite ODNB | url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-98218 | isbn=978-0-19-861412-8 | doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/98218 | title=The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | year=2004 }}</ref> In April 1190, King Richard's fleet departed from [[Dartmouth, Devon|Dartmouth]] under the command of [[Richard de Camville]] and [[Robert IV de Sablé|Robert de Sablé]] on their way to meet their king in [[Marseille]]. Parts of this fleet helped the Portuguese monarch defeat an [[Almohad campaign against Portugal (1190–1191)|Almohad counterattack]] against [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] and [[Torres Novas]], while another group ransacked Christian [[Lisbon]], only to be routed by the Portuguese monarch.<ref>L. Villegas-Aristizábal, "Revisión de las crónicas de Ralph de Diceto y de la Gesta regis Ricardi sobre la participación de la flota angevina durante la Tercera Cruzada en Portugal", ''Studia Historica- Historia Medieval'' 27 (2009), pp. 153–170.</ref> Richard and Philip II met in France at [[Vézelay]] and set out together on 4 July 1190 as far as [[Lyon]] where they parted after agreeing to meet in Sicily; Richard with his retinue, said to number 800, marched to Marseille and Philip to [[Genoa]].<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0016.pdf Wolff and Hazard, p. 57]</ref> Richard arrived in Marseille and found that his fleet had not arrived; he quickly tired of waiting for them and hiring ships, left for Sicily on 7 August, visiting several places in Italy ''en route'' and arrived in [[Messina]] on 23 September. Meanwhile, the English fleet eventually arrived in Marseille on 22 August, and finding that Richard had gone, sailed directly to Messina, arriving before him on 14 September.<ref>Wolff and Hazard, p. 58</ref> Philip had hired a Genoese fleet to transport his army, which consisted of 650 knights, 1,300 horses, and 1,300 squires to the Holy Land by way of Sicily.<ref name="Phillips66">J. Phillips, ''The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople'', p. 66</ref>

[[File:Philip Augustus arriving in Palestine - British Library Royal MS 16 G vi f350vr (detail).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Philip II depicted arriving in Palestine, 1332–1350]]

[[William II of Sicily]] had died the previous year, and was replaced by [[Tancred, King of Sicily|Tancred]], who imprisoned [[Joan of England, Queen of Sicily|Joan of England]]—William's wife and King Richard's sister. Richard captured the city of [[Messina]] on 4 October 1190 and Joan was released. Richard and Philip fell out over the issue of Richard's marriage, as Richard had decided to marry [[Berengaria of Navarre]], breaking off his long-standing betrothal to Philip's half-sister [[Alys, Countess of the Vexin|Alys]]. Philip left Sicily directly for the Middle East on 30 March 1191 and arrived in Tyre in April; he joined the [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)|siege of Acre]] on 20 April.<ref>"Gesta Regis Ricard"</ref> Richard did not set off from Sicily until 10 April.

Shortly after setting sail from Sicily, King Richard's armada of 180 ships and 39 [[galley]]s was struck by a violent storm.<ref>Wolff and Hazard, p. 61</ref> Several ships ran aground, including one holding Joan, his new fiancée Berengaria and a large amount of treasure that had been amassed for the crusade. It was soon discovered that [[Isaac Dukas Comnenus]] of [[Cyprus]] had seized the treasure. The young women were unharmed. Richard entered [[Limassol]] on 6 May and met with Isaac, who agreed to return Richard's belongings and to send 500 of his soldiers to the Holy Land. Richard made camp at Limassol, where he received a visit from [[Guy of Lusignan]], the [[King of Jerusalem]], and married Berengaria, who was crowned queen. Once back at his fortress of [[Famagusta]], Isaac broke his oath of hospitality and began issuing orders for Richard to leave the island. Isaac's arrogance prompted Richard to conquer the island within days, leaving sometime before June.<ref>Gesta Regis Ricardi p. 139</ref> The anonymous chronicler of Béthune, however, offers the intriguing suggestion that Richard attacked Cyprus because Isaac was diverting the food supply from the Latin army at Acre.<ref>History of the Dukes p. 99</ref> Most modern scholars, however, accept that Richard's conquest of Cyprus was incidental.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neocleous |first=Savvas |date=2013 |title=Imaging Isaak Komnenos of Cyprus (1184-1191) and the Cypriots: Evidence from the Latin Historiography of the Third Crusade |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44173212 |journal=Byzantion |volume=83 |pages=297–337 |jstor=44173212 |issn=0378-2506}}</ref>

===Siege of Acre===
{{main|Siege of Acre (1189–91)}}
Saladin released King Guy from prison in 1189. Guy attempted to take command of the Christian forces at [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]], but Conrad of Montferrat held power there after his successful defence of the city from Muslim attacks. Guy turned his attention to the wealthy port of Acre. He amassed an army to besiege the city and received aid from Philip's newly arrived French army. The combined armies were not enough to counter Saladin, however, whose forces besieged the besiegers. In summer 1190, in one of the numerous outbreaks of disease in the camp, Queen Sibylla and her young daughters died. Guy, although only king by right of marriage, endeavoured to retain his crown, although the rightful heir was Sibylla's half-sister [[Isabella I of Jerusalem|Isabella]]. After a hastily arranged divorce from [[Humphrey IV of Toron]], Isabella was married to Conrad of Montferrat, who claimed the kingship in her name.

During the winter of 1190–91, there were further outbreaks of dysentery and fever, which claimed the lives of Frederick of Swabia, [[Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem]], and [[Theobald V of Blois]]. When the sailing season began again in spring 1191, [[Leopold V of Austria (Babenberg)|Leopold V of Austria]] arrived and took command of what remained of the imperial forces. Philip of France arrived with his troops from Sicily in May. A neighboring army under [[Leo I, King of Armenia|Leo II of Cilician Armenia]] also arrived.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Chahin|title=The Kingdom of Armenia: A History|publisher=Curzon Press|year=1987|isbn=0-7007-1452-9|page=245}}</ref>

Richard arrived at Acre on 8 June 1191 and immediately began supervising the construction of siege weapons to assault the city, which was captured on 12 July. Richard, Philip, and Leopold quarrelled over the spoils of the victory. Richard cast down the German standard from the city, slighting Leopold. In the struggle for the kingship of Jerusalem, Richard supported Guy, while Philip and Leopold supported Conrad, who was related to them both. It was decided that Guy would continue to rule but that Conrad would receive the crown upon his death. Frustrated with Richard (and in Philip's case, in poor health), Philip and Leopold took their armies and left the Holy Land in August. Philip left 7,000 French crusaders and 5,000 silver marks to pay them.<ref name = "McLynn219"/>

On 18 June 1191, soon after Richard's arrival at Acre, he sent a messenger to Saladin requesting a face to face meeting. Saladin refused, saying that it was customary for kings to meet each other only after a peace treaty had been agreed, and thereafter "it is not seemly for them to make war upon each other". The two therefore never met, although they did exchange gifts and Richard had a number of meetings with [[Al-Adil]], Saladin's brother.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gillingham|first1=John|title=Richard I|date=1999|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0300094043|pages=20–21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Q4lh8KLi1YC&pg=PA20}}</ref> Saladin tried to negotiate with Richard for the release of the captured Muslim soldier garrison, which included their women and children. On 20 August, however, Richard thought Saladin had delayed too much and had [[Massacre at Ayyadieh|2,700 of the Muslim prisoners decapitated]] in full view of Saladin's army, which tried unsuccessfully to rescue them.<ref>[[Marshall Hodgson]], ''[[The Venture of Islam]] Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 2''. [[The University of Chicago]], 1958, p. 267.</ref> Saladin responded by killing all of the Christian prisoners he had captured. Following the fall of Acre, the Crusaders recaptured some inland parts of Galilee, including [[Mi'ilya]] and [[Bi'ina]].<ref>Khamisy, p. 214</ref>

===Battle of Arsuf===
{{main|Battle of Arsuf}}
After the capture of Acre, Richard decided to march to the city of [[Jaffa]]. Control of Jaffa was necessary before an attack on Jerusalem could be attempted. On 7 September 1191, however, Saladin attacked Richard's army at [[Arsuf]], {{convert|30|mi|km|-1}} north of Jaffa. Saladin attempted to harass Richard's army into breaking its formation in order to defeat it in detail. Richard maintained his army's defensive formation, however, until the [[Knights Hospitaller|Hospitallers]] broke ranks to charge the right wing of Saladin's forces. Richard then ordered a general counterattack, which won the battle. Arsuf was an important victory. The Muslim army was not destroyed, despite losing 7,000<ref>7,000 dead according to the ''Itinerarium'' [http://www.yorku.ca/inpar/richard_of_holy_trinity.pdf trans. 2001] Book IV Ch. XIX, p. 185</ref> men, but it did rout; this was considered shameful by the Muslims and boosted the morale of the Crusaders. Arsuf had dented Saladin's reputation as an invincible warrior and proved Richard's courage as soldier and his skill as a commander. Richard was able to take, defend, and hold Jaffa, a strategically crucial move toward securing Jerusalem. By depriving Saladin of the coast, Richard seriously threatened his hold on Jerusalem.<ref>Oman, pp. 311–318</ref>

===Advances on Jerusalem and negotiations===
[[File:L'armée de Saladin.jpg|thumb|Saladin's troops, French manuscript, 1337]]

Following his victory at Arsuf, Richard took Jaffa and established his new headquarters there. He offered to begin negotiations with Saladin, who sent his brother, [[Al-Adil I|Al-Adil]] (known as 'Saphadin' to the Franks), to meet with Richard. Negotiations, which included attempts to marry Richard's sister Joan or niece [[Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany]] to Al-Adil respectively, failed, and Richard marched to [[Ascalon]], which had been recently demolished by Saladin.<ref>Nicolle, p. 83</ref><ref>[[:s:Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Joan (1165-1199)|Dictionary of National Biography, 1885–1900/Joan (1165–1199)]]</ref>

In November 1191 the Crusader army advanced inland towards Jerusalem. On 12 December Saladin was forced by pressure from his emirs to disband the greater part of his army. Learning this, Richard pushed his army forward, spending Christmas at Latrun. The army then marched to Beit Nuba, only 12 miles from Jerusalem. Muslim morale in Jerusalem was so low that the arrival of the Crusaders would probably have caused the city to fall quickly. Appallingly bad weather, cold with heavy rain and hailstorms, combined with fear that if the Crusader army besieged Jerusalem, it might be trapped by a relieving force, led to the decision to retreat back to the coast.<ref>Gillingham, pp. 198–200.</ref>

Richard called on Conrad to join him on campaign, but he refused, citing Richard's alliance with King Guy. He too had been negotiating with Saladin as a defence against any attempt by Richard to wrest Tyre from him for Guy. However, in April, Richard was forced to accept Conrad as king of Jerusalem after an election by the nobles of the kingdom. Guy had received no votes at all; Richard sold him Cyprus as compensation. Before he could be crowned, Conrad was stabbed to death by two [[Order of Assassins|Assassins]] in the streets of Tyre. Eight days later, Richard's nephew [[Henry II of Champagne]] married Queen Isabella, who was pregnant with Conrad's child. It was strongly suspected that the king's killers had acted on instructions from Richard.

During the winter months, Richard's men occupied and refortified Ascalon, whose fortifications had earlier been razed by Saladin. The spring of 1192 saw continued negotiations and further skirmishing between the opposing forces. On 22 May the strategically important fortified town of [[Deir al-Balah|Darum]] on the frontiers of Egypt fell to the crusaders, following five days of fierce fighting.<ref>Gillingham, p. 208</ref> The Crusader army made another advance on Jerusalem, and in June it came within sight of the city before being forced to retreat again, this time because of dissention amongst its leaders. In particular, Richard and the majority of the army council wanted to force Saladin to relinquish Jerusalem by attacking the basis of his power through an invasion of Egypt. The leader of the French contingent, the [[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy|Duke of Burgundy]], however, was adamant that a direct attack on Jerusalem should be made. This split the Crusader army into two factions, and neither was strong enough to achieve its objective. Richard stated that he would accompany any attack on Jerusalem but only as a simple soldier; he refused to lead the army. Without a united command the army had little choice but to retreat back to the coast.<ref>Gillingham, pp. 209–212</ref>

===Saladin's attempt to recapture Jaffa===
{{main|Battle of Jaffa (1192)}}
In July 1192, Saladin's army suddenly attacked and captured Jaffa with thousands of men, but Saladin lost control of his army due to their anger for the massacre at Acre. It is believed that Saladin even told the Crusaders to shield themselves in the [[Citadel]] until he had regained control of his army.

Richard had intended to return to England when he heard the news that Saladin and his army had captured Jaffa. Richard and a small force of little more than 2,000 men went to Jaffa by sea in a surprise attack. Richard's forces stormed Jaffa from their ships and the [[Ayyubids]], who had been unprepared for a naval attack, were driven from the city. Richard freed those of the Crusader garrison who had been made prisoner, and these troops helped to reinforce the numbers of his army. Saladin's army still had numerical superiority, however, and they counter-attacked. Saladin intended a stealthy surprise attack at dawn, but his forces were discovered; he proceeded with his attack, but his men were lightly armoured and lost 700 men due to the missiles of the large numbers of Crusader crossbowmen.<ref>Oman, p. 319</ref> The [[Battle of Jaffa (1192)|battle]] to retake Jaffa ended in complete failure for Saladin, who was forced to retreat. This battle greatly strengthened the position of the coastal Crusader states.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=71–72}}

On 2 September 1192, following his defeat at Jaffa, Saladin was forced to finalize a treaty with Richard providing that Jerusalem would remain under [[Muslim]] control, while allowing unarmed Christian [[pilgrim]]s and [[trade]]rs to visit the city. Ascalon was a contentious issue as it threatened communication between Saladin's dominions in Egypt and Syria; it was eventually agreed that Ascalon, with its defences demolished, be returned to Saladin's control. Richard departed the Holy Land on 9 October 1192.

==Outcome==
{{main|Treaty of Jaffa (1192)}}
The Third Crusade did not achieve the goal of re-capturing [[Jerusalem]]. However, it facilitated the continuation of the [[Crusader states]] that were on the brink of collapse, which was further reinforced by the capture of [[Kingdom of Cyprus#Third Crusade|Cyprus]]. After the treaty, the Muslims held most of Palestine and surrounding regions except a narrow strip from [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] to [[Jaffa]], which remained under the Christians. Inland, parts of Galilee were regained by the Crusaders and further south, control of [[Ramla]] and [[Lydda]] were to be divided between the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] and the Ayyubid Sultanate. The Muslims remained in control of [[Jerusalem]]. Christian and Muslim pilgrims could safely conduct pilgrimages to Jerusalem. A three year truce was also agreed upon by both sides. The Crusade itself has been described by historians as either a successful expedition, a failure, or hardly justified given the cost.<ref>Khamisy, p. 214</ref><ref>Marshall (1992), P. 21</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lane-Poole |first=Stanley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYRtAAAAQBAJ&q=treaty+of+ramla |title=A History of Egypt: Volume 6, In the Middle Ages |date=2013-10-03 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-06569-6 |language=en|page=The Holy war had lasted five years. Before the decisive victory at Hittin in July, 1187, not an inch of Palestine west of the Jordan was in Muslim hands. After the peace of Ramla in September, 1192, the whole land was Muslim territory except a narrow strip of coast from Tyre to Jaffa. To recover this strip the whole of Europe had risen in arms, and hundreds of thousands of Crusaders had fallen. The result hardly justified the cost}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kedar |first=Benjamin Z. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Osr_AwAAQBAJ&q=failure+of+the+third+crusade |title=Crusade and Mission: European Approaches Toward the Muslims |date=2014-07-14 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-5561-2 |language=en|page=114|quote=Thus, even after the failure of the Third Crusade Joachim did not discard the possibility of a future military expedition to Jerusalem.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Madden |first=Thomas F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qz0fAwAAQBAJ&q=third+crusade+christian+defeat |title=The Concise History of the Crusades |date=2014-03-16 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-3116-0 |language=en|page=97|quote=Despite its failures, the Third Crusade was by almost any measure a highly successful expedition. The Crusader Kingdom was healed of its divisions, restored to its coastal cities, and secured in a peace with its greatest enemy. Although he had failed to reclaim Jerusalem, Richard had put the Christians of the Levant back on their feet again.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-15 |title=Third Crusade {{!}} Summary, Significance, Key Events, Location, & Leaders {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Third-Crusade |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en|quote=Although the Third Crusade had failed in its main objective, to retake Jerusalem, it had been very successful in a myriad of other ways, not least in expunging most of the gains Saladin had made in the aftermath of his victory at Ḥaṭṭīn. Moreover, in regaining the coast, Richard gave the truncated kingdom of Jerusalem a lease on life for another century.}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
Neither side was entirely satisfied with the results of the war. Though Richard's victories had deprived the Muslims of important coastal territories and re-established a viable Frankish state in Palestine, many Christians in the Latin West felt disappointed that he had elected not to pursue the recapture of Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carroll |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yZvTLDOgc1EC&q=treaty+of+ramla |title=Jerusalem, Jerusalem: How the Ancient City Ignited Our Modern World |date=2011-03-09 |publisher=HMH |isbn=978-0-547-54905-7 |language=en|page=147}}</ref> Likewise, many in the Islamic world felt disturbed that Saladin had failed to drive the Christians out of Syria and Palestine. Trade flourished, however, throughout the [[Middle East]] and in port cities along the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coastline.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Crompton
| first = Samuel Willard
| title = The Third Crusade: Richard the Lionhearted vs. Saladin
| publisher = [[Infobase Publishing]]
| series = Great battles through the ages
| year = 2003
| page = [https://archive.org/details/thirdcrusaderich0000crom/page/64 64]
| url = https://archive.org/details/thirdcrusaderich0000crom/page/64
| isbn = 0-7910-7437-4
| url-access = registration
}}</ref>

Saladin's scholar and biographer [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad|Baha al-Din]] recounted Saladin's distress at the successes of the Crusaders:

<blockquote>"I fear to make peace, not knowing what may become of me. Our enemy will grow strong, now that they have retained these lands. They will come forth to recover the rest of their lands and you will see every one of them ensconced on his hill-top," meaning in his castle, "having announced, 'I shall stay put' and the Muslims will be ruined." These were his words and it came about as he said.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = al-Din
| first = Baha
| author2 = D.S. Richards
| title = The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin
| publisher = [[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate]]
| series = Crusade Texts in Translation
| volume = 7
| edition =
| year = 2002
| location = Burlington, VT; Hampshire, England
| page = [https://archive.org/details/rareexcellenthis00dsri/page/232 232]
| url = https://archive.org/details/rareexcellenthis00dsri/page/232
| isbn = 0-7546-3381-0
}}</ref></blockquote>

Richard was arrested and imprisoned in December 1192 by [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria]], who suspected Richard of murdering Leopold's cousin [[Conrad of Montferrat]]. Leopold had also been offended by Richard casting down his standard from the walls of Acre. He was later transferred to the custody of [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor]], and it took a ransom of one hundred and fifty thousand marks to obtain his release. Richard returned to [[England]] in 1194 and died of a crossbow bolt wound in 1199 at the age of 41 while suppressing a revolt in Limousin.

In 1193, Saladin died of yellow fever. His heirs would quarrel over the succession and ultimately fragment his conquests.

Henry of Champagne was killed in an accidental fall in 1197. Queen Isabella then married for a fourth time, to [[Amalric II of Jerusalem|Amalric of Lusignan]], who had succeeded his brother Guy, positioned as King of Cyprus. After their deaths in 1205, her eldest daughter [[Maria of Montferrat]] (born after her father's murder) succeeded to the throne of Jerusalem.

Accounts of events surrounding the Third Crusade were written by the anonymous authors of the ''[[Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi]]'' (a.k.a. the ''[[Itinerarium Regis Ricardi]]''), the ''Old French Continuation of William of Tyre'' (parts of which are attributed to [[Ernoul]]), and by [[Ambroise]], [[Roger of Howden]], [[Ralph of Diceto]], and [[Giraldus Cambrensis]].

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
===References===
{{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* Asbridge, T., ''The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land'' (London, 2010).
* {{cite book|last1=Bachrach|first1=Bernard S.|last2=Bachrach|first2=David S.|date=2017|title=Warfare in Medieval Europe c. 400 – c. 1453|location=Abingdon, Oxon|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1138887664}}
* [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad|Baha al-Din Ibn Shaddad]], ''The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin'', trans. D.S. Richards (Aldershot, 2001).
* {{cite book|last=Barber|first=Malcolm|title=The Crusader States|year=2012|publisher=Yale University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bz_O7-Lb_CsC|isbn=978-0300189315}}
* {{cite book |title=The Crusader World |editor-first=Adrian |editor-last=Boas |chapter=The Fall of Jerusalem (1187) as viewed from Byzantium |first=Michael |last=Angold |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 }}
* ''[[Libellus de expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum|De Expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum]]'', translated by James A. Brundage, in ''The Crusades: A Documentary Survey''. Marquette University Press, 1962.
* ''La Continuation de Guillaume de Tyr (1184–1192)'', edited by Margaret Ruth Morgan. L'[[Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres]], 1982.
* [[Ambroise]], ''The History of the Holy War'', translated by Marianne Ailes. Boydell Press, 2003.
* Bennett, Stephen. ''Elite Participation in the Third Crusade'' (Boydell & Brewer, 2021) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=57238 online review]
*{{cite book |first=Jim |last=Bradbury |title=Philip Augustus: King of France, 1180–1223 |orig-year=1998 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge}}
* ''Chronicle of the Third Crusade: a Translation of the Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi'', translated by Helen J. Nicholson. Ashgate, 1997.
*{{cite book |title=A German Third Crusader's Chronicle of His Voyage and the Siege of Almohad Silves, 1189 AD / Muwahid Xelb, 585 AH: De Itinere Navali |year=2013 |first=Dana |last=Cushing |publisher=Antinomy}}
*{{cite journal |author-link=Charles Wendell David |title=Narratio de Itinere Navali Peregrinorum Hierosolymam Tendentium et Silviam Capientium, A.D. 1189 |first=Charles Wendell |last=David |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=81 |issue=5 |year=1939 |pages=591–676 |jstor=985010}}
* {{cite book |ref=hrav |editor-last=Edbury |editor-first=Peter W. |title=The Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade: Sources in Translation |publisher=Ashgate |year=1998}}
* Edde, A-M., ''Saladin'', trans. J.M. Todd (London, 2011).
*{{cite book |last=Freed |first=John |year=2016 |title=Frederick Barbarossa: The Prince and the Myth |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |isbn=978-0-300-122763 }}
* Gabrieli, F., (ed.) ''Arab Historians of the Crusades'', English translation 1969, {{ISBN|0-520-05224-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gillingham |first=John |title=Richard the Lionheart |location=London |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |year=1978 |isbn=0-297-77453-0 }}
* {{cite journal|last=Hamilton|first=Bernard|title=The Elephant of Christ: Reynald of Châtillon|journal=[[Studies in Church History]]|number=15|year=1978|volume=15|pages=97–108|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/S0424208400008950|s2cid=163740720|issn=0424-2084}}
* Harris, Jonathan (2014), ''Byzantium and the Crusades'', Bloomsbury, 2nd ed. {{ISBN|978-1-78093-767-0}}.
* {{cite book |ref=hrav |editor-last=Shirley |editor-first=Janet |title= History of the Dukes of Normandy and the Kings of England by the Anonymous of Béthune: Crusade Texts in Translation |publisher=Routledge |year=2021}}
* {{cite book |last=Hosler|first=John| title=The Siege of Acre, 1189–1191: Saladin, Richard the Lionheart, and the Battle that Decided the Third Crusade |year=2018 |publisher=Yale University Press|isbn= 978-0-30021-550-2 }}
* Hurlock, Kathryn (2013), ''Britain, Ireland and the Crusades, c. 1000–1300'', Basingstoke: Palgrave
*{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Lay |title=The Reconquest Kings of Portugal: Political and Cultural Reorientation on the Medieval Frontier |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009}}
* {{Cite book |last=Loud |first=G. A. |title=The Crusade of Frederick Barbarossa: The History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick and Related Texts|publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |location=[[Farnham, Surrey]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0754665755}}
* Lyons, M.C. & D.E.P Jackson, ''Saladin: Politics of the Holy War'' (Cambridge, 2001).
* Khamisy, Rabei, G. (2016) "Western Upper Galilee Under crusader Rule" in ''The Crusader World'', Boas, Adrian, J. (ed.), Routledge, Abingdon pp. 212–224.
* {{cite book | editor-last=Magoulias | editor-first=Harry J. | title=O City of Byzantium. Annals of Niketas Choniates | location=Detroit | publisher=Wayne State University Press | year=1984 | isbn=0-8143-1764-2}}
*{{cite book |first=Christopher |last=Marshall |title=Warfare in the Latin East, 1192–1291 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992}}
*{{cite journal |first=Johannes A. |last=Mol |title=Frisian Fighters and the Crusades |pages=89–110 |year=2002 |journal=Crusades |volume=1|doi=10.1080/28327861.2002.12220535 |hdl=20.500.11755/5490e290-3c18-4adc-8376-65ac10541dfc |s2cid=161825224 |url=https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/458624/Frisian_Fighters_and_the_Crusade.pdf }}
*{{cite book |first=Nicholas Edward |last=Morton |title=The Teutonic Knights in the Holy Land, 1190–1291 |publisher=The Boydell Press |year=2009}}
* {{Cite book |author-link=David Nicolle |last=Nicolle |first=David |title=The Third Crusade 1191: Richard the Lionheart and the Battle for Jerusalem |series=Osprey Campaign |volume=161 |location=Oxford |publisher=Osprey |year=2005 |isbn=1-84176-868-5 }}
* Oman, C.W.C., (1924) ''A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages'' Vol. I, 378–1278 AD. London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, reprinted in 1998.
* {{Cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|author-link=Steven Runciman|title=A History of the Crusades, Volume Two: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100–1187|year=1952|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QL88AAAAIAAJ|isbn=978-0521347716}}
* {{Cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|title=A History of the Crusades, Volume Three: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades|year=1954|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mrw8AAAAIAAJ|isbn=978-0521347723}}
* {{Setton-A History of the Crusades | volume = 2}}
* Spencer, Stephen J. "The Third Crusade in historiographical perspective" ''History Compass'' (June 2021) vol 19#7 [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/hic3.12662?campaign=woletoc online]
* {{cite book|last=Tyerman|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Tyerman|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades|publisher=[[Belknap Press]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-674-02387-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ULDUopVCVPoC}}
* Villegas-Aristizabal, L., [http://campus.usal.es/~revistas_trabajo/index.php/Studia_H_Historia_Medieval/article/viewFile/7639/7688 ''Revisión de las crónicas de Ralph de Diceto y de la Gesta regis Ricardi sobre la participación de la flota angevina durante la Tercera Cruzada en Portugal''], ''Studia Historica – Historia Medieval'' 27 (2009), pp. 153–170.
* Villegas-Aristizabal, Lucas, 2007, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110718171218/http://etheses.nottingham.ac.uk/283/2/Norman_and_AngloNorman.pdf ''The Norman and Anglo-Norman Participation in the Iberian Reconquista, c. 1018–1248''], Phd Thesis, Nottingham: University of Nottingham.
*{{cite journal |first=Jonathan |last=Wilson |title='Neither age nor sex sparing': The Alvor Massacre 1189, an Anomaly in the Portuguese ''Reconquista''? |journal=Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies |doi=10.1080/17546559.2019.1704043 |volume=12 |year=2020 |issue=2 |pages=1–31 [199–229]|s2cid=214374323 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Third Crusade}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547ls Third Crusade], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Jonathan Riley-Smith, Carole Hillenbrand and Tariq Ali (''In Our Time'', Nov. 29, 2001)

{{English military history}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Third Crusade| ]]
[[Category:12th-century crusades]]
[[Category:1180s conflicts]]
[[Category:1190s conflicts]]
[[Category:Richard I of England]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Ayyubid Sultanate]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Republic of Genoa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Kingdom of Cyprus]]
[[Category:Wars involving England]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Republic of Pisa]]
[[Category:Wars involving France]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Holy Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire–Holy Roman Empire relations]]
[[Category:1180s in Asia]]
[[Category:1190s in Asia]]
[[Category:1180s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:1190s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:1180s in the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:1190s in the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Nizari Ismaili state]]
[[Category:Wars in the Land of Israel]]

Third Crusade

2024-02-20T01:07:55Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Background */

{{Short description|1189–1192 attempted re-conquest of the Holy Land}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = The Third Crusade
| partof = the [[Crusades]]
| image = The Third Crusade (1189-1192).png
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Map showing the routes of the crusader armies
| date = 11 May 1189 – 2 September 1192
| place = [[Levant]], [[Sicily]], [[Iberia]], [[Balkans]] and [[Anatolia]]
| territory =
| result = See [[Third Crusade#Outcome|outcome]]
* [[Treaty of Jaffa (1192)|Treaty of Jaffa]]
| combatant1 = '''[[Crusades|Crusade]]:''' 
{{Collapsible list|title=[[Angevin Empire]]|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Kingdom of England]]
* [[Duchy of Normandy]]
* [[Duchy of Aquitaine]]
* [[County of Anjou]]
* [[County of Poitou]]
* [[Duchy of Brittany]]
}}
{{Collapsible list|title=[[France in the Middle Ages|Kingdom of France]]|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Duchy of Burgundy]]
* [[County of Blois]]
* [[County of Champagne]]
* [[County of Flanders]]}}
{{Collapsible list|title=[[Holy Roman Empire]]|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Duchy of Swabia]]
* [[Duchy of Austria]]
* [[Duchy of Bohemia]]
* [[Landgraviate of Thuringia]]
* [[Margraviate of Brandenburg]]
* [[March of Montferrat|Margraviate of Montferrat]]
* [[Margraviate of Baden]]
* [[County of Holland]]
* [[County of Holstein]]
}}{{Plainlist|
* [[Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)|Kingdom of Hungary]]
* [[Republic of Genoa]]
* [[Kingdom of Navarre]]
* [[Kingdom of Leon]]
* [[Republic of Pisa]]
* [[Danish Realm|Kingdom of Denmark]]}}
'''Levantine [[Crusader states]]:''' 
*[[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
*[[County of Tripoli]]
*[[Principality of Antioch]]
{{Collapsible list|title='''[[Military order (society)|Military orders]]'''|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Knights Templar]]
* [[Knights Hospitaller]]
* [[Teutonic Order]]
* [[Order of the Holy Sepulchre]]
* [[Order of Mountjoy]]
* [[Order of Saint Lazarus|Order of St Lazarus]]
}}
'''[[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] allies:'''
{{plainlist|
* [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Armenian Principality of Cilicia]]}}
| combatant2 = '''[[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslim]] states:'''
{{Collapsible list|title=[[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid Sultanate]]|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Sultan of Egypt|Sultanate of Egypt]]
* [[List of Ayyubid rulers#Sultans and Emirs of Damascus|Emirate of Damascus]]
* [[List of Ayyubid rulers#Emirs of Hamah|Emirate of Hamah]]
* [[List of Ayyubid rulers#Emirs of Mesopotamia|Emirate of Mesopotamia]]
}}[[Sultanate of Rûm|Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm]]
<hr />
'''[[Shia Islam|Shia Muslim]] states:'''
[[Nizari Ismaili state]] (the [[Order of Assassins|Assassins]])<hr />
'''[[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] opponents:'''
{{plainlist|
* [[Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty|Byzantine Empire]]
* [[Cyprus (theme)|Cyprus]]
}}
| commander1 = '''Crusaders:'''
*[[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]]
*[[Philip II of France|Philip Augustus]]
**[[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy|Hugh III of Burgundy]]{{KIA}}
** [[Theobald V, Count of Blois|Theobald V of Blois]]{{KIA}}
**[[Henry II, Count of Champagne|Henry II of Champagne]]
**[[Philip I, Count of Flanders|Philip of Flanders]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
* [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]]
** [[Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia|Frederick VI of Swabia]]{{KIA}}
** [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria|Leopold V of Austria]]
** [[Děpolt II|Děpolt of Bohemia]]{{KIA}}
** [[Louis III, Landgrave of Thuringia|Louis III of Thuringia]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
** [[Floris III, Count of Holland|Floris III of Holland]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
** [[Herman IV, Margrave of Baden|Herman IV of Baden]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
** [[Adolf III, Count of Holstein|Adolf III of Holstein]]
** [[Markward von Annweiler]]
* [[Géza, son of Géza II of Hungary|Prince Géza of Hungary]]
* [[Rodrigo Alvarez]]
* [[Margaritus of Brindisi]]
'''Levantine Crusader states:'''
* [[Guy of Lusignan]]
* [[Sibylla, Queen of Jerusalem|Sibylla of Jerusalem]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
* [[Conrad of Montferrat]]{{Assassinated|bold=no}}
* [[Humphrey IV of Toron]]
* [[Balian of Ibelin]]
* [[Bohemond IV of Antioch]]
* [[Joscelin III, Count of Edessa|Joscelin III of Edessa]]{{KIA}}
'''Military orders:'''
* [[Robert IV de Sablé|Robert de Sablé]]
* [[Armengol de Aspa]]
* [[Garnier de Nablus]]
* [[Master Sibrand]]
'''Eastern Christian allies:'''
* [[Leo I, King of Armenia|Leo of Armenia]]
| commander2 = '''Sunni Muslim forces:'''
* [[Saladin]]
** [[Al-Muzaffar Umar]]
** [[Al-Adil I]]
** [[Al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din|Al-Afdal]]
** [[Gökböri]]
* [[Kilij Arslan II]]
** [[Kaykhusraw I]]
<hr />
'''Eastern Christian opponents:'''
* [[Isaac II Angelos]]
* [[Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus|Isaac Komnenos]]
| strength1 = 36,000–74,000 troops in total (estimate)
* 8,000–9,000 Angevin (English, Normans, Aquitanians, Welsh, Navarrese, etc.) troops with Richard I,<ref name = "McLynn219">Frank McLynn. ''Richard and John: Kings at War''. p. 219.</ref> up to 17,000 or 50,000 according to some sources including non-combatants and sailors<ref>Tyerman, p. 436</ref>
* 7,000+ French with Phillip II (inc. 650 knights and 1,300 squires)<ref name = "McLynn219"/>
* 12,000–20,000 Germans with Frederick I (inc. 3–4,000 knights){{sfn|Loud|2010|p= 19}}{{sfn|Bachrach|Bachrach|2017|p=197}}
* 2,000 Hungarians with Géza<ref>Hunyadi, Zsolt (2011), ''A keresztes háborúk világa'', p. 41.</ref>
Two additional contingents also joined Frederick's army while travelling through Byzantine Empire. Numbered about 1000 men.
* From 7,000<ref>McLynn, p. 219: breakdown includes 2,000 Outremer levies, 1,000 Templars and Hospitallers, 2,000 Genoese and Pisans, and 2,000 Danes, Norwegians, and Turcopoles.</ref> to 40,000{{sfn|Hosler|2018|pp=72–73}} from the rest of Europe and Outremer
| strength2 = '''Ayyubids''': 40,000 (Saladin's field army, 1189 – estimate){{Sfn|Hosler|2018|p=54}} 5,000–20,000 (Acre's garrison, 1189){{Sfn|Hosler|2018|p=34}}<ref>Pryor, John H. (2015). "A Medieval Siege of Troy: The Fight to the Death at Acre, 1189–1191 or The Tears of Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn". In Halfond, Gregory I. (ed.). ''The Medieval Way of War: Studies in Medieval Military History in Honor of Bernard S. Bachrach''. Farnham: Ashgate. p. 108.</ref> '''Seljuks''': 22,000+ (Qutb al-Din's field army only, 1190)<ref name=Tyerman3>Tyerman p. 422: "After desperate fighting involving the Emperor himself, the Turks outside the city were defeated [by the Imperial and Hungarian army], apparently against numerical odds."</ref><ref>Loud 2010, p. 104: The Seljuks lost 5,000+ men per their own body count estimates on May 7, 1190, soon before the Battle of Iconium.</ref>
| strength3 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| casualties3 =
| notes =
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Third Crusade}}
{{Campaignbox Crusades}}
}}

The '''Third Crusade''' (1189–1192) was an attempt led by three European monarchs of [[Latin Christianity|Western Christianity]] ([[Philip II of France]], [[Richard I of England]] and [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]]) to reconquer the [[Holy Land]] following the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|capture of Jerusalem]] by the [[Ayyubid]] sultan [[Saladin]] in 1187. For this reason, the Third Crusade is also known as the '''Kings' Crusade'''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Third Crusade|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Third_Crusade/|access-date=2021-04-09|website=World History Encyclopedia|language=en}}</ref>

It was partially successful, recapturing the important cities of [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)|Acre]] and [[Battle of Jaffa (1192)|Jaffa]], and reversing most of Saladin's conquests, but it failed to recapture Jerusalem, which was the major aim of the Crusade and its religious focus.

After the failure of the [[Second Crusade]] of 1147–1149, the [[Zengid dynasty]] controlled a unified [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Syria]] and engaged in a conflict with the [[Fatimid dynasty|Fatimid]] rulers of [[Egypt in the Middle Ages|Egypt]]. Saladin ultimately brought both the Egyptian and Syrian forces under his own control, and employed them to reduce the [[Crusader states]] and to recapture Jerusalem in 1187. Spurred by religious zeal, King [[Henry II of England]] and King Philip II of France (later known as "Philip Augustus") ended their conflict with each other to lead a new crusade. The death of Henry (6 July 1189), however, meant the English contingent came under the command of his successor, King Richard I of England. The elderly German Emperor Frederick Barbarossa also responded to the call to arms, leading a massive army across the Balkans and Anatolia. He achieved some victories against the [[Sultanate of Rûm|Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm]], but he died whilst crossing a river on 10 June 1190 before reaching the Holy Land. His death caused tremendous grief among the German Crusaders, and most of his troops returned home.

After the Crusaders had driven the Ayyubid army from Acre, Philip—in company with Frederick's successor in command of the German crusaders, [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria]]—left the Holy Land in August 1191. Following a major victory by the Crusaders at the [[Battle of Arsuf]], most of the coastline of the [[Levant]] was returned to Christian control. On 2 September 1192 Richard and Saladin finalized the [[Treaty of Jaffa (1192)|Treaty of Jaffa]], which recognised Muslim control over Jerusalem but allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims and merchants to visit the city. Richard departed the Holy Land on 9 October 1192. The military successes of the Third Crusade allowed the Christians to maintain considerable states in [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus]] and on the Syrian coast, restoring the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] on a narrow strip from [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] to [[Jaffa]].

The failure to re-capture Jerusalem inspired the subsequent [[Fourth Crusade]] of 1202–1204, but Europeans would only regain the city—and only briefly—in the [[Sixth Crusade]] in 1229.
{{toclimit|3}}

==Background==
{{main|Battle of Hattin|Siege of Jerusalem (1187)}}
[[File:Crusader States 1190.svg|thumb|The Near East, c. 1190, at the inception of the Third Crusade]]

King [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]] died in 1185, leaving the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] to his nephew [[Baldwin V]], whom he had crowned as co-king in 1183. Count [[Raymond III of Tripoli]] again served as regent. The following year, Baldwin V died before his ninth birthday, and his mother, [[Sibylla of Jerusalem|Sybilla]], sister of Baldwin IV, crowned herself queen and her husband, [[Guy of Lusignan]], king. [[Raynald of Châtillon]], who had supported Sybilla's claim to the throne, raided a rich caravan travelling from Egypt to Syria, and had its travelers thrown in prison, thereby breaking a truce between the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Saladin.{{sfn|Hamilton|1978|pp=106–107}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=297}} Saladin demanded the release of the prisoners and their cargo. The newly crowned King Guy appealed to Raynald to give in to Saladin's demands, but Raynald refused to follow the king's orders.

This final act of outrage by Raynald gave Saladin the opportunity he needed to take the offensive against the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and in 1187 he laid siege to the city of [[Tiberias]]. Raymond advised patience, but Guy, acting on advice from Raynald, marched his army to the [[Hittin|Horns of Hattin]] outside of Tiberias. Saladin's forces fought the Frankish army, thirsty and demoralized, and destroyed it in the ensuing [[Battle of Hattin]] (July 1187).

Guy and Raynald were brought to Saladin's tent, where Guy was offered a goblet of water because of his great thirst. Guy took a drink and then passed the goblet to Raynald. Raynald's having received the goblet from Guy rather than from Saladin meant that Saladin would not be forced to offer protection to the treacherous Raynald (custom prescribed that if one were personally offered a drink by the host, one's life was safe). When Raynald accepted the drink from Guy's hands, Saladin told his interpreter, "say to the King: 'it is you who have given him to drink'".<ref>Lyons, Malcolm Cameron and D. E. P. Jackson, ''Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 264.</ref> Afterwards, Saladin beheaded Raynald for past betrayals. Saladin honored tradition with Guy, sending him to Damascus and eventually allowing him to be ransomed by his people.

By the end of 1187 Saladin had taken [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] and [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|Jerusalem]]. Christians would not hold the city of Jerusalem again until 1229.<ref>{{cite book|last= Riley-Smith|first= Jonathan|title= What were the Crusades?|date= 2009|publisher= Ignatius Press|page= 15|isbn= 9781137013927|edition= Fourth|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6-QcBQAAQBAJ|access-date= 6 August 2020|quote= The city of Jerusalem was lost to Saladin in 1187 and was to be held by the Christians again only from 1229 to 1244.}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Pope [[Urban III]] is said to have collapsed and died (October 1187) upon hearing the news of the [[Battle of Hattin]].<ref>
Hans E. Mayer, ''The Crusades''. [[Oxford University Press]], 1965 (trans. John Gillingham, 1972), p. 139.</ref>

The new pope, [[Gregory VIII]], in the bull ''[[Audita tremendi]]'' dated 29 October 1187, interpreted the capture of Jerusalem as punishment for the sins of Christians across Europe. In the bull, he called for a new crusade to the [[Holy Land]].<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/10.1484/J.VIATOR.5.119574 | doi=10.1484/J.VIATOR.5.119574 | title=''Audita Tremendi'' and the Call for the Third Crusade Reconsidered, 1187–1188 | date=2018 | last1=Smith | first1=Thomas W. | journal=Viator | volume=49 | issue=3 | pages=63–101 | s2cid=216914511 }}</ref>

==Barbarossa's crusade==
The crusade of [[Frederick Barbarossa]], [[Holy Roman Emperor]], was "the most meticulously planned and organized" yet.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}} Frederick was sixty-six years old when he set out.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=512}} Two accounts dedicated to his expedition survive: the ''[[Historia de expeditione Friderici imperatoris|History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick]]'' and the ''[[History of the Pilgrims]]''. There is also a short tract, the ''[[Letter on the Death of the Emperor Frederick]]''.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=7–8}}

===Taking the cross===
On 27 October 1187, just over three weeks after Saladin's capture of Jerusalem, Pope Gregory VIII sent letters to the German episcopate announcing his election and ordering them to win the German nobility over to a new crusade. Around 23 November, Frederick received letters that had been sent to him from the rulers of the Crusader states in the East urging him to come to their aid.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}}

By 11 November, Cardinal [[Henry of Marcy]] had been appointed to preach the crusade in Germany. He preached before Frederick and a public assembly in [[Strasbourg]] around 1 December, as did Bishop [[Henry of Hasenburg|Henry of Strasbourg]]. About 500 knights took the cross at Strasbourg, but Frederick demurred on the grounds of his ongoing conflict with Archbishop [[Philip I (archbishop of Cologne)|Philip of Cologne]]. He did, however, send envoys to Philip of France (at the time his ally) to urge him to take the cross. On 25 December, Frederick and Philip met in person on the border between [[Ivois]] and [[Mouzon, Ardennes|Mouzon]] in the presence of Henry of Marcy and [[Joscius, Archbishop of Tyre]], but he could not convince Philip to go on a crusade because he was at war with England.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}}

Frederick held [[Curia Christi|a diet in Mainz]] on 27 March 1188. Because of its purpose, he named the diet the "Court of Christ". The archbishop of Cologne submitted to Frederick and peace was restored to the empire. Bishop [[Godfrey of Spitzenberg|Godfrey of Würzburg]] preached a crusade sermon and Frederick, at the urging of the assembly, took the cross. He was followed by his son, Duke [[Frederick VI of Swabia]],{{efn|Frederick's eldest son, [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]], who had already been elected [[king of the Romans]], was to remain behind as regent. On 10 April 1189, Frederick wrote to Pope Clement III asking for a postponement of Henry's planned coronation as co-emperor because he did not want Henry to leave Germany during the regency.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=479}} Frederick formally appointed his son as regent at Regensburg on the eve of his departure.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}}}} and by Duke [[Frederick of Bohemia]],{{efn|The duke of Bohemia died before the crusade began.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}}}} Duke [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria|Leopold V of Austria]], Landgrave [[Louis III of Thuringia]]{{efn|Both Leopold V and Louis III sailed with their armies from Italy rather than march overland with Frederick.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}} Leopold was delayed by a border dispute with Hungary.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=488}}}} and a host of lesser nobles.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=472–473}}

After taking the cross, Frederick proclaimed a "general expedition against the pagans" in accordance with the pope's instructions. He set the period of preparation as 17 April 1188 to 8 April 1189 and scheduled the army to assemble at [[Regensburg]] on [[Saint George's Day]] (23 April 1189). To prevent the crusade from degenerating into an undisciplined mob, participants were required to have at least three [[Mark (currency)|marks]], which was enough to be able support oneself for two years.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=472–473}}

===Protecting the Jews===
At Strasbourg, Frederick imposed a small tax on the [[History of the Jews in Germany|Jews of Germany]] to fund the crusade. He also put the Jews under his protection and forbade anyone to preach against the Jews.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}} The First and Second Crusades in Germany had been marred by [[Rhineland massacres|violence against the Jews]]. The Third Crusade itself occasioned an outbreak of [[12th century English pogroms|violence against the Jews in England]]. Frederick successfully prevented a repetition of those events inside Germany.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=473–474}}

On 29 January 1188, a mob invaded the Jewish quarter in Mainz and many Jews fled to the imperial [[Münzenberg Castle|castle of Münzenberg]]. There were further incidents connected with the "Court of Christ" in March. According to Rabbi Moses ha-Cohen of Mainz,{{efn|Moses's account is known from a letter he wrote to his brother-in-law, [[Eleazar of Worms]].{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=473–474}}}} there were minor incidents from the moment people began arriving for the Court of Christ on 9 March. This culminated in a mob gathering to invade the Jewish quarter on 26 March. It was dispersed by the imperial marshal [[Henry of Kalden]]. The rabbi then met with the emperor, which resulted in an imperial edict threatening maiming or death for anyone who maimed or killed a Jew. On 29 March, Frederick and the rabbi then rode through the streets together to emphasise that the Jews had imperial protection. Those Jews who had fled in January returned at the end of April.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=473–474}}

===Diplomatic preparations===
Shortly after the Strasbourg assembly, Frederick dispatched legates to negotiate the passage of his army through their lands: Archbishop [[Conrad of Wittelsbach|Conrad of Mainz]] to Hungary, [[Godfrey of Wiesenbach]] to the Seljuk sultanate of Rûm and an unnamed ambassador to the Byzantine Empire. He may also have sent representatives to Prince [[Leo I, King of Armenia|Leo II of Armenia]].{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=480}}

Because Frederick had signed a treaty of friendship with Saladin in 1175,{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=355}} he felt it necessary to give Saladin notice of the termination of their alliance.{{efn|There is a published correspondence, almost certainly forged, between Frederick and Saladin concerning the end of their friendship.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=626 n.44}}}} On 26 May 1188, he sent Count [[Henry II of Dietz]] to present an ultimatum to Saladin. The sultan was ordered to withdraw from the lands he had conquered, to return the [[True Cross]] to the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] and to make satisfaction for those Christians who had been killed in his conquests, otherwise Frederick would abrogate their treaty.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=480–481}}

A few days after Christmas 1188, Frederick received Hungarian, Byzantine, Serbian, Seljuk and possibly Ayyubid envoys in [[Nuremberg]]. The Hungarians and Seljuks promised provisions and safe-conduct to the crusaders. The envoys of [[Stefan Nemanja]], grand prince of Serbia, announced that their prince would receive Frederick in [[Niš]]. An agreement was reached with the Byzantine envoy, [[John Kamateros (logothetes tou dromou)|John Kamateros]], but it required Godfrey of Würzburg, Frederick of Swabia and Leopold of Austria to swear oaths for the crusaders' good behaviour. Bishop [[Hermann of Katzenelnbogen|Hermann of Münster]], Count [[Rupert III of Nassau]], the future [[Henry III of Dietz]] and the imperial chamberlain [[Markward von Neuenburg]] with a large entourage{{efn|Sources give their entourage as 100, 300 or 500 knights.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=481}}}} were sent ahead to make preparations in Byzantium.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=480–481}}

===Mustering an army===
At the Strasbourg assembly in December 1187, Bishop Godfrey of Würzburg urged Frederick to sail his army to the Holy Land rather than proceed overland. Frederick declined{{efn|The emperor had been on the Second Crusade in 1147 and so was familiar with the overland route.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=51–53}}}} and Pope [[Clement III]] even ordered Godfrey not to discuss it further. Ultimately, many Germans ignored the rendezvous at Regensburg and went to the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], hoping to sail to the Holy Land on their own. Frederick wrote to King [[William II of Sicily]] asking him to bar such sailings. The emperor and the pope may have feared that Saladin would soon seize all the crusader ports.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=480}}

Frederick was the first of the three kings to set out for the Holy Land. On 15 April 1189 in [[Haguenau]],{{efn|This place may have had personal significance for Frederick.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}} It was the closest place Frederick, an [[itinerant king]], had to a home and may also have been where he was born.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=9–10}}}} Frederick formally and symbolically accepted the staff and scrip of a pilgrim.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}} He arrived in Regensburg for the muster between 7 and 11 May.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=486}} The army had begun to gather on 1 May. Frederick was disappointed by the small force awaiting him, but he was dissuaded from calling off the enterprise when he learned that an international force had already advanced to the Hungarian border and was waiting for the imperial army.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}}

Frederick set out on 11 May 1189 with an army of 12,000–20,000 men, including 2,000–4,000 knights.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=19}}<ref>Frank McLynn, "Richard and John: Kings at War," 2007, page 174.</ref>{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=487–488}}{{sfn|Bachrach|Bachrach|2017|p=197}} Contemporary chroniclers gave a range of estimates for Frederick's army, from 10,000 to 600,000 men,{{efn|Christian estimates of the size of Frederick's army vary from 13,000 to 100,000, while Muslim sources wildly exaggerate its size from 200,000 to 300,000.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=487–488}}}} including 4,000–20,000 knights.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=19}}{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=45}}<ref name=Tyerman2>Tyerman p. 418</ref><ref name = "Phillips66"/> After leaving Germany, Frederick's army was increased by the addition of a contingent of 2,000 men led by the Hungarian prince [[Géza, son of Géza II of Hungary|Géza]], the younger brother of the King [[Béla III of Hungary]], and Bishop [[Ugrin Csák, Archbishop of Esztergom|Ugrin Csák]].<ref name="Konstam124">A. Konstam, ''Historical Atlas of The Crusades'', 124</ref> Two contingents from the Empire, a [[Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles|Burgundian]] and a [[Duchy of Lorraine|Lorrainer]], also joined the army during its transit of Byzantium. The army that Frederick led into Muslim territory was probably larger than the one with which he had left Germany.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=487–488}}

===Passage through the Balkans===
{{Location map+
| Europe without the extreme north
| width = 250
| float =
| border =
| caption = Key stops along the route of Barbarossa's crusade from his taking the cross to his death
| alt =
| places =
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Haguenau
| position = left
| lat_deg = 48.82
| lon_deg = 7.78 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Regensburg
| position = top
| lat_deg = 49.01
| lon_deg = 12.10 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 48.24
| lon_deg = 14.52 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 48.2
| lon_deg = 16.37 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 48.15
| lon_deg = 17.11 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Esztergom
| position = right
| lat_deg = 47.79
| lon_deg = 18.74 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Belgrade
| position = left
| lat_deg = 44.81
| lon_deg = 20.46 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 44.70
| lon_deg = 21.54 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 43.93
| lon_deg = 21.38 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 43.32
| lon_deg = 21.90 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 42.70
| lon_deg = 23.32 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 42.19
| lon_deg = 24.33 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| position = bottom
| lat_deg = 42.14
| lon_deg = 24.75 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 42.20
| lon_deg = 25.32 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 41.68
| lon_deg = 26.56 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Gallipoli
| position = right
| lat_deg = 40.41
| lon_deg = 26.67 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 38.35
| lon_deg = 28.52 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 37.83
| lon_deg = 29.11 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 38.36
| lon_deg = 31.42 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 37.87
| lon_deg = 32.49 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 37.18
| lon_deg = 33.22 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Seleucia
| position = bottom
| lat_deg = 36.40
| lon_deg = 33.86 }}
}}

====Hungary====
Frederick sailed from Regensburg on 11 May 1189, but most of the army had left earlier by land for the Hungarian border. On 16 May, Frederick ordered the village of [[Mauthausen, Upper Austria|Mauthausen]] burned because it had levied a toll on the army. In [[Vienna]], Frederick expelled 500 men from the army for various infractions. He celebrated [[Pentecost]] on 28 May encamped across from Hungarian [[Bratislava|Pressburg]]. During his four days encamped before Pressburg, Frederick issued an ordinance for the good behaviour of the army, a "law against malefactors" in words of one chronicle. It apparently had a good effect.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=488–489}}

From Pressburg, the Hungarian envoys escorted the crusaders to [[Esztergom]], where King [[Béla III of Hungary]] greeted them on 4 June. He provided boats, wine, bread and barley to the army. Frederick stayed in Esztergom for four days. The king of Hungary accompanied the army to the Byzantine border at [[Belgrade]]. There were incidents during the crossing of the [[Drava]] and [[Tisza]] rivers, but the [[Sava]] was crossed on 28 June without incident. In Belgrade, Frederick staged a tournament, held a court, conducted a census of the army and wrote to the Byzantine emperor [[Isaac II Angelos|Isaac II]] to inform him that he had entered Byzantine territory.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=489–490}}

====Byzantine Empire====
The army, still accompanied by Béla III, left Belgrade on 1 July, crossed the [[Great Morava|Morava]] and headed for [[Braničevo (Golubac)|Braničevo]], which was the seat of the local Byzantine administration since Belgrade had been devastated in the [[Byzantine–Hungarian War (1180–1185)]] with the Hungarians and Serbs. The head of the Byzantine administration was a ''[[Dux|doux]]'' (duke). At Braničevo, Béla III took leave and returned to Hungary. He gave the crusaders wagons and in return Frederick gave him his boats, since they would no longer be travelling up the Danube.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=490–491}}

The Burgundian contingent under Archbishop [[Aimo II of Tarentaise]] and a contingent from [[Metz]] caught up with the army at Braničevo. The duke of Braničevo gave the army eight days' worth of provisions. The enlarged army, including a Hungarian contingent, left Braničevo on 11 July following the [[Via Militaris]] that led to Constantinople. They were harassed by bandits along the route. According to crusader sources, some captured bandits confessed that they were acting on the orders of the duke of Braničevo.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=490–491}}

On 25 July, Frederick was in [[Ćuprija]] when he received word that [[Peter of Brixey]] had arrived in Hungary with the contingent from Lorraine. It was there that the problems of communication between Frederick and Isaac became apparent. Frederick's envoys had reached Constantinople, but Isaac was away besieging rebels in [[Alasehir|Philadelphia]] under a pretender named [[Theodore Mangaphas]]. Nonetheless, John Kamateros wrote to inform Frederick that a market would be available in [[Sofia]].{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=491–492}} It was probably from Ćuprija that Frederick sent another envoy, a Hungarian count named Lectoforus, to Constantinople to see what was going on.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=494}}

Frederick was welcomed by Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja in Niš with pomp on 27 July. Although the Serbian ruler asked the emperor to [[Investiture|invest]] him with his domains, Frederick refused on the grounds that he was on a pilgrimage and did not wish to harm Isaac as the Serbians rebelled against the Byzantines earlier. A marriage alliance was arranged between a daughter of Duke [[Berthold of Merania]] and a nephew of Nemanja, [[Toljen of Hum|Toljen]]. Frederick also received messages of support from Tsar [[Peter II of Bulgaria]], but refused an outright alliance. Despite Frederick's care not to be drawn into Balkan politics, the events at Niš were regarded by the Byzantines as hostile acts.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=491–492}}

Before leaving Niš, Frederick had Godfrey of Würzburg preach a sermon on the importance of discipline and maintaining the peace. He also reorganized the army, dividing it into four, because it would be entering territory more firmly under Byzantine control and less friendly. The vanguard of Swabians and Bavarians was put under the command of the Duke of Swabia assisted by [[Herman IV, Margrave of Baden|Herman IV of Baden]] and [[Berthold III of Vohburg]]. The second division consisted of the Hungarian and Bohemian contingents with their separate standard-bearers. The third was under the command of the Duke of Merania assisted by Bishop [[Diepold of Passau]]. The fourth was under Frederick's personal command and Rupert of Nassau was named its standard-bearer ''in absentia''.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=492–493}}

The crusaders left Niš on 30 July and arrived in Sofia on 13 August. They found the city practically abandoned. There was no Byzantine delegation to meet them and no market. The following day the crusaders left Sofia and the Lorrainers under Peter of Brixey finally caught up with the main army. The [[Gate of Trajan]] was held by a Byzantine force of 500 men. According to Diepold of Passau, the garrison retreated at the sight of Frederick's scouts, but the ''History of the Expedition'' says that it retreated only after being engaged by Frederick and a small group of knights. The army arrived at [[Pazardzhik]] on 20 August, finding an abundance of supplies.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=493–494}}

===Conflict with Byzantium===
Lectoforus met the army at Pazardzhik and informed Frederick of the disrespect shown to his envoys. On 24 August, the imperial army reached [[Plovdiv|Philippopolis]], the Byzantine forces in the area having fled at their approach. On 25 August, Lectoforus' report was confirmed: Hermann of Münster, Rupert of Nassau, Henry of Dietz and Markward von Neuenburg had been stripped of their possessions and openly mocked in presence of the Ayyubid ambassador. That same day, a Byzantine envoy, James of Pisa, arrived with a letter from Isaac, who referred to Frederick as "king of Germany", refusing him the imperial title, and accused him of plotting to put his son Frederick on the throne of Constantinople. He nonetheless offered to fulfill the agreement of December 1188 to ferry the crusaders across the [[Dardanelles]] if he received hostages (including Duke Frederick and six bishops) in addition to the envoys he had arrested. Frederick's response that he would consider the offer only after the envoys were released.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=494–495}}

According to the ''History of the Expedition'', the receipt of Isaac's letter marked a break in crusader–Byzantine relations. Thereafter, the crusaders resorted to plunder and a scorched earth policy. On 26 August, the crusaders seized Philippopolis and its plentiful supplies. Frederick tried to communicate with the nearest Byzantine commander, the ''[[protostrator]]'' [[Manuel Kamytzes]]. When he received no response, he attacked his army on 29 August, killing fifty. The following day (30 August) or a week later (6 September), Duke Frederick and Duke Berthold occupied [[Berrhoë]] unopposed. Henry of Kalden occupied a castle called Scribention, while Bishop Diepold and Duke Berthold took a further two towns and ten castles. At this point, the local [[Armenians|Armenian]] and [[Bulgars|Bulgarian]] population swore oaths to Frederick to supply the market in Philippopolis as long as the crusaders stayed. They remained there and in partial occupation of Macedonia until 5 November.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=494–495}}

Isaac ordered Kamytzes to shadow the crusaders and harass their foraging parties.{{sfn|Magoulias|1984|p=222}} About 22 November 1189, with some 2,000 horsemen, Kamytzes set up an ambush for the crusaders' supply train near Philippopolis. The crusaders were informed of this from the Armenian inhabitants of the fortress of [[Prousenos]], where Kamytzes had set up his main camp. They set out with 5,000 cavalry to attack the Byzantine camp. The two forces met by accident near Prousenos, and in the ensuing battle, Kamytzes was routed. The historian [[Niketas Choniates]], who was an eyewitness, writes that the Byzantines fled as far as [[Ohrid]], and that Kamytzes did not rejoin his men until three days after the battle.{{sfn|Magoulias|1984|pp=224–225}}

===Turkish territory===
After reaching Anatolia, Frederick was promised safe passage through the region by the Turkish Sultanate of Rum, but was faced instead with constant Turkish hit-and-run attacks on his army.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=102–103}} A Turkish army of 10,000 men was defeated at the [[Battle of Philomelion (1190)|Battle of Philomelion]] by 2,000 Crusaders, with 4,174–5,000 Turks slain.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=104}} After continued Turkish raids against the Crusader army, Frederick decided to replenish his stock of animals and foodstuffs by conquering the Turkish capital of [[Iconium]]. On 18 May 1190, the German army defeated its Turkish enemies at the [[Battle of Iconium (1190)|Battle of Iconium]], sacking the city and killing 3,000 Turkish troops.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=109–111}}

While crossing the [[Saleph River]] on 10 June 1190, Frederick's horse slipped, throwing him against the rocks; he then drowned in the river. After this, much of his army returned to Germany by sea in anticipation of the upcoming Imperial election. The Emperor's son, [[Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia|Frederick of Swabia]], led the remaining 5,000 men to [[Antioch]]. There, the Emperor's body was [[mos Teutonicus|boiled to remove the flesh]], which was interred in the [[Church of Saint Peter]]; his bones were put in a bag to continue the crusade. In Antioch, however, the German army was further reduced by fever.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=181}} Young Frederick had to ask the assistance of his kinsman [[Conrad of Montferrat]] to lead him safely to Acre, by way of Tyre, where his father's bones were buried. While the Imperial army did not achieve its objective of capturing Jerusalem, it did capture the capital of the Seljuk Sultanate and had inflicted considerable damage on Turkish forces, with more than 9,000 Turkish soldiers killed in all battles and skirmishes combined.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=97–111}}

==Maritime crusades==
{{further|Alvor massacre|Siege of Silves (1189)}}
There were two main international maritime expeditions that travelled independently of the main armies from northern European waters between the spring and autumn of 1189. In addition, there were probably numerous unrecorded sailings on a smaller scale. Some may have sailed as early as 1188.{{sfn|David|1939|p=666}}

The earlier of the two fleets departed England during Lent. It was already a large international fleet, including some 10,000 men and 50–60 ships from England, [[Denmark]], [[Frisian involvement in the Crusades|Frisia]], [[County of Flanders|Flanders]], [[County of Holland|Holland]] and the [[Rhineland]].{{sfn|Wilson|2020|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Mol|2002|p=94}} After a stop in [[Lisbon]], the fleet [[Alvor massacre|sacked Alvor]] and massacred its [[Almohad]] defenders.{{sfn|David|1939|p=666}}{{sfn|Wilson|2020|pp=1–2}} It arrived in Acre on 1 September.{{sfn|David|1939|p=664}}

The later of the two main fleets is the better recorded, since a short eyewitness account of its feats has survived, the ''[[De itinere navali]]''. It was composed mainly of commoners.{{sfn|David|1939|pp=603–604}} It departed from Germany in April with eleven ships, although this was augmented after it arrived in Lisbon in early July by an English fleet that had set out in May.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=193}}{{sfn|David|1939|pp=611–616}} It was recruited by King [[Sancho I of Portugal]] to assist in an attack on [[Silves, Portugal|Silves]]. At the ensuing [[siege of Silves (1189)|siege of Silves]], the fleet had 38 vessels, including two from [[Duchy of Brittany|Brittany]] and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]].{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=196–197}}{{sfn|David|1939|p=618}} The city capitulated after 45 days.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=202–203}} The second fleet arrived at Acre between April and June 1190.{{sfn|Hosler|2018|p=62}} According to the ''[[Narratio de primordiis ordinis theutonici]]'', wood and sail from its cogs was used to construct a field hospital, which ultimately became the [[Teutonic Order]].{{sfn|Morton|2009|p=10}}

According to the ''[[Al-Bayān|Bayān]]'' of [[Ibn Idhari]], a northern fleet fought a naval battle with the [[Almohad navy]] near the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] in the spring of 1190 and was defeated, with its men being either killed or captured. The fleet may have wintered in Portugal. This incident is not mentioned in Christian sources.{{sfn|David|1939|p=666}} In the summer of 1190, a lone English ship separated from its fleet sailed into Silves while the city was [[Siege of Silves (1190)|besieged by the Almohads]]. Upon the request of Bishop [[Nicholas (bishop of Silves and Viseu)|Nicholas]]—himself a former member of the 1189 expedition—the English crusaders participated in the successful defence.{{sfn|Lay|2009|p=157}}

==Richard and Philip's crusade==
[[Henry II of England]] and [[Philip II of France]] ended their war with each other in a meeting at [[Gisors]] in January 1188 and then both took the cross.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}} Both imposed a "[[Saladin tithe]]" on their citizens to finance the venture. (No such tithe had been levied in the Empire.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}}) In Britain, [[Baldwin of Forde]], the [[archbishop of Canterbury]], made a tour through Wales, convincing 3,000 men-at-arms to take up the cross, recorded in the ''Itinerary'' of [[Gerald of Wales]]. Baldwin would later accompany Richard on the Crusade and would die in the Holy Land.<ref>Hunt, William (1885). "[[wikisource:Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Baldwin (d.1190)|Baldwin (d. 1190)]]". In ''Dictionary of National Biography''. '''3.''' London. pp. 32–34.</ref>

===Passage===
King Henry II of England died on 6 July 1189. Richard succeeded him and immediately began raising funds for the crusade. In the meantime, some of his subjects departed in multiple waves by sea.<ref>{{cite ODNB | url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-98218 | isbn=978-0-19-861412-8 | doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/98218 | title=The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | year=2004 }}</ref> In April 1190, King Richard's fleet departed from [[Dartmouth, Devon|Dartmouth]] under the command of [[Richard de Camville]] and [[Robert IV de Sablé|Robert de Sablé]] on their way to meet their king in [[Marseille]]. Parts of this fleet helped the Portuguese monarch defeat an [[Almohad campaign against Portugal (1190–1191)|Almohad counterattack]] against [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] and [[Torres Novas]], while another group ransacked Christian [[Lisbon]], only to be routed by the Portuguese monarch.<ref>L. Villegas-Aristizábal, "Revisión de las crónicas de Ralph de Diceto y de la Gesta regis Ricardi sobre la participación de la flota angevina durante la Tercera Cruzada en Portugal", ''Studia Historica- Historia Medieval'' 27 (2009), pp. 153–170.</ref> Richard and Philip II met in France at [[Vézelay]] and set out together on 4 July 1190 as far as [[Lyon]] where they parted after agreeing to meet in Sicily; Richard with his retinue, said to number 800, marched to Marseille and Philip to [[Genoa]].<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0016.pdf Wolff and Hazard, p. 57]</ref> Richard arrived in Marseille and found that his fleet had not arrived; he quickly tired of waiting for them and hiring ships, left for Sicily on 7 August, visiting several places in Italy ''en route'' and arrived in [[Messina]] on 23 September. Meanwhile, the English fleet eventually arrived in Marseille on 22 August, and finding that Richard had gone, sailed directly to Messina, arriving before him on 14 September.<ref>Wolff and Hazard, p. 58</ref> Philip had hired a Genoese fleet to transport his army, which consisted of 650 knights, 1,300 horses, and 1,300 squires to the Holy Land by way of Sicily.<ref name="Phillips66">J. Phillips, ''The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople'', p. 66</ref>

[[File:Philip Augustus arriving in Palestine - British Library Royal MS 16 G vi f350vr (detail).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Philip II depicted arriving in Palestine, 1332–1350]]

[[William II of Sicily]] had died the previous year, and was replaced by [[Tancred, King of Sicily|Tancred]], who imprisoned [[Joan of England, Queen of Sicily|Joan of England]]—William's wife and King Richard's sister. Richard captured the city of [[Messina]] on 4 October 1190 and Joan was released. Richard and Philip fell out over the issue of Richard's marriage, as Richard had decided to marry [[Berengaria of Navarre]], breaking off his long-standing betrothal to Philip's half-sister [[Alys, Countess of the Vexin|Alys]]. Philip left Sicily directly for the Middle East on 30 March 1191 and arrived in Tyre in April; he joined the [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)|siege of Acre]] on 20 April.<ref>"Gesta Regis Ricard"</ref> Richard did not set off from Sicily until 10 April.

Shortly after setting sail from Sicily, King Richard's armada of 180 ships and 39 [[galley]]s was struck by a violent storm.<ref>Wolff and Hazard, p. 61</ref> Several ships ran aground, including one holding Joan, his new fiancée Berengaria and a large amount of treasure that had been amassed for the crusade. It was soon discovered that [[Isaac Dukas Comnenus]] of [[Cyprus]] had seized the treasure. The young women were unharmed. Richard entered [[Limassol]] on 6 May and met with Isaac, who agreed to return Richard's belongings and to send 500 of his soldiers to the Holy Land. Richard made camp at Limassol, where he received a visit from [[Guy of Lusignan]], the [[King of Jerusalem]], and married Berengaria, who was crowned queen. Once back at his fortress of [[Famagusta]], Isaac broke his oath of hospitality and began issuing orders for Richard to leave the island. Isaac's arrogance prompted Richard to conquer the island within days, leaving sometime before June.<ref>Gesta Regis Ricardi p. 139</ref> The anonymous chronicler of Béthune, however, offers the intriguing suggestion that Richard attacked Cyprus because Isaac was diverting the food supply from the Latin army at Acre.<ref>History of the Dukes p. 99</ref> Most modern scholars, however, accept that Richard's conquest of Cyprus was incidental.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neocleous |first=Savvas |date=2013 |title=Imaging Isaak Komnenos of Cyprus (1184-1191) and the Cypriots: Evidence from the Latin Historiography of the Third Crusade |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44173212 |journal=Byzantion |volume=83 |pages=297–337 |jstor=44173212 |issn=0378-2506}}</ref>

===Siege of Acre===
{{main|Siege of Acre (1189–91)}}
Saladin released King Guy from prison in 1189. Guy attempted to take command of the Christian forces at [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]], but Conrad of Montferrat held power there after his successful defence of the city from Muslim attacks. Guy turned his attention to the wealthy port of Acre. He amassed an army to besiege the city and received aid from Philip's newly arrived French army. The combined armies were not enough to counter Saladin, however, whose forces besieged the besiegers. In summer 1190, in one of the numerous outbreaks of disease in the camp, Queen Sibylla and her young daughters died. Guy, although only king by right of marriage, endeavoured to retain his crown, although the rightful heir was Sibylla's half-sister [[Isabella I of Jerusalem|Isabella]]. After a hastily arranged divorce from [[Humphrey IV of Toron]], Isabella was married to Conrad of Montferrat, who claimed the kingship in her name.

During the winter of 1190–91, there were further outbreaks of dysentery and fever, which claimed the lives of Frederick of Swabia, [[Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem]], and [[Theobald V of Blois]]. When the sailing season began again in spring 1191, [[Leopold V of Austria (Babenberg)|Leopold V of Austria]] arrived and took command of what remained of the imperial forces. Philip of France arrived with his troops from Sicily in May. A neighboring army under [[Leo I, King of Armenia|Leo II of Cilician Armenia]] also arrived.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Chahin|title=The Kingdom of Armenia: A History|publisher=Curzon Press|year=1987|isbn=0-7007-1452-9|page=245}}</ref>

Richard arrived at Acre on 8 June 1191 and immediately began supervising the construction of siege weapons to assault the city, which was captured on 12 July. Richard, Philip, and Leopold quarrelled over the spoils of the victory. Richard cast down the German standard from the city, slighting Leopold. In the struggle for the kingship of Jerusalem, Richard supported Guy, while Philip and Leopold supported Conrad, who was related to them both. It was decided that Guy would continue to rule but that Conrad would receive the crown upon his death. Frustrated with Richard (and in Philip's case, in poor health), Philip and Leopold took their armies and left the Holy Land in August. Philip left 7,000 French crusaders and 5,000 silver marks to pay them.<ref name = "McLynn219"/>

On 18 June 1191, soon after Richard's arrival at Acre, he sent a messenger to Saladin requesting a face to face meeting. Saladin refused, saying that it was customary for kings to meet each other only after a peace treaty had been agreed, and thereafter "it is not seemly for them to make war upon each other". The two therefore never met, although they did exchange gifts and Richard had a number of meetings with [[Al-Adil]], Saladin's brother.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gillingham|first1=John|title=Richard I|date=1999|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0300094043|pages=20–21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Q4lh8KLi1YC&pg=PA20}}</ref> Saladin tried to negotiate with Richard for the release of the captured Muslim soldier garrison, which included their women and children. On 20 August, however, Richard thought Saladin had delayed too much and had [[Massacre at Ayyadieh|2,700 of the Muslim prisoners decapitated]] in full view of Saladin's army, which tried unsuccessfully to rescue them.<ref>[[Marshall Hodgson]], ''[[The Venture of Islam]] Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 2''. [[The University of Chicago]], 1958, p. 267.</ref> Saladin responded by killing all of the Christian prisoners he had captured. Following the fall of Acre, the Crusaders recaptured some inland parts of Galilee, including [[Mi'ilya]] and [[Bi'ina]].<ref>Khamisy, p. 214</ref>

===Battle of Arsuf===
{{main|Battle of Arsuf}}
After the capture of Acre, Richard decided to march to the city of [[Jaffa]]. Control of Jaffa was necessary before an attack on Jerusalem could be attempted. On 7 September 1191, however, Saladin attacked Richard's army at [[Arsuf]], {{convert|30|mi|km|-1}} north of Jaffa. Saladin attempted to harass Richard's army into breaking its formation in order to defeat it in detail. Richard maintained his army's defensive formation, however, until the [[Knights Hospitaller|Hospitallers]] broke ranks to charge the right wing of Saladin's forces. Richard then ordered a general counterattack, which won the battle. Arsuf was an important victory. The Muslim army was not destroyed, despite losing 7,000<ref>7,000 dead according to the ''Itinerarium'' [http://www.yorku.ca/inpar/richard_of_holy_trinity.pdf trans. 2001] Book IV Ch. XIX, p. 185</ref> men, but it did rout; this was considered shameful by the Muslims and boosted the morale of the Crusaders. Arsuf had dented Saladin's reputation as an invincible warrior and proved Richard's courage as soldier and his skill as a commander. Richard was able to take, defend, and hold Jaffa, a strategically crucial move toward securing Jerusalem. By depriving Saladin of the coast, Richard seriously threatened his hold on Jerusalem.<ref>Oman, pp. 311–318</ref>

===Advances on Jerusalem and negotiations===
[[File:L'armée de Saladin.jpg|thumb|Saladin's troops, French manuscript, 1337]]

Following his victory at Arsuf, Richard took Jaffa and established his new headquarters there. He offered to begin negotiations with Saladin, who sent his brother, [[Al-Adil I|Al-Adil]] (known as 'Saphadin' to the Franks), to meet with Richard. Negotiations, which included attempts to marry Richard's sister Joan or niece [[Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany]] to Al-Adil respectively, failed, and Richard marched to [[Ascalon]], which had been recently demolished by Saladin.<ref>Nicolle, p. 83</ref><ref>[[:s:Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Joan (1165-1199)|Dictionary of National Biography, 1885–1900/Joan (1165–1199)]]</ref>

In November 1191 the Crusader army advanced inland towards Jerusalem. On 12 December Saladin was forced by pressure from his emirs to disband the greater part of his army. Learning this, Richard pushed his army forward, spending Christmas at Latrun. The army then marched to Beit Nuba, only 12 miles from Jerusalem. Muslim morale in Jerusalem was so low that the arrival of the Crusaders would probably have caused the city to fall quickly. Appallingly bad weather, cold with heavy rain and hailstorms, combined with fear that if the Crusader army besieged Jerusalem, it might be trapped by a relieving force, led to the decision to retreat back to the coast.<ref>Gillingham, pp. 198–200.</ref>

Richard called on Conrad to join him on campaign, but he refused, citing Richard's alliance with King Guy. He too had been negotiating with Saladin as a defence against any attempt by Richard to wrest Tyre from him for Guy. However, in April, Richard was forced to accept Conrad as king of Jerusalem after an election by the nobles of the kingdom. Guy had received no votes at all; Richard sold him Cyprus as compensation. Before he could be crowned, Conrad was stabbed to death by two [[Order of Assassins|Assassins]] in the streets of Tyre. Eight days later, Richard's nephew [[Henry II of Champagne]] married Queen Isabella, who was pregnant with Conrad's child. It was strongly suspected that the king's killers had acted on instructions from Richard.

During the winter months, Richard's men occupied and refortified Ascalon, whose fortifications had earlier been razed by Saladin. The spring of 1192 saw continued negotiations and further skirmishing between the opposing forces. On 22 May the strategically important fortified town of [[Deir al-Balah|Darum]] on the frontiers of Egypt fell to the crusaders, following five days of fierce fighting.<ref>Gillingham, p. 208</ref> The Crusader army made another advance on Jerusalem, and in June it came within sight of the city before being forced to retreat again, this time because of dissention amongst its leaders. In particular, Richard and the majority of the army council wanted to force Saladin to relinquish Jerusalem by attacking the basis of his power through an invasion of Egypt. The leader of the French contingent, the [[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy|Duke of Burgundy]], however, was adamant that a direct attack on Jerusalem should be made. This split the Crusader army into two factions, and neither was strong enough to achieve its objective. Richard stated that he would accompany any attack on Jerusalem but only as a simple soldier; he refused to lead the army. Without a united command the army had little choice but to retreat back to the coast.<ref>Gillingham, pp. 209–212</ref>

===Saladin's attempt to recapture Jaffa===
{{main|Battle of Jaffa (1192)}}
In July 1192, Saladin's army suddenly attacked and captured Jaffa with thousands of men, but Saladin lost control of his army due to their anger for the massacre at Acre. It is believed that Saladin even told the Crusaders to shield themselves in the [[Citadel]] until he had regained control of his army.

Richard had intended to return to England when he heard the news that Saladin and his army had captured Jaffa. Richard and a small force of little more than 2,000 men went to Jaffa by sea in a surprise attack. Richard's forces stormed Jaffa from their ships and the [[Ayyubids]], who had been unprepared for a naval attack, were driven from the city. Richard freed those of the Crusader garrison who had been made prisoner, and these troops helped to reinforce the numbers of his army. Saladin's army still had numerical superiority, however, and they counter-attacked. Saladin intended a stealthy surprise attack at dawn, but his forces were discovered; he proceeded with his attack, but his men were lightly armoured and lost 700 men due to the missiles of the large numbers of Crusader crossbowmen.<ref>Oman, p. 319</ref> The [[Battle of Jaffa (1192)|battle]] to retake Jaffa ended in complete failure for Saladin, who was forced to retreat. This battle greatly strengthened the position of the coastal Crusader states.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=71–72}}

On 2 September 1192, following his defeat at Jaffa, Saladin was forced to finalize a treaty with Richard providing that Jerusalem would remain under [[Muslim]] control, while allowing unarmed Christian [[pilgrim]]s and [[trade]]rs to visit the city. Ascalon was a contentious issue as it threatened communication between Saladin's dominions in Egypt and Syria; it was eventually agreed that Ascalon, with its defences demolished, be returned to Saladin's control. Richard departed the Holy Land on 9 October 1192.

==Outcome==
{{main|Treaty of Jaffa (1192)}}
The Third Crusade did not achieve the goal of re-capturing [[Jerusalem]]. However, it facilitated the continuation of the [[Crusader states]] that were on the brink of collapse, which was further reinforced by the capture of [[Kingdom of Cyprus#Third Crusade|Cyprus]]. After the treaty, the Muslims held most of Palestine and surrounding regions except a narrow strip from [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] to [[Jaffa]], which remained under the Christians. Inland, parts of Galilee were regained by the Crusaders and further south, control of [[Ramla]] and [[Lydda]] were to be divided between the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] and the Ayyubid Sultanate. The Muslims remained in control of [[Jerusalem]]. Christian and Muslim pilgrims could safely conduct pilgrimages to Jerusalem. A three year truce was also agreed upon by both sides. The Crusade itself has been described by historians as either a successful expedition, a failure, or hardly justified given the cost.<ref>Khamisy, p. 214</ref><ref>Marshall (1992), P. 21</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lane-Poole |first=Stanley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYRtAAAAQBAJ&q=treaty+of+ramla |title=A History of Egypt: Volume 6, In the Middle Ages |date=2013-10-03 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-06569-6 |language=en|page=The Holy war had lasted five years. Before the decisive victory at Hittin in July, 1187, not an inch of Palestine west of the Jordan was in Muslim hands. After the peace of Ramla in September, 1192, the whole land was Muslim territory except a narrow strip of coast from Tyre to Jaffa. To recover this strip the whole of Europe had risen in arms, and hundreds of thousands of Crusaders had fallen. The result hardly justified the cost}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kedar |first=Benjamin Z. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Osr_AwAAQBAJ&q=failure+of+the+third+crusade |title=Crusade and Mission: European Approaches Toward the Muslims |date=2014-07-14 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-5561-2 |language=en|page=114|quote=Thus, even after the failure of the Third Crusade Joachim did not discard the possibility of a future military expedition to Jerusalem.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Madden |first=Thomas F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qz0fAwAAQBAJ&q=third+crusade+christian+defeat |title=The Concise History of the Crusades |date=2014-03-16 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-3116-0 |language=en|page=97|quote=Despite its failures, the Third Crusade was by almost any measure a highly successful expedition. The Crusader Kingdom was healed of its divisions, restored to its coastal cities, and secured in a peace with its greatest enemy. Although he had failed to reclaim Jerusalem, Richard had put the Christians of the Levant back on their feet again.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-15 |title=Third Crusade {{!}} Summary, Significance, Key Events, Location, & Leaders {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Third-Crusade |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en|quote=Although the Third Crusade had failed in its main objective, to retake Jerusalem, it had been very successful in a myriad of other ways, not least in expunging most of the gains Saladin had made in the aftermath of his victory at Ḥaṭṭīn. Moreover, in regaining the coast, Richard gave the truncated kingdom of Jerusalem a lease on life for another century.}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
Neither side was entirely satisfied with the results of the war. Though Richard's victories had deprived the Muslims of important coastal territories and re-established a viable Frankish state in Palestine, many Christians in the Latin West felt disappointed that he had elected not to pursue the recapture of Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carroll |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yZvTLDOgc1EC&q=treaty+of+ramla |title=Jerusalem, Jerusalem: How the Ancient City Ignited Our Modern World |date=2011-03-09 |publisher=HMH |isbn=978-0-547-54905-7 |language=en|page=147}}</ref> Likewise, many in the Islamic world felt disturbed that Saladin had failed to drive the Christians out of Syria and Palestine. Trade flourished, however, throughout the [[Middle East]] and in port cities along the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coastline.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Crompton
| first = Samuel Willard
| title = The Third Crusade: Richard the Lionhearted vs. Saladin
| publisher = [[Infobase Publishing]]
| series = Great battles through the ages
| year = 2003
| page = [https://archive.org/details/thirdcrusaderich0000crom/page/64 64]
| url = https://archive.org/details/thirdcrusaderich0000crom/page/64
| isbn = 0-7910-7437-4
| url-access = registration
}}</ref>

Saladin's scholar and biographer [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad|Baha al-Din]] recounted Saladin's distress at the successes of the Crusaders:

<blockquote>"I fear to make peace, not knowing what may become of me. Our enemy will grow strong, now that they have retained these lands. They will come forth to recover the rest of their lands and you will see every one of them ensconced on his hill-top," meaning in his castle, "having announced, 'I shall stay put' and the Muslims will be ruined." These were his words and it came about as he said.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = al-Din
| first = Baha
| author2 = D.S. Richards
| title = The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin
| publisher = [[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate]]
| series = Crusade Texts in Translation
| volume = 7
| edition =
| year = 2002
| location = Burlington, VT; Hampshire, England
| page = [https://archive.org/details/rareexcellenthis00dsri/page/232 232]
| url = https://archive.org/details/rareexcellenthis00dsri/page/232
| isbn = 0-7546-3381-0
}}</ref></blockquote>

Richard was arrested and imprisoned in December 1192 by [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria]], who suspected Richard of murdering Leopold's cousin [[Conrad of Montferrat]]. Leopold had also been offended by Richard casting down his standard from the walls of Acre. He was later transferred to the custody of [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor]], and it took a ransom of one hundred and fifty thousand marks to obtain his release. Richard returned to [[England]] in 1194 and died of a crossbow bolt wound in 1199 at the age of 41 while suppressing a revolt in Limousin.

In 1193, Saladin died of yellow fever. His heirs would quarrel over the succession and ultimately fragment his conquests.

Henry of Champagne was killed in an accidental fall in 1197. Queen Isabella then married for a fourth time, to [[Amalric II of Jerusalem|Amalric of Lusignan]], who had succeeded his brother Guy, positioned as King of Cyprus. After their deaths in 1205, her eldest daughter [[Maria of Montferrat]] (born after her father's murder) succeeded to the throne of Jerusalem.

Accounts of events surrounding the Third Crusade were written by the anonymous authors of the ''[[Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi]]'' (a.k.a. the ''[[Itinerarium Regis Ricardi]]''), the ''Old French Continuation of William of Tyre'' (parts of which are attributed to [[Ernoul]]), and by [[Ambroise]], [[Roger of Howden]], [[Ralph of Diceto]], and [[Giraldus Cambrensis]].

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
===References===
{{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* Asbridge, T., ''The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land'' (London, 2010).
* {{cite book|last1=Bachrach|first1=Bernard S.|last2=Bachrach|first2=David S.|date=2017|title=Warfare in Medieval Europe c. 400 – c. 1453|location=Abingdon, Oxon|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1138887664}}
* [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad|Baha al-Din Ibn Shaddad]], ''The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin'', trans. D.S. Richards (Aldershot, 2001).
* {{cite book|last=Barber|first=Malcolm|title=The Crusader States|year=2012|publisher=Yale University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bz_O7-Lb_CsC|isbn=978-0300189315}}
* {{cite book |title=The Crusader World |editor-first=Adrian |editor-last=Boas |chapter=The Fall of Jerusalem (1187) as viewed from Byzantium |first=Michael |last=Angold |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 }}
* ''[[Libellus de expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum|De Expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum]]'', translated by James A. Brundage, in ''The Crusades: A Documentary Survey''. Marquette University Press, 1962.
* ''La Continuation de Guillaume de Tyr (1184–1192)'', edited by Margaret Ruth Morgan. L'[[Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres]], 1982.
* [[Ambroise]], ''The History of the Holy War'', translated by Marianne Ailes. Boydell Press, 2003.
* Bennett, Stephen. ''Elite Participation in the Third Crusade'' (Boydell & Brewer, 2021) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=57238 online review]
*{{cite book |first=Jim |last=Bradbury |title=Philip Augustus: King of France, 1180–1223 |orig-year=1998 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge}}
* ''Chronicle of the Third Crusade: a Translation of the Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi'', translated by Helen J. Nicholson. Ashgate, 1997.
*{{cite book |title=A German Third Crusader's Chronicle of His Voyage and the Siege of Almohad Silves, 1189 AD / Muwahid Xelb, 585 AH: De Itinere Navali |year=2013 |first=Dana |last=Cushing |publisher=Antinomy}}
*{{cite journal |author-link=Charles Wendell David |title=Narratio de Itinere Navali Peregrinorum Hierosolymam Tendentium et Silviam Capientium, A.D. 1189 |first=Charles Wendell |last=David |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=81 |issue=5 |year=1939 |pages=591–676 |jstor=985010}}
* {{cite book |ref=hrav |editor-last=Edbury |editor-first=Peter W. |title=The Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade: Sources in Translation |publisher=Ashgate |year=1998}}
* Edde, A-M., ''Saladin'', trans. J.M. Todd (London, 2011).
*{{cite book |last=Freed |first=John |year=2016 |title=Frederick Barbarossa: The Prince and the Myth |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |isbn=978-0-300-122763 }}
* Gabrieli, F., (ed.) ''Arab Historians of the Crusades'', English translation 1969, {{ISBN|0-520-05224-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gillingham |first=John |title=Richard the Lionheart |location=London |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |year=1978 |isbn=0-297-77453-0 }}
* {{cite journal|last=Hamilton|first=Bernard|title=The Elephant of Christ: Reynald of Châtillon|journal=[[Studies in Church History]]|number=15|year=1978|volume=15|pages=97–108|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/S0424208400008950|s2cid=163740720|issn=0424-2084}}
* Harris, Jonathan (2014), ''Byzantium and the Crusades'', Bloomsbury, 2nd ed. {{ISBN|978-1-78093-767-0}}.
* {{cite book |ref=hrav |editor-last=Shirley |editor-first=Janet |title= History of the Dukes of Normandy and the Kings of England by the Anonymous of Béthune: Crusade Texts in Translation |publisher=Routledge |year=2021}}
* {{cite book |last=Hosler|first=John| title=The Siege of Acre, 1189–1191: Saladin, Richard the Lionheart, and the Battle that Decided the Third Crusade |year=2018 |publisher=Yale University Press|isbn= 978-0-30021-550-2 }}
* Hurlock, Kathryn (2013), ''Britain, Ireland and the Crusades, c. 1000–1300'', Basingstoke: Palgrave
*{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Lay |title=The Reconquest Kings of Portugal: Political and Cultural Reorientation on the Medieval Frontier |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009}}
* {{Cite book |last=Loud |first=G. A. |title=The Crusade of Frederick Barbarossa: The History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick and Related Texts|publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |location=[[Farnham, Surrey]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0754665755}}
* Lyons, M.C. & D.E.P Jackson, ''Saladin: Politics of the Holy War'' (Cambridge, 2001).
* Khamisy, Rabei, G. (2016) "Western Upper Galilee Under crusader Rule" in ''The Crusader World'', Boas, Adrian, J. (ed.), Routledge, Abingdon pp. 212–224.
* {{cite book | editor-last=Magoulias | editor-first=Harry J. | title=O City of Byzantium. Annals of Niketas Choniates | location=Detroit | publisher=Wayne State University Press | year=1984 | isbn=0-8143-1764-2}}
*{{cite book |first=Christopher |last=Marshall |title=Warfare in the Latin East, 1192–1291 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992}}
*{{cite journal |first=Johannes A. |last=Mol |title=Frisian Fighters and the Crusades |pages=89–110 |year=2002 |journal=Crusades |volume=1|doi=10.1080/28327861.2002.12220535 |hdl=20.500.11755/5490e290-3c18-4adc-8376-65ac10541dfc |s2cid=161825224 |url=https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/458624/Frisian_Fighters_and_the_Crusade.pdf }}
*{{cite book |first=Nicholas Edward |last=Morton |title=The Teutonic Knights in the Holy Land, 1190–1291 |publisher=The Boydell Press |year=2009}}
* {{Cite book |author-link=David Nicolle |last=Nicolle |first=David |title=The Third Crusade 1191: Richard the Lionheart and the Battle for Jerusalem |series=Osprey Campaign |volume=161 |location=Oxford |publisher=Osprey |year=2005 |isbn=1-84176-868-5 }}
* Oman, C.W.C., (1924) ''A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages'' Vol. I, 378–1278 AD. London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, reprinted in 1998.
* {{Cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|author-link=Steven Runciman|title=A History of the Crusades, Volume Two: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100–1187|year=1952|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QL88AAAAIAAJ|isbn=978-0521347716}}
* {{Cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|title=A History of the Crusades, Volume Three: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades|year=1954|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mrw8AAAAIAAJ|isbn=978-0521347723}}
* {{Setton-A History of the Crusades | volume = 2}}
* Spencer, Stephen J. "The Third Crusade in historiographical perspective" ''History Compass'' (June 2021) vol 19#7 [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/hic3.12662?campaign=woletoc online]
* {{cite book|last=Tyerman|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Tyerman|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades|publisher=[[Belknap Press]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-674-02387-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ULDUopVCVPoC}}
* Villegas-Aristizabal, L., [http://campus.usal.es/~revistas_trabajo/index.php/Studia_H_Historia_Medieval/article/viewFile/7639/7688 ''Revisión de las crónicas de Ralph de Diceto y de la Gesta regis Ricardi sobre la participación de la flota angevina durante la Tercera Cruzada en Portugal''], ''Studia Historica – Historia Medieval'' 27 (2009), pp. 153–170.
* Villegas-Aristizabal, Lucas, 2007, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110718171218/http://etheses.nottingham.ac.uk/283/2/Norman_and_AngloNorman.pdf ''The Norman and Anglo-Norman Participation in the Iberian Reconquista, c. 1018–1248''], Phd Thesis, Nottingham: University of Nottingham.
*{{cite journal |first=Jonathan |last=Wilson |title='Neither age nor sex sparing': The Alvor Massacre 1189, an Anomaly in the Portuguese ''Reconquista''? |journal=Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies |doi=10.1080/17546559.2019.1704043 |volume=12 |year=2020 |issue=2 |pages=1–31 [199–229]|s2cid=214374323 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Third Crusade}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547ls Third Crusade], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Jonathan Riley-Smith, Carole Hillenbrand and Tariq Ali (''In Our Time'', Nov. 29, 2001)

{{English military history}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Third Crusade| ]]
[[Category:12th-century crusades]]
[[Category:1180s conflicts]]
[[Category:1190s conflicts]]
[[Category:Richard I of England]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Ayyubid Sultanate]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Republic of Genoa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Kingdom of Cyprus]]
[[Category:Wars involving England]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Republic of Pisa]]
[[Category:Wars involving France]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Holy Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire–Holy Roman Empire relations]]
[[Category:1180s in Asia]]
[[Category:1190s in Asia]]
[[Category:1180s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:1190s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:1180s in the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:1190s in the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Nizari Ismaili state]]
[[Category:Wars in the Land of Israel]]

Third Crusade

2024-02-20T01:07:38Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Background */

{{Short description|1189–1192 attempted re-conquest of the Holy Land}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = The Third Crusade
| partof = the [[Crusades]]
| image = The Third Crusade (1189-1192).png
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Map showing the routes of the crusader armies
| date = 11 May 1189 – 2 September 1192
| place = [[Levant]], [[Sicily]], [[Iberia]], [[Balkans]] and [[Anatolia]]
| territory =
| result = See [[Third Crusade#Outcome|outcome]]
* [[Treaty of Jaffa (1192)|Treaty of Jaffa]]
| combatant1 = '''[[Crusades|Crusade]]:''' 
{{Collapsible list|title=[[Angevin Empire]]|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Kingdom of England]]
* [[Duchy of Normandy]]
* [[Duchy of Aquitaine]]
* [[County of Anjou]]
* [[County of Poitou]]
* [[Duchy of Brittany]]
}}
{{Collapsible list|title=[[France in the Middle Ages|Kingdom of France]]|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Duchy of Burgundy]]
* [[County of Blois]]
* [[County of Champagne]]
* [[County of Flanders]]}}
{{Collapsible list|title=[[Holy Roman Empire]]|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Duchy of Swabia]]
* [[Duchy of Austria]]
* [[Duchy of Bohemia]]
* [[Landgraviate of Thuringia]]
* [[Margraviate of Brandenburg]]
* [[March of Montferrat|Margraviate of Montferrat]]
* [[Margraviate of Baden]]
* [[County of Holland]]
* [[County of Holstein]]
}}{{Plainlist|
* [[Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)|Kingdom of Hungary]]
* [[Republic of Genoa]]
* [[Kingdom of Navarre]]
* [[Kingdom of Leon]]
* [[Republic of Pisa]]
* [[Danish Realm|Kingdom of Denmark]]}}
'''Levantine [[Crusader states]]:''' 
*[[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
*[[County of Tripoli]]
*[[Principality of Antioch]]
{{Collapsible list|title='''[[Military order (society)|Military orders]]'''|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Knights Templar]]
* [[Knights Hospitaller]]
* [[Teutonic Order]]
* [[Order of the Holy Sepulchre]]
* [[Order of Mountjoy]]
* [[Order of Saint Lazarus|Order of St Lazarus]]
}}
'''[[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] allies:'''
{{plainlist|
* [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Armenian Principality of Cilicia]]}}
| combatant2 = '''[[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslim]] states:'''
{{Collapsible list|title=[[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid Sultanate]]|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;|
* [[Sultan of Egypt|Sultanate of Egypt]]
* [[List of Ayyubid rulers#Sultans and Emirs of Damascus|Emirate of Damascus]]
* [[List of Ayyubid rulers#Emirs of Hamah|Emirate of Hamah]]
* [[List of Ayyubid rulers#Emirs of Mesopotamia|Emirate of Mesopotamia]]
}}[[Sultanate of Rûm|Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm]]
<hr />
'''[[Shia Islam|Shia Muslim]] states:'''
[[Nizari Ismaili state]] (the [[Order of Assassins|Assassins]])<hr />
'''[[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] opponents:'''
{{plainlist|
* [[Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty|Byzantine Empire]]
* [[Cyprus (theme)|Cyprus]]
}}
| commander1 = '''Crusaders:'''
*[[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]]
*[[Philip II of France|Philip Augustus]]
**[[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy|Hugh III of Burgundy]]{{KIA}}
** [[Theobald V, Count of Blois|Theobald V of Blois]]{{KIA}}
**[[Henry II, Count of Champagne|Henry II of Champagne]]
**[[Philip I, Count of Flanders|Philip of Flanders]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
* [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]]
** [[Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia|Frederick VI of Swabia]]{{KIA}}
** [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria|Leopold V of Austria]]
** [[Děpolt II|Děpolt of Bohemia]]{{KIA}}
** [[Louis III, Landgrave of Thuringia|Louis III of Thuringia]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
** [[Floris III, Count of Holland|Floris III of Holland]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
** [[Herman IV, Margrave of Baden|Herman IV of Baden]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
** [[Adolf III, Count of Holstein|Adolf III of Holstein]]
** [[Markward von Annweiler]]
* [[Géza, son of Géza II of Hungary|Prince Géza of Hungary]]
* [[Rodrigo Alvarez]]
* [[Margaritus of Brindisi]]
'''Levantine Crusader states:'''
* [[Guy of Lusignan]]
* [[Sibylla, Queen of Jerusalem|Sibylla of Jerusalem]]{{Natural Causes|bold=no}}
* [[Conrad of Montferrat]]{{Assassinated|bold=no}}
* [[Humphrey IV of Toron]]
* [[Balian of Ibelin]]
* [[Bohemond IV of Antioch]]
* [[Joscelin III, Count of Edessa|Joscelin III of Edessa]]{{KIA}}
'''Military orders:'''
* [[Robert IV de Sablé|Robert de Sablé]]
* [[Armengol de Aspa]]
* [[Garnier de Nablus]]
* [[Master Sibrand]]
'''Eastern Christian allies:'''
* [[Leo I, King of Armenia|Leo of Armenia]]
| commander2 = '''Sunni Muslim forces:'''
* [[Saladin]]
** [[Al-Muzaffar Umar]]
** [[Al-Adil I]]
** [[Al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din|Al-Afdal]]
** [[Gökböri]]
* [[Kilij Arslan II]]
** [[Kaykhusraw I]]
<hr />
'''Eastern Christian opponents:'''
* [[Isaac II Angelos]]
* [[Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus|Isaac Komnenos]]
| strength1 = 36,000–74,000 troops in total (estimate)
* 8,000–9,000 Angevin (English, Normans, Aquitanians, Welsh, Navarrese, etc.) troops with Richard I,<ref name = "McLynn219">Frank McLynn. ''Richard and John: Kings at War''. p. 219.</ref> up to 17,000 or 50,000 according to some sources including non-combatants and sailors<ref>Tyerman, p. 436</ref>
* 7,000+ French with Phillip II (inc. 650 knights and 1,300 squires)<ref name = "McLynn219"/>
* 12,000–20,000 Germans with Frederick I (inc. 3–4,000 knights){{sfn|Loud|2010|p= 19}}{{sfn|Bachrach|Bachrach|2017|p=197}}
* 2,000 Hungarians with Géza<ref>Hunyadi, Zsolt (2011), ''A keresztes háborúk világa'', p. 41.</ref>
Two additional contingents also joined Frederick's army while travelling through Byzantine Empire. Numbered about 1000 men.
* From 7,000<ref>McLynn, p. 219: breakdown includes 2,000 Outremer levies, 1,000 Templars and Hospitallers, 2,000 Genoese and Pisans, and 2,000 Danes, Norwegians, and Turcopoles.</ref> to 40,000{{sfn|Hosler|2018|pp=72–73}} from the rest of Europe and Outremer
| strength2 = '''Ayyubids''': 40,000 (Saladin's field army, 1189 – estimate){{Sfn|Hosler|2018|p=54}} 5,000–20,000 (Acre's garrison, 1189){{Sfn|Hosler|2018|p=34}}<ref>Pryor, John H. (2015). "A Medieval Siege of Troy: The Fight to the Death at Acre, 1189–1191 or The Tears of Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn". In Halfond, Gregory I. (ed.). ''The Medieval Way of War: Studies in Medieval Military History in Honor of Bernard S. Bachrach''. Farnham: Ashgate. p. 108.</ref> '''Seljuks''': 22,000+ (Qutb al-Din's field army only, 1190)<ref name=Tyerman3>Tyerman p. 422: "After desperate fighting involving the Emperor himself, the Turks outside the city were defeated [by the Imperial and Hungarian army], apparently against numerical odds."</ref><ref>Loud 2010, p. 104: The Seljuks lost 5,000+ men per their own body count estimates on May 7, 1190, soon before the Battle of Iconium.</ref>
| strength3 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| casualties3 =
| notes =
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Third Crusade}}
{{Campaignbox Crusades}}
}}

The '''Third Crusade''' (1189–1192) was an attempt led by three European monarchs of [[Latin Christianity|Western Christianity]] ([[Philip II of France]], [[Richard I of England]] and [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]]) to reconquer the [[Holy Land]] following the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|capture of Jerusalem]] by the [[Ayyubid]] sultan [[Saladin]] in 1187. For this reason, the Third Crusade is also known as the '''Kings' Crusade'''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Third Crusade|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Third_Crusade/|access-date=2021-04-09|website=World History Encyclopedia|language=en}}</ref>

It was partially successful, recapturing the important cities of [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)|Acre]] and [[Battle of Jaffa (1192)|Jaffa]], and reversing most of Saladin's conquests, but it failed to recapture Jerusalem, which was the major aim of the Crusade and its religious focus.

After the failure of the [[Second Crusade]] of 1147–1149, the [[Zengid dynasty]] controlled a unified [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Syria]] and engaged in a conflict with the [[Fatimid dynasty|Fatimid]] rulers of [[Egypt in the Middle Ages|Egypt]]. Saladin ultimately brought both the Egyptian and Syrian forces under his own control, and employed them to reduce the [[Crusader states]] and to recapture Jerusalem in 1187. Spurred by religious zeal, King [[Henry II of England]] and King Philip II of France (later known as "Philip Augustus") ended their conflict with each other to lead a new crusade. The death of Henry (6 July 1189), however, meant the English contingent came under the command of his successor, King Richard I of England. The elderly German Emperor Frederick Barbarossa also responded to the call to arms, leading a massive army across the Balkans and Anatolia. He achieved some victories against the [[Sultanate of Rûm|Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm]], but he died whilst crossing a river on 10 June 1190 before reaching the Holy Land. His death caused tremendous grief among the German Crusaders, and most of his troops returned home.

After the Crusaders had driven the Ayyubid army from Acre, Philip—in company with Frederick's successor in command of the German crusaders, [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria]]—left the Holy Land in August 1191. Following a major victory by the Crusaders at the [[Battle of Arsuf]], most of the coastline of the [[Levant]] was returned to Christian control. On 2 September 1192 Richard and Saladin finalized the [[Treaty of Jaffa (1192)|Treaty of Jaffa]], which recognised Muslim control over Jerusalem but allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims and merchants to visit the city. Richard departed the Holy Land on 9 October 1192. The military successes of the Third Crusade allowed the Christians to maintain considerable states in [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus]] and on the Syrian coast, restoring the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] on a narrow strip from [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] to [[Jaffa]].

The failure to re-capture Jerusalem inspired the subsequent [[Fourth Crusade]] of 1202–1204, but Europeans would only regain the city—and only briefly—in the [[Sixth Crusade]] in 1229.
{{toclimit|3}}

==Background==
{{main|Battle of Hattin|Siege of Jerusalem (1187)}}
[[File:Crusader States 1190.svg|thumb|The Near East, c. 1190, at the inception of the Third Crusade]]

King [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]] died in 1185, leaving the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] to his nephew [[Baldwin V]], whom he had crowned as co-king in 1183. Count [[Raymond III of Tripoli]] again served as regent. The following year, Baldwin V died before his ninth birthday, and his mother, [[Sibylla of Jerusalem|Sybilla]], sister of Baldwin IV, crowned herself queen and her husband, [[Guy of Lusignan]], king. [[Raynald of Châtillon]], who had supported Sybilla's claim to the throne, raided a rich caravan travelling from Egypt to Syria, and had its travelers thrown in prison, thereby breaking a truce between the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Saladin.{{sfn|Hamilton|1978|pp=106–107}}{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=297}} Saladin demanded the release of the prisoners and their cargo. The newly crowned King Guy appealed to Raynald to give in to Saladin's demands, but Raynald refused to follow the king's orders.

This final act of outrage by Raynald gave Saladin the opportunity he needed to take the offensive against the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and in 1187 he laid siege to the city of [[Tiberias]]. Raymond advised patience, but King Guy, acting on advice from Raynald, marched his army to the [[Hittin|Horns of Hattin]] outside of Tiberias. Saladin's forces fought the Frankish army, thirsty and demoralized, and destroyed it in the ensuing [[Battle of Hattin]] (July 1187).

Guy and Raynald were brought to Saladin's tent, where Guy was offered a goblet of water because of his great thirst. Guy took a drink and then passed the goblet to Raynald. Raynald's having received the goblet from Guy rather than from Saladin meant that Saladin would not be forced to offer protection to the treacherous Raynald (custom prescribed that if one were personally offered a drink by the host, one's life was safe). When Raynald accepted the drink from Guy's hands, Saladin told his interpreter, "say to the King: 'it is you who have given him to drink'".<ref>Lyons, Malcolm Cameron and D. E. P. Jackson, ''Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 264.</ref> Afterwards, Saladin beheaded Raynald for past betrayals. Saladin honored tradition with Guy, sending him to Damascus and eventually allowing him to be ransomed by his people.

By the end of 1187 Saladin had taken [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] and [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|Jerusalem]]. Christians would not hold the city of Jerusalem again until 1229.<ref>{{cite book|last= Riley-Smith|first= Jonathan|title= What were the Crusades?|date= 2009|publisher= Ignatius Press|page= 15|isbn= 9781137013927|edition= Fourth|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6-QcBQAAQBAJ|access-date= 6 August 2020|quote= The city of Jerusalem was lost to Saladin in 1187 and was to be held by the Christians again only from 1229 to 1244.}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Pope [[Urban III]] is said to have collapsed and died (October 1187) upon hearing the news of the [[Battle of Hattin]].<ref>
Hans E. Mayer, ''The Crusades''. [[Oxford University Press]], 1965 (trans. John Gillingham, 1972), p. 139.</ref>

The new pope, [[Gregory VIII]], in the bull ''[[Audita tremendi]]'' dated 29 October 1187, interpreted the capture of Jerusalem as punishment for the sins of Christians across Europe. In the bull, he called for a new crusade to the [[Holy Land]].<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/10.1484/J.VIATOR.5.119574 | doi=10.1484/J.VIATOR.5.119574 | title=''Audita Tremendi'' and the Call for the Third Crusade Reconsidered, 1187–1188 | date=2018 | last1=Smith | first1=Thomas W. | journal=Viator | volume=49 | issue=3 | pages=63–101 | s2cid=216914511 }}</ref>

==Barbarossa's crusade==
The crusade of [[Frederick Barbarossa]], [[Holy Roman Emperor]], was "the most meticulously planned and organized" yet.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}} Frederick was sixty-six years old when he set out.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=512}} Two accounts dedicated to his expedition survive: the ''[[Historia de expeditione Friderici imperatoris|History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick]]'' and the ''[[History of the Pilgrims]]''. There is also a short tract, the ''[[Letter on the Death of the Emperor Frederick]]''.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=7–8}}

===Taking the cross===
On 27 October 1187, just over three weeks after Saladin's capture of Jerusalem, Pope Gregory VIII sent letters to the German episcopate announcing his election and ordering them to win the German nobility over to a new crusade. Around 23 November, Frederick received letters that had been sent to him from the rulers of the Crusader states in the East urging him to come to their aid.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}}

By 11 November, Cardinal [[Henry of Marcy]] had been appointed to preach the crusade in Germany. He preached before Frederick and a public assembly in [[Strasbourg]] around 1 December, as did Bishop [[Henry of Hasenburg|Henry of Strasbourg]]. About 500 knights took the cross at Strasbourg, but Frederick demurred on the grounds of his ongoing conflict with Archbishop [[Philip I (archbishop of Cologne)|Philip of Cologne]]. He did, however, send envoys to Philip of France (at the time his ally) to urge him to take the cross. On 25 December, Frederick and Philip met in person on the border between [[Ivois]] and [[Mouzon, Ardennes|Mouzon]] in the presence of Henry of Marcy and [[Joscius, Archbishop of Tyre]], but he could not convince Philip to go on a crusade because he was at war with England.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}}

Frederick held [[Curia Christi|a diet in Mainz]] on 27 March 1188. Because of its purpose, he named the diet the "Court of Christ". The archbishop of Cologne submitted to Frederick and peace was restored to the empire. Bishop [[Godfrey of Spitzenberg|Godfrey of Würzburg]] preached a crusade sermon and Frederick, at the urging of the assembly, took the cross. He was followed by his son, Duke [[Frederick VI of Swabia]],{{efn|Frederick's eldest son, [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]], who had already been elected [[king of the Romans]], was to remain behind as regent. On 10 April 1189, Frederick wrote to Pope Clement III asking for a postponement of Henry's planned coronation as co-emperor because he did not want Henry to leave Germany during the regency.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=479}} Frederick formally appointed his son as regent at Regensburg on the eve of his departure.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}}}} and by Duke [[Frederick of Bohemia]],{{efn|The duke of Bohemia died before the crusade began.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}}}} Duke [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria|Leopold V of Austria]], Landgrave [[Louis III of Thuringia]]{{efn|Both Leopold V and Louis III sailed with their armies from Italy rather than march overland with Frederick.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}} Leopold was delayed by a border dispute with Hungary.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=488}}}} and a host of lesser nobles.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=472–473}}

After taking the cross, Frederick proclaimed a "general expedition against the pagans" in accordance with the pope's instructions. He set the period of preparation as 17 April 1188 to 8 April 1189 and scheduled the army to assemble at [[Regensburg]] on [[Saint George's Day]] (23 April 1189). To prevent the crusade from degenerating into an undisciplined mob, participants were required to have at least three [[Mark (currency)|marks]], which was enough to be able support oneself for two years.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=472–473}}

===Protecting the Jews===
At Strasbourg, Frederick imposed a small tax on the [[History of the Jews in Germany|Jews of Germany]] to fund the crusade. He also put the Jews under his protection and forbade anyone to preach against the Jews.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}} The First and Second Crusades in Germany had been marred by [[Rhineland massacres|violence against the Jews]]. The Third Crusade itself occasioned an outbreak of [[12th century English pogroms|violence against the Jews in England]]. Frederick successfully prevented a repetition of those events inside Germany.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=473–474}}

On 29 January 1188, a mob invaded the Jewish quarter in Mainz and many Jews fled to the imperial [[Münzenberg Castle|castle of Münzenberg]]. There were further incidents connected with the "Court of Christ" in March. According to Rabbi Moses ha-Cohen of Mainz,{{efn|Moses's account is known from a letter he wrote to his brother-in-law, [[Eleazar of Worms]].{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=473–474}}}} there were minor incidents from the moment people began arriving for the Court of Christ on 9 March. This culminated in a mob gathering to invade the Jewish quarter on 26 March. It was dispersed by the imperial marshal [[Henry of Kalden]]. The rabbi then met with the emperor, which resulted in an imperial edict threatening maiming or death for anyone who maimed or killed a Jew. On 29 March, Frederick and the rabbi then rode through the streets together to emphasise that the Jews had imperial protection. Those Jews who had fled in January returned at the end of April.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=473–474}}

===Diplomatic preparations===
Shortly after the Strasbourg assembly, Frederick dispatched legates to negotiate the passage of his army through their lands: Archbishop [[Conrad of Wittelsbach|Conrad of Mainz]] to Hungary, [[Godfrey of Wiesenbach]] to the Seljuk sultanate of Rûm and an unnamed ambassador to the Byzantine Empire. He may also have sent representatives to Prince [[Leo I, King of Armenia|Leo II of Armenia]].{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=480}}

Because Frederick had signed a treaty of friendship with Saladin in 1175,{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=355}} he felt it necessary to give Saladin notice of the termination of their alliance.{{efn|There is a published correspondence, almost certainly forged, between Frederick and Saladin concerning the end of their friendship.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=626 n.44}}}} On 26 May 1188, he sent Count [[Henry II of Dietz]] to present an ultimatum to Saladin. The sultan was ordered to withdraw from the lands he had conquered, to return the [[True Cross]] to the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] and to make satisfaction for those Christians who had been killed in his conquests, otherwise Frederick would abrogate their treaty.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=480–481}}

A few days after Christmas 1188, Frederick received Hungarian, Byzantine, Serbian, Seljuk and possibly Ayyubid envoys in [[Nuremberg]]. The Hungarians and Seljuks promised provisions and safe-conduct to the crusaders. The envoys of [[Stefan Nemanja]], grand prince of Serbia, announced that their prince would receive Frederick in [[Niš]]. An agreement was reached with the Byzantine envoy, [[John Kamateros (logothetes tou dromou)|John Kamateros]], but it required Godfrey of Würzburg, Frederick of Swabia and Leopold of Austria to swear oaths for the crusaders' good behaviour. Bishop [[Hermann of Katzenelnbogen|Hermann of Münster]], Count [[Rupert III of Nassau]], the future [[Henry III of Dietz]] and the imperial chamberlain [[Markward von Neuenburg]] with a large entourage{{efn|Sources give their entourage as 100, 300 or 500 knights.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=481}}}} were sent ahead to make preparations in Byzantium.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=480–481}}

===Mustering an army===
At the Strasbourg assembly in December 1187, Bishop Godfrey of Würzburg urged Frederick to sail his army to the Holy Land rather than proceed overland. Frederick declined{{efn|The emperor had been on the Second Crusade in 1147 and so was familiar with the overland route.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=51–53}}}} and Pope [[Clement III]] even ordered Godfrey not to discuss it further. Ultimately, many Germans ignored the rendezvous at Regensburg and went to the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], hoping to sail to the Holy Land on their own. Frederick wrote to King [[William II of Sicily]] asking him to bar such sailings. The emperor and the pope may have feared that Saladin would soon seize all the crusader ports.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=480}}

Frederick was the first of the three kings to set out for the Holy Land. On 15 April 1189 in [[Haguenau]],{{efn|This place may have had personal significance for Frederick.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}} It was the closest place Frederick, an [[itinerant king]], had to a home and may also have been where he was born.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=9–10}}}} Frederick formally and symbolically accepted the staff and scrip of a pilgrim.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}} He arrived in Regensburg for the muster between 7 and 11 May.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=486}} The army had begun to gather on 1 May. Frederick was disappointed by the small force awaiting him, but he was dissuaded from calling off the enterprise when he learned that an international force had already advanced to the Hungarian border and was waiting for the imperial army.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=487}}

Frederick set out on 11 May 1189 with an army of 12,000–20,000 men, including 2,000–4,000 knights.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=19}}<ref>Frank McLynn, "Richard and John: Kings at War," 2007, page 174.</ref>{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=487–488}}{{sfn|Bachrach|Bachrach|2017|p=197}} Contemporary chroniclers gave a range of estimates for Frederick's army, from 10,000 to 600,000 men,{{efn|Christian estimates of the size of Frederick's army vary from 13,000 to 100,000, while Muslim sources wildly exaggerate its size from 200,000 to 300,000.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=487–488}}}} including 4,000–20,000 knights.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=19}}{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=45}}<ref name=Tyerman2>Tyerman p. 418</ref><ref name = "Phillips66"/> After leaving Germany, Frederick's army was increased by the addition of a contingent of 2,000 men led by the Hungarian prince [[Géza, son of Géza II of Hungary|Géza]], the younger brother of the King [[Béla III of Hungary]], and Bishop [[Ugrin Csák, Archbishop of Esztergom|Ugrin Csák]].<ref name="Konstam124">A. Konstam, ''Historical Atlas of The Crusades'', 124</ref> Two contingents from the Empire, a [[Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles|Burgundian]] and a [[Duchy of Lorraine|Lorrainer]], also joined the army during its transit of Byzantium. The army that Frederick led into Muslim territory was probably larger than the one with which he had left Germany.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=487–488}}

===Passage through the Balkans===
{{Location map+
| Europe without the extreme north
| width = 250
| float =
| border =
| caption = Key stops along the route of Barbarossa's crusade from his taking the cross to his death
| alt =
| places =
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Haguenau
| position = left
| lat_deg = 48.82
| lon_deg = 7.78 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Regensburg
| position = top
| lat_deg = 49.01
| lon_deg = 12.10 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 48.24
| lon_deg = 14.52 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 48.2
| lon_deg = 16.37 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 48.15
| lon_deg = 17.11 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Esztergom
| position = right
| lat_deg = 47.79
| lon_deg = 18.74 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Belgrade
| position = left
| lat_deg = 44.81
| lon_deg = 20.46 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 44.70
| lon_deg = 21.54 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 43.93
| lon_deg = 21.38 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 43.32
| lon_deg = 21.90 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 42.70
| lon_deg = 23.32 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 42.19
| lon_deg = 24.33 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| position = bottom
| lat_deg = 42.14
| lon_deg = 24.75 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 42.20
| lon_deg = 25.32 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 41.68
| lon_deg = 26.56 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Gallipoli
| position = right
| lat_deg = 40.41
| lon_deg = 26.67 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 38.35
| lon_deg = 28.52 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 37.83
| lon_deg = 29.11 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 38.36
| lon_deg = 31.42 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 37.87
| lon_deg = 32.49 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = 
| lat_deg = 37.18
| lon_deg = 33.22 }}
{{Location map~ | Europe without the extreme north
| label = Seleucia
| position = bottom
| lat_deg = 36.40
| lon_deg = 33.86 }}
}}

====Hungary====
Frederick sailed from Regensburg on 11 May 1189, but most of the army had left earlier by land for the Hungarian border. On 16 May, Frederick ordered the village of [[Mauthausen, Upper Austria|Mauthausen]] burned because it had levied a toll on the army. In [[Vienna]], Frederick expelled 500 men from the army for various infractions. He celebrated [[Pentecost]] on 28 May encamped across from Hungarian [[Bratislava|Pressburg]]. During his four days encamped before Pressburg, Frederick issued an ordinance for the good behaviour of the army, a "law against malefactors" in words of one chronicle. It apparently had a good effect.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=488–489}}

From Pressburg, the Hungarian envoys escorted the crusaders to [[Esztergom]], where King [[Béla III of Hungary]] greeted them on 4 June. He provided boats, wine, bread and barley to the army. Frederick stayed in Esztergom for four days. The king of Hungary accompanied the army to the Byzantine border at [[Belgrade]]. There were incidents during the crossing of the [[Drava]] and [[Tisza]] rivers, but the [[Sava]] was crossed on 28 June without incident. In Belgrade, Frederick staged a tournament, held a court, conducted a census of the army and wrote to the Byzantine emperor [[Isaac II Angelos|Isaac II]] to inform him that he had entered Byzantine territory.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=489–490}}

====Byzantine Empire====
The army, still accompanied by Béla III, left Belgrade on 1 July, crossed the [[Great Morava|Morava]] and headed for [[Braničevo (Golubac)|Braničevo]], which was the seat of the local Byzantine administration since Belgrade had been devastated in the [[Byzantine–Hungarian War (1180–1185)]] with the Hungarians and Serbs. The head of the Byzantine administration was a ''[[Dux|doux]]'' (duke). At Braničevo, Béla III took leave and returned to Hungary. He gave the crusaders wagons and in return Frederick gave him his boats, since they would no longer be travelling up the Danube.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=490–491}}

The Burgundian contingent under Archbishop [[Aimo II of Tarentaise]] and a contingent from [[Metz]] caught up with the army at Braničevo. The duke of Braničevo gave the army eight days' worth of provisions. The enlarged army, including a Hungarian contingent, left Braničevo on 11 July following the [[Via Militaris]] that led to Constantinople. They were harassed by bandits along the route. According to crusader sources, some captured bandits confessed that they were acting on the orders of the duke of Braničevo.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=490–491}}

On 25 July, Frederick was in [[Ćuprija]] when he received word that [[Peter of Brixey]] had arrived in Hungary with the contingent from Lorraine. It was there that the problems of communication between Frederick and Isaac became apparent. Frederick's envoys had reached Constantinople, but Isaac was away besieging rebels in [[Alasehir|Philadelphia]] under a pretender named [[Theodore Mangaphas]]. Nonetheless, John Kamateros wrote to inform Frederick that a market would be available in [[Sofia]].{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=491–492}} It was probably from Ćuprija that Frederick sent another envoy, a Hungarian count named Lectoforus, to Constantinople to see what was going on.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=494}}

Frederick was welcomed by Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja in Niš with pomp on 27 July. Although the Serbian ruler asked the emperor to [[Investiture|invest]] him with his domains, Frederick refused on the grounds that he was on a pilgrimage and did not wish to harm Isaac as the Serbians rebelled against the Byzantines earlier. A marriage alliance was arranged between a daughter of Duke [[Berthold of Merania]] and a nephew of Nemanja, [[Toljen of Hum|Toljen]]. Frederick also received messages of support from Tsar [[Peter II of Bulgaria]], but refused an outright alliance. Despite Frederick's care not to be drawn into Balkan politics, the events at Niš were regarded by the Byzantines as hostile acts.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=491–492}}

Before leaving Niš, Frederick had Godfrey of Würzburg preach a sermon on the importance of discipline and maintaining the peace. He also reorganized the army, dividing it into four, because it would be entering territory more firmly under Byzantine control and less friendly. The vanguard of Swabians and Bavarians was put under the command of the Duke of Swabia assisted by [[Herman IV, Margrave of Baden|Herman IV of Baden]] and [[Berthold III of Vohburg]]. The second division consisted of the Hungarian and Bohemian contingents with their separate standard-bearers. The third was under the command of the Duke of Merania assisted by Bishop [[Diepold of Passau]]. The fourth was under Frederick's personal command and Rupert of Nassau was named its standard-bearer ''in absentia''.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=492–493}}

The crusaders left Niš on 30 July and arrived in Sofia on 13 August. They found the city practically abandoned. There was no Byzantine delegation to meet them and no market. The following day the crusaders left Sofia and the Lorrainers under Peter of Brixey finally caught up with the main army. The [[Gate of Trajan]] was held by a Byzantine force of 500 men. According to Diepold of Passau, the garrison retreated at the sight of Frederick's scouts, but the ''History of the Expedition'' says that it retreated only after being engaged by Frederick and a small group of knights. The army arrived at [[Pazardzhik]] on 20 August, finding an abundance of supplies.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=493–494}}

===Conflict with Byzantium===
Lectoforus met the army at Pazardzhik and informed Frederick of the disrespect shown to his envoys. On 24 August, the imperial army reached [[Plovdiv|Philippopolis]], the Byzantine forces in the area having fled at their approach. On 25 August, Lectoforus' report was confirmed: Hermann of Münster, Rupert of Nassau, Henry of Dietz and Markward von Neuenburg had been stripped of their possessions and openly mocked in presence of the Ayyubid ambassador. That same day, a Byzantine envoy, James of Pisa, arrived with a letter from Isaac, who referred to Frederick as "king of Germany", refusing him the imperial title, and accused him of plotting to put his son Frederick on the throne of Constantinople. He nonetheless offered to fulfill the agreement of December 1188 to ferry the crusaders across the [[Dardanelles]] if he received hostages (including Duke Frederick and six bishops) in addition to the envoys he had arrested. Frederick's response that he would consider the offer only after the envoys were released.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=494–495}}

According to the ''History of the Expedition'', the receipt of Isaac's letter marked a break in crusader–Byzantine relations. Thereafter, the crusaders resorted to plunder and a scorched earth policy. On 26 August, the crusaders seized Philippopolis and its plentiful supplies. Frederick tried to communicate with the nearest Byzantine commander, the ''[[protostrator]]'' [[Manuel Kamytzes]]. When he received no response, he attacked his army on 29 August, killing fifty. The following day (30 August) or a week later (6 September), Duke Frederick and Duke Berthold occupied [[Berrhoë]] unopposed. Henry of Kalden occupied a castle called Scribention, while Bishop Diepold and Duke Berthold took a further two towns and ten castles. At this point, the local [[Armenians|Armenian]] and [[Bulgars|Bulgarian]] population swore oaths to Frederick to supply the market in Philippopolis as long as the crusaders stayed. They remained there and in partial occupation of Macedonia until 5 November.{{sfn|Freed|2016|pp=494–495}}

Isaac ordered Kamytzes to shadow the crusaders and harass their foraging parties.{{sfn|Magoulias|1984|p=222}} About 22 November 1189, with some 2,000 horsemen, Kamytzes set up an ambush for the crusaders' supply train near Philippopolis. The crusaders were informed of this from the Armenian inhabitants of the fortress of [[Prousenos]], where Kamytzes had set up his main camp. They set out with 5,000 cavalry to attack the Byzantine camp. The two forces met by accident near Prousenos, and in the ensuing battle, Kamytzes was routed. The historian [[Niketas Choniates]], who was an eyewitness, writes that the Byzantines fled as far as [[Ohrid]], and that Kamytzes did not rejoin his men until three days after the battle.{{sfn|Magoulias|1984|pp=224–225}}

===Turkish territory===
After reaching Anatolia, Frederick was promised safe passage through the region by the Turkish Sultanate of Rum, but was faced instead with constant Turkish hit-and-run attacks on his army.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=102–103}} A Turkish army of 10,000 men was defeated at the [[Battle of Philomelion (1190)|Battle of Philomelion]] by 2,000 Crusaders, with 4,174–5,000 Turks slain.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=104}} After continued Turkish raids against the Crusader army, Frederick decided to replenish his stock of animals and foodstuffs by conquering the Turkish capital of [[Iconium]]. On 18 May 1190, the German army defeated its Turkish enemies at the [[Battle of Iconium (1190)|Battle of Iconium]], sacking the city and killing 3,000 Turkish troops.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=109–111}}

While crossing the [[Saleph River]] on 10 June 1190, Frederick's horse slipped, throwing him against the rocks; he then drowned in the river. After this, much of his army returned to Germany by sea in anticipation of the upcoming Imperial election. The Emperor's son, [[Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia|Frederick of Swabia]], led the remaining 5,000 men to [[Antioch]]. There, the Emperor's body was [[mos Teutonicus|boiled to remove the flesh]], which was interred in the [[Church of Saint Peter]]; his bones were put in a bag to continue the crusade. In Antioch, however, the German army was further reduced by fever.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=181}} Young Frederick had to ask the assistance of his kinsman [[Conrad of Montferrat]] to lead him safely to Acre, by way of Tyre, where his father's bones were buried. While the Imperial army did not achieve its objective of capturing Jerusalem, it did capture the capital of the Seljuk Sultanate and had inflicted considerable damage on Turkish forces, with more than 9,000 Turkish soldiers killed in all battles and skirmishes combined.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=97–111}}

==Maritime crusades==
{{further|Alvor massacre|Siege of Silves (1189)}}
There were two main international maritime expeditions that travelled independently of the main armies from northern European waters between the spring and autumn of 1189. In addition, there were probably numerous unrecorded sailings on a smaller scale. Some may have sailed as early as 1188.{{sfn|David|1939|p=666}}

The earlier of the two fleets departed England during Lent. It was already a large international fleet, including some 10,000 men and 50–60 ships from England, [[Denmark]], [[Frisian involvement in the Crusades|Frisia]], [[County of Flanders|Flanders]], [[County of Holland|Holland]] and the [[Rhineland]].{{sfn|Wilson|2020|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Mol|2002|p=94}} After a stop in [[Lisbon]], the fleet [[Alvor massacre|sacked Alvor]] and massacred its [[Almohad]] defenders.{{sfn|David|1939|p=666}}{{sfn|Wilson|2020|pp=1–2}} It arrived in Acre on 1 September.{{sfn|David|1939|p=664}}

The later of the two main fleets is the better recorded, since a short eyewitness account of its feats has survived, the ''[[De itinere navali]]''. It was composed mainly of commoners.{{sfn|David|1939|pp=603–604}} It departed from Germany in April with eleven ships, although this was augmented after it arrived in Lisbon in early July by an English fleet that had set out in May.{{sfn|Loud|2010|p=193}}{{sfn|David|1939|pp=611–616}} It was recruited by King [[Sancho I of Portugal]] to assist in an attack on [[Silves, Portugal|Silves]]. At the ensuing [[siege of Silves (1189)|siege of Silves]], the fleet had 38 vessels, including two from [[Duchy of Brittany|Brittany]] and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]].{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=196–197}}{{sfn|David|1939|p=618}} The city capitulated after 45 days.{{sfn|Loud|2010|pp=202–203}} The second fleet arrived at Acre between April and June 1190.{{sfn|Hosler|2018|p=62}} According to the ''[[Narratio de primordiis ordinis theutonici]]'', wood and sail from its cogs was used to construct a field hospital, which ultimately became the [[Teutonic Order]].{{sfn|Morton|2009|p=10}}

According to the ''[[Al-Bayān|Bayān]]'' of [[Ibn Idhari]], a northern fleet fought a naval battle with the [[Almohad navy]] near the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] in the spring of 1190 and was defeated, with its men being either killed or captured. The fleet may have wintered in Portugal. This incident is not mentioned in Christian sources.{{sfn|David|1939|p=666}} In the summer of 1190, a lone English ship separated from its fleet sailed into Silves while the city was [[Siege of Silves (1190)|besieged by the Almohads]]. Upon the request of Bishop [[Nicholas (bishop of Silves and Viseu)|Nicholas]]—himself a former member of the 1189 expedition—the English crusaders participated in the successful defence.{{sfn|Lay|2009|p=157}}

==Richard and Philip's crusade==
[[Henry II of England]] and [[Philip II of France]] ended their war with each other in a meeting at [[Gisors]] in January 1188 and then both took the cross.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=471}} Both imposed a "[[Saladin tithe]]" on their citizens to finance the venture. (No such tithe had been levied in the Empire.{{sfn|Freed|2016|p=482}}) In Britain, [[Baldwin of Forde]], the [[archbishop of Canterbury]], made a tour through Wales, convincing 3,000 men-at-arms to take up the cross, recorded in the ''Itinerary'' of [[Gerald of Wales]]. Baldwin would later accompany Richard on the Crusade and would die in the Holy Land.<ref>Hunt, William (1885). "[[wikisource:Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Baldwin (d.1190)|Baldwin (d. 1190)]]". In ''Dictionary of National Biography''. '''3.''' London. pp. 32–34.</ref>

===Passage===
King Henry II of England died on 6 July 1189. Richard succeeded him and immediately began raising funds for the crusade. In the meantime, some of his subjects departed in multiple waves by sea.<ref>{{cite ODNB | url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-98218 | isbn=978-0-19-861412-8 | doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/98218 | title=The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | year=2004 }}</ref> In April 1190, King Richard's fleet departed from [[Dartmouth, Devon|Dartmouth]] under the command of [[Richard de Camville]] and [[Robert IV de Sablé|Robert de Sablé]] on their way to meet their king in [[Marseille]]. Parts of this fleet helped the Portuguese monarch defeat an [[Almohad campaign against Portugal (1190–1191)|Almohad counterattack]] against [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] and [[Torres Novas]], while another group ransacked Christian [[Lisbon]], only to be routed by the Portuguese monarch.<ref>L. Villegas-Aristizábal, "Revisión de las crónicas de Ralph de Diceto y de la Gesta regis Ricardi sobre la participación de la flota angevina durante la Tercera Cruzada en Portugal", ''Studia Historica- Historia Medieval'' 27 (2009), pp. 153–170.</ref> Richard and Philip II met in France at [[Vézelay]] and set out together on 4 July 1190 as far as [[Lyon]] where they parted after agreeing to meet in Sicily; Richard with his retinue, said to number 800, marched to Marseille and Philip to [[Genoa]].<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0016.pdf Wolff and Hazard, p. 57]</ref> Richard arrived in Marseille and found that his fleet had not arrived; he quickly tired of waiting for them and hiring ships, left for Sicily on 7 August, visiting several places in Italy ''en route'' and arrived in [[Messina]] on 23 September. Meanwhile, the English fleet eventually arrived in Marseille on 22 August, and finding that Richard had gone, sailed directly to Messina, arriving before him on 14 September.<ref>Wolff and Hazard, p. 58</ref> Philip had hired a Genoese fleet to transport his army, which consisted of 650 knights, 1,300 horses, and 1,300 squires to the Holy Land by way of Sicily.<ref name="Phillips66">J. Phillips, ''The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople'', p. 66</ref>

[[File:Philip Augustus arriving in Palestine - British Library Royal MS 16 G vi f350vr (detail).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Philip II depicted arriving in Palestine, 1332–1350]]

[[William II of Sicily]] had died the previous year, and was replaced by [[Tancred, King of Sicily|Tancred]], who imprisoned [[Joan of England, Queen of Sicily|Joan of England]]—William's wife and King Richard's sister. Richard captured the city of [[Messina]] on 4 October 1190 and Joan was released. Richard and Philip fell out over the issue of Richard's marriage, as Richard had decided to marry [[Berengaria of Navarre]], breaking off his long-standing betrothal to Philip's half-sister [[Alys, Countess of the Vexin|Alys]]. Philip left Sicily directly for the Middle East on 30 March 1191 and arrived in Tyre in April; he joined the [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)|siege of Acre]] on 20 April.<ref>"Gesta Regis Ricard"</ref> Richard did not set off from Sicily until 10 April.

Shortly after setting sail from Sicily, King Richard's armada of 180 ships and 39 [[galley]]s was struck by a violent storm.<ref>Wolff and Hazard, p. 61</ref> Several ships ran aground, including one holding Joan, his new fiancée Berengaria and a large amount of treasure that had been amassed for the crusade. It was soon discovered that [[Isaac Dukas Comnenus]] of [[Cyprus]] had seized the treasure. The young women were unharmed. Richard entered [[Limassol]] on 6 May and met with Isaac, who agreed to return Richard's belongings and to send 500 of his soldiers to the Holy Land. Richard made camp at Limassol, where he received a visit from [[Guy of Lusignan]], the [[King of Jerusalem]], and married Berengaria, who was crowned queen. Once back at his fortress of [[Famagusta]], Isaac broke his oath of hospitality and began issuing orders for Richard to leave the island. Isaac's arrogance prompted Richard to conquer the island within days, leaving sometime before June.<ref>Gesta Regis Ricardi p. 139</ref> The anonymous chronicler of Béthune, however, offers the intriguing suggestion that Richard attacked Cyprus because Isaac was diverting the food supply from the Latin army at Acre.<ref>History of the Dukes p. 99</ref> Most modern scholars, however, accept that Richard's conquest of Cyprus was incidental.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neocleous |first=Savvas |date=2013 |title=Imaging Isaak Komnenos of Cyprus (1184-1191) and the Cypriots: Evidence from the Latin Historiography of the Third Crusade |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44173212 |journal=Byzantion |volume=83 |pages=297–337 |jstor=44173212 |issn=0378-2506}}</ref>

===Siege of Acre===
{{main|Siege of Acre (1189–91)}}
Saladin released King Guy from prison in 1189. Guy attempted to take command of the Christian forces at [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]], but Conrad of Montferrat held power there after his successful defence of the city from Muslim attacks. Guy turned his attention to the wealthy port of Acre. He amassed an army to besiege the city and received aid from Philip's newly arrived French army. The combined armies were not enough to counter Saladin, however, whose forces besieged the besiegers. In summer 1190, in one of the numerous outbreaks of disease in the camp, Queen Sibylla and her young daughters died. Guy, although only king by right of marriage, endeavoured to retain his crown, although the rightful heir was Sibylla's half-sister [[Isabella I of Jerusalem|Isabella]]. After a hastily arranged divorce from [[Humphrey IV of Toron]], Isabella was married to Conrad of Montferrat, who claimed the kingship in her name.

During the winter of 1190–91, there were further outbreaks of dysentery and fever, which claimed the lives of Frederick of Swabia, [[Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem]], and [[Theobald V of Blois]]. When the sailing season began again in spring 1191, [[Leopold V of Austria (Babenberg)|Leopold V of Austria]] arrived and took command of what remained of the imperial forces. Philip of France arrived with his troops from Sicily in May. A neighboring army under [[Leo I, King of Armenia|Leo II of Cilician Armenia]] also arrived.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Chahin|title=The Kingdom of Armenia: A History|publisher=Curzon Press|year=1987|isbn=0-7007-1452-9|page=245}}</ref>

Richard arrived at Acre on 8 June 1191 and immediately began supervising the construction of siege weapons to assault the city, which was captured on 12 July. Richard, Philip, and Leopold quarrelled over the spoils of the victory. Richard cast down the German standard from the city, slighting Leopold. In the struggle for the kingship of Jerusalem, Richard supported Guy, while Philip and Leopold supported Conrad, who was related to them both. It was decided that Guy would continue to rule but that Conrad would receive the crown upon his death. Frustrated with Richard (and in Philip's case, in poor health), Philip and Leopold took their armies and left the Holy Land in August. Philip left 7,000 French crusaders and 5,000 silver marks to pay them.<ref name = "McLynn219"/>

On 18 June 1191, soon after Richard's arrival at Acre, he sent a messenger to Saladin requesting a face to face meeting. Saladin refused, saying that it was customary for kings to meet each other only after a peace treaty had been agreed, and thereafter "it is not seemly for them to make war upon each other". The two therefore never met, although they did exchange gifts and Richard had a number of meetings with [[Al-Adil]], Saladin's brother.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gillingham|first1=John|title=Richard I|date=1999|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0300094043|pages=20–21|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Q4lh8KLi1YC&pg=PA20}}</ref> Saladin tried to negotiate with Richard for the release of the captured Muslim soldier garrison, which included their women and children. On 20 August, however, Richard thought Saladin had delayed too much and had [[Massacre at Ayyadieh|2,700 of the Muslim prisoners decapitated]] in full view of Saladin's army, which tried unsuccessfully to rescue them.<ref>[[Marshall Hodgson]], ''[[The Venture of Islam]] Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 2''. [[The University of Chicago]], 1958, p. 267.</ref> Saladin responded by killing all of the Christian prisoners he had captured. Following the fall of Acre, the Crusaders recaptured some inland parts of Galilee, including [[Mi'ilya]] and [[Bi'ina]].<ref>Khamisy, p. 214</ref>

===Battle of Arsuf===
{{main|Battle of Arsuf}}
After the capture of Acre, Richard decided to march to the city of [[Jaffa]]. Control of Jaffa was necessary before an attack on Jerusalem could be attempted. On 7 September 1191, however, Saladin attacked Richard's army at [[Arsuf]], {{convert|30|mi|km|-1}} north of Jaffa. Saladin attempted to harass Richard's army into breaking its formation in order to defeat it in detail. Richard maintained his army's defensive formation, however, until the [[Knights Hospitaller|Hospitallers]] broke ranks to charge the right wing of Saladin's forces. Richard then ordered a general counterattack, which won the battle. Arsuf was an important victory. The Muslim army was not destroyed, despite losing 7,000<ref>7,000 dead according to the ''Itinerarium'' [http://www.yorku.ca/inpar/richard_of_holy_trinity.pdf trans. 2001] Book IV Ch. XIX, p. 185</ref> men, but it did rout; this was considered shameful by the Muslims and boosted the morale of the Crusaders. Arsuf had dented Saladin's reputation as an invincible warrior and proved Richard's courage as soldier and his skill as a commander. Richard was able to take, defend, and hold Jaffa, a strategically crucial move toward securing Jerusalem. By depriving Saladin of the coast, Richard seriously threatened his hold on Jerusalem.<ref>Oman, pp. 311–318</ref>

===Advances on Jerusalem and negotiations===
[[File:L'armée de Saladin.jpg|thumb|Saladin's troops, French manuscript, 1337]]

Following his victory at Arsuf, Richard took Jaffa and established his new headquarters there. He offered to begin negotiations with Saladin, who sent his brother, [[Al-Adil I|Al-Adil]] (known as 'Saphadin' to the Franks), to meet with Richard. Negotiations, which included attempts to marry Richard's sister Joan or niece [[Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany]] to Al-Adil respectively, failed, and Richard marched to [[Ascalon]], which had been recently demolished by Saladin.<ref>Nicolle, p. 83</ref><ref>[[:s:Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Joan (1165-1199)|Dictionary of National Biography, 1885–1900/Joan (1165–1199)]]</ref>

In November 1191 the Crusader army advanced inland towards Jerusalem. On 12 December Saladin was forced by pressure from his emirs to disband the greater part of his army. Learning this, Richard pushed his army forward, spending Christmas at Latrun. The army then marched to Beit Nuba, only 12 miles from Jerusalem. Muslim morale in Jerusalem was so low that the arrival of the Crusaders would probably have caused the city to fall quickly. Appallingly bad weather, cold with heavy rain and hailstorms, combined with fear that if the Crusader army besieged Jerusalem, it might be trapped by a relieving force, led to the decision to retreat back to the coast.<ref>Gillingham, pp. 198–200.</ref>

Richard called on Conrad to join him on campaign, but he refused, citing Richard's alliance with King Guy. He too had been negotiating with Saladin as a defence against any attempt by Richard to wrest Tyre from him for Guy. However, in April, Richard was forced to accept Conrad as king of Jerusalem after an election by the nobles of the kingdom. Guy had received no votes at all; Richard sold him Cyprus as compensation. Before he could be crowned, Conrad was stabbed to death by two [[Order of Assassins|Assassins]] in the streets of Tyre. Eight days later, Richard's nephew [[Henry II of Champagne]] married Queen Isabella, who was pregnant with Conrad's child. It was strongly suspected that the king's killers had acted on instructions from Richard.

During the winter months, Richard's men occupied and refortified Ascalon, whose fortifications had earlier been razed by Saladin. The spring of 1192 saw continued negotiations and further skirmishing between the opposing forces. On 22 May the strategically important fortified town of [[Deir al-Balah|Darum]] on the frontiers of Egypt fell to the crusaders, following five days of fierce fighting.<ref>Gillingham, p. 208</ref> The Crusader army made another advance on Jerusalem, and in June it came within sight of the city before being forced to retreat again, this time because of dissention amongst its leaders. In particular, Richard and the majority of the army council wanted to force Saladin to relinquish Jerusalem by attacking the basis of his power through an invasion of Egypt. The leader of the French contingent, the [[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy|Duke of Burgundy]], however, was adamant that a direct attack on Jerusalem should be made. This split the Crusader army into two factions, and neither was strong enough to achieve its objective. Richard stated that he would accompany any attack on Jerusalem but only as a simple soldier; he refused to lead the army. Without a united command the army had little choice but to retreat back to the coast.<ref>Gillingham, pp. 209–212</ref>

===Saladin's attempt to recapture Jaffa===
{{main|Battle of Jaffa (1192)}}
In July 1192, Saladin's army suddenly attacked and captured Jaffa with thousands of men, but Saladin lost control of his army due to their anger for the massacre at Acre. It is believed that Saladin even told the Crusaders to shield themselves in the [[Citadel]] until he had regained control of his army.

Richard had intended to return to England when he heard the news that Saladin and his army had captured Jaffa. Richard and a small force of little more than 2,000 men went to Jaffa by sea in a surprise attack. Richard's forces stormed Jaffa from their ships and the [[Ayyubids]], who had been unprepared for a naval attack, were driven from the city. Richard freed those of the Crusader garrison who had been made prisoner, and these troops helped to reinforce the numbers of his army. Saladin's army still had numerical superiority, however, and they counter-attacked. Saladin intended a stealthy surprise attack at dawn, but his forces were discovered; he proceeded with his attack, but his men were lightly armoured and lost 700 men due to the missiles of the large numbers of Crusader crossbowmen.<ref>Oman, p. 319</ref> The [[Battle of Jaffa (1192)|battle]] to retake Jaffa ended in complete failure for Saladin, who was forced to retreat. This battle greatly strengthened the position of the coastal Crusader states.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=71–72}}

On 2 September 1192, following his defeat at Jaffa, Saladin was forced to finalize a treaty with Richard providing that Jerusalem would remain under [[Muslim]] control, while allowing unarmed Christian [[pilgrim]]s and [[trade]]rs to visit the city. Ascalon was a contentious issue as it threatened communication between Saladin's dominions in Egypt and Syria; it was eventually agreed that Ascalon, with its defences demolished, be returned to Saladin's control. Richard departed the Holy Land on 9 October 1192.

==Outcome==
{{main|Treaty of Jaffa (1192)}}
The Third Crusade did not achieve the goal of re-capturing [[Jerusalem]]. However, it facilitated the continuation of the [[Crusader states]] that were on the brink of collapse, which was further reinforced by the capture of [[Kingdom of Cyprus#Third Crusade|Cyprus]]. After the treaty, the Muslims held most of Palestine and surrounding regions except a narrow strip from [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] to [[Jaffa]], which remained under the Christians. Inland, parts of Galilee were regained by the Crusaders and further south, control of [[Ramla]] and [[Lydda]] were to be divided between the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] and the Ayyubid Sultanate. The Muslims remained in control of [[Jerusalem]]. Christian and Muslim pilgrims could safely conduct pilgrimages to Jerusalem. A three year truce was also agreed upon by both sides. The Crusade itself has been described by historians as either a successful expedition, a failure, or hardly justified given the cost.<ref>Khamisy, p. 214</ref><ref>Marshall (1992), P. 21</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lane-Poole |first=Stanley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYRtAAAAQBAJ&q=treaty+of+ramla |title=A History of Egypt: Volume 6, In the Middle Ages |date=2013-10-03 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-06569-6 |language=en|page=The Holy war had lasted five years. Before the decisive victory at Hittin in July, 1187, not an inch of Palestine west of the Jordan was in Muslim hands. After the peace of Ramla in September, 1192, the whole land was Muslim territory except a narrow strip of coast from Tyre to Jaffa. To recover this strip the whole of Europe had risen in arms, and hundreds of thousands of Crusaders had fallen. The result hardly justified the cost}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kedar |first=Benjamin Z. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Osr_AwAAQBAJ&q=failure+of+the+third+crusade |title=Crusade and Mission: European Approaches Toward the Muslims |date=2014-07-14 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-5561-2 |language=en|page=114|quote=Thus, even after the failure of the Third Crusade Joachim did not discard the possibility of a future military expedition to Jerusalem.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Madden |first=Thomas F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qz0fAwAAQBAJ&q=third+crusade+christian+defeat |title=The Concise History of the Crusades |date=2014-03-16 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-3116-0 |language=en|page=97|quote=Despite its failures, the Third Crusade was by almost any measure a highly successful expedition. The Crusader Kingdom was healed of its divisions, restored to its coastal cities, and secured in a peace with its greatest enemy. Although he had failed to reclaim Jerusalem, Richard had put the Christians of the Levant back on their feet again.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-15 |title=Third Crusade {{!}} Summary, Significance, Key Events, Location, & Leaders {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Third-Crusade |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en|quote=Although the Third Crusade had failed in its main objective, to retake Jerusalem, it had been very successful in a myriad of other ways, not least in expunging most of the gains Saladin had made in the aftermath of his victory at Ḥaṭṭīn. Moreover, in regaining the coast, Richard gave the truncated kingdom of Jerusalem a lease on life for another century.}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
Neither side was entirely satisfied with the results of the war. Though Richard's victories had deprived the Muslims of important coastal territories and re-established a viable Frankish state in Palestine, many Christians in the Latin West felt disappointed that he had elected not to pursue the recapture of Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carroll |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yZvTLDOgc1EC&q=treaty+of+ramla |title=Jerusalem, Jerusalem: How the Ancient City Ignited Our Modern World |date=2011-03-09 |publisher=HMH |isbn=978-0-547-54905-7 |language=en|page=147}}</ref> Likewise, many in the Islamic world felt disturbed that Saladin had failed to drive the Christians out of Syria and Palestine. Trade flourished, however, throughout the [[Middle East]] and in port cities along the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coastline.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Crompton
| first = Samuel Willard
| title = The Third Crusade: Richard the Lionhearted vs. Saladin
| publisher = [[Infobase Publishing]]
| series = Great battles through the ages
| year = 2003
| page = [https://archive.org/details/thirdcrusaderich0000crom/page/64 64]
| url = https://archive.org/details/thirdcrusaderich0000crom/page/64
| isbn = 0-7910-7437-4
| url-access = registration
}}</ref>

Saladin's scholar and biographer [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad|Baha al-Din]] recounted Saladin's distress at the successes of the Crusaders:

<blockquote>"I fear to make peace, not knowing what may become of me. Our enemy will grow strong, now that they have retained these lands. They will come forth to recover the rest of their lands and you will see every one of them ensconced on his hill-top," meaning in his castle, "having announced, 'I shall stay put' and the Muslims will be ruined." These were his words and it came about as he said.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = al-Din
| first = Baha
| author2 = D.S. Richards
| title = The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin
| publisher = [[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate]]
| series = Crusade Texts in Translation
| volume = 7
| edition =
| year = 2002
| location = Burlington, VT; Hampshire, England
| page = [https://archive.org/details/rareexcellenthis00dsri/page/232 232]
| url = https://archive.org/details/rareexcellenthis00dsri/page/232
| isbn = 0-7546-3381-0
}}</ref></blockquote>

Richard was arrested and imprisoned in December 1192 by [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria]], who suspected Richard of murdering Leopold's cousin [[Conrad of Montferrat]]. Leopold had also been offended by Richard casting down his standard from the walls of Acre. He was later transferred to the custody of [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor]], and it took a ransom of one hundred and fifty thousand marks to obtain his release. Richard returned to [[England]] in 1194 and died of a crossbow bolt wound in 1199 at the age of 41 while suppressing a revolt in Limousin.

In 1193, Saladin died of yellow fever. His heirs would quarrel over the succession and ultimately fragment his conquests.

Henry of Champagne was killed in an accidental fall in 1197. Queen Isabella then married for a fourth time, to [[Amalric II of Jerusalem|Amalric of Lusignan]], who had succeeded his brother Guy, positioned as King of Cyprus. After their deaths in 1205, her eldest daughter [[Maria of Montferrat]] (born after her father's murder) succeeded to the throne of Jerusalem.

Accounts of events surrounding the Third Crusade were written by the anonymous authors of the ''[[Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi]]'' (a.k.a. the ''[[Itinerarium Regis Ricardi]]''), the ''Old French Continuation of William of Tyre'' (parts of which are attributed to [[Ernoul]]), and by [[Ambroise]], [[Roger of Howden]], [[Ralph of Diceto]], and [[Giraldus Cambrensis]].

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
===References===
{{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* Asbridge, T., ''The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land'' (London, 2010).
* {{cite book|last1=Bachrach|first1=Bernard S.|last2=Bachrach|first2=David S.|date=2017|title=Warfare in Medieval Europe c. 400 – c. 1453|location=Abingdon, Oxon|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1138887664}}
* [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad|Baha al-Din Ibn Shaddad]], ''The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin'', trans. D.S. Richards (Aldershot, 2001).
* {{cite book|last=Barber|first=Malcolm|title=The Crusader States|year=2012|publisher=Yale University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bz_O7-Lb_CsC|isbn=978-0300189315}}
* {{cite book |title=The Crusader World |editor-first=Adrian |editor-last=Boas |chapter=The Fall of Jerusalem (1187) as viewed from Byzantium |first=Michael |last=Angold |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 }}
* ''[[Libellus de expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum|De Expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum]]'', translated by James A. Brundage, in ''The Crusades: A Documentary Survey''. Marquette University Press, 1962.
* ''La Continuation de Guillaume de Tyr (1184–1192)'', edited by Margaret Ruth Morgan. L'[[Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres]], 1982.
* [[Ambroise]], ''The History of the Holy War'', translated by Marianne Ailes. Boydell Press, 2003.
* Bennett, Stephen. ''Elite Participation in the Third Crusade'' (Boydell & Brewer, 2021) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=57238 online review]
*{{cite book |first=Jim |last=Bradbury |title=Philip Augustus: King of France, 1180–1223 |orig-year=1998 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge}}
* ''Chronicle of the Third Crusade: a Translation of the Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi'', translated by Helen J. Nicholson. Ashgate, 1997.
*{{cite book |title=A German Third Crusader's Chronicle of His Voyage and the Siege of Almohad Silves, 1189 AD / Muwahid Xelb, 585 AH: De Itinere Navali |year=2013 |first=Dana |last=Cushing |publisher=Antinomy}}
*{{cite journal |author-link=Charles Wendell David |title=Narratio de Itinere Navali Peregrinorum Hierosolymam Tendentium et Silviam Capientium, A.D. 1189 |first=Charles Wendell |last=David |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=81 |issue=5 |year=1939 |pages=591–676 |jstor=985010}}
* {{cite book |ref=hrav |editor-last=Edbury |editor-first=Peter W. |title=The Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade: Sources in Translation |publisher=Ashgate |year=1998}}
* Edde, A-M., ''Saladin'', trans. J.M. Todd (London, 2011).
*{{cite book |last=Freed |first=John |year=2016 |title=Frederick Barbarossa: The Prince and the Myth |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |isbn=978-0-300-122763 }}
* Gabrieli, F., (ed.) ''Arab Historians of the Crusades'', English translation 1969, {{ISBN|0-520-05224-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gillingham |first=John |title=Richard the Lionheart |location=London |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |year=1978 |isbn=0-297-77453-0 }}
* {{cite journal|last=Hamilton|first=Bernard|title=The Elephant of Christ: Reynald of Châtillon|journal=[[Studies in Church History]]|number=15|year=1978|volume=15|pages=97–108|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/S0424208400008950|s2cid=163740720|issn=0424-2084}}
* Harris, Jonathan (2014), ''Byzantium and the Crusades'', Bloomsbury, 2nd ed. {{ISBN|978-1-78093-767-0}}.
* {{cite book |ref=hrav |editor-last=Shirley |editor-first=Janet |title= History of the Dukes of Normandy and the Kings of England by the Anonymous of Béthune: Crusade Texts in Translation |publisher=Routledge |year=2021}}
* {{cite book |last=Hosler|first=John| title=The Siege of Acre, 1189–1191: Saladin, Richard the Lionheart, and the Battle that Decided the Third Crusade |year=2018 |publisher=Yale University Press|isbn= 978-0-30021-550-2 }}
* Hurlock, Kathryn (2013), ''Britain, Ireland and the Crusades, c. 1000–1300'', Basingstoke: Palgrave
*{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Lay |title=The Reconquest Kings of Portugal: Political and Cultural Reorientation on the Medieval Frontier |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009}}
* {{Cite book |last=Loud |first=G. A. |title=The Crusade of Frederick Barbarossa: The History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick and Related Texts|publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |location=[[Farnham, Surrey]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0754665755}}
* Lyons, M.C. & D.E.P Jackson, ''Saladin: Politics of the Holy War'' (Cambridge, 2001).
* Khamisy, Rabei, G. (2016) "Western Upper Galilee Under crusader Rule" in ''The Crusader World'', Boas, Adrian, J. (ed.), Routledge, Abingdon pp. 212–224.
* {{cite book | editor-last=Magoulias | editor-first=Harry J. | title=O City of Byzantium. Annals of Niketas Choniates | location=Detroit | publisher=Wayne State University Press | year=1984 | isbn=0-8143-1764-2}}
*{{cite book |first=Christopher |last=Marshall |title=Warfare in the Latin East, 1192–1291 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992}}
*{{cite journal |first=Johannes A. |last=Mol |title=Frisian Fighters and the Crusades |pages=89–110 |year=2002 |journal=Crusades |volume=1|doi=10.1080/28327861.2002.12220535 |hdl=20.500.11755/5490e290-3c18-4adc-8376-65ac10541dfc |s2cid=161825224 |url=https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/458624/Frisian_Fighters_and_the_Crusade.pdf }}
*{{cite book |first=Nicholas Edward |last=Morton |title=The Teutonic Knights in the Holy Land, 1190–1291 |publisher=The Boydell Press |year=2009}}
* {{Cite book |author-link=David Nicolle |last=Nicolle |first=David |title=The Third Crusade 1191: Richard the Lionheart and the Battle for Jerusalem |series=Osprey Campaign |volume=161 |location=Oxford |publisher=Osprey |year=2005 |isbn=1-84176-868-5 }}
* Oman, C.W.C., (1924) ''A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages'' Vol. I, 378–1278 AD. London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, reprinted in 1998.
* {{Cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|author-link=Steven Runciman|title=A History of the Crusades, Volume Two: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100–1187|year=1952|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QL88AAAAIAAJ|isbn=978-0521347716}}
* {{Cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|title=A History of the Crusades, Volume Three: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades|year=1954|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mrw8AAAAIAAJ|isbn=978-0521347723}}
* {{Setton-A History of the Crusades | volume = 2}}
* Spencer, Stephen J. "The Third Crusade in historiographical perspective" ''History Compass'' (June 2021) vol 19#7 [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/hic3.12662?campaign=woletoc online]
* {{cite book|last=Tyerman|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Tyerman|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades|publisher=[[Belknap Press]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-674-02387-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ULDUopVCVPoC}}
* Villegas-Aristizabal, L., [http://campus.usal.es/~revistas_trabajo/index.php/Studia_H_Historia_Medieval/article/viewFile/7639/7688 ''Revisión de las crónicas de Ralph de Diceto y de la Gesta regis Ricardi sobre la participación de la flota angevina durante la Tercera Cruzada en Portugal''], ''Studia Historica – Historia Medieval'' 27 (2009), pp. 153–170.
* Villegas-Aristizabal, Lucas, 2007, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110718171218/http://etheses.nottingham.ac.uk/283/2/Norman_and_AngloNorman.pdf ''The Norman and Anglo-Norman Participation in the Iberian Reconquista, c. 1018–1248''], Phd Thesis, Nottingham: University of Nottingham.
*{{cite journal |first=Jonathan |last=Wilson |title='Neither age nor sex sparing': The Alvor Massacre 1189, an Anomaly in the Portuguese ''Reconquista''? |journal=Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies |doi=10.1080/17546559.2019.1704043 |volume=12 |year=2020 |issue=2 |pages=1–31 [199–229]|s2cid=214374323 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Third Crusade}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547ls Third Crusade], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Jonathan Riley-Smith, Carole Hillenbrand and Tariq Ali (''In Our Time'', Nov. 29, 2001)

{{English military history}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Third Crusade| ]]
[[Category:12th-century crusades]]
[[Category:1180s conflicts]]
[[Category:1190s conflicts]]
[[Category:Richard I of England]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Ayyubid Sultanate]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Republic of Genoa]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Kingdom of Cyprus]]
[[Category:Wars involving England]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Republic of Pisa]]
[[Category:Wars involving France]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Holy Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire–Holy Roman Empire relations]]
[[Category:1180s in Asia]]
[[Category:1190s in Asia]]
[[Category:1180s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:1190s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:1180s in the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:1190s in the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Nizari Ismaili state]]
[[Category:Wars in the Land of Israel]]

Talk:First Crusade

2024-02-19T18:41:14Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Capitalization */ new section

{{Skip to talk}}
{{Talk header|archive_age=60|archive_bot=Lowercase sigmabot III}}
{{Article history
|action1=PR
|action1date=23:26, 4 September 2004
|action1link=Wikipedia:Peer review/First Crusade/archive1
|action1result=reviewed
|action1oldid=5700249

|action2=FAC
|action2date=00:44, 27 December 2004
|action2link=Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/First Crusade/archive1
|action2result=promoted
|action2oldid=8844487

|action3=FAR
|action3date=23:51, 8 January 2009
|action3link=Wikipedia:Featured article review/First Crusade/archive1
|action3result=removed
|action3oldid=262840625

|action4=GAN
|action4date=22:15, 26 August 2009
|action4link=Talk:First Crusade/GA1
|action4result=failed
|action4oldid=310453855

|action5=GAN
|action5date=19:22, 11 July 2010
|action5link=Talk:First Crusade/GA2
|action5result=listed
|action5oldid=372948523

|action6=PR
|action6date=00:54, 15 August 2010
|action6link=Wikipedia:Peer review/First Crusade/archive2
|action6result=reviewed
|action6oldid=378918243

| action7 = WAR
| action7date = 14 November 2010
| action7link = Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/Assessment/First Crusade
| action7result = failed
| action7oldid = 401001159
|maindate=18 January 2005
|topic=History
|currentstatus=GA
}}
{{WikiProject banner shell|collapsed=yes|class=GA|vital=yes|1=
{{WikiProject Military history|class=GA |A-Class=fail |portal1-name=War |portal1-link=Featured article/15 |French-task-force=yes |Crusades-task-force=yes |Muslim-task-force=yes |Walachian-task-forces=yes |Roman=yes }}
{{WikiProject Islam|importance=Mid |Muslim-history=yes |Muslim-history-importance=High}}
{{WikiProject Egypt|importance=Low }}
{{WikiProject Christianity|importance=High |catholicism=yes |catholicism-importance=Mid }}
{{WikiProject Middle Ages|importance=Top |Crusades-task-force=yes }}
{{WikiProject Turkey|importance=Low }}
{{WikiProject Israel|importance=Low }}
{{WikiProject Palestine|importance=Low }}
{{WikiProject Religion|importance=Mid |Interfaith=yes |InterfaithImp=Low }}
{{WikiProject Greece|importance=Low|topic=history|byzantine-task-force=yes}}
}}
{{British English}}
{{Annual readership|days=180}}
{{To do|small=yes}}
{{User:MiszaBot/config
|archiveheader = {{aan}}
|maxarchivesize = 100K
|counter = 3
|minthreadsleft = 4
|algo = old(60d)
|archive = Talk:First Crusade/Archive %(counter)d
}}

{{User:HBC Archive Indexerbot/OptIn
|target=Talk:First_Crusade/Archive index
|mask=Talk:First_Crusade/Archive <#>
|leading_zeros=0
|indexhere=yes}}
{{archives}}

== Semi-protected edit request on 30 June 2023 ==

{{Edit semi-protected|First Crusade|answered=yes}}
[[User:Onilaalex|Onilaalex]] ([[User talk:Onilaalex|talk]]) 12:31, 30 June 2023 (UTC)
Just to know that the country Walachia participated in the first crusade
:[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a [[WP:EDITXY|"change X to Y" format]] and provide a [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|reliable source]] if appropriate. [[User:M.Bitton|M.Bitton]] ([[User talk:M.Bitton|talk]]) 14:19, 30 June 2023 (UTC)

== Semi-protected edit request on 30 June 2023 (2) ==

·Walachia

{{edit semi-protected|First Crusade|answered=yes}}
[[Special:Contributions/86.122.74.154|86.122.74.154]] ([[User talk:86.122.74.154|talk]]) 16:55, 30 June 2023 (UTC)
:[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a [[WP:EDITXY|"change X to Y" format]] and provide a [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|reliable source]] if appropriate. [[User:Cannolis|Cannolis]] ([[User talk:Cannolis|talk]]) 18:05, 30 June 2023 (UTC)

== New map ==

I'd like to add a freely-licensed map showing where the participants on the First Crusade came from.

[[c:File:Origin_of_the_First_Crusaders.jpg|File:Origin of the First Crusaders.jpg - Wikimedia Commons]]

It's the outcome of a project that's discussed here

[https://historymatters.sites.sheffield.ac.uk/blog-archive/2023/mapping-the-first-crusaders History Matters - Mapping the First Crusaders (sheffield.ac.uk)] [[User:Charleslincolnshire|Charleslincolnshire]] ([[User talk:Charleslincolnshire|talk]]) 08:19, 13 July 2023 (UTC)

== Semi-protected edit request on 22 November 2023 ==

{{Edit semi-protected|First Crusade|answered=yes}}
Lacking military discipline, in what likely seemed to the participants a strange land (Eastern Europe), Peter's fledgling army quickly found itself in trouble despite the fact they were still in Christian territory.[36] The army led by Walter fought with the Hungarians over food at Belgrade,

Austria, Hungary, Serbia etc. are not [[Eastern Europe]], unless you define that as everything that is not Western Europe (aka the NW corner of the continent with Italy and Iberia). The second sentence is a downplaying of events. The Hungarians (Christians) in Zemun were massacred and Belgrade residents (also Christians) fled and both cities were burned down by the crusaders as is stated on the [[People's Crusade]] page.

Remove the apologetics, pilgrims regularly passed through this "strange land" earlier on their way to Jerusalem. Change "in what likely seemed to the participants a strange land (Eastern Europe)," to "being outside their lands of origin, Peter's army" or something like that. Add that Zemun and Belgrade were burned down and Christians in at least Zemun were massacred. [[Special:Contributions/78.2.116.124|78.2.116.124]] ([[User talk:78.2.116.124|talk]]) 23:16, 22 November 2023 (UTC)
:[[File:Red information icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' please provide [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|reliable sources]] that support the change you want to be made. [[User:Shadow311|Shadow311]] ([[User talk:Shadow311|talk]]) 17:00, 7 December 2023 (UTC)

== Byzantine-Seljuk map mistakes ==

1025 and 1081 should be swapped, and did they still hold southern Italy by 1081? [[User:Compoteleon|Compoteleon]] ([[User talk:Compoteleon|talk]]) 22:40, 2 February 2024 (UTC)
:The Byzantines? The [[Catepanate of Italy]] fell in 1071. [[User:Dimadick|Dimadick]] ([[User talk:Dimadick|talk]]) 16:13, 3 February 2024 (UTC)

== Capitalization ==

We're very irregular about capitalizing the word "Crusader" in this and other articles on the Crusades. [[Special:Contributions/2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B|2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B]] ([[User talk:2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B|talk]]) 18:41, 19 February 2024 (UTC)

Franco-Mongol alliance

2024-02-19T17:43:04Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Reasons for failure */

{{Short description|13th century attempts at an alliance}}
[[File:OljeituToPhilippeLeBel1305.jpg|260px|thumb|alt=A partially unrolled scroll. opened from left to right to show a portion of the scroll with widely spaced vertical lines of cursive Mongol script. Imprinted over two of the lines is an official-looking square red stamp with an intricate design.|1305 letter (a roll measuring {{convert|302|by|50|cm|ft}}) from the Ilkhan Mongol [[Öljaitü]] to King [[Philip IV of France]], suggesting military collaboration.]]

Several attempts at a '''Franco-Mongol alliance''' against the [[Caliphate|Islamic caliphates]], their common enemy, were made by various leaders among the [[Franks#Crusaders and other Western Europeans as "Franks"|Frankish]] [[Crusades|Crusaders]] and the [[Mongol Empire]] in the 13th century. Such an alliance might have seemed an obvious choice: the Mongols were already sympathetic to Christianity, given the presence of many influential [[Church of the East|Nestorian Christians]] in the Mongol court. The [[Franks]] (Western Europeans and those in the [[Crusader states|Crusader States]] of the [[Levant]]<ref>Many people in the East used the word "Frank" to denote a European of any variety.</ref>) were open to the idea of support from the East, in part owing to the long-running legend of the mythical [[Prester John]], an Eastern king in an Eastern kingdom who many believed would one day come to the assistance of the Crusaders in the Holy Land.<ref name="atwood-583" /><ref name="jackson-4">Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 4. "The failure of Ilkhanid-Western negotiations, and the reasons for it, are of particular importance in view of the widespread belief in the past that they might well have succeeded."</ref> The Franks and Mongols also shared a common enemy in the Muslims. However, despite many messages, gifts, and emissaries over the course of several decades, the often-proposed alliance never came to fruition.<ref name="atwood-583">Atwood. "Western Europe and the Mongol Empire" in ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire''. p. 583. "Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam".</ref><ref name="ryan">Ryan. pp. 411–421.</ref>

Contact between Europeans and Mongols began around 1220, with occasional messages from the papacy and European monarchs to Mongol leaders such as the [[Khagan|Great Khan]], and subsequently to the [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhans]] in Mongol-conquered [[Persia]]. Communications tended to follow a recurring pattern: the Europeans asked the Mongols to convert to Western Christianity, while the Mongols responded with demands for submission and tribute. The Mongols had already conquered many Christian and Muslim nations in their advance across Asia, and after destroying the [[Mongol campaign against the Nizaris|Nizaris of Alamut]] and the Muslim [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] and [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] dynasties, for the next few generations fought the remaining Islamic power in the region, the Egyptian [[Mamluk]]s. [[Hethum I, King of Armenia|Hethum I]], king of the Christian nation of [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Cilician Armenia]], had submitted to the Mongols in 1247, and strongly encouraged other monarchs to engage in a Christian–Mongol alliance, but was only able to persuade his son-in-law, Prince [[Bohemond VI of Antioch|Bohemond VI]] of the Crusader state of [[Principality of Antioch|Antioch]], who submitted in 1260. Other Christian leaders such as the Crusaders of [[Acre, Israel#Arab and Crusader periods|Acre]] were more mistrustful of the Mongols, perceiving them as the most significant threat in the region. The Barons of Acre therefore engaged in an unusual passive alliance with the Muslim Mamluks, allowing Egyptian forces to advance unopposed through Crusader territory to engage and defeat the Mongols at the pivotal [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260.<ref name="morgan-204" />

European attitudes began to change in the mid-1260s, from perceiving the Mongols as enemies to be feared, to potential allies against the Muslims. The Mongols sought to capitalize on this, promising a re-conquered Jerusalem to the Europeans in return for cooperation. Attempts to cement an alliance continued through negotiations with many leaders of the Mongol Ilkhanate in Persia, from its founder [[Hulagu]] through his descendants [[Abaqa Khan|Abaqa]], [[Arghun]], [[Ghazan]], and [[Öljaitü]], but without success. The Mongols [[Mongol invasions of Syria|invaded Syria]] several times between 1281 and 1312, sometimes in attempts at joint operations with the Franks, but the considerable logistical difficulties involved meant that forces would arrive months apart, never able to coordinate activities in any effective way.<ref name="Edbury 105" /> The Mongol Empire eventually dissolved into civil war, and the Egyptian Mamluks successfully recaptured all of Palestine and Syria from the Crusaders. After the [[Siege of Acre (1291)|fall of Acre]] in 1291, the remaining Crusaders retreated to the island of [[Cyprus]]. They made a final attempt to establish a bridgehead at the small island of [[Arwad|Ruad]] off the coast of [[Tartus|Tortosa]], again in an attempt to coordinate military action with the Mongols, but the plan failed, and the Muslims responded by besieging the island. With the [[Fall of Ruad]] in 1302, the Crusaders lost their last foothold in the Holy Land.<ref>Demurger. "The Isle of Ruad". ''The Last Templar''. pp. 95–110.</ref>

Modern historians debate whether an alliance between the Franks and Mongols would have been successful in shifting the balance of power in the region, and if it would have been a wise choice on the part of the Europeans.<ref name="historyindispute">See Abate and Marx. pp. 182–186, where the question debated is "Would a Latin-Ilkhan Mongol alliance have strengthened and preserved the Crusader States?{{'"}}</ref> Traditionally, the Mongols tended to see outside parties as either subjects or enemies, with little room in the middle for a concept such as an ally.<ref name="jackson-46">Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 46. See also pp. 181–182. "For the Mongols the mandate came to be valid for the whole world and not just for the nomadic tribes of the steppe. All nations were ''[[de jure]]'' subject to them, and anyone who opposed them was thereby a rebel (''bulgha''). In fact, the Turkish word employed for 'peace' was that used also to express subjection ... There could be no peace with the Mongols in the absence of submission."</ref><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 121. "[The Mongols] had no allies, only subjects or enemies".</ref>

== Background (1209–1244) ==
{{see also|Christianity among the Mongols|Mongol invasion of Europe|Europeans in Medieval China}}

Among Western Europeans, there had long been rumors and expectations that a great Christian ally would come from the East. These rumors circulated as early as the [[First Crusade]] (1096–1099), and usually surged in popularity after the Crusaders lost a battle. A legend arose about a figure known as [[Prester John]], who lived in far-off India, [[Central Asia]], or perhaps even [[Ethiopia]]. This legend developed a life of its own, and some individuals who came from the East were greeted with expectations that they might be forces sent by the long-awaited Prester John. In 1210, news reached the West of the battles of the Mongol [[Kuchlug]] (d. 1218), leader of the largely Christian tribe of the [[Naimans]]. Kuchlug's forces had been battling the powerful [[Khwarezmian Empire]], whose leader was the Muslim [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm]]. Rumors circulated in Europe that Kuchlug was the mythical Prester John, again battling the Muslims in the East.<ref name="Foltz111">Foltz. pp. 111–112.</ref>

During the [[Fifth Crusade]] (1213–1221), as the Christians were unsuccessfully laying siege to the Egyptian city of [[Damietta]], the legend of Prester John became conflated with the reality of [[Genghis Khan]]'s rapidly expanding empire.<ref name="Foltz111" /> Mongol raiding parties were beginning to invade the eastern Islamic world, in [[Transoxiana|Transoxania]] and [[Persia]] in 1219–1221.<ref name="raids-236">Amitai. "Mongol raids into Palestine (AD 1260 and 1300)". p. 236.</ref> Rumors circulated among the Crusaders that a "Christian king of the Indies", a King David who was either Prester John or one of his descendants, had been attacking Muslims in the East and was on his way to help the Christians in their crusades.<ref name="knobler">Knobler. pp. 181–197.</ref> In a letter dated {{nowrap|June 20, 1221}}, [[Pope Honorius III]] even commented about "forces coming from the Far East to rescue the Holy Land".<ref>Quoted in Runciman. p. 246.</ref>

After Genghis Khan's death in 1227, his empire was divided by his descendants into four sections or [[Khanate]]s, which degenerated into civil war. The northwestern [[Kipchaks|Kipchak]] Khanate, known as the [[Golden Horde]], expanded towards Europe, primarily via Hungary and Poland, while its leaders simultaneously opposed the rule of their cousins back at the Mongol capital. The southwestern section, known as the Ilkhanate, was under the leadership of Genghis Khan's grandson [[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]]. He continued to support his brother, the Great Khan, and was therefore at war with the Golden Horde, while at the same time continuing an advance towards Persia and the Holy Land.<ref name="morgan-135">Morgan. ''The Mongols''. pp. 133–138.</ref>

== Papal overtures (1245–1248) ==
[[File:LetterGuyugToInnocence.jpg|alt=A long vertical yellowed document, with approximately 25 lines of Persian text in a calligraphy style|thumb|100px|[[Letter from Güyük Khan to Pope Innocent IV|1246 letter]] from [[Güyük Khan|Güyük]] to [[Pope Innocent IV]], written in [[Persian language|Persian]]]]

The first official communications between Western Europe and the Mongol Empire occurred between [[Pope Innocent IV]] ([[floruit|fl.]] 1243–1254) and the Great Khans, via letters and envoys that were sent overland and could take years to arrive at their destination. The communications initiated what was to become a regular pattern in European–Mongol communications: the Europeans would ask the Mongols to convert to Christianity, and the Mongols would respond with demands for submission.<ref name="jackson-46" /><ref>Richard. p. 422. "In all the conversations between the popes and the il-khans, this difference of approach remained: the il-khans spoke of military cooperation, the popes of adhering to the Christian faith."</ref>

The [[Mongol invasion of Europe]] ended in 1242, in part because of the death of the Great Khan [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]], successor to Genghis Khan. When one Great Khan died, Mongols from all parts of the empire were recalled to the capital to decide who should be the next Great Khan.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 72.</ref> In the meantime, the Mongols' relentless march westward had displaced the [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khawarizmi Turks]], who themselves moved west, eventually allying with the Ayyubid Muslims in Egypt.<ref>Tyerman. pp. 770–771.</ref> Along the way, the Ayyubids [[Siege of Jerusalem (1244)|took Jerusalem from the Christians in 1244]]. After the subsequent loss at the [[Battle of La Forbie]], Christian kings began to prepare for a new crusade (the [[Seventh Crusade]]), declared by Pope Innocent IV in June 1245 at the [[First Council of Lyon]].<ref>Riley-Smith. pp. 289–290.</ref><ref>Tyerman. p. 772.</ref> The loss of Jerusalem caused some Europeans to look to the Mongols as potential allies of Christendom, provided the Mongols could be converted to [[Western Christianity]].<ref name="ryan" /> In March 1245, Pope Innocent IV had issued multiple [[papal bull]]s, some of which were sent with an envoy, the [[Franciscan]] [[Giovanni da Pian del Carpine|John of Plano Carpini]], to the "Emperor of the Tartars". In a letter now called the ''[[Cum non solum]]'', Pope Innocent expressed a desire for peace, and asked the Mongol ruler to become a Christian and to stop killing Christians.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 90.</ref> However, the new Mongol Great Khan [[Güyük Khan|Güyük]], installed at [[Karakorum]] in 1246, replied only with a demand for the submission of the pope, and a visit from the rulers of the West in homage to Mongol power:<ref>Morgan. ''The Mongols''. p. 102.</ref>

{{blockquote|You should say with a sincere heart: "I will submit and serve you." Thou thyself, at the head of all the Princes, come at once to serve and wait upon us! At that time I shall recognize your submission. If you do not observe God's command, and if you ignore my command, I shall know you as my enemy.|Güyük Khan's [[Letter from Güyük Khan to Pope Innocent IV|letter]] to Pope Innocent IV, 1246<ref>Dawson (ed.) ''[https://archive.org/stream/mongolmission008646mbp#page/n133/mode/2up/search/1246 The Mongol Mission]''. p. 86.</ref>}}

A second mission sent in 1245 by Pope Innocent was led by the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[Ascelin of Lombardia]],<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 88.</ref> who met with the Mongol commander [[Baiju Noyan|Baiju]] near the [[Caspian Sea]] in 1247. Baiju, who had plans to capture Baghdad, welcomed the possibility of an alliance and sent a message to Rome via his envoys [[Aïbeg and Serkis]]. They then returned a year later with Pope Innocent's letter, ''[[Viam agnoscere veritatis (1248)|Viam agnoscere veritatis]]'', in which he appealed to the Mongols to "cease their menaces".<ref name="setton-522">Sinor. [https://books.google.com/books?id=J6v9jhUd-r8C&pg=PA522&dq=setton+viam "Mongols in Western Europe"]. p. 522. "The Pope's reply to Baidju's letter, ''Viam agnoscere veritatis'', dated November 22, 1248, and probably carried back by Aibeg and Sargis." Note that Sinor refers to the letter as "Viam agnoscere" though the actual letter uses the text "Viam cognoscere".</ref><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 89.</ref>

== Christian vassals ==
{{see also|Mongol invasions of Georgia and Armenia}}
As the Mongols of the Ilkhanate continued to move towards the Holy Land, city after city fell to them. The typical Mongol pattern was to give a region one chance to surrender. If the target acquiesced, the Mongols absorbed the populace and warriors into their own Mongol army, which they would then use to further expand the empire. If a community did not surrender, the Mongols forcefully took the settlement or settlements and slaughtered everyone they found.<ref>Hindley. p. 193.</ref> Faced with the option of subjugation to or combat with the nearby Mongol horde, many communities chose the former, including some Christian realms.<ref name="bournotian-109">Bournotian. p. 109. "It was at this juncture that the main Mongol armies appeared [in Armenia] in 1236. The Mongols swiftly conquered the cities. Those who resisted were cruelly punished, while those submitting were rewarded. News of this spread quickly and resulted in the submission of all of historic Armenia and parts of Georgia by 1245 ... Armenian and Georgian military leaders had to serve in the Mongol army, where many of them perished in battle. In 1258 the Ilkhanid Mongols, under the leadership of Hulagu, sacked Baghdad, ended the Abbasid Caliphate and killed many Muslims."</ref>

[[File:SempadLetter.JPG|left|thumb|alt=A single page from a 14th-century manuscript. Un-illustrated, it is covered with dozens of lines of Latin text. The parchment is aged and has some holes in it towards the bottom, which evidently existed before the text was written around them.|1248 letter from [[Sempad the Constable]] to [[Henry I of Cyprus]] and [[John of Ibelin (jurist)|Jean d'Ibelin]]]]

Christian [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgia]] was repeatedly attacked starting in 1220, and in 1243 Queen [[Rusudan of Georgia|Rusudan]] formally submitted to the Mongols, turning Georgia into a vassal state which then became a regular ally in the Mongol military conquests.<ref>Stewart. "Logic of Conquest". p. 8.</ref> [[Hethum I, King of Armenia|Hethum I of Cilician Armenia]] submitted in 1247, and over the following years encouraged other monarchs to enter into a Christian-Mongol alliance.<ref name="nersessian" /><ref name="stewart-8">Stewart. "Logic of Conquest". p. 8. "The Armenian king saw alliance with the Mongols — or, more accurately, swift and peaceful subjection to them — as the best course of action."</ref><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 74. "King Het'um of Lesser Armenia, who had reflected profoundly upon the deliverance afforded by the Mongols from his neighbbours and enemies in Rum, sent his brother, the Constable Smbat (Sempad) to Guyug's court to offer his submission."</ref><ref>Ghazarian. p. 56.</ref><ref>May. p. 135.</ref> He sent his brother [[Sempad the Constable|Sempad]] to the Mongol court in Karakorum, and Sempad's positive letters about the Mongols were influential in European circles.<ref name="bournotian-100">Bournotian. p. 100. "Smbat met Kubali's brother, Mongke Khan and in 1247, made an alliance against the Muslims"</ref>

=== Antioch ===
The [[Principality of Antioch]] was one of the earliest Crusader States, founded in 1098 during the First Crusade. At the time of the Mongol advance, it was under the rule of [[Bohemond VI of Antioch|Bohemond VI]]. Under the influence of his father-in-law, Hethum I, Bohemond too submitted Antioch to Hulagu in 1260.<ref name="nersessian">Nersessian. p. 653. "Hetoum tried to win the Latin princes over to the idea of a Christian-Mongol alliance, but could convince only Bohemond VI of Antioch."</ref><ref name="jackson-167" /><ref>Lebedel. p. 75. "The Barons of the Holy Land refused an alliance with the Mongols, except for the king of Armenia and Bohemond VI, prince of Antioch and Count of Tripoli"</ref> A Mongol representative and a Mongol garrison were stationed in the capital city of [[Antioch]], where they remained until the Principality was destroyed by the Mamluks in 1268.<ref name="tyerman-806">Tyerman. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ULDUopVCVPoC&pg=PA806 p. 806]</ref><ref>Richard. p. 410. "Under the influence of his father-in-law, the king of Armenia, the prince of Antioch had opted for submission to Hulegu"</ref> Bohemond was also required by the Mongols to accept the restoration of a [[List of Greek Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch|Greek Orthodox patriarch]], [[Euthymius II of Antioch|Euthymius]], as a way of strengthening ties between the Mongols and the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]]. In return for this loyalty, Hulagu awarded Bohemond all the Antiochene territories which had been lost to the Muslims in 1243.<ref>Richard. [https://books.google.com/books?id=a0LO9u6xKvcC&pg=PA411&q=euthymius p. 411].</ref> However, for his relations with the Mongols, Bohemond was also temporarily excommunicated by [[Pope Urban IV|Jacques Pantaléon]], the [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem]], though this was lifted in 1263.<ref>Saunders. p. 115.</ref>

Around 1262 or 1263, the Mamluk leader [[Baibars]] attempted an attack on Antioch, but the principality was saved by Mongol intervention.<ref>Richard. p. 416. "In the meantime, [Baibars] conducted his troops to Antioch, and started to besiege the city, which was saved by a Mongol intervention"</ref> In later years the Mongols were not able to offer as much support. In 1264–1265 the Mongols were able to attack only the frontier fort of [[Birecik|al-Bira]]. In 1268 Baibars completely overran the rest of Antioch, ending the 170-year-old principality.<ref name="Richard414">Richard. pp. 414–420.</ref><ref>Hindley. p. 206.</ref>
{{Clear}}
In 1271, Baibars sent a letter to Bohemond threatening him with total annihilation and taunting him for his alliance with the Mongols:

{{blockquote|Our yellow flags have repelled your red flags, and the sound of the bells has been replaced by the call: "[[Takbir|Allâh Akbar]]!" ... Warn your walls and your churches that soon our siege machinery will deal with them, your knights that soon our swords will invite themselves in their homes ... We will see then what use will be your alliance with Abagha.|Letter from Baibars to Bohemond VI, 1271<ref>Quoted in Grousset. p. 650.</ref>}}

Bohemond was left with no estates except the [[County of Tripoli]], which was itself to fall to the Mamluks in 1289.<ref name="tyerman-815" />
{{clear}}

== Saint Louis and the Mongols ==
{{main|Seventh Crusade}}
[[Louis IX of France]] had communications with the Mongols throughout his own crusades. During his first venture to [[Crusader states|Outremer]], he was met on {{nowrap|December 20, 1248}} in Cyprus by two Mongol envoys, Nestorians from [[Mosul]] named [[David and Mark|David and Marc]], who brought a letter from the Mongol commander in Persia, [[Eljigidei]].<ref>Jackson. "Crisis in the Holy Land". pp. 481–513.</ref> The letter communicated a more conciliatory tone than previous Mongol demands for submission, and Eljigidei's envoys suggested that King Louis should land in Egypt while Eljigidei attacked Baghdad, as a way of preventing the Muslims of Egypt and those of Syria from joining forces.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 181.</ref> Louis responded by sending the emissary [[Andrew of Longjumeau]] to the Great Khan [[Güyük]], but Güyük died from drink before the emissary arrived at his court. Güyük's widow [[Oghul Qaimish]] simply gave the emissary a gift and a condescending letter to take back to King Louis, instructing him to continue sending tributes each year.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 99.</ref><ref>Tyerman. p. 798. "Louis's embassy under Andrew of Longjumeau had returned in 1251 carrying a demand from the Mongol regent, Oghul Qaimush, for annual tribute, not at all what the king had anticipated."</ref><ref>Sinor. p. 524.</ref>

Louis's campaign against Egypt did not go well. He [[siege of Damietta (1218–19)|captured Damietta]], but lost his entire army at the [[Battle of Mansurah (1250)|Battle of Al Mansurah]], and was himself captured by the Egyptians. His release was eventually negotiated in return for a ransom (some of which was a loan from the [[Knights Templar|Templars]]) and the surrender of the city of Damietta.<ref>Tyerman. pp. 789–798.</ref> A few years later, in 1253 he sought allies among both the [[Ismaili]] [[Order of Assassins|Assassins]] and the Mongols.<ref>Daftary. p. 60.</ref> When he saw a letter from Hethum's brother, the Armenian noble Sempad, which spoke well of the Mongols, Louis dispatched the Franciscan [[William of Rubruck]] to the Mongol court. But the Mongol leader [[Möngke Khan|Möngke]] replied with only a letter via William in 1254, asking for the King's submission to Mongol authority.<ref name="iranica">Calmard. "[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/france-index France]" article in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]''</ref>

Louis attempted a second crusade (the [[Eighth Crusade]]) in 1270. The Mongol Ilkhanate leader Abaqa wrote to Louis IX offering military support as soon as the Crusaders landed in Palestine, but Louis instead went to [[Tunis]] in modern [[Tunisia]]. His intention was evidently to first conquer Tunis, and then to move his troops along the coast to reach Alexandria in Egypt.<ref>Sinor. p. 531.</ref> The French historians [[Alain Demurger]] and Jean Richard suggest that this crusade may still have been an attempt at coordination with the Mongols, in that Louis may have attacked Tunis instead of Syria following a message from Abaqa that he would not be able to commit his forces in 1270, and asking to postpone the campaign to 1271.<ref>Demurger. ''Croisades et Croisés au Moyen Age''. p. 285. "It really seems that Saint Louis's initial project in his second Crusade was an operation coordinated with the offensive of the Mongols."</ref><ref name="Richard428">Richard. pp. 428–434.</ref> Envoys from the Byzantine emperor, the Armenians and the Mongols of Abaqa were present at Tunis, but events put a stop to plans for a continued crusade when Louis died of illness.<ref name="Richard428" /> According to legend, his last word was "Jerusalem".<ref>Grousset. p. 647.</ref>

== Relations with the Ilkhanate ==

=== Hulagu (1256–1265) ===
[[Hulagu Khan]], a grandson of Genghis Khan, was an avowed [[shamanist]], but was nevertheless very tolerant of Christianity. His mother [[Sorghaghtani Beki]], his favorite wife [[Doquz Khatun]], and several of his closest collaborators were Nestorian Christians. One of his most important generals, [[Kitbuqa]], was a Nestorian Christian of the Naiman tribe.<ref name="ryan" />

In 1238, the European kings [[Louis IX of France]] and [[Edward I of England]] rejected the offer of the [[Nizari Ismaili state|Nizari]] Imam [[Muhammad III of Alamut]] and the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] caliph [[Al-Mustansir (Baghdad)|Al-Mustansir]] for a Muslim–Christian alliance against the Mongols. They later joined the Mongols against all Muslims.<ref name="Daftary1992p418">{{cite book |last1=Daftary |first1=Farhad |title=The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines |date=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42974-0 |pages=418–420 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQGlyZAy134C&pg=PA418 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Daftari2000">{{cite web |last1=Daftary |first1=Farhad |author-link1=Farhad Daftary |title=The Mediaeval Ismailis of the Iranian Lands {{!}} The Institute of Ismaili Studies |url=http://www.iis.ac.uk/mediaeval-ismailis-iranian-lands |website=www.iis.ac.uk |access-date=31 March 2020}}</ref> Military collaboration between the Mongols and their Christian vassals became substantial in 1258–1260. Hulagu's army, with the forces of his Christian subjects [[Bohemond VI of Antioch]], [[Hethum I of Armenia]], and the Christian Georgians, effectively destroyed two of the most powerful Muslim dynasties of the era: the Abbasids in Baghdad and the Ayyubids in Syria.<ref name="morgan-135" />

==== Fall of Baghdad (1258) ====
[[File:Bagdad1258.jpg|thumb|alt=Colorful medieval depiction of a siege, showing the city of Baghdad surrounded by walls, and the Mongol army outside|Mongol attack on Baghdad (1258)]]{{main|Siege of Baghdad (1258)}}

The [[Abbasid Caliphate]], founded by [[as-Saffah|Abu al-‘Abbās ‘Abdu'llāh ibn Muhammad as-Saffāḥ]], the great-great-grandson of [[Muhammad]]'s uncle [[Al-‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib|Abbas]], in 749, had ruled northeastern Africa, Arabia, and the Near East, even though their rule had by 1258 shrunk to only southern and central Iraq. The Abbasids' seat of power for almost 500 years was Baghdad, a city considered to be the jewel of Islam and one of the largest and most powerful cities in the world. But under attack from the Mongols, the city fell on {{nowrap|February 15, 1258}}, a loss often considered in the Muslim world as the single most catastrophic event in the history of Islam, the end of the [[Islamic Golden Age]]. The Christian Georgians had been the first to breach the walls, and as described by historian [[Steven Runciman]], "were particularly fierce in their destruction".<ref>Runciman. p. 303.</ref> When Hulagu conquered the city, the Mongols demolished buildings, burned entire neighborhoods, and massacred nearly all the men, women, and children. But at the intervention of Doquz Khatun, the Christian inhabitants were spared.<ref>Lane. p. 243.</ref>

[[File:Hulagu and Doquz-Qatun in Syriac Bible.jpg|left|thumb|upright|alt=An ancient painting of a man and a woman in royal garb standing by a cross. The faces are darkened and cannot be seen.|Hulagu and Queen Doquz Khatun depicted as the new "Constantine and Helen", in a Syriac Bible<ref name="Angold 387" /><ref>''Le Monde de la Bible'' N.184 July–August 2008. p. 43.</ref>]]

For Asiatic Christians, the fall of Baghdad was cause for celebration.<ref name="Joseph" /><ref name="Folda 349" /><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 120.</ref> Hulagu and his Christian queen came to be considered as God's agents against the enemies of Christianity,<ref name="Folda 349">Folda. pp. 349–350.</ref> and were compared to the influential 4th-century Christian Emperor [[Constantine the Great]] and his revered mother, [[Empress Helena]], an icon of the Christian church. The Armenian historian [[Kirakos of Gandzak|Kyrakos of Gandzak]] praised the Mongol royal couple in texts for the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Church]],<ref name="Angold 387">Angold. p. 387. "In May 1260, a Syrian painter gave a new twist to the iconography of the Exaltation of the Cross by showing Constantine and Helena with the features of Hulegu and his Christian wife Doquz Khatun".</ref><ref name="Joseph" /><ref>Takahashi. [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ovTbDkRDOIC&pg=PA102 p. 102].</ref> and [[Bar Hebraeus]], a bishop of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], also referred to them as a Constantine and Helena, writing of Hulagu that nothing could compare to the "king of kings" in "wisdom, high-mindedness, and splendid deeds".<ref name="Joseph">Joseph [https://books.google.com/books?id=lKaL3_dfFJAC&pg=PA16 p. 16].</ref>

==== Invasion of Syria (1260) ====
After Baghdad, in 1260 the Mongols with their Christian subjects conquered Muslim [[Syria]], domain of the Ayyubid dynasty. They took together the city of [[Aleppo]] in January, and in March, the Mongols with the Armenians and the Franks of Antioch took [[Damascus]], under the Christian Mongol general Kitbuqa.<ref name="morgan-135" /><ref name="tyerman-806" /> With both the Abbasid and Ayyubid dynasties destroyed, the Near East, as described by historian Steven Runciman, "was never again to dominate civilization."<ref>Runciman. p. 304.</ref> The last Ayyubid sultan [[An-Nasir Yusuf]] died shortly thereafter, and with the Islamic power centers of Baghdad and Damascus gone, the center of Islamic power transferred to the Egyptian Mamluks in Cairo.<ref name="morgan-135" /><ref>Irwin. p. 616.</ref> However, before the Mongols could continue their advance towards Egypt, they needed to withdraw because of the death of the Great Khan. Hulagu was needed back at the capital and took the bulk of his forces with him, leaving a small force under Kitbuqa to occupy Palestine during his absence. [[Mongol raids into Palestine|Mongol raiding parties]] were sent south into Palestine towards Egypt, with small Mongol garrisons of about 1,000 established in Gaza.<ref name="tyerman-806" /><ref>Richard. pp. 414–415. "He [Qutuz] reinstated the emirs expelled by his predecessor, then assembled a large army, swollen by those who had fled from Syria during Hulegu's offensive, and set about recovering territory lost by the Muslims. Scattering in passage the thousand men left at Gaza by the Mongols, and having negotiated a passage along the coast with the Franks (who had received his emirs in Acre), he met and routed Kitbuqa's troops at Ayn Jalut."</ref><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 116.</ref>

==== Battle of Ain Jalut ====
{{main|Battle of Ain Jalut}}
[[File:Siège de Sidon (1260).jpeg|230px|thumb|alt=Colorful medieval depiction of a simplified battle scene, showing towers with outsized people looking out the windows, and armed Mongols approaching on horses.|Kitbuqa besieging Sidon after his nephew's murder by Julian Grenier]]

Despite the cooperation between the Mongols and their Christian subjects in Antioch, other Christians in the Levant regarded the Mongol approach with unease. Jacques Pantaléon, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, saw the Mongols as a clear threat, and had written to the Pope to warn him about them in 1256.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 105.</ref> The Franks did, however, send the Dominican [[David of Ashby]] to the court of Hulagu in 1260.<ref name="iranica" /> In [[Sidon]], [[Julian Grenier]], [[Lordship of Sidon|Lord of Sidon]] and [[Beaufort Castle, Lebanon|Beaufort]], described by his contemporaries as irresponsible and light-headed, took an opportunity to raid and plunder the area of the [[Beqaa Valley]] in Mongol territory. One of the Mongols killed was Kitbuqa's nephew, and in retaliation, Kitbuqa raided the city of Sidon. These events added to the level of distrust between the Mongols and the Crusader forces, whose own center of power was now in the coastal city of Acre.<ref>Richard. p. 411.</ref><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. pp. 120–122.</ref>

The Franks of Acre did their best to maintain a position of cautious neutrality between the Mongols and the Mamluks.<ref name="morgan-204">Morgan. "The Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean". p. 204. "The authorities of the crusader states, with the exception of Antioch, opted for a neutrality favourable to the Mamluks."</ref> Despite their long history of enmity with the Mamluks, the Franks acknowledged that the Mongols were a greater threat, and after careful debate, chose to enter into a passive truce with their previous adversaries. The Franks allowed the Mamluk forces to move northward through Christian territory to engage the Mongols, in exchange for an agreement that the Franks could purchase any captured Mongol horses at a low price.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 115.</ref><ref>Richard. p. 425. "They allowed the Mamluks to cross their territory, in exchange for a promise to be able to purchase at a low price the horses captured from the Mongols."</ref> The truce allowed the Mamluks to camp and re-supply near Acre, and engage the Mongols at Ain Jalut on {{nowrap|September 3, 1260}}. The Mongol forces were already depleted due to their main force withdrawing, so with the passive assistance of the Franks, the Mamluks were able to achieve a decisive and historic victory over the Mongols. The remainder of the Mongol army retreated to Cilician Armenia, where they were received and re-equipped by Hethum I.<ref name="Richard414" /> Ain Jalut marked a major turning point in the history of the Mongols, as it was the first major battle that they had lost, and set the western border for what had seemed an unstoppable expansion of the Mongol Empire.<ref name="morgan-204" />

==== Papal communications ====
In the 1260s, a change occurred in the European perception of the Mongols, and they became regarded less as enemies, and more as potential allies in the fight against the Muslims.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 165.</ref> As recently as 1259, [[Pope Alexander IV]] had been encouraging a new crusade against the Mongols, and had been extremely disappointed in hearing that the monarchs of Antioch and [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Cilician Armenia]] had submitted to Mongol overlordship. Alexander had put the monarchs' cases on the agenda of his upcoming council, but died in 1261 just months before the Council could be convened, and before the new crusade could be launched.<ref name="Richard409">Richard. pp. 409–414.</ref> For a new pope, the choice fell to Pantaléon, the same Patriarch of Jerusalem who had earlier been warning of the Mongol threat. He took the name Pope Urban IV, and tried to raise money for a new crusade.<ref>Tyerman. p. 807.</ref>

On {{nowrap|April 10, 1262}}, the Mongol leader Hulagu sent through [[John the Hungarian]] a new letter to King Louis IX of France, again offering an alliance.<ref>Richard. pp. 421–422. "What Hulegu was offering was an alliance. And, contrary to what has long been written by the best authorities, this offer was not in response to appeals from the Franks."</ref> The letter explained that previously, the Mongols had been under the impression that the pope was the leader of the Christians, but now they realized that the true power rested with the French monarchy. The letter mentioned Hulagu's intention to capture Jerusalem for the benefit of the pope, and asked for Louis to send a fleet against Egypt. Hulagu promised the restoration of Jerusalem to the Christians, but also still insisted on Mongol sovereignty, in the Mongols' quest for conquering the world. It is unclear whether or not King Louis actually received the letter, but at some point it was transmitted to Pope Urban, who answered in a similar way as his predecessors. In his papal bull ''[[Exultavit cor nostrum]]'', Urban congratulated Hulagu on his expression of goodwill towards the Christian faith, and encouraged him to convert to Christianity.<ref name="jackson-166">Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 166.</ref>

Historians dispute the exact meaning of Urban's actions. The mainstream view, exemplified by British historian [[Peter Jackson (historian)|Peter Jackson]], holds that Urban still regarded the Mongols as enemies at this time. This perception began changing a few years later, during the pontificate of [[Pope Clement IV]] (1265–68), when the Mongols were seen more as potential allies. However, the French historian [[Jean Richard (historian)|Jean Richard]] argues that Urban's act signaled a turning point in Mongol-European relations as early as 1263, after which the Mongols were considered as actual allies. Richard also argues that it was in response to this forming coalition between the Franks, Ilkhanid Mongols and Byzantines, that the Mongols of the Golden Horde allied with the Muslim Mamluks in return.<ref>Richard. p. 436. "In 1264, to the coalition between the Franks, Mongols and Byzantines, responded the coalition between the Golden Horde and the Mamluks."</ref><ref>Richard. p. 414. "In Frankish Syria, meanwhile, events had taken another direction. There was no longer any thought of conducting a crusade against the Mongols; the talk was now of a crusade in collaboration with them."</ref> However, the mainstream view of historians is that though there were many attempts at forming an alliance, the attempts proved unsuccessful.<ref name="atwood-583" />

=== Abaqa (1265–1282) ===
Hulagu died in 1265, and was succeeded by [[Abaqa Khan|Abaqa]] (1234–1282), who further pursued Western cooperation. Though a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], upon his succession he married [[Maria Palaiologina]], an [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christian]] and the illegitimate daughter of the Byzantine Emperor [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]].<ref>Reinert. p. 258.</ref> Abaqa corresponded with Pope Clement IV through 1267 and 1268, sending envoys to both Clement and King [[James I of Aragon]]. In a 1268 message to Clement, Abaqa promised to send troops to aid the Christians. It is unclear if this was what led to James's [[Catalan Crusade|unsuccessful expedition to Acre]] in 1269.<ref name="knobler" /> James initiated a small crusade, but a storm descended on his fleet as they attempted their crossing, forcing most of the ships to turn back. The crusade was ultimately handled by James's two sons Fernando Sanchez and Pedro Fernandez, who arrived in Acre in December 1269.<ref>Bisson. p. 70.</ref> Abaqa, despite his earlier promises of assistance, was in the process of facing another threat, an invasion in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] by Mongols from [[Turkestan]], and so could only commit a small force for the Holy Land, which did little but brandish the threat of an invasion along the Syrian frontier in October 1269. He raided as far as [[Harem, Syria|Harim]] and [[Apamea, Syria|Afamiyaa]] in October, but retreated as soon as Baibars' forces advanced.<ref name="jackson-167" />

==== Edward I's crusade (1269–1274) ====
In 1269, the English Prince Edward (the future [[Edward I of England|Edward I]]), inspired by tales of his great-uncle, [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]], and the second crusade of the French King Louis, started on a crusade of his own, the [[Ninth Crusade]].<ref name="Hindley205">Hindley. pp. 205–207.</ref> The number of knights and retainers that accompanied Edward on the crusade was quite small, possibly around 230 knights, with a total complement of approximately 1,000 people, transported in a flotilla of 13 ships.<ref name="tyerman-815" /><ref>Nicolle. ''The Crusades''. p. 47.</ref> Edward understood the value of an alliance with the Mongols, and upon his arrival in Acre on {{nowrap|May 9, 1271}}, he immediately sent an embassy to the Mongol ruler Abaqa, requesting assistance.<ref>Richard. p. 433. "On landing at Acre, Edward at once sent his messengers to Abaga. He received a reply only in 1282, when he had left the Holy Land. The il-khan apologized for not having kept the agreed rendezvous, which seems to confirm that the crusaders of 1270 had devised their plan of campaign in the light of Mongol promises, and that these envisaged joint operation in 1271. In default of his own arrival and that of his army, Abaga ordered the commander of this forces stationed in Turkey, the 'noyan of the noyans', Samaghar, to descend into Syria to assist the crusaders."</ref> Abaqa answered positively to Edward's request, asking him to coordinate his activities with his general [[Samagar]], whom he sent on an offensive against the Mamluks with 10,000 Mongols to join Edward's army.<ref name="jackson-167">Jackson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FLUMVIqIvwC&pg=PA167 ''Mongols and the West'']. pp. 167–168.</ref><ref>Sicker. [https://books.google.com/books?id=v3AdA-Ogl34C&pg=PA123 p. 123]. "Abaqa now decided to send some 10,000 Mongol troops to join Edward's Crusader army".</ref> But Edward was able only to engage in some fairly ineffectual raids that did not actually achieve success in gaining new territory.<ref name="Hindley205" /> For example, when he engaged in a raid into the [[Sharon plain|Plain of Sharon]], he proved unable to even take the small Mamluk fortress of [[Qaqun]].<ref name="jackson-167" /> However, Edward's military operations, limited though they were, were still of assistance in persuading the Mamluk leader Baibars to agree to a 10-year truce between the city of Acre and the Mamluks, signed in 1272.<ref>Hindley. p. 207.</ref> Edward's efforts were described by historian Reuven Amitai as "the nearest thing to real Mongol-Frankish military coordination that was ever to be achieved, by Edward or any other Frankish leader."<ref name="amitai-161" />

[[File:Gregorio X.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Colorful drawing of an older man, in profile and looking to the right. He is wearing high-collared papal vestments and a conical skull cap. |Pope Gregory X (1210–1276) promulgated a new crusade in liaison with the Mongols in 1274.<ref name="richard-487">Richard. p. 487. "1274: Promulgation of a Crusade, in liaison with the Mongols".</ref>]]

==== Council of Lyon (1274) ====
In 1274 [[Pope Gregory X]] convened the [[Second Council of Lyon]]. Abaqa sent a delegation of 13 to 16 Mongols to the Council, which created a great stir, particularly when three of their members underwent a public [[baptism]].<ref>Setton. p. 116.</ref> Abaqa's Latin secretary [[Rychaldus]] delivered a report to the Council which outlined previous European-Ilkhanid relations under Abaqa's father, Hulagu, affirming that after Hulagu had welcomed Christian ambassadors to his court, he had agreed to exempt Latin Christians from taxes and charges, in exchange for their prayers for the Khan. According to Rychaldus, Hulagu had also prohibited the molestation of Frank establishments, and had committed to return Jerusalem to the Franks.<ref>Richard. p. 422.</ref> Rychaldus assured the assembly that even after Hulagu's death, his son Abaqa was still determined to drive the Mamluks from Syria.<ref name="jackson-167" />

At the Council, Pope Gregory promulgated a new crusade in liaison with the Mongols,<ref name="richard-487" /> putting in place a vast program in his "Constitutions for the zeal of the faith", with four main elements: imposing a new tax for three years, forbidding trade with the [[Saracen|Sarazins]] (Muslims), arranging the supply of ships by the Italian [[maritime republics]], and the alliance of the West with both [[Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty|Byzantium]] and the Mongol Ilkhan Abaqa.<ref>Balard. p. 210. "Le Pape Grégoire X s'efforce alors de mettre sur pied un vaste programme d'aide à la Terre Sainte, les "Constitutions pour le zèle de la foi", qui sont acceptées au Concile de Lyon de 1274. Ce texte prévoit la levée d'une dime pendant trois ans pour la croisade, l'interdiction de tout commerce avec les Sarasins, la fourniture de bateaux par les républiques maritimes italiennes, et une alliance de l'Occident avec Byzance et l'Il-Khan Abagha".</ref> Abaqa then sent another embassy, led by the Georgian Vassali brothers, to further notify Western leaders of military preparations. Gregory answered that his [[Papal legate|legate]]s would accompany the crusade, and that they would be in charge of coordinating military operations with the Ilkhan.<ref name="richard-452">Richard. pp. 452–456.</ref>

However, the papal plans were not supported by the other European monarchs, who had lost enthusiasm for the Crusades. Only one western monarch attended the Council, the elderly James I of Aragon, who could only offer a small force. There was fundraising for a new crusade, and plans were made, but never followed through. The projects essentially came to a halt with the death of Pope Gregory on {{nowrap|January 10, 1276}}, and the money which had been raised to finance the expedition was instead distributed in Italy.<ref name="tyerman-815">Tyerman. pp. 815–818.</ref>
{{clear}}

==== Invasion of Syria (1280–1281) ====

{{see also|Mongol invasions of Syria}}
[[File:1281BattleOfHoms.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Colorful medieval depiction of a battle. Several figures are shown on horseback riding to the left, with a group of several Mongols being chased by Muslims|Defeat of the Mongols (left) at the 1281 Battle of Homs]]

Without support from the Europeans, some Franks in [[Outremer]], particularly the [[Knights Hospitaller]] of the fortress of [[Margat|Marqab]], and to some extent the Franks of Cyprus and Antioch, attempted to join in combined operations with the Mongols in 1280–1281.<ref name="richard-452" /><ref name="jackson-168" /> The death of the Egyptian leader Baibars in 1277 led to disorganization in the Muslim territories, making conditions ripe for a new action by other factions in the Holy Land.<ref name="richard-452" /> The Mongols seized the opportunity, organized a new invasion of Syria, and in September 1280 occupied [[Bagras]] and [[Trapessac|Darbsak]], followed by Aleppo on October 20. The Mongol leader Abaqa, taking advantage of his momentum, sent envoys to Edward I of England, the Franks of Acre, [[Hugh III of Cyprus|King Hugh of Cyprus]], and [[Bohemond VII, Count of Tripoli|Bohemond VII of Tripoli]] (son of Bohemond VI), requesting their support for the campaign.<ref name="mam-ilk-war" /> But the Crusaders were not organized enough themselves to be of much help. In Acre, the Patriarch's Vicar replied that the city was suffering from hunger, and that the king of Jerusalem was already embroiled in another war.<ref name="richard-452" /> Local Knights Hospitaller from Marqab (in the area which had previously been Antioch/Tripoli) were able to make raids into the Beqaa Valley, as far as the Mamluk-held [[Krak des Chevaliers]] in 1280 and 1281. Hugh and Bohemond of Antioch mobilized their armies, but their forces were prevented from joining those of the Mongols by Baibars' successor, the new Egyptian Sultan [[Al Mansur Qalawun|Qalawun]]. He advanced north from Egypt in March 1281, positioned his own army between the Franks and Mongols,<ref name="richard-452" /><ref name="jackson-168" /> and then further divided the potential allies by renewing a truce with the Barons of Acre on {{nowrap|May 3, 1281}}, extending it for another ten years and ten months (a truce he would later breach).<ref name="mam-ilk-war">Amitai. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dIaFbxD64nUC&pg=PA185 ''Mongols and Mamluks'']. pp. 185–186.</ref> He also renewed a second 10-year truce with Bohemond VII of Tripoli on {{nowrap|July 16, 1281}}, and affirmed pilgrim access to Jerusalem.<ref name="richard-452" />

In September 1281 the Mongols returned, with 19,000 of their own troops, plus 20,000 others including Armenians under [[Leo II, King of Armenia|Leo III]], Georgians, and 200 Knights Hospitaller from Marqab, who sent a contingent even though the Franks of Acre had agreed a truce with the Mamluks.<ref name="mam-ilk-war" /><ref name="harpur-116">Harpur. [https://books.google.com/books?id=OCGuWrNyjiEC&pg=PA116 p. 116].</ref><ref name="Cambridge Med 715"/> The Mongols and their auxiliary troops fought against the Mamluks at the [[Second Battle of Homs]] on October 30, 1281, but the encounter was indecisive, with the Sultan suffering heavy losses.<ref name="jackson-168">Jackson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FLUMVIqIvwC&pg=PA168 ''Mongols and the West'']. p. 168.</ref> In retaliation, Qalawun later besieged and captured the Hospitaller fortress of Marqab in 1285.<ref name="harpur-116" />

=== Arghun (1284–1291) ===
{{main|Arghun}}
[[File:ArghunLetterToPhilippeLeBelExtract1289.jpg|thumb|alt=Two-part image. The upper half shows the entirety of a long horizontal scroll of paper, with dozens of widely spaced lines of vertical calligraphic script, and the lower half showing a closeup of the right-hand third of the scroll. The scroll has been stamped three times with a large red square, filled with an intricate official-looking pattern.|1289 letter of Arghun to Philip IV of France, in the [[Mongolian script]], with detail of the introduction. The letter was conveyed to the French king by Buscarel of Gisolfe.<ref>''Grands Documents de l'Histoire de France'' (2007), Archives Nationales de France. p. 38.</ref>]]
[[File:LetterArghunToNicholasIV1290VaticanArchives.jpg|thumb|1290 letter from Arghun to Pope Nicholas IV.]]

Abaqa died in 1282 and was briefly replaced by his brother [[Tekuder]], who had converted to Islam. Tekuder reversed Abaqa's policy of seeking an alliance with the Franks, offering instead an alliance to the Mamluk Sultan Qalawun, who continued his own advance, capturing the Hospitaller fortress of Margat in 1285, [[Lattakia]] in 1287, and the County of Tripoli in 1289.<ref name="tyerman-815" /><ref name="richard-452" /> However, Tekuder's pro-Muslim stance was not popular, and in 1284, Abaqa's Buddhist son Arghun, with the support of the [[Kublai Khan|Great Khan Kublai]], led a revolt and had Tekuder executed. Arghun then revived the idea of an alliance with the West, and sent multiple envoys to Europe.<ref name="Jackson169" />

The first of Arghun's embassies was led by [[Isa Kelemechi]], a Christian Assyrian interpreter who had been head of Kublai Khan's Office of Western Astronomy and sent to Greater Iran at the order of the Great Khan.<ref>Glick. p. 485.</ref> The embassy was sent because the Great Khan Kublai (Qubilai) ordered Arghun to free Holy Land and protect Christians.<ref>René Grousset, Naomi Walford (Translator), The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, p. 127</ref><ref>JOHN ANDREW BOYLE, "THE IL-KHANS OF PERSIA AND THE PRINCES OF EUROPE, Central Asiatic Journal Vol. 20, No. 1/2 (1976), pp.31"</ref> Kelemechi met with [[Pope Honorius IV]] in 1285, offering to "remove" the [[Saracen]]s (Muslims) and divide "the land of Sham, namely Egypt" with the Franks.<ref name="Jackson169" >Jackson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FLUMVIqIvwC&pg=PA169 ''Mongols and the West'']. p. 169.</ref><ref name="Cambridge370">Fisher and Boyle. [https://books.google.com/books?id=BxRwJUrnr20C&pg=PA370 p. 370].</ref> The second embassy, and probably the most famous, was that of the elderly cleric [[Rabban Bar Sauma]], who had been visiting the Ilkhanate during a remarkable pilgrimage from China to Jerusalem.<ref name="Jackson169" />

Through Bar Sauma and other later envoys, such as [[Buscarello de Ghizolfi]], Arghun promised the European leaders that if Jerusalem were conquered, he would have himself baptized and would return Jerusalem to the Christians.<ref>Rossabi. pp. 99, 173.</ref><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. pp. 174–175.</ref><ref>Richard. p. 455.</ref> Bar Sauma was greeted warmly by the European monarchs,<ref name="Jackson169" /> but Western Europe was no longer as interested in the Crusades, and the mission to form an alliance was ultimately fruitless.<ref name="jackson-170">Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 170. "Arghun had persisted in the quest for a Western alliance right down to his death without ever taking the field against the mutual enemy."</ref><ref>Mantran. "A Turkish or Mongolian Islam" in ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 1250–1520''. p. 298.</ref> England did respond by sending a representative, [[Geoffrey of Langley]], who had been a member of Edward I's Crusade 20 years earlier, and was sent to the Mongol court as an ambassador in 1291.<ref>Phillips. [https://books.google.com/books?id=T1pcTl11iawC&pg=PA126 p. 126].</ref>

==== Genoese shipmakers ====
Another link between Europe and the Mongols was attempted in 1290, when the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] endeavored to assist the Mongols with naval operations. The plan was to construct and man two galleys to attack Mamluk ships in the [[Red Sea]], and operate a blockade of Egypt's trade with India.<ref name="Richard 455" /><ref name="Cambridge Med 715" /> As the Genoese were traditional supporters of the Mamluks, this was a major shift in policy, apparently motivated by the attack of the Egyptian Sultan Qalawun on the Cilician Armenians in 1285.<ref name="Jackson169" /> To build and man the fleet, a squadron of 800 Genoese carpenters, sailors and crossbowmen went to Baghdad, working on the [[Tigris]]. However, due to a feud between the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines]], the Genoese soon degenerated into internal bickering, and killed each other in [[Basra]], putting an end to the project.<ref name="Richard 455">Richard. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KszvJSv7t30C&pg=PA455 p. 455].</ref><ref name="Cambridge Med 715">Jackson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bclfdU_2lesC&pg=PA715 "Mongols and Europe"]. p. 715.</ref> Genoa finally cancelled the agreement and signed a new treaty with the Mamluks instead.<ref name="Jackson169" />

All these attempts to mount a combined offensive between the Franks and Mongols were too little and too late. In May 1291, the city of Acre was conquered by the Egyptian Mamluks in the [[Siege of Acre (1291)|siege of Acre]]. When [[Pope Nicholas IV]] learned of this, he wrote to Arghun, again asking him to be baptized and to fight against the Mamluks.<ref name="Jackson169" /> But Arghun had died on {{nowrap|March 10, 1291}}, and Pope Nicholas died as well in March 1292, putting an end to their efforts towards combined action.<ref name="tyerman-816">Tyerman. p. 816. "The Mongol alliance, despite six further embassies to the west between 1276 and 1291, led nowhere. The prospect of an anti-Mamluk coalition faded as the westerners' inaction rendered them useless as allies for the Mongols, who, in turn, would only seriously be considered by western rulers as potential partners in the event of a new crusade which never happened."</ref>

=== Ghazan (1295–1304) ===
{{see also|Mongol invasions of Syria|Mongol raids into Palestine}}

After Arghun's death, he was followed in rapid succession by two brief and fairly ineffective leaders, one of whom only held power for a few months. Stability was restored when Arghun's son Ghazan took power in 1295, though to secure cooperation from other influential Mongols, he made a public conversion to Islam when he took the throne, marking a major turning point in the state religion of the Ilkhanate. Despite being an official Muslim, however, Ghazan remained tolerant of multiple religions, and worked to maintain good relations with his Christian vassal states such as Cilician Armenia and Georgia.<ref>Richard. pp. 455–456. "When Ghazan got rid of him [Nawruz] (March 1297), he revived his projects against Egypt, and the rebellion of the Mamluk governor of Damascus, Saif al-Din Qipchaq, provided him with the opportunity for a new Syrian campaign; Franco-Mongol cooperation thus survived both the loss of Acre by the Franks and the conversion of the Mongols of Persia to Islam. It was to remain one of the givens of crusading politics until the peace treaty with the Mamluks, which was concluded only in 1322 by the khan Abu Said."</ref>

[[File:Mongol raids into Syria and Palestine ca 1300.svg|right|thumb|alt=Map of the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, showing Cilicia to the north, part of the island of Cyprus, and various cities south of the Euphrates river. Red arrows show the direction of Mongol troop movements and raids, reaching as far south as Gaza|In 1299/1300, the Mongols engaged in battles for cities in Syria, and engaged in raids as far south as Gaza.]]

In 1299, he made the first of what were to be three attempts to invade Syria.<ref>Amitai. "Ghazan's first campaign into Syria (1299–1300)". p. 222.</ref> As he launched his new invasion, he also sent letters to the Franks of Cyprus ([[Henry II of Jerusalem|Henry II, King of Cyprus]]; and the heads of the [[Military order (society)|military order]]s), inviting them to come join him in his attack on the Mamluks in Syria.<ref>Barber. p. 22: "The aim was to link up with Ghazan, the Mongol Il-Khan of Persia, who had invited the Cypriots to participate in joint operations against the Mamluks".</ref><ref name="Nicholson 45" /> The Mongols successfully took the city of Aleppo, and were there joined by their vassal King [[Hethum II, King of Armenia|Hethum II]], whose forces participated in the rest of the offensive. The Mongols soundly defeated the Mamluks in the [[Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar]],  on December 23 or 24, 1299.<ref name="demurger-99">Demurger. ''The Last Templar''. p. 99.</ref> This success in Syria led to wild rumors in Europe that the Mongols had successfully re-captured the Holy Land, and had even conquered the Mamluks in Egypt and were on a mission to conquer Tunisia in northern Africa. But in reality, Jerusalem had been neither taken nor even besieged.<ref>Phillips. p. 128.</ref> All that had been managed were some Mongol raids into Palestine in early 1300. The raids went as far as Gaza, passing through several towns, probably including Jerusalem. But when the Egyptians again advanced from Cairo in May, the Mongols retreated without resistance.<ref name="schein-811" />

In July 1300, the Crusaders launched naval operations to press the advantage.<ref name="Jotischky">Jotischky. [https://books.google.com/books?id=yG9OqY08E98C&pg=249 p. 249].</ref> A fleet of sixteen galleys with some smaller vessels was equipped in Cyprus, commanded by King Henry of Cyprus, accompanied by his brother [[Amalric, Prince of Tyre]], the heads of the military orders, and Ghazan's ambassador "Chial" ([[Isol the Pisan]]).<ref name="schein-811" /><ref name="Jotischky" /><ref name="demurger-100">Demurger. ''The Last Templar''. p. 100.</ref> The ships left [[Famagusta]] on {{nowrap|July 20, 1300}}, to raid the coasts of Egypt and Syria: [[Rosette (Egypt)|Rosette]], [[Alexandria]], Acre, Tortosa, and [[Maraclea]], before returning to Cyprus.<ref name="schein-811">Schein. p. 811.</ref><ref name="demurger-100" />

==== Ruad expedition ====
{{main|Fall of Ruad}}
Ghazan announced that he would return by November 1300, and sent letters and ambassadors to the West so that they could prepare themselves. After their own naval raids, the Cypriots attempted a major operation to re-take the former Syrian Templar stronghold of [[Tartus|Tortosa]].<ref name="Edbury 105">Edbury. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DmYeAuWUPK8C&pg=PA105 p. 105].</ref><ref name="Nicholson 45">Nicholson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=oGppfVJMKjsC&pg=PA45 p. 45].</ref><ref name="Barber 22">Barber. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rqfE2l0cowgC&pg=RA1-PA22 p. 22].</ref><ref name="Jackson 171">Jackson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FLUMVIqIvwC&pg=PA171 ''Mongols and the West'']. p. 171.</ref> They prepared the largest force they could muster at the time, approximately 600 men: 300 under Amalric, and similar contingents from the Templars and Hospitallers. In November 1300 they attempted to occupy Tortosa on the mainland, but were unable to gain control of the city. The Mongols were delayed, and the Cypriots moved offshore to the nearby island of Ruad to establish a base.<ref name="Barber 22" /> The Mongols continued to be delayed, and the bulk of the Crusader forces returned to Cyprus, leaving only a garrison on Ruad.<ref name="Edbury 105" /><ref name="Jackson 171" /> In February 1301, Ghazan's Mongols finally made a new advance into Syria. The force was commanded by the Mongol general [[Kutlushka]], who was joined by Armenian troops, and [[Guy of Ibelin (died 1304)|Guy of Ibelin]] and [[Jean II de Giblet|John, lord of Giblet]]. But despite a force of 60,000, Kutluskha could do little else than engage in some raids around Syria, and then retreated.<ref name="Edbury 105" />

[[File:GhazanAndKingOfArmenia1303.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Colorful painting from an illuminated manuscript, showing a tent with a dignified and crowned bearded man seated in a chair in front of the tent's opening. A cowled monk kneels on the left, offering something to the man in the chair. Several figures in armor are standing to the right, deferential to the man in the chair.|In a miniature from a 15th-century [[The Travels of Marco Polo|''Travels of Marco Polo'']], Ghazan orders the King of Armenia Hethum II to accompany Kutlushka on the 1303 attack on Damascus.<ref>Mutafian. pp. 74–75.</ref>]]

Plans for combined operations between the Franks and the Mongols were again made for the following winter offensives, in 1301 and 1302. But in mid-1301 the island of Ruad was attacked by the Egyptian Mamluks. After a lengthy siege, the island surrendered in 1302.<ref name="Barber 22" /><ref name="Jackson 171" /> The Mamluks slaughtered many of the inhabitants, and captured the surviving Templars to send them to prison in Cairo.<ref name="Barber 22" /> In late 1301, Ghazan sent letters to the pope asking him to send troops, priests, and peasants, to make the Holy Land a Frank state again.<ref>Richard. p. 469.</ref>

In 1303, Ghazan sent another letter to Edward I, via Buscarello de Ghizolfi, who had also been an ambassador for Arghun. The letter reiterated their ancestor Hulagu's promise that the Ilkhans would give Jerusalem to the Franks in exchange for help against the Mamluks. That year, the Mongols again attempted to invade Syria, appearing in great strength (about 80,000) together with the Armenians. But they were again defeated at Homs on {{nowrap|March 30, 1303}}, and at the decisive [[Battle of Shaqhab]], south of Damascus, on {{nowrap|April 21, 1303}}.<ref name="iranica" /> It is considered to be the last major Mongol invasion of Syria.<ref>Nicolle. ''The Crusades''. p. 80.</ref> Ghazan died on {{nowrap|May 10, 1304}}, and Frankish dreams of a rapid reconquest of the Holy Land were destroyed.<ref>Demurger. ''The Last Templar''. p. 109.</ref>

=== Oljeitu (1304–1316) ===
[[Muhammad Khodabandeh (Oljeitu)|Oljeitu]], also named Mohammad Khodabandeh, was great-grandson of Ilkhanate founder Hulagu, and brother and successor of Ghazan. In his youth he at first converted to Buddhism, and then later to Sunni Islam with his brother Ghazan, and changed his first name to the Islamic ''Muhammad''.<ref>Stewart. ''Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks''. p. 181.</ref> In April 1305, Oljeitu sent letters to [[Philip IV of France]], [[Pope Clement V]], and Edward I of England. As had his predecessors, Oljeitu offered a military collaboration between the Mongols and the Christian nations of Europe, against the Mamluks.<ref name="iranica" /> European nations prepared a crusade, but were delayed. In the meantime Oljeitu launched a last campaign against the Mamluks (1312–1313), in which he was unsuccessful. A final settlement with the Mamluks would only be found when Oljeitu's son [[Abu Sa'id (Ilkhanid dynasty)|Abu Sa'id]] signed the [[Treaty of Aleppo]] in 1322.<ref name="iranica" />

== Last contacts ==
[[File:HaytonRemittingHisReportToThePope.JPG|alt=Illuminated manuscript with many colorful designs all around the margins. On the lower half of the page is calligraphic text. On the upper half is an image of a kneeling monk in a white robe giving a book to a seated pope who is wearing a lavish dark blue robe. Two assistants stand behind him. |thumb|[[Hayton of Corycus]] presenting his report on the Mongols to Pope Clement V in 1307.]]

In the 14th century, diplomatic contact continued between the Franks and the Mongols, until the Ilkhanate dissolved in the 1330s, and the ravages of the [[Black Death]] in Europe caused contact with the East to be severed.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 216.</ref> A few marital alliances between Christian rulers and the Mongols of the Golden Horde continued, such as when the [[Byzantine]] emperor [[Andronicus II]] gave daughters in marriage to [[Toqta]] (d. 1312) and later to his successor [[Özbeg Khan|Özbeg]] (1312–1341).<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 203.</ref>

After Abu Sa'id, relations between Christian princes and the Ilkhanate became very sparse. Abu Sa'id died in 1335 with neither heir nor successor, and the Ilkhanate lost its status after his death, becoming a plethora of little kingdoms run by Mongols, Turks, and Persians.<ref name="knobler" />

In 1336, an embassy to the French [[Pope Benedict XII]] in Avignon was sent by [[Toghun Temür]], the last [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] emperor in [[Khanbaliq|Dadu]]. The embassy was led by two Genoese travelers in the service of the Mongol emperor, who carried letters representing that the Mongols had been eight years (since Archbishop [[John of Montecorvino]]'s death) without a spiritual guide, and earnestly desired one.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 314.</ref> Pope Benedict appointed four ecclesiastics as his legates to the Khan's court. In 1338, a total of 50 ecclesiastics were sent by the pope to Peking, among them [[Giovanni de' Marignolli|John of Marignolli]], who returned to Avignon in 1353 with a letter from the Yuan emperor to [[Pope Innocent VI]]. But soon, the [[Han Chinese]] rose up and [[Red Turban Rebellion|drove the Mongols out of China]], establishing the [[Ming Dynasty]] in 1368.<ref>Phillips. p. 112.</ref>

[[File:Letter of Tamerlane to Charles VI 1402.jpg|left|alt=Long vertical mottled grey paper, with a dozen widely spaced lines of horizontal Arabic-looking script. There are two small oval red designs which have been stamped along the righthand margin of the paper.|upright|thumb|Letter of Timur to Charles VI of France, 1402.]]

In the early 15th century, [[Timur]] [[Timurid relations with Europe|resumed relations with Europe]], attempting to form an alliance against the Egyptian Mamluks and the [[Ottoman Empire]], and engaged in communications with [[Charles VI of France]] and [[Henry III of Castile]], but died in 1405.<ref name="knobler" /><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 360.</ref><ref name="Sinor190">Sinor. [https://books.google.com/books?id=foS-y-ShWJ0C&pg=PA190 ''Inner Asia'']. p. 190.</ref><ref>Daniel and Mahdi. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZIjyEi1pd8C&pg=PA25 p. 25].</ref><ref name="Wood 136">Wood. [https://books.google.com/books?id=zvoCv3h2QCsC&pg=PA136 p. 136].</ref>

=== Cultural contacts ===
In the cultural sphere, there were some [[Mongol elements in Western medieval art]], especially in Italy, of which most surviving examples are from the 14th century, after the chance of a military alliance had faded. These included the depiction of textiles from the Mongol Empire and [[Mongol script]] in various contexts, the latter often anachronistic. Imports of textiles had a considerable influence on Italian textile design. Mongol military costume is sometimes worn by soldiers, typically those acting against Christian figures, as in martyrdoms or [[Crucifixion of Jesus|''Crucifixion'']] scenes. These were perhaps copied from drawings made of Mongol envoys to Europe, or ones brought back from Outremer.<ref>Mack. Throughout, but especially pp. 16–18, 36–40 (textiles), 151 (costume).</ref>

== Views from historians ==
Most historians describe the contacts between the Mongol Empire and the Western Europeans as a series of attempts,<ref name="jackson-173">Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 173. "In their successive attempts to secure assistance from the Latin world, the Ilkhans took care to select personnel who would elicit the confidence of Western rulers and to impart a Christian complexion to their overtures."</ref> missed opportunities,<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 119.</ref><ref name="Jackson4">Jackson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FLUMVIqIvwC&pg=PA4 ''Mongols and the West'']. p. 4.</ref><ref>Morgan. ''The Mongols''. p. 136. "This has long been seen as a 'missed opportunity' for the Crusaders. According to that opinion, most eloquently expressed by Grousset and frequently repeated by other scholars, the Crusaders ought to have allied themselves with the pro-Christian, anti-Muslim Mongols against the Mamluks. They might thus have prevented their own destruction by the Mamluks in the succeeding decades, and possibly even have secured the return of Jerusalem by favour of the Mongols."</ref> and failed negotiations.<ref name="atwood-583" /><ref name="tyerman-816" /><ref name="jackson-173" /><ref>Prawer. p. 32. "The attempts of the crusaders to create an alliance with the Mongols failed."</ref> Christopher Atwood, in the 2004 ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire'', summed up the relations between Western Europe and the Mongols: "Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam."<ref name="atwood-583" />

A few other historians argue there was an actual alliance,<ref name="demurger-100" /><ref name="richard-424" /> but do not agree on the details: Jean Richard wrote that an alliance began around 1263.<ref name="richard-424">Richard. pp. 424–469.</ref> [[Reuven Amitai]] stated that the closest thing to actual Mongol-Frankish military coordination was when Prince Edward of England attempted to coordinate activities with Abaga in 1271. Amitai also mentioned the other attempts towards cooperation, but said, "In none of these episodes, however, can we speak of Mongols and troops from the Frankish West being on the Syrian mainland at the same time."<ref name="amitai-161">Amitai. [https://books.google.com/books?id=n9dEpOsfVdIC&pg=PA75 "Edward of England and Abagha Ilkhan"]. p. 161.</ref> Timothy May described the alliance as having its peak at the [[Second Council of Lyon|Council of Lyon]] in 1274,<ref>May. p. 152.</ref> but that it began to unravel in 1275 with the death of Bohemond, and May too admitted that the forces never engaged in joint operations.<ref>May. p. 154.</ref> Alain Demurger, in his own book ''The Last Templar'', said that an alliance was not sealed until 1300.<ref name="demurger-100 w/quote">Demurger. ''The Last Templar''. p. 100. "Above all, the expedition made manifest the unity of the Cypriot Franks and, through a material act, put the seal on the Mongol alliance."</ref>

There also continues to be debate about whether or not an alliance would have been a wise idea, and whether the Crusaders at that point in history were even relevant to the Persian-Mongol conflict.<ref name="historyindispute" /> The 20th-century historian Glenn Burger said, "The refusal of the Latin Christian states in the area to follow Hethum's example and adapt to changing conditions by allying themselves with the new Mongol empire must stand as one of the saddest of the many failures of Outremer."<ref>Burger. pp. xiii–xiv. "The refusal of the Latin Christian states in the area to follow Hethum's example and adapt to changing conditions by allying themselves with the new Mongol empire must stand as one of the saddest of the many failures of Outremer."</ref> This was similar to the view of [[Steven Runciman]], who argued, "Had the Mongol alliance been achieved and honestly implemented by the West, the existence of Outremer would almost certainly have been prolonged. The Mameluks would have been crippled if not destroyed; and the Ilkhanate of Persia would have survived as a power friendly to the Christians and the West".<ref name="runciman-402">Runciman. p. 402.</ref> However, [[David Nicolle]], describing the Mongols as "potential allies",<ref>Nicolle. ''The Crusades''. p. 42. "The Mongol Hordes under Genghis Khan and his descendants had already invaded the eastern Islamic world, raising visions in Europe of a potent new ally, which would join Christians in destroying Islam. Even after the Mongol invasion of Orthodox Christian Russia, followed by their terrifying rampage across Catholic Hungary and parts of Poland, many in the West still regarded the Mongols as potential allies."</ref> said that early historians were writing from the benefit of hindsight,<ref>Nicolle and Hook. ''The Mongol Warlords''. p. 114. "In later years Christian chroniclers would bemoan a lost opportunity in which Crusaders and Mongols might have joined forces to defeat the Muslims. But they were writing from the benefit of hindsight, after the Crusader States had been destroyed by the Muslim Mamluks."</ref> and that overall the major players were the Mamluks and the Mongols, with Christians just "pawns in a greater game."<ref name="nicolle-44">Nicolle. ''The Crusades''. p. 44. "Eventually the conversion of the Il-Khans (as the Mongol occupiers of Persia and Iraq were known) to Islam at the end of the 13th century meant that the struggle became one between rival Muslim dynasties rather than between Muslims and alien outsiders. Though the feeble Crusader States and occasional Crusading expeditions from the West were drawn in, the Crusaders were now little more than pawns in a greater game."</ref>

== Reasons for failure ==
[[File:Mongol dominions1.jpg|alt=Detailed map of Asia, outlining different regions|thumb|right|250px|The Mongol Empire, ca. 1300. The gray area is the later Timurid empire. The geographic distance between the Ilkhanid Mongols, along with their Great Khan in [[Khanbalic]], and the Europeans was large.]]

There has been much discussion among historians as to why the Franco-Mongol alliance never became a reality and why, despite all the diplomatic contacts, it stayed a chimera or fantasy.<ref name="jackson-4" /><ref name="historyindispute" /> Many reasons have been proposed: one was that the Mongols at that stage in their empire were not entirely focused on expanding to the West. By the late 13th century, the Mongol leaders were several generations removed from the great Genghis Khan, and internal disruption was brewing. The original nomadic Mongols from the day of Genghis had become more settled, and had turned into administrators instead of conquerors. Battles were springing up that were Mongol against Mongol, which took troops away from the front in Syria.<ref name="west">Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. pp. 165–185.</ref> There was also confusion within Europe as to the differences between the Mongols of the Ilkhanate in the Holy Land, and the Mongols of the Golden Horde, who were attacking Hungary and Poland. Within the Mongol Empire, the Ilkhanids and the Golden Horde considered each other enemies, but it took time for Western observers to be able to distinguish between the different parts of the Mongol Empire.<ref name="west" /> From the Mongol side, there were also concerns as to just how much clout the Franks could have brought to bear,<ref>Amitai. "Edward of England and Abagha Ilkhan". p. 81.</ref> especially as there was decreased interest in Europe in pursuing the Crusades.<ref name="nicolle-44" /> Court historians of Mongol Persia made no mention whatsoever of the communications between the Ilkhans and the Christian West, and barely mentioned the Franks at all. The communications were evidently not seen as important by the Mongols, and may have even been considered embarrassing. The Mongol leader Ghazan, a converted Muslim since 1295, might not have wanted to be perceived as trying to gain the assistance of infidels against his fellow Muslims in Egypt. When Mongol historians did make notes of foreign territories, the areas were usually categorized as either "enemies", "conquered", or "in rebellion". The Franks, in that context, were listed in the same category as the Egyptians, in that they were enemies to be conquered. The idea of "ally" was foreign to the Mongols.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. pp. 121, 180–181.</ref>

Some European monarchs responded positively to Mongol inquiries, but became vague and evasive when asked to actually commit troops and resources. Logistics also became more complex – the Egyptian Mamluks were genuinely concerned about the threat of another wave of Crusader forces, so each time the Mamluks captured another castle or port, instead of occupying it, they systematically destroyed it so that it could never be used again. This both made it more difficult for the Crusaders to plan military operations, and increased the expense of those operations. Monarchs in Western Europe often gave [[wikt:lip service|lip service]] to the idea of going on crusade, as a way of making an emotional appeal to their subjects, but in reality they would take years to prepare, and sometimes never actually left for Outremer. Internal wars in Europe, such as the [[War of the Vespers]], were also distracting attention, and making it less likely for European nobles to want to commit their military to the Crusades, when they were more needed at home.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 179.</ref><ref>Phillips. p. 130.</ref>

The Europeans were also concerned about the long-term goals of the Mongols. Early Mongol diplomacy had been not a simple offer of cooperation, but straightforward demands for submission. It was only in later communications that Mongol diplomats started to adopt a more conciliatory tone; but they still used language that implied more command than entreaty. Even the Armenian historian [[Hayton of Corycus]], the most enthusiastic advocate of Western-Mongol collaboration, freely admitted that the Mongol leadership was not inclined to listen to European advice. His recommendation was that even if working together, European armies and Mongol armies should avoid contact because of Mongol arrogance. European leaders were aware that the Mongols would not have been content to stop at the Holy Land, but were on a clear quest for world domination. If the Mongols had achieved a successful alliance with the West and destroyed the Mamluk Sultanate, they certainly would have eventually turned upon the Franks of Cyprus and the Byzantines.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 183.</ref> They also would have surely conquered Egypt, from which they could have continued an advance into Africa, where no strong state could have stood in their way until [[Morocco#Foundation and early Islamic era|Morocco]] and the [[Marinid dynasty|Islamic caliphates]] in the [[Maghreb]].<ref name="west" /><ref>Amitai. "Mongol imperial ideology". p. 59.</ref>

Lastly, there was not much support among the general populace in Europe for a Mongol alliance. Writers in Europe were creating [[recovery of the Holy Land|"recovery" literature]] with their ideas about how best to recover the Holy Land, but few mentioned the Mongols as a genuine possibility. In 1306, when [[Pope Clement V]] asked the leaders of the military orders, [[Jacques de Molay]] and [[Foulques de Villaret|Fulk de Villaret]], to present their proposals for how the Crusades should proceed, neither of them factored in any kind of a Mongol alliance. A few later proposals talked briefly about the Mongols as being a force that could invade Syria and keep the Mamluks distracted, but not one that could be counted on for cooperation.<ref name="west" />

== See also ==
* [[Mongol invasion of Europe]]
* [[France-Mongolia relations]]

== Notes ==

{{reflist|30em}}

== References ==
{{refbegin|30em }}
* {{cite book |author1=Abate, Mark T. |author2=Marx, Todd | title = History in Dispute: The Crusades, 1095–1291 | year = 2002 | volume = 10 | publisher = [[Gale (publisher)|St. James Press]] | location = Detroit, Michigan, USA | isbn = 978-1-55862-454-2 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Amitai, Reuven | title = Mongol Raids into Palestine (AD 1260 and 1300)|journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]] | year = 1987 | issue = 2 | pages = 236–255 | jstor = 25212151 | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA | publisher = Cambridge University Press }}
* {{cite book | author = Amitai-Preiss, Reuven | author-link = Reuven Amitai | title = Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281 | year = 1995 | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn = 978-0-521-46226-6 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/mongolsmamluksma0000amit }}
* {{cite book|author=Amitai-Preiss, Reuven|chapter=Mongol imperial ideology and the Ilkhanid war against the Mamluks|title=The Mongol empire and its legacy |editor=Morgan, David |editor2=Amitai-Preiss, Reuven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OqflvIsBT_4C&pg=PR7|isbn=978-90-04-11048-9|year=1999|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, The Netherlands}}
* {{cite book | author = Amitai, Reuven | title = Tolerance and Intolerance: Social Conflict in the Age of the Crusades|chapter=Edward of England and Abagha Ilkhan: A reexamination of a failed attempt at Mongol-Frankish cooperation | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=n9dEpOsfVdIC&pg=PA7 |editor= Gervers, Michael |editor2=Powell, James M. | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-8156-2869-9 | publisher = [[Syracuse University Press]] | location = Syracuse, New York, USA }}
*{{cite book|author=Amitai, Reuven|title=The Mongols in the Islamic lands: studies in the history of the Ilkhanate|chapter=Whither the Ilkhanid army: Ghazan's first campaign into Syria (1299–1300)|year=2007|publisher=Ashgate/Variorium|location=Burlington, Vermont, USA|isbn=978-0-7546-5914-3}}
* {{cite book | editor = Angold, Michael | title = Cambridge History of Christianity: Eastern Christianity | volume = 5 | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-521-81113-2 | doi = 10.1017/CHOL9780521811132 }}
* {{cite book | author = Atwood, Christopher P. | title = Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire | year = 2004 | location = New York, New York, USA | publisher = [[Infobase Publishing|Facts on File, Inc.]] | isbn = 978-0-8160-4671-3 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo0000atwo }}
* {{cite book | author = Balard, Michel | title = Les Latins en Orient (XIe–XVe siècle)| year = 2006 | publisher = [[Presses Universitaires de France]] | location = Paris, France | isbn = 978-2-13-051811-2 }}
* {{cite book | author = Barber, Malcolm | author-link = Malcolm Barber | title = The Trial of the Templars | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA|edition=2nd | year = 2001 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-67236-8 }}
* {{cite book | author = Bisson, Thomas N. | title = The Medieval Crown of Aragon: A Short History | isbn = 978-0-19-821987-3 | year = 1986 | publisher = Clarendon Press [Oxford University Press] | location = New York, New York, USA }}
* {{cite book | author = Bournoutian, George A. | title = A Concise History of the Armenian People: From Ancient Times to the Present | year = 2002 | location = Costa Mesa, California, USA | publisher = Mazda Publishers | isbn = 978-1-56859-141-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor }}
* {{cite book | author = Burger, Glenn | title = A Lytell Cronycle: Richard Pynson's Translation (c. 1520) of La Fleur des histoires de la terre d'Orient (Hetoum c. 1307) | isbn = 978-0-8020-2626-2 | location = Toronto, Canada | publisher = [[University of Toronto Press]] | year = 1988 }}
* {{cite web | author = Calmard, Jean | title = Encyclopædia Iranica | location = Costa Mesa, California, USA | publisher = Mazda Publishers | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/france-index | access-date = March 27, 2010 }}
* {{cite book | author = Daftary, Farhad | title = The Assassin Legends: Myths of the Isma'ilis | year = 1994 | location = London, UK; New York, New York, USA | publisher = [[I.B. Tauris]] | isbn = 978-1-85043-705-5 }}
* {{cite book | author = Daniel, Elton L. | title = Culture and Customs of Iran | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZIjyEi1pd8C&pg=PA25|author2=Ali Akbar Mahdi | location = Westport, Connecticut, USA | isbn = 978-0-313-32053-8 | year = 2006 | publisher = Greenwood Press }}
* {{cite book | author = Dawson, Christopher | title = The Mongol Mission: Narratives and Letters of the Franciscan Missionaries in Mongolia and China in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries | others = Translated by a nun of Stanbrook Abbey | year = 1955 | publisher = [[Rowman & Littlefield|Sheed and Ward]] | location = New York, New York, USA | isbn = 978-1-4051-3539-9 }}
* {{cite book | author = Demurger, Alain | author-link = Alain Demurger | title = The Last Templar | isbn = 978-1-86197-553-9 | location = London, UK | publisher = [[Profile Books]] | year = 2005 | orig-year = First published in French in 2002, translated to English in 2004 by Antonia Nevill | url = https://archive.org/details/lasttemplartrage00demu }}
* {{cite book | author = Demurger, Alain | title = Croisades et Croisés au Moyen Age | year = 2006|language=fr | publisher = Flammarion | isbn = 978-2-08-080137-1 | location = Paris, France }}
* {{cite book | author = Edbury, Peter W. | title = Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades, 1191–1374 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DmYeAuWUPK8C&pg=PA105 | location = Cambridge, UK | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-521-26876-9 }}
* {{cite book|author1=Fisher, William Bayne |author2=Boyle, John Andrew | year = 1968 | title = The Cambridge history of Iran | volume = 5 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK | isbn = 0-521-06936-X}}
* {{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Xifq5OE7174C&pg=PA349 | title = Crusader art in the Holy Land: from the Third Crusade to the fall of Acre | author = Folda, Jaroslav | isbn = 978-0-521-83583-1 | year = 2005 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK }}
* {{cite book | author = Foltz, Richard C. | author-link = Richard Foltz | title = Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century | location = New York, New York, USA | publisher = [[St. Martin's Press]] | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-0-312-23338-9 }}
* {{cite book|author=Ghazarian, Jacob G.|title=The Armenian kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades|year=2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3W89PVbKLZwC&pg=PA56|publisher=Curzon Press|location=Surrey, England, UK|isbn=978-0-7007-1418-6}}
* {{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SaJlbWK_-FcC&pg=PA485 | title=Medieval science, technology, and medicine: an encyclopedia |author1=Glick, Thomas F. |author2=Livesey, Steven John |author3=Wallis, Faith | publisher=Routledge | year=2005 | location=New York, New York, USA | isbn = 978-0-415-96930-7 }}
* {{cite book | author = Grousset, René | author-link = René Grousset | title = Histoire des Croisades III, 1188–1291 L'anarchie franque|language=fr | location = Paris, France | publisher = Perrin | year = 1936 | isbn = 978-2-262-02569-4 }}
* {{cite book | author = Harpur, James | title = The Crusades: The Two Hundred Years War: The Clash Between the Cross and the Crescent in the Middle East | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OCGuWrNyjiEC&pg=PA116 | publisher = Rosen Publishing Group | location = New York, New York, USA | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-1-4042-1367-8 }}
* {{cite book | author = Hindley, Geoffrey | title = The Crusades: Islam and Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy | url = https://archive.org/details/crusadeshistoryo00hind | url-access = registration | publisher = [[Carroll & Graf Publishers]] | year = 2004 | location = New York, New York, USA | isbn = 978-0-7867-1344-8 }}
* {{New Cambridge Medieval History|volume=5| last = Irwin | first= Robert | chapter=The Rise of the Mamluks | page = [https://archive.org/details/newcambridgemedi00allm/page/n637 616] }}
* {{cite journal | author = Jackson, Peter | author-link = Peter Jackson (historian) | title = The Crisis in the Holy Land in 1260|journal=[[The English Historical Review]] | volume = 95 | issue = 376| pages=481–513 |date=July 1980 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = London, UK; New York, New York, USA|issn=0013-8266 | doi = 10.1093/ehr/XCV.CCCLXXVI.481 | jstor = 568054 }}
* {{New Cambridge Medieval History|volume=5 | last = Jackson | first= Peter |chapter=The Mongols and Europe | page = 703 }}
* {{cite book | author = Jackson, Peter | location = Harlow, UK; New York, New York, USA | title = The Mongols and the West: 1221–1410 | year = 2005 | publisher = [[Longman]] | isbn = 978-0-582-36896-5 }}
* {{cite book | author = Joseph, John | title = Muslim-Christian Relations and Inter-Christian Rivalries in the Middle East: The Case of the Jacobites in an Age of Transition | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lKaL3_dfFJAC&pg=PA16 | location = Albany, New York, USA | publisher = [[SUNY Press]] | year = 1983 | isbn = 978-0-87395-600-0 }}
* {{cite book | author = Jotischky, Andrew | title = Crusading and the Crusader States | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yG9OqY08E98C&pg=249 | location = Harlow, UK | publisher = [[Pearson Education]] | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-582-41851-6 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Knobler, Adam | title = Pseudo-Conversions and Patchwork Pedigrees: The Christianization of Muslim Princes and the Diplomacy of Holy War|journal=[[Journal of World History]]|date=Fall 1996 | pages = 181–197 | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | url = http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.2knobler.html | doi = 10.1353/jwh.2005.0040 | publisher = [[University of Hawaii Press]] | location = Honolulu, Hawaii, USA|issn=1045-6007 }}
* Knobler, Adam. 1996. "Pseudo-conversions and Patchwork Pedigrees: The Christianization of Muslim Princes and the Diplomacy of Holy War". Journal of World History 7 (2). University of Hawai'i Press: 181–97. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20078675.
* {{cite book | author = Lane, George | title = Daily Life in the Mongol Empire | location = Westport, Connecticut, USA | publisher = [[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood Press]] | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-313-33226-5 }}
* {{cite book | author = Lebédel, Claude | title = Les Croisades, Origines et Conséquences | publisher = Editions Ouest-France | location = Rennes, France|language=fr | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-2-7373-4136-6 }}
* {{cite book | author = Mack, Rosamond E. | title = Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300–1600 | publisher = University of California Press | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-520-22131-4 | location = Berkeley, California, USA }}
* {{cite book | author = Mantran, Robert | editor = Fossier, Robert | others = trans. Hanbury-Tenison, Sarah | chapter = A Turkish or Mongolian Islam | title = The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 1250–1520 | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA | volume = 3 | page = [https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00robe/page/298 298] | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1986 | isbn = 978-0-521-26646-8 | url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00robe/page/298 }}
* {{cite book | author = Marshall, Christopher | title = Warfare in the Latin East, 1192–1291| year=1994 | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-47742-0 }}
* {{cite book| author=May, Timothy M.|editor1=Kagay, Donald J. |editor2=Villalon, L. J. Andrew|chapter=The Mongol Presence and Impact in the Lands of the Eastern Mediterranean|title=Crusaders, condottieri, and cannon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYip5QLrBvAC|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|isbn=978-90-04-12553-7|year=2002}}
* {{cite book | author = Michaud, Yahia (Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies)|language=fr | title = Ibn Taymiyya, Textes Spirituels I–XVI | url = http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/it/works/ITA%20Texspi.pdf | publisher = Le Musulman, Oxford-Le Chebec | year = 2002 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Morgan, David | author-link = David Morgan (historian) | title = The Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean: Latins and Greeks in the Eastern Mediterranean after 1204 | journal=[[Mediterranean Historical Review]] | volume = 4 | issue = 1 |date=June 1989 | page = 204 | doi = 10.1080/09518968908569567}}
* {{cite book | author = Morgan, David | title = The Mongols|edition=2nd | year = 2007 | publisher = [[Blackwell Publishing]] | location = Malden, Massachusetts, USA; Oxford, UK; Carlton, Victoria, AU | isbn = 978-1-4051-3539-9 }}
* {{cite book | author = Mutafian, Claude|language=fr | title = Le Royaume Arménien de Cilicie, XIIe-XIVe siècle | location = Paris, France | publisher = [[French National Centre for Scientific Research|CNRS Editions]] | orig-year = 1993 | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-2-271-05105-9 }}
* {{cite book | author = Nersessian, Sirarpie Der | title = A History of the Crusades: The Later Crusades, 1189–1311|chapter=The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia | pages = 630–660 | author-link = Sirarpie Der-Nersessian|editor=Hazard, Harry W. |editor2=Wolff, Robert Lee | volume = 2 | year = 1969 | publisher = [[University of Wisconsin Press]] | location = Madison, Wisconsin, USA | isbn = 978-0-299-04844-0|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=v1Kx3QGYsdcC&pg=PA630 }}
* {{cite book | author = Nicholson, Helen | title = The Knights Hospitaller | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oGppfVJMKjsC&pg=PA45 | publisher = [[Boydell & Brewer|The Boydell Press]] | year = 2001| isbn=978-0-85115-845-7 | location = Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK; Rochester, New York, USA }}
* {{cite book | author = Nicolle, David | author-link = David Nicolle | title = The Crusades | series = Essential Histories | location = Oxford, UK | publisher = [[Osprey Publishing]] | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-1-84176-179-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/crusades00nico }}
* {{cite book | author = Nicolle, David|author2=Hook, Richard | title = The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulegu, Tamerlane | year = 2004 | publisher = [[Brockhampton Press]] | isbn = 978-1-86019-407-8 | location = London, UK }}
* {{cite book | author = Phillips, John Roland Seymour | title = The Medieval Expansion of Europe | edition = 2nd | publisher = Clarendon Press | location = Oxford, UK | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-19-820740-5 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/medievalexpansio0000phil }}
* {{cite book | author = Prawer, Joshua | author-link = Joshua Prawer | title = The Crusaders' Kingdom: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages | year = 1972 | publisher = Praeger Publishers | location = New York, New York, USA | isbn = 978-0-297-99397-1 }}
* {{cite book | author = Reinert, Stephen W.|editor=Mango, Cyril A. | title = The Oxford History of Byzantium|chapter=Fragmentation (1204–1453) | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford, UK; New York, New York, USA | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-19-814098-6 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Richard, Jean | author-link = Jean Richard (historian) | title = The Mongols and the Franks | year = 1969 | journal = Journal of Asian History | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 45–57}}
* {{cite book | author = Richard, Jean | others = trans. Birrell, Jean | title = The Crusades, c. 1071–c. 1291 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK | year = 1999|orig-year=published in French 1996 | isbn = 978-0-521-62566-1 }}
* {{cite book | author = Riley-Smith, Jonathan | title = Crusades: A History|edition=2nd | publisher = [[Continuum International Publishing Group]] | location = London, UK; New York, New York, USA | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-8264-7270-0 }}
* {{cite book | author = Rossabi, Morris | title = Voyager from Xanadu: Rabban Sauma and the First Journey from China to the West | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-4-7700-1650-8 | publisher = [[Kodansha|Kodansha International]] | location = Tokyo, Japan; New York, New York, USA | url = https://archive.org/details/voyagerfromxanad00ross }}
* {{Runciman-A History of the Crusades|volume=3 | publisher = [[Penguin Books]] | isbn = 978-0-14-013705-7 | year = 1987 | location = Harmondsworth, UK }}
* {{cite journal | author = Ryan, James D. | title = Christian Wives of Mongol Khans: Tartar Queens and Missionary Expectations in Asia|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society | volume = 8 | issue = 3|date=November 1998 | pages = 411–421 | jstor = 25183572 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA | doi = 10.1017/S1356186300010506 }}
* {{cite book | author = Saunders, John Joseph | title = The History of the Mongol Conquests | year = 2001 | location = Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA | publisher = [[University of Pennsylvania Press]]|orig-year=1971 | isbn = 978-0-8122-1766-7 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Schein, Sylvia | title = Gesta Dei per Mongolos 1300. The Genesis of a Non-Event|journal=The English Historical Review | volume = 94 | issue = 373| pages=805–819 |date=October 1979 | doi = 10.1093/ehr/XCIV.CCCLXXIII.805 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = London, UK; New York, New York, USA | jstor = 565554 }}
* {{The Papacy and the Levant|volume=3}}
* {{cite book | author = Sicker, Martin | title = The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=v3AdA-Ogl34C&pg=PA123 | publisher = Praeger Publishers | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-275-96892-2 | location = Westport, Connecticut, USA }}
* {{cite book | author = Sinor, Denis | author-link = Denis Sinor | title = A History of the Crusades: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries | volume = 3|chapter=The Mongols and Western Europe | page = 513 |editor= Setton, Kenneth Meyer |editor2=Hazard, Harry W. | year = 1975 | publisher = University of Wisconsin Press | isbn = 978-0-299-06670-3 | location = Madison, Wisconsin, USA }}
* {{cite book | author = Sinor, Denis | title = Inner Asia: Uralic and Altaic series, Volumes 1–150, 1960–1990 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=foS-y-ShWJ0C&pg=PA190 | volume = 96 | year = 1997 | publisher = Routledge/Curzon | isbn = 978-0-7007-0896-3 | location = London, UK }}
* {{cite book | author = Stewart, Angus Donal | title = The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks: War and Diplomacy During the Reigns of Het'um II (1289–1307) | volume = 34 | publisher = [[Brill Publishers|Brill]] | year = 2001 | location = Leiden, Netherlands; Boston, Massachusetts, USA | isbn = 978-90-04-12292-5 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Stewart, Angus | doi = 10.1080/09503110220114407 | title = The Logic of Conquest: Tripoli, 1289; Acre, 1291; why not Sis, 1293? |journal=Al-Masaq: Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean | volume = 14 | issue = 1 |date=January 2002 | pages = 7–16 | publisher = Routledge | location = London, UK|issn=0950-3110}}
* {{cite book | author = Takahashi, Hidemi | title = Barhebraeus: a Bio-Bibliography | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4ovTbDkRDOIC&pg=PA102 | year = 2005 | location = Piscataway, New Jersey, USA | publisher = [[Gorgias Press]] | isbn = 978-1-59333-148-1 }}
* {{cite book | author = Tyerman, Christopher | author-link = Christopher Tyerman |year = 2006 | title = God's War: A New History of the Crusades | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA | publisher = [[Harvard University Press]] | isbn = 978-0-674-02387-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer }}
* {{cite book | author = Wood, Frances | title = The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zvoCv3h2QCsC&pg=PA136 | publisher = [[University of California Press]] | year = 2002 | location = Berkeley, California, USA | isbn = 978-0-520-24340-8 }}
{{refend}}

{{Mongol Empire}}
{{Featured article}}
{{bots|deny=Citation bot}}

[[Category:13th-century military alliances]]
[[Category:13th-century crusades]]
[[Category:History of the foreign relations of France]]
[[Category:13th century in France]]
[[Category:Military history of the Mongol Empire]]
[[Category:Hulagu Khan]]

County of Tripoli

2024-02-19T17:30:50Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: It wasn't the last; the Kingdom of Jerusalem survived slightly longer

{{Short description|Crusader state in the Levant from 1102 to 1289}}
{{about|the last Crusader state||Tripoli (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name = {{native name|la|Comitatus Tripolitanus}} {{native name|pro|Comtat de Trípol}}
| conventional_long_name = County of Tripoli
| common_name = Tripoli
| era = High Middle Ages
| status = Vassal of, in turn, [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], [[Principality of Antioch]] and the [[Mongol Empire]]
| event_start =
| year_start = 1102
| date_start =
| event_end = Conquered by [[Qalawun]]
| year_end = 1289
| date_end = 27 April
| p1 = Fatimid Caliphate
| flag_p1 = White flag 3 to 2.svg
| s1 = Mamluk Sultanate
| flag_s1 = Mameluke Flag.svg
| border_s1 = no
| image_flag = Banner of Arms of the House of Toulouse-Tripoli.svg
| flag_type = [[Banner of arms]] of the [[House of Toulouse|House of Toulouse-Tripoli]] {{nowrap|{{small|(derived from the arms)}}}}
| image_coat = Coat of arms of the House of Toulouse-Tripoli.png
| coa_size = 80px
| symbol_type = Arms of the [[House of Toulouse|House of Toulouse-Tripoli]]
| other_symbol = <div style="padding:0.5em;">[[File:Armoiries Tripoli.svg|80px|Attributed arms of the County of Tripoli]]</div>
| other_symbol_type = {{nowrap|[[Attributed arms]] of the County of Tripoli}}
| image_map = MapofTripoli.png
| image_map_caption = The County of Tripoli in the context of the other states of the [[Near East]] in 1135 [[AD]].
| capital = [[Tartus|Tortosa]] (1102–1109), [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] (1109–1289)
| common_languages = [[Latin]], [[Aramaic]] ([[Maronites|Maronite]]), [[Old French]], [[Old Occitan]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Sabir language|Sabir]]
| religion = [[Roman Catholic Church]] (Among nobles) [[Maronite Church]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] (Among general populace) {{small|[[Oriental Orthodoxy]], [[Islam]], and [[Judaism]] minority}}
| government_type = Feudal monarchy
| leader1 = [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse|Raymond I]]
| year_leader1 = 1102–1105 {{small|(first)}}
| leader2 = [[Lucia of Tripoli|Lucia]]
| year_leader2 = 1287–1289 {{small|(last)}}
| title_leader = [[Count of Tripoli]]
| legislature =
| today = [[Lebanon]] [[Syria]]
}}

The '''County of Tripoli''' (1102–1289) was one of the [[Crusader states]].<ref name="Gregory">{{cite book|last=Gregory|first=T. E.|title=A History of Byzantium|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXCl9P0vKS4C&pg=PA327|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-8471-7|page=327}}</ref> It was founded in the [[Levant]] in the modern-day region of [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]], northern [[Lebanon]] and parts of western [[Syria]].<ref name="Gregory"/><ref name="Riley">{{cite book|last=Riley-Smith|first=J.|title=The Knights Hospitaller in the Levant, c. 1070–1309|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8wNY3gLWMqoC&pg=PA174|year=2012|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-29083-9|page=174}}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
When the [[Crusades|Frankish Crusaders]] – mostly [[Occitania|southern French]] forces – captured the region in 1109, [[Bertrand of Toulouse]] became the first count of Tripoli as a [[vassal]] of King [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem]]. From that time, the rule of the county was decided not strictly by inheritance but by factors such as military force (external and [[civil war]]), favour and negotiation. In 1289 the County of Tripoli fell to Sultan [[Qalawun]] of the Muslim [[Mamluk]]s of [[Cairo]]. The county was absorbed into [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Egypt]].<ref name="Gregory"/>{{rp|page=328}}

==Capture by Christian forces==
{{See also|Siege of Tripoli}}

[[Raymond IV of Toulouse]] was one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the [[List of principal Crusaders|crusaders]].<ref name="Tyerman">Tyerman C. [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674030701 "God's war – a new history of the crusades"] Harvard University Press. 2009. {{ISBN|978-0674030701}}</ref> Even so, after the [[First Crusade]], he had failed to secure any land holdings in the [[Near East]]. Meanwhile, the [[County of Edessa]], the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] and the [[Principality of Antioch]] had been established.<ref name="Madden">{{cite book|last=Madden|first=T. F.|title=The New Concise History of the Crusades|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fKYxKsgVpmMC|year=2005|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-3822-1}}</ref> Tripoli was an important strategic goal as it linked the [[France|French]] in the south with the [[Normans]] in the north. It was a fertile and well populated area.<ref name=Kennedy>{{cite book|last=Kennedy|first=H.|title=Crusader Castles|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521420686|url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-79913-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521420686/page/62 62]}}</ref> In 1102, Raymond IV occupied Tortosa (now [[Tartus]]) and in 1103, he prepared, together with veterans of the [[Crusade of 1101|1101 crusade]], to take Tripoli.<ref name="Tyerman"/><ref name="Setton">{{cite book|last=Setton|first=K. M.|title=A History of the Crusades: The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tgfMNfBIgSwC&pg=PA240|year=1985|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-09144-6|page=240}}</ref>

===Citadel of Tripoli===
{{main|Citadel of Tripoli}}
On a natural ridge, which he named "Mons Peregrinus" ({{lang-fr|Mont Pèlerin}}, {{lang-en|Mount Pilgrim}}), {{convert|3|km|1}} from Tripoli, Raymond IV (also known as Raymond de Saint-Gilles) began the construction of a large fortress, the [[Citadel of Tripoli]] ({{lang-ar|قلعة طرابلس}} ''Qalʻat Ṭarābulus''), formerly also known as the "Castle of Saint-Gilles" ({{lang-ar|قلعة سان جيل}} ''Qalʻat Sān Jīl''). Despite this new fortress and seasoned troops, Raymond IV's siege of Tripoli failed to secure the port. He died on 25 February 1105.

===Succession===
[[William-Jordan|Count William of Cerdagne]], Raymond IV's cousin and comrade, was supported by [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee]], but his succession in the Tripoli campaign was challenged by Raymond IV's illegitimate son, [[Bertrand of Toulouse]].<ref name="Asbridge">{{cite book|last=Asbridge|first=T. S.|title=The Creation of the Principality of Antioch, 1098–1130|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DvUNedDOoFgC&pg=PA208|year=2000|publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd|isbn=978-0-85115-661-3|page=208}}</ref> Bertrand of Toulouse, who was supported by [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem]], arrived in the [[Near East]] with a substantial army and a large [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] fleet.<ref name="Tyerman"/>
In order to resolve the succession issue, Baldwin I created a partition treaty. It specified that William was to hold northern Tripoli and pay homage to Tancred while Bertrand was to hold south Tripoli as a vassal of Baldwin.<ref name="Madden"/> Under a united Christian onslaught, Tripoli fell on 12 July 1109, completing the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]].<ref name="Tyerman"/> When William died of an arrow through the heart (some claim it was murder), Bertrand became the first count of Tripoli.<ref name="Asbridge"/>{{rp|page=119}}

==Structure and devolution of power==
{{see also|Vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem}}

===Holdings and vassals===
[[File:Tripoli gold bezant in Arabic 1270 1300 Tripoli silver gros 1275 1287.jpg|thumb|County of Tripoli coins: gold [[bezant]] with a text in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (1270–1300), and Tripoli silver [[Gros (coinage)|gros]] (1275–1287). [[British Museum]].]]

The extent of the County of Tripoli was determined in part by pre-existing Byzantine borders and in part by victory in battle, tempered by the demands of neighbouring crusader states. At its height, the county controlled the coastline from [[Maraclea]] in the north to [[Beirut]] in the south. Inland, the county's control extended to the [[Krac des Chevaliers]] fortress. The rich inland agricultural land of the [[Homs Gap]] was known as La Bocquée.<ref name="Haag"/>
The county was divided into 'lordships'; areas based roughly around its coastal ports. The count of Tripoli himself held the port of Tripoli and its surrounds. He also controlled the hostile region of [[Montferrand (crusader castle)|Montferrand]], now modern-day Bar'in, [[Syria]], lying to the east.<ref name="Tyerman"/> Approximately one quarter of the land seized around Tripoli was given to the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] as payment for military aid. The Genoese admiral [[Guglielmo Embriaco]] was awarded the city of [[Byblos]].<ref name="Tyerman"/>

===Homage to the king===
Despite his contribution to its establishment, Baldwin I did not directly control the County of Tripoli. Nevertheless, the County of Tripoli owed [[fealty]] (allegiance) and [[Homage (feudal)|homage]] (declarations of allegiance) to him, and he, in return, provided support to the county in times of trouble.<ref name="Tyerman"/>

===Defence===
Although occupying a narrow coastal plain, the mountain range beyond was a natural defensive line for Tripoli. Several castle forts were built to defend the mountain passes.<ref name="Haag">{{cite book|last=Haag|first=M.|title=The Tragedy of the Templars: The Rise and Fall of the Crusader States|url=https://archive.org/details/tragedyoftemplar00haag|url-access=registration|year=2012|publisher=Profile Books|isbn=978-1-84765-854-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/tragedyoftemplar00haag/page/138 138]}}</ref>
Muslim forces (Turk and Egyptian) attacked the County of Tripoli along its borders, especially those to the east.<ref name="Kennedy"/>{{rp|page=73}} In 1137, [[Raymond II, Count of Tripoli|Raymond II]], the reigning count, lost control of Montferrand.<ref name="Tyerman"/> The Muslim position strengthened when the [[Order of Assassins|Hashshashin]] ([[Nizari Isma'ilism|Nizari Ismailis]]) forces formed in the [[Nosairi mountains]] to the north.<ref name="Tyerman"/> In 1144, in order to increase the county's defences, particularly against Zangi of Mosul, Raymond II gave the [[Knights Hospitaller]] large stretches of frontier land along the Buqai'ah plain.<ref name="Boas">{{cite book|last=Boas|first=A.|title=Archaeology of the Military Orders: A Survey of the Urban Centres, Rural Settlements and Castles of the Military Orders in the Latin East (c. 1120–1291)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yeQ3uecGjdcC&pg=PA131|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-96481-1|page=131}}</ref> This included the castles of [[Krak des Chevaliers]], Anaz, Tell Kalakh, Qalaat el Felis and Mardabech.<ref name="Riley"/>{{rp|page=30}} In the 1150s, the defences were further strengthened by the presence of the [[Knights Templar]] at [[Tartus]] on the seashore.<ref>{{cite book|last=Peoples|first=R. S.|title=Crusade of Kings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rdDyOiWYC6AC&pg=PA54|year=2007|publisher=Wildside Press LLC|isbn=978-0-8095-7221-2|page=54}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=National Geographic Society|title=The National Geographic Magazine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNzRAAAAMAAJ|volume=59|year=1931|publisher=National Geographic Society}}</ref>

===Religion===
In religious matters, the counties of the Kingdom of Jerusalem were expected to follow the lead of the [[Latin patriarch of Jerusalem]]. However, Count [[Pons of Tripoli|Pons]] had formed an alliance with [[Antioch]], and acknowledged the [[Latin patriarch of Antioch]]. This was so even after a papal edict to the contrary.<ref name="Tyerman"/>

== War with the Seljuk Empire ==
;Shaizar
As a vassal of the [[kings of Jerusalem]], [[Bertrand of Tripoli]] was drawn into war with the [[Seljuk Turks]]. In 1111, [[Mawdud]], a Turkish military leader, campaigned against [[Principality of Antioch|Antioch]] and [[County of Edessa|Edessa]]. Count Bertrand of Tripoli and King [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem]] marched to defend the Christians in the north. In joining Prince [[Tancred of Galilee]] and Count [[Baldwin II of Edessa]] at the [[Battle of Shaizar (1111)|Battle of Shaizar]], their defence of the kingdom was successful.

;Hab
In 1119, the Seljuk Empire again attacked Antioch, winning the [[Battle of Ager Sanguinis]]. However, Count Pons of Tripoli and [[Baldwin II of Jerusalem|Baldwin II]] defended Antioch and, at the [[Battle of Hab]], successfully defended the flank of the Christian forces.

;Azaz
In 1125, Count Pons of Tripoli marched against the Turks who had again attacked [[County of Edessa|Edessa]], this time besieging the town of [[Battle of Azaz (1125)|Azaz]]. Pons of Tripoli, Baldwin II and Count [[Joscelin I of Edessa]] lured the Turks from Azaz and into an ambush on the plains, where the Turkish forces were defeated.

==Earthquake of 1170==
On 29 June 1170, an earthquake struck the region. The defensive forts of [[Krac des Chevaliers]], Chastel Blanc<ref name="Boas"/>{{rp|page=236}} and al-'Ariymah were damaged. The cathedral of St Mary in Tripoli township was destroyed.<ref name="Barber">{{cite book|last=Barber|first=M.|title=The Crusader States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bz_O7-Lb_CsC&pg=PA256|year=2012|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-18931-5|page=256}}</ref> The earthquake of 1170 resulted in a brief truce between [[Nur ad-Din, atabeg of Aleppo|Nur al-Din]] and the county (unlike a previous less severe earthquake of 1157 where fighting continued).<ref name="Raphael">{{cite book|last=Raphael|first=K.|title=Ancient Earthquakes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jQ59RT8FPx8C&pg=PA59|year= 2010|publisher=Geological Society of America|isbn=978-0-8137-2471-3|page=60}}</ref>

== Contenders ==

===Bertrand of Toulouse, son of Alphonso-Jordan===
[[File:Crusader coin Tripoli circa 1230 bis.jpg|thumb|upright|Crusader coin, County of Tripoli, {{circa|1230}}.]]
[[File:Crusader coin Tripoli circa 1230.jpg|thumb|upright|Crusader coin, County of Tripoli, {{circa|1230}}.]]

[[Alfonso Jordan]] (1103–1148) was the son of Raymond IV and his third wife, [[Elvira of Castile, Countess of Toulouse|Elvira of Castile]].<ref name="William">{{cite book|author=William of Puylaurens|title=The Chronicle of William of Puylaurens: The Albigensian Crusade and Its Aftermath|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mIQTe2VaZQsC&pg=PA17|year=2003|publisher=Boydell Press|isbn=978-0-85115-925-6|page=17}}</ref> Although he was born in Tripoli, Alphonso-Jordan was raised in France. In 1147, he joined the [[Second Crusade]], which was launched in response to the loss of the County of Edessa to Turkish forces. Alphonso died, possibly poisoned, in [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], in 1148.<ref name="Barber"/> He had an illegitimate son, Bertrand of Toulouse, who continued his progress towards Tripoli.
[[Raymond II, Count of Tripoli|Count Raymond II]] (1115–1152), the grandson of Bertrand, Count of Tripoli, engaged his enemies, [[Nur ad-Din Zangi|Nur al-Din]] and [[Unur of Damascus]], to confront his cousin, Bertrand. The Turkish forces, having only recently battled Raymond II at the [[Siege of Damascus (1148)|Siege of Damascus]], attacked the castle of [[Areimeh|Arima]] (al-Ariymah).<ref name="Boas"/>{{rp|page=224}} They captured Bertrand of Toulouse, who spent the following decade in Muslim prisons. He was released in 1159 following the intervention of [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel Komnenos]], emperor of Byzantium.<ref name="Barber"/>{{rp|page=197}} Raymond II later regained Arima. In 1152, Raymond II was killed by the [[Hashashin|Assassins]]. He was the first recorded non-Muslim victim of this sect.<ref name="Tyerman"/>

===Guy II Embriaco===
[[Bohemond VII of Antioch|Bohemond VII]] (1261 – 19 October 1287) was Count of Tripoli and the nominal Prince of Antioch from 1275 until his death. From 1275 to 1277, [[Bartholomew Mansel|Bartholomew, Bishop of Tortosa]], was Bohemond VII's regent.<ref name="Barber2">History of the Templars – Barber</ref> [[Paul of Segni]], [[Latin Diocese of Tripoli|Bishop of Tripoli]], who was a friend of the Templar Grandmaster, [[William of Beaujeu]], opposed the succession of Bohemond VII.<ref name="Barber2"/> [[Ernoul]] wrote, "This was the beginning of war between Bohemond VII and the Templars."<ref>Estoire d'Eracles</ref>

[[Guy II Embriaco]] (1277–1282) was a former vassal of Bohemond VII in [[Gibelet]] ([[Byblos]]). Grievances between them had led to enmity and this was part of a larger trade war between [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]] and the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]].<ref name="Northrup">{{cite book|last=Northrup|first=L.|title=From Slave to Sultan: The Career of Al-Manṣūr Qalāwūn and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria (678–689 A.H./1279–1290 A.D.)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DivRsJGJaKwC&pg=PA152|year=1998|publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag|isbn=978-3-515-06861-1|page=152}}</ref>
The [[Knights Templar|Templars]] sought to unseat Bohemond VII by supporting Guy II Embriaco. Bohemond VII responded by sacking the Templar house in Tripoli and forests at Montroque.<ref name="Barber2"/> This action led to indecisive fighting over the following months at Botron, [[Enfeh|Fort Nephin]], [[Sidon]] and at sea.<ref name="Barber2"/> In 1282, Guy II Embriaco and the Templars were ambushed in Tripoli. Guy, his brothers, and cousins were imprisoned at Fort Nephin and left to starve; his followers were blinded and the Templars were summarily executed.

===Benedetto I Zaccaria===
After the death of Bohemond VII in 1287, the resulting [[power vacuum]] moved the lords of the County of Tripoli to offer [[Benedetto I Zaccaria]] (1235–1307), a powerful Genoese merchant, control of the county. In Tripoli, a special non-aristocratic [[social status]] had been granted to people from the great mercantile cities of Europe, especially those from the maritime republics of Italy (''e.g.'', Venice).<ref name="Setton"/>{{rp|page=172}} The communes elected Bartholomew Embriaco to the role of Mayor of Tripoli. He also promoted trade with the Genoese.
Bohemond VII had no issue. His mother, [[Sibylla of Armenia]], was discounted in the succession because she was the friend of Bishop Bartholomew of Tortosa, considered an enemy of Tripoli. Bohemond VII's younger sister, Lucie, established herself at Fort Nephin with the support of the [[Knights Hospitaller]]. Eventually, Bartholomew Embriaco and the communes decided they could not rule, while Benedetto I Zaccario declined the countship. Thus, after negotiations, Lucie became [[Lucia, Countess of Tripoli]] in 1288.<ref name="Folda">{{cite book|last=Folda|first=J.|title=Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xifq5OE7174C&pg=PA383|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83583-1|page=383}}</ref>

==Fall to the Muslims==
{{See also|Siege of Tripoli (1271)|Fall of Tripoli (1289)}}
Constant infighting, lack of resources, a series of poor harvests, changes to trade routes and the local economy and Muslim and Mongol military pressure led to the decline of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]].<ref name="Riley"/>{{rp|page=7}} By the 1280s, only two crusader states remained; the remnants of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli. Even though the [[Mamluk]] government of Egypt had a treaty with the county, in March 1289, Tripoli favoured an alliance with the Mongols and as a result [[Qalawun|Sultan Qalawun]] of Egypt attacked Tripoli. Despite desperate defense operations, the county fell and was merged with Qalawun's empire.<ref name="Tyerman"/>

==Vassals of Tripoli==
{{Incomplete list|date=April 2022}}
* [[Montferrand (crusader castle)|County of Montferrand]]
* [[Bishmizzine|Lordship of Besmedin]]
* [[Lordship of Botrun|Lordship of Botron]]
* [[Bsharri|Lordship of Buissera]]
* [[Al-Qalamoun|Lordship of Calmont]]
* [[Chastel Blanc|Lordship of Chastel Blanc]]
* [[Chastel Rouge|Lordship of Chastel Rouge]]
* [[Lordship of Fontaines]]
* [[Gibelacar|Lordship of Gibelacar]]
* ''[[:it:Signoria di Gibelletto|Lordship of Gibelet]]''
* [[Coliath|Lordship of La Colée]]
* [[Mseilha Fort|Lordship of Le Puy]]
* ''[[:de:Moinetre|Seigneury of Moinetre]]''
* [[Enfeh#The_Crusades_Period|Lordship of Nephin]]
* [[Lordship of Raisagium Montanée]]
* [[Lordship of Terra Galifa]]
* [[Lordship of Tokle]]
* [[Tartus#Crusades|Lordship of Tortosa Maraclea]]
* [[Krak des Chevaliers]]

==Counts of Tripoli==
*[[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse|Raymond I]] (1102–1105, also [[Count of Toulouse]] as [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse|Raymond IV]])
*[[Alfonso Jordan]] (1105–1109), with [[William II Jordan|William Jordan]] as regent
*[[Bertrand, Count of Toulouse|Bertrand]] (1109–1112)
*[[Pons, Count of Tripoli|Pons]] (1112–1137)
*[[Raymond II, Count of Tripoli|Raymond II]] (1137–1152)
*[[Raymond III, Count of Tripoli|Raymond III]] (1152–1187)
*[[Raymond IV, Count of Tripoli|Raymond IV]] (1187–1189), son of [[Bohemond III of Antioch]].
*[[Bohemond IV of Antioch|Bohemond IV]] (1189–1233, also [[Principality of Antioch|Prince of Antioch]] 1201–1216 and 1219–1233)
*[[Bohemond V of Antioch|Bohemond V]] (1233–1252, also Prince of Antioch)
*[[Bohemond VI of Antioch|Bohemond VI]] (1252–1275, also Prince of Antioch 1252–1268)
*[[Bohemond VII of Antioch|Bohemond VII]] (1275–1287)
*[[Lucia, Countess of Tripoli|Lucia]] (1287–1289)

Titular rulers of Tripoli after its fall to Egyptian forces:

*''[[Lucia, Countess of Tripoli|Lucia]]'' (1289 – c.1299)
*''[[Philippe II de Toucy|Philippe]]'' (c.1299 – 1300)

Tripoli passes to the Kings of Cyprus and Jerusalem:

*''[[Peter I of Cyprus]]'' (1346–1359)
*''[[Peter II of Cyprus]]'' (1359–1369)
*''James of Lusignan'' (? – c. 1396), cousin
*''John of Lusignan'' (c. 1396 – c. 1430), son
*''Peter of Lusignan'' (c. 1430 – 1451), brother, Regent of Cyprus
*''[[Juan Tafures]]'' (1469–1473)

==Great officers of Tripoli==
{{main|Officers of the County of Tripoli}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Commons category}}
{{coord missing|Lebanon}}

{{Crusader States}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tripoli, County of}}
[[Category:County of Tripoli| ]]
[[Category:1289 disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1102]]
[[Category:Counties of the Crusader states]]
[[Category:1100s establishments in the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:12th century in the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:13th century in the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:History of Tripoli, Lebanon|County]]
[[Category:Former monarchies]]
[[Category:Vassal and tributary states of the Mongol Empire]]

Franco-Mongol alliance

2024-02-19T17:26:13Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Christian vassals */

{{Short description|13th century attempts at an alliance}}
[[File:OljeituToPhilippeLeBel1305.jpg|260px|thumb|alt=A partially unrolled scroll. opened from left to right to show a portion of the scroll with widely spaced vertical lines of cursive Mongol script. Imprinted over two of the lines is an official-looking square red stamp with an intricate design.|1305 letter (a roll measuring {{convert|302|by|50|cm|ft}}) from the Ilkhan Mongol [[Öljaitü]] to King [[Philip IV of France]], suggesting military collaboration.]]

Several attempts at a '''Franco-Mongol alliance''' against the [[Caliphate|Islamic caliphates]], their common enemy, were made by various leaders among the [[Franks#Crusaders and other Western Europeans as "Franks"|Frankish]] [[Crusades|Crusaders]] and the [[Mongol Empire]] in the 13th century. Such an alliance might have seemed an obvious choice: the Mongols were already sympathetic to Christianity, given the presence of many influential [[Church of the East|Nestorian Christians]] in the Mongol court. The [[Franks]] (Western Europeans and those in the [[Crusader states|Crusader States]] of the [[Levant]]<ref>Many people in the East used the word "Frank" to denote a European of any variety.</ref>) were open to the idea of support from the East, in part owing to the long-running legend of the mythical [[Prester John]], an Eastern king in an Eastern kingdom who many believed would one day come to the assistance of the Crusaders in the Holy Land.<ref name="atwood-583" /><ref name="jackson-4">Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 4. "The failure of Ilkhanid-Western negotiations, and the reasons for it, are of particular importance in view of the widespread belief in the past that they might well have succeeded."</ref> The Franks and Mongols also shared a common enemy in the Muslims. However, despite many messages, gifts, and emissaries over the course of several decades, the often-proposed alliance never came to fruition.<ref name="atwood-583">Atwood. "Western Europe and the Mongol Empire" in ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire''. p. 583. "Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam".</ref><ref name="ryan">Ryan. pp. 411–421.</ref>

Contact between Europeans and Mongols began around 1220, with occasional messages from the papacy and European monarchs to Mongol leaders such as the [[Khagan|Great Khan]], and subsequently to the [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhans]] in Mongol-conquered [[Persia]]. Communications tended to follow a recurring pattern: the Europeans asked the Mongols to convert to Western Christianity, while the Mongols responded with demands for submission and tribute. The Mongols had already conquered many Christian and Muslim nations in their advance across Asia, and after destroying the [[Mongol campaign against the Nizaris|Nizaris of Alamut]] and the Muslim [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] and [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] dynasties, for the next few generations fought the remaining Islamic power in the region, the Egyptian [[Mamluk]]s. [[Hethum I, King of Armenia|Hethum I]], king of the Christian nation of [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Cilician Armenia]], had submitted to the Mongols in 1247, and strongly encouraged other monarchs to engage in a Christian–Mongol alliance, but was only able to persuade his son-in-law, Prince [[Bohemond VI of Antioch|Bohemond VI]] of the Crusader state of [[Principality of Antioch|Antioch]], who submitted in 1260. Other Christian leaders such as the Crusaders of [[Acre, Israel#Arab and Crusader periods|Acre]] were more mistrustful of the Mongols, perceiving them as the most significant threat in the region. The Barons of Acre therefore engaged in an unusual passive alliance with the Muslim Mamluks, allowing Egyptian forces to advance unopposed through Crusader territory to engage and defeat the Mongols at the pivotal [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260.<ref name="morgan-204" />

European attitudes began to change in the mid-1260s, from perceiving the Mongols as enemies to be feared, to potential allies against the Muslims. The Mongols sought to capitalize on this, promising a re-conquered Jerusalem to the Europeans in return for cooperation. Attempts to cement an alliance continued through negotiations with many leaders of the Mongol Ilkhanate in Persia, from its founder [[Hulagu]] through his descendants [[Abaqa Khan|Abaqa]], [[Arghun]], [[Ghazan]], and [[Öljaitü]], but without success. The Mongols [[Mongol invasions of Syria|invaded Syria]] several times between 1281 and 1312, sometimes in attempts at joint operations with the Franks, but the considerable logistical difficulties involved meant that forces would arrive months apart, never able to coordinate activities in any effective way.<ref name="Edbury 105" /> The Mongol Empire eventually dissolved into civil war, and the Egyptian Mamluks successfully recaptured all of Palestine and Syria from the Crusaders. After the [[Siege of Acre (1291)|fall of Acre]] in 1291, the remaining Crusaders retreated to the island of [[Cyprus]]. They made a final attempt to establish a bridgehead at the small island of [[Arwad|Ruad]] off the coast of [[Tartus|Tortosa]], again in an attempt to coordinate military action with the Mongols, but the plan failed, and the Muslims responded by besieging the island. With the [[Fall of Ruad]] in 1302, the Crusaders lost their last foothold in the Holy Land.<ref>Demurger. "The Isle of Ruad". ''The Last Templar''. pp. 95–110.</ref>

Modern historians debate whether an alliance between the Franks and Mongols would have been successful in shifting the balance of power in the region, and if it would have been a wise choice on the part of the Europeans.<ref name="historyindispute">See Abate and Marx. pp. 182–186, where the question debated is "Would a Latin-Ilkhan Mongol alliance have strengthened and preserved the Crusader States?{{'"}}</ref> Traditionally, the Mongols tended to see outside parties as either subjects or enemies, with little room in the middle for a concept such as an ally.<ref name="jackson-46">Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 46. See also pp. 181–182. "For the Mongols the mandate came to be valid for the whole world and not just for the nomadic tribes of the steppe. All nations were ''[[de jure]]'' subject to them, and anyone who opposed them was thereby a rebel (''bulgha''). In fact, the Turkish word employed for 'peace' was that used also to express subjection ... There could be no peace with the Mongols in the absence of submission."</ref><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 121. "[The Mongols] had no allies, only subjects or enemies".</ref>

== Background (1209–1244) ==
{{see also|Christianity among the Mongols|Mongol invasion of Europe|Europeans in Medieval China}}

Among Western Europeans, there had long been rumors and expectations that a great Christian ally would come from the East. These rumors circulated as early as the [[First Crusade]] (1096–1099), and usually surged in popularity after the Crusaders lost a battle. A legend arose about a figure known as [[Prester John]], who lived in far-off India, [[Central Asia]], or perhaps even [[Ethiopia]]. This legend developed a life of its own, and some individuals who came from the East were greeted with expectations that they might be forces sent by the long-awaited Prester John. In 1210, news reached the West of the battles of the Mongol [[Kuchlug]] (d. 1218), leader of the largely Christian tribe of the [[Naimans]]. Kuchlug's forces had been battling the powerful [[Khwarezmian Empire]], whose leader was the Muslim [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm]]. Rumors circulated in Europe that Kuchlug was the mythical Prester John, again battling the Muslims in the East.<ref name="Foltz111">Foltz. pp. 111–112.</ref>

During the [[Fifth Crusade]] (1213–1221), as the Christians were unsuccessfully laying siege to the Egyptian city of [[Damietta]], the legend of Prester John became conflated with the reality of [[Genghis Khan]]'s rapidly expanding empire.<ref name="Foltz111" /> Mongol raiding parties were beginning to invade the eastern Islamic world, in [[Transoxiana|Transoxania]] and [[Persia]] in 1219–1221.<ref name="raids-236">Amitai. "Mongol raids into Palestine (AD 1260 and 1300)". p. 236.</ref> Rumors circulated among the Crusaders that a "Christian king of the Indies", a King David who was either Prester John or one of his descendants, had been attacking Muslims in the East and was on his way to help the Christians in their crusades.<ref name="knobler">Knobler. pp. 181–197.</ref> In a letter dated {{nowrap|June 20, 1221}}, [[Pope Honorius III]] even commented about "forces coming from the Far East to rescue the Holy Land".<ref>Quoted in Runciman. p. 246.</ref>

After Genghis Khan's death in 1227, his empire was divided by his descendants into four sections or [[Khanate]]s, which degenerated into civil war. The northwestern [[Kipchaks|Kipchak]] Khanate, known as the [[Golden Horde]], expanded towards Europe, primarily via Hungary and Poland, while its leaders simultaneously opposed the rule of their cousins back at the Mongol capital. The southwestern section, known as the Ilkhanate, was under the leadership of Genghis Khan's grandson [[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]]. He continued to support his brother, the Great Khan, and was therefore at war with the Golden Horde, while at the same time continuing an advance towards Persia and the Holy Land.<ref name="morgan-135">Morgan. ''The Mongols''. pp. 133–138.</ref>

== Papal overtures (1245–1248) ==
[[File:LetterGuyugToInnocence.jpg|alt=A long vertical yellowed document, with approximately 25 lines of Persian text in a calligraphy style|thumb|100px|[[Letter from Güyük Khan to Pope Innocent IV|1246 letter]] from [[Güyük Khan|Güyük]] to [[Pope Innocent IV]], written in [[Persian language|Persian]]]]

The first official communications between Western Europe and the Mongol Empire occurred between [[Pope Innocent IV]] ([[floruit|fl.]] 1243–1254) and the Great Khans, via letters and envoys that were sent overland and could take years to arrive at their destination. The communications initiated what was to become a regular pattern in European–Mongol communications: the Europeans would ask the Mongols to convert to Christianity, and the Mongols would respond with demands for submission.<ref name="jackson-46" /><ref>Richard. p. 422. "In all the conversations between the popes and the il-khans, this difference of approach remained: the il-khans spoke of military cooperation, the popes of adhering to the Christian faith."</ref>

The [[Mongol invasion of Europe]] ended in 1242, in part because of the death of the Great Khan [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]], successor to Genghis Khan. When one Great Khan died, Mongols from all parts of the empire were recalled to the capital to decide who should be the next Great Khan.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 72.</ref> In the meantime, the Mongols' relentless march westward had displaced the [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khawarizmi Turks]], who themselves moved west, eventually allying with the Ayyubid Muslims in Egypt.<ref>Tyerman. pp. 770–771.</ref> Along the way, the Ayyubids [[Siege of Jerusalem (1244)|took Jerusalem from the Christians in 1244]]. After the subsequent loss at the [[Battle of La Forbie]], Christian kings began to prepare for a new crusade (the [[Seventh Crusade]]), declared by Pope Innocent IV in June 1245 at the [[First Council of Lyon]].<ref>Riley-Smith. pp. 289–290.</ref><ref>Tyerman. p. 772.</ref> The loss of Jerusalem caused some Europeans to look to the Mongols as potential allies of Christendom, provided the Mongols could be converted to [[Western Christianity]].<ref name="ryan" /> In March 1245, Pope Innocent IV had issued multiple [[papal bull]]s, some of which were sent with an envoy, the [[Franciscan]] [[Giovanni da Pian del Carpine|John of Plano Carpini]], to the "Emperor of the Tartars". In a letter now called the ''[[Cum non solum]]'', Pope Innocent expressed a desire for peace, and asked the Mongol ruler to become a Christian and to stop killing Christians.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 90.</ref> However, the new Mongol Great Khan [[Güyük Khan|Güyük]], installed at [[Karakorum]] in 1246, replied only with a demand for the submission of the pope, and a visit from the rulers of the West in homage to Mongol power:<ref>Morgan. ''The Mongols''. p. 102.</ref>

{{blockquote|You should say with a sincere heart: "I will submit and serve you." Thou thyself, at the head of all the Princes, come at once to serve and wait upon us! At that time I shall recognize your submission. If you do not observe God's command, and if you ignore my command, I shall know you as my enemy.|Güyük Khan's [[Letter from Güyük Khan to Pope Innocent IV|letter]] to Pope Innocent IV, 1246<ref>Dawson (ed.) ''[https://archive.org/stream/mongolmission008646mbp#page/n133/mode/2up/search/1246 The Mongol Mission]''. p. 86.</ref>}}

A second mission sent in 1245 by Pope Innocent was led by the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[Ascelin of Lombardia]],<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 88.</ref> who met with the Mongol commander [[Baiju Noyan|Baiju]] near the [[Caspian Sea]] in 1247. Baiju, who had plans to capture Baghdad, welcomed the possibility of an alliance and sent a message to Rome via his envoys [[Aïbeg and Serkis]]. They then returned a year later with Pope Innocent's letter, ''[[Viam agnoscere veritatis (1248)|Viam agnoscere veritatis]]'', in which he appealed to the Mongols to "cease their menaces".<ref name="setton-522">Sinor. [https://books.google.com/books?id=J6v9jhUd-r8C&pg=PA522&dq=setton+viam "Mongols in Western Europe"]. p. 522. "The Pope's reply to Baidju's letter, ''Viam agnoscere veritatis'', dated November 22, 1248, and probably carried back by Aibeg and Sargis." Note that Sinor refers to the letter as "Viam agnoscere" though the actual letter uses the text "Viam cognoscere".</ref><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 89.</ref>

== Christian vassals ==
{{see also|Mongol invasions of Georgia and Armenia}}
As the Mongols of the Ilkhanate continued to move towards the Holy Land, city after city fell to them. The typical Mongol pattern was to give a region one chance to surrender. If the target acquiesced, the Mongols absorbed the populace and warriors into their own Mongol army, which they would then use to further expand the empire. If a community did not surrender, the Mongols forcefully took the settlement or settlements and slaughtered everyone they found.<ref>Hindley. p. 193.</ref> Faced with the option of subjugation to or combat with the nearby Mongol horde, many communities chose the former, including some Christian realms.<ref name="bournotian-109">Bournotian. p. 109. "It was at this juncture that the main Mongol armies appeared [in Armenia] in 1236. The Mongols swiftly conquered the cities. Those who resisted were cruelly punished, while those submitting were rewarded. News of this spread quickly and resulted in the submission of all of historic Armenia and parts of Georgia by 1245 ... Armenian and Georgian military leaders had to serve in the Mongol army, where many of them perished in battle. In 1258 the Ilkhanid Mongols, under the leadership of Hulagu, sacked Baghdad, ended the Abbasid Caliphate and killed many Muslims."</ref>

[[File:SempadLetter.JPG|left|thumb|alt=A single page from a 14th-century manuscript. Un-illustrated, it is covered with dozens of lines of Latin text. The parchment is aged and has some holes in it towards the bottom, which evidently existed before the text was written around them.|1248 letter from [[Sempad the Constable]] to [[Henry I of Cyprus]] and [[John of Ibelin (jurist)|Jean d'Ibelin]]]]

Christian [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgia]] was repeatedly attacked starting in 1220, and in 1243 Queen [[Rusudan of Georgia|Rusudan]] formally submitted to the Mongols, turning Georgia into a vassal state which then became a regular ally in the Mongol military conquests.<ref>Stewart. "Logic of Conquest". p. 8.</ref> [[Hethum I, King of Armenia|Hethum I of Cilician Armenia]] submitted in 1247, and over the following years encouraged other monarchs to enter into a Christian-Mongol alliance.<ref name="nersessian" /><ref name="stewart-8">Stewart. "Logic of Conquest". p. 8. "The Armenian king saw alliance with the Mongols — or, more accurately, swift and peaceful subjection to them — as the best course of action."</ref><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 74. "King Het'um of Lesser Armenia, who had reflected profoundly upon the deliverance afforded by the Mongols from his neighbbours and enemies in Rum, sent his brother, the Constable Smbat (Sempad) to Guyug's court to offer his submission."</ref><ref>Ghazarian. p. 56.</ref><ref>May. p. 135.</ref> He sent his brother [[Sempad the Constable|Sempad]] to the Mongol court in Karakorum, and Sempad's positive letters about the Mongols were influential in European circles.<ref name="bournotian-100">Bournotian. p. 100. "Smbat met Kubali's brother, Mongke Khan and in 1247, made an alliance against the Muslims"</ref>

=== Antioch ===
The [[Principality of Antioch]] was one of the earliest Crusader States, founded in 1098 during the First Crusade. At the time of the Mongol advance, it was under the rule of [[Bohemond VI of Antioch|Bohemond VI]]. Under the influence of his father-in-law, Hethum I, Bohemond too submitted Antioch to Hulagu in 1260.<ref name="nersessian">Nersessian. p. 653. "Hetoum tried to win the Latin princes over to the idea of a Christian-Mongol alliance, but could convince only Bohemond VI of Antioch."</ref><ref name="jackson-167" /><ref>Lebedel. p. 75. "The Barons of the Holy Land refused an alliance with the Mongols, except for the king of Armenia and Bohemond VI, prince of Antioch and Count of Tripoli"</ref> A Mongol representative and a Mongol garrison were stationed in the capital city of [[Antioch]], where they remained until the Principality was destroyed by the Mamluks in 1268.<ref name="tyerman-806">Tyerman. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ULDUopVCVPoC&pg=PA806 p. 806]</ref><ref>Richard. p. 410. "Under the influence of his father-in-law, the king of Armenia, the prince of Antioch had opted for submission to Hulegu"</ref> Bohemond was also required by the Mongols to accept the restoration of a [[List of Greek Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch|Greek Orthodox patriarch]], [[Euthymius II of Antioch|Euthymius]], as a way of strengthening ties between the Mongols and the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]]. In return for this loyalty, Hulagu awarded Bohemond all the Antiochene territories which had been lost to the Muslims in 1243.<ref>Richard. [https://books.google.com/books?id=a0LO9u6xKvcC&pg=PA411&q=euthymius p. 411].</ref> However, for his relations with the Mongols, Bohemond was also temporarily excommunicated by [[Pope Urban IV|Jacques Pantaléon]], the [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem]], though this was lifted in 1263.<ref>Saunders. p. 115.</ref>

Around 1262 or 1263, the Mamluk leader [[Baibars]] attempted an attack on Antioch, but the principality was saved by Mongol intervention.<ref>Richard. p. 416. "In the meantime, [Baibars] conducted his troops to Antioch, and started to besiege the city, which was saved by a Mongol intervention"</ref> In later years the Mongols were not able to offer as much support. In 1264–1265 the Mongols were able to attack only the frontier fort of [[Birecik|al-Bira]]. In 1268 Baibars completely overran the rest of Antioch, ending the 170-year-old principality.<ref name="Richard414">Richard. pp. 414–420.</ref><ref>Hindley. p. 206.</ref>
{{Clear}}
In 1271, Baibars sent a letter to Bohemond threatening him with total annihilation and taunting him for his alliance with the Mongols:

{{blockquote|Our yellow flags have repelled your red flags, and the sound of the bells has been replaced by the call: "[[Takbir|Allâh Akbar]]!" ... Warn your walls and your churches that soon our siege machinery will deal with them, your knights that soon our swords will invite themselves in their homes ... We will see then what use will be your alliance with Abagha.|Letter from Baibars to Bohemond VI, 1271<ref>Quoted in Grousset. p. 650.</ref>}}

Bohemond was left with no estates except the [[County of Tripoli]], which was itself to fall to the Mamluks in 1289.<ref name="tyerman-815" />
{{clear}}

== Saint Louis and the Mongols ==
{{main|Seventh Crusade}}
[[Louis IX of France]] had communications with the Mongols throughout his own crusades. During his first venture to [[Crusader states|Outremer]], he was met on {{nowrap|December 20, 1248}} in Cyprus by two Mongol envoys, Nestorians from [[Mosul]] named [[David and Mark|David and Marc]], who brought a letter from the Mongol commander in Persia, [[Eljigidei]].<ref>Jackson. "Crisis in the Holy Land". pp. 481–513.</ref> The letter communicated a more conciliatory tone than previous Mongol demands for submission, and Eljigidei's envoys suggested that King Louis should land in Egypt while Eljigidei attacked Baghdad, as a way of preventing the Muslims of Egypt and those of Syria from joining forces.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 181.</ref> Louis responded by sending the emissary [[Andrew of Longjumeau]] to the Great Khan [[Güyük]], but Güyük died from drink before the emissary arrived at his court. Güyük's widow [[Oghul Qaimish]] simply gave the emissary a gift and a condescending letter to take back to King Louis, instructing him to continue sending tributes each year.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 99.</ref><ref>Tyerman. p. 798. "Louis's embassy under Andrew of Longjumeau had returned in 1251 carrying a demand from the Mongol regent, Oghul Qaimush, for annual tribute, not at all what the king had anticipated."</ref><ref>Sinor. p. 524.</ref>

Louis's campaign against Egypt did not go well. He [[siege of Damietta (1218–19)|captured Damietta]], but lost his entire army at the [[Battle of Mansurah (1250)|Battle of Al Mansurah]], and was himself captured by the Egyptians. His release was eventually negotiated in return for a ransom (some of which was a loan from the [[Knights Templar|Templars]]) and the surrender of the city of Damietta.<ref>Tyerman. pp. 789–798.</ref> A few years later, in 1253 he sought allies among both the [[Ismaili]] [[Order of Assassins|Assassins]] and the Mongols.<ref>Daftary. p. 60.</ref> When he saw a letter from Hethum's brother, the Armenian noble Sempad, which spoke well of the Mongols, Louis dispatched the Franciscan [[William of Rubruck]] to the Mongol court. But the Mongol leader [[Möngke Khan|Möngke]] replied with only a letter via William in 1254, asking for the King's submission to Mongol authority.<ref name="iranica">Calmard. "[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/france-index France]" article in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]''</ref>

Louis attempted a second crusade (the [[Eighth Crusade]]) in 1270. The Mongol Ilkhanate leader Abaqa wrote to Louis IX offering military support as soon as the Crusaders landed in Palestine, but Louis instead went to [[Tunis]] in modern [[Tunisia]]. His intention was evidently to first conquer Tunis, and then to move his troops along the coast to reach Alexandria in Egypt.<ref>Sinor. p. 531.</ref> The French historians [[Alain Demurger]] and Jean Richard suggest that this crusade may still have been an attempt at coordination with the Mongols, in that Louis may have attacked Tunis instead of Syria following a message from Abaqa that he would not be able to commit his forces in 1270, and asking to postpone the campaign to 1271.<ref>Demurger. ''Croisades et Croisés au Moyen Age''. p. 285. "It really seems that Saint Louis's initial project in his second Crusade was an operation coordinated with the offensive of the Mongols."</ref><ref name="Richard428">Richard. pp. 428–434.</ref> Envoys from the Byzantine emperor, the Armenians and the Mongols of Abaqa were present at Tunis, but events put a stop to plans for a continued crusade when Louis died of illness.<ref name="Richard428" /> According to legend, his last word was "Jerusalem".<ref>Grousset. p. 647.</ref>

== Relations with the Ilkhanate ==

=== Hulagu (1256–1265) ===
[[Hulagu Khan]], a grandson of Genghis Khan, was an avowed [[shamanist]], but was nevertheless very tolerant of Christianity. His mother [[Sorghaghtani Beki]], his favorite wife [[Doquz Khatun]], and several of his closest collaborators were Nestorian Christians. One of his most important generals, [[Kitbuqa]], was a Nestorian Christian of the Naiman tribe.<ref name="ryan" />

In 1238, the European kings [[Louis IX of France]] and [[Edward I of England]] rejected the offer of the [[Nizari Ismaili state|Nizari]] Imam [[Muhammad III of Alamut]] and the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] caliph [[Al-Mustansir (Baghdad)|Al-Mustansir]] for a Muslim–Christian alliance against the Mongols. They later joined the Mongols against all Muslims.<ref name="Daftary1992p418">{{cite book |last1=Daftary |first1=Farhad |title=The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines |date=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42974-0 |pages=418–420 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQGlyZAy134C&pg=PA418 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Daftari2000">{{cite web |last1=Daftary |first1=Farhad |author-link1=Farhad Daftary |title=The Mediaeval Ismailis of the Iranian Lands {{!}} The Institute of Ismaili Studies |url=http://www.iis.ac.uk/mediaeval-ismailis-iranian-lands |website=www.iis.ac.uk |access-date=31 March 2020}}</ref> Military collaboration between the Mongols and their Christian vassals became substantial in 1258–1260. Hulagu's army, with the forces of his Christian subjects [[Bohemond VI of Antioch]], [[Hethum I of Armenia]], and the Christian Georgians, effectively destroyed two of the most powerful Muslim dynasties of the era: the Abbasids in Baghdad and the Ayyubids in Syria.<ref name="morgan-135" />

==== Fall of Baghdad (1258) ====
[[File:Bagdad1258.jpg|thumb|alt=Colorful medieval depiction of a siege, showing the city of Baghdad surrounded by walls, and the Mongol army outside|Mongol attack on Baghdad (1258)]]{{main|Siege of Baghdad (1258)}}

The [[Abbasid Caliphate]], founded by [[as-Saffah|Abu al-‘Abbās ‘Abdu'llāh ibn Muhammad as-Saffāḥ]], the great-great-grandson of [[Muhammad]]'s uncle [[Al-‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib|Abbas]], in 749, had ruled northeastern Africa, Arabia, and the Near East, even though their rule had by 1258 shrunk to only southern and central Iraq. The Abbasids' seat of power for almost 500 years was Baghdad, a city considered to be the jewel of Islam and one of the largest and most powerful cities in the world. But under attack from the Mongols, the city fell on {{nowrap|February 15, 1258}}, a loss often considered in the Muslim world as the single most catastrophic event in the history of Islam, the end of the [[Islamic Golden Age]]. The Christian Georgians had been the first to breach the walls, and as described by historian [[Steven Runciman]], "were particularly fierce in their destruction".<ref>Runciman. p. 303.</ref> When Hulagu conquered the city, the Mongols demolished buildings, burned entire neighborhoods, and massacred nearly all the men, women, and children. But at the intervention of Doquz Khatun, the Christian inhabitants were spared.<ref>Lane. p. 243.</ref>

[[File:Hulagu and Doquz-Qatun in Syriac Bible.jpg|left|thumb|upright|alt=An ancient painting of a man and a woman in royal garb standing by a cross. The faces are darkened and cannot be seen.|Hulagu and Queen Doquz Khatun depicted as the new "Constantine and Helen", in a Syriac Bible<ref name="Angold 387" /><ref>''Le Monde de la Bible'' N.184 July–August 2008. p. 43.</ref>]]

For Asiatic Christians, the fall of Baghdad was cause for celebration.<ref name="Joseph" /><ref name="Folda 349" /><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 120.</ref> Hulagu and his Christian queen came to be considered as God's agents against the enemies of Christianity,<ref name="Folda 349">Folda. pp. 349–350.</ref> and were compared to the influential 4th-century Christian Emperor [[Constantine the Great]] and his revered mother, [[Empress Helena]], an icon of the Christian church. The Armenian historian [[Kirakos of Gandzak|Kyrakos of Gandzak]] praised the Mongol royal couple in texts for the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Church]],<ref name="Angold 387">Angold. p. 387. "In May 1260, a Syrian painter gave a new twist to the iconography of the Exaltation of the Cross by showing Constantine and Helena with the features of Hulegu and his Christian wife Doquz Khatun".</ref><ref name="Joseph" /><ref>Takahashi. [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ovTbDkRDOIC&pg=PA102 p. 102].</ref> and [[Bar Hebraeus]], a bishop of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], also referred to them as a Constantine and Helena, writing of Hulagu that nothing could compare to the "king of kings" in "wisdom, high-mindedness, and splendid deeds".<ref name="Joseph">Joseph [https://books.google.com/books?id=lKaL3_dfFJAC&pg=PA16 p. 16].</ref>

==== Invasion of Syria (1260) ====
After Baghdad, in 1260 the Mongols with their Christian subjects conquered Muslim [[Syria]], domain of the Ayyubid dynasty. They took together the city of [[Aleppo]] in January, and in March, the Mongols with the Armenians and the Franks of Antioch took [[Damascus]], under the Christian Mongol general Kitbuqa.<ref name="morgan-135" /><ref name="tyerman-806" /> With both the Abbasid and Ayyubid dynasties destroyed, the Near East, as described by historian Steven Runciman, "was never again to dominate civilization."<ref>Runciman. p. 304.</ref> The last Ayyubid sultan [[An-Nasir Yusuf]] died shortly thereafter, and with the Islamic power centers of Baghdad and Damascus gone, the center of Islamic power transferred to the Egyptian Mamluks in Cairo.<ref name="morgan-135" /><ref>Irwin. p. 616.</ref> However, before the Mongols could continue their advance towards Egypt, they needed to withdraw because of the death of the Great Khan. Hulagu was needed back at the capital and took the bulk of his forces with him, leaving a small force under Kitbuqa to occupy Palestine during his absence. [[Mongol raids into Palestine|Mongol raiding parties]] were sent south into Palestine towards Egypt, with small Mongol garrisons of about 1,000 established in Gaza.<ref name="tyerman-806" /><ref>Richard. pp. 414–415. "He [Qutuz] reinstated the emirs expelled by his predecessor, then assembled a large army, swollen by those who had fled from Syria during Hulegu's offensive, and set about recovering territory lost by the Muslims. Scattering in passage the thousand men left at Gaza by the Mongols, and having negotiated a passage along the coast with the Franks (who had received his emirs in Acre), he met and routed Kitbuqa's troops at Ayn Jalut."</ref><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 116.</ref>

==== Battle of Ain Jalut ====
{{main|Battle of Ain Jalut}}
[[File:Siège de Sidon (1260).jpeg|230px|thumb|alt=Colorful medieval depiction of a simplified battle scene, showing towers with outsized people looking out the windows, and armed Mongols approaching on horses.|Kitbuqa besieging Sidon after his nephew's murder by Julian Grenier]]

Despite the cooperation between the Mongols and their Christian subjects in Antioch, other Christians in the Levant regarded the Mongol approach with unease. Jacques Pantaléon, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, saw the Mongols as a clear threat, and had written to the Pope to warn him about them in 1256.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 105.</ref> The Franks did, however, send the Dominican [[David of Ashby]] to the court of Hulagu in 1260.<ref name="iranica" /> In [[Sidon]], [[Julian Grenier]], [[Lordship of Sidon|Lord of Sidon]] and [[Beaufort Castle, Lebanon|Beaufort]], described by his contemporaries as irresponsible and light-headed, took an opportunity to raid and plunder the area of the [[Beqaa Valley]] in Mongol territory. One of the Mongols killed was Kitbuqa's nephew, and in retaliation, Kitbuqa raided the city of Sidon. These events added to the level of distrust between the Mongols and the Crusader forces, whose own center of power was now in the coastal city of Acre.<ref>Richard. p. 411.</ref><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. pp. 120–122.</ref>

The Franks of Acre did their best to maintain a position of cautious neutrality between the Mongols and the Mamluks.<ref name="morgan-204">Morgan. "The Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean". p. 204. "The authorities of the crusader states, with the exception of Antioch, opted for a neutrality favourable to the Mamluks."</ref> Despite their long history of enmity with the Mamluks, the Franks acknowledged that the Mongols were a greater threat, and after careful debate, chose to enter into a passive truce with their previous adversaries. The Franks allowed the Mamluk forces to move northward through Christian territory to engage the Mongols, in exchange for an agreement that the Franks could purchase any captured Mongol horses at a low price.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 115.</ref><ref>Richard. p. 425. "They allowed the Mamluks to cross their territory, in exchange for a promise to be able to purchase at a low price the horses captured from the Mongols."</ref> The truce allowed the Mamluks to camp and re-supply near Acre, and engage the Mongols at Ain Jalut on {{nowrap|September 3, 1260}}. The Mongol forces were already depleted due to their main force withdrawing, so with the passive assistance of the Franks, the Mamluks were able to achieve a decisive and historic victory over the Mongols. The remainder of the Mongol army retreated to Cilician Armenia, where they were received and re-equipped by Hethum I.<ref name="Richard414" /> Ain Jalut marked a major turning point in the history of the Mongols, as it was the first major battle that they had lost, and set the western border for what had seemed an unstoppable expansion of the Mongol Empire.<ref name="morgan-204" />

==== Papal communications ====
In the 1260s, a change occurred in the European perception of the Mongols, and they became regarded less as enemies, and more as potential allies in the fight against the Muslims.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 165.</ref> As recently as 1259, [[Pope Alexander IV]] had been encouraging a new crusade against the Mongols, and had been extremely disappointed in hearing that the monarchs of Antioch and [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Cilician Armenia]] had submitted to Mongol overlordship. Alexander had put the monarchs' cases on the agenda of his upcoming council, but died in 1261 just months before the Council could be convened, and before the new crusade could be launched.<ref name="Richard409">Richard. pp. 409–414.</ref> For a new pope, the choice fell to Pantaléon, the same Patriarch of Jerusalem who had earlier been warning of the Mongol threat. He took the name Pope Urban IV, and tried to raise money for a new crusade.<ref>Tyerman. p. 807.</ref>

On {{nowrap|April 10, 1262}}, the Mongol leader Hulagu sent through [[John the Hungarian]] a new letter to King Louis IX of France, again offering an alliance.<ref>Richard. pp. 421–422. "What Hulegu was offering was an alliance. And, contrary to what has long been written by the best authorities, this offer was not in response to appeals from the Franks."</ref> The letter explained that previously, the Mongols had been under the impression that the pope was the leader of the Christians, but now they realized that the true power rested with the French monarchy. The letter mentioned Hulagu's intention to capture Jerusalem for the benefit of the pope, and asked for Louis to send a fleet against Egypt. Hulagu promised the restoration of Jerusalem to the Christians, but also still insisted on Mongol sovereignty, in the Mongols' quest for conquering the world. It is unclear whether or not King Louis actually received the letter, but at some point it was transmitted to Pope Urban, who answered in a similar way as his predecessors. In his papal bull ''[[Exultavit cor nostrum]]'', Urban congratulated Hulagu on his expression of goodwill towards the Christian faith, and encouraged him to convert to Christianity.<ref name="jackson-166">Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 166.</ref>

Historians dispute the exact meaning of Urban's actions. The mainstream view, exemplified by British historian [[Peter Jackson (historian)|Peter Jackson]], holds that Urban still regarded the Mongols as enemies at this time. This perception began changing a few years later, during the pontificate of [[Pope Clement IV]] (1265–68), when the Mongols were seen more as potential allies. However, the French historian [[Jean Richard (historian)|Jean Richard]] argues that Urban's act signaled a turning point in Mongol-European relations as early as 1263, after which the Mongols were considered as actual allies. Richard also argues that it was in response to this forming coalition between the Franks, Ilkhanid Mongols and Byzantines, that the Mongols of the Golden Horde allied with the Muslim Mamluks in return.<ref>Richard. p. 436. "In 1264, to the coalition between the Franks, Mongols and Byzantines, responded the coalition between the Golden Horde and the Mamluks."</ref><ref>Richard. p. 414. "In Frankish Syria, meanwhile, events had taken another direction. There was no longer any thought of conducting a crusade against the Mongols; the talk was now of a crusade in collaboration with them."</ref> However, the mainstream view of historians is that though there were many attempts at forming an alliance, the attempts proved unsuccessful.<ref name="atwood-583" />

=== Abaqa (1265–1282) ===
Hulagu died in 1265, and was succeeded by [[Abaqa Khan|Abaqa]] (1234–1282), who further pursued Western cooperation. Though a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], upon his succession he married [[Maria Palaiologina]], an [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christian]] and the illegitimate daughter of the Byzantine Emperor [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]].<ref>Reinert. p. 258.</ref> Abaqa corresponded with Pope Clement IV through 1267 and 1268, sending envoys to both Clement and King [[James I of Aragon]]. In a 1268 message to Clement, Abaqa promised to send troops to aid the Christians. It is unclear if this was what led to James's [[Catalan Crusade|unsuccessful expedition to Acre]] in 1269.<ref name="knobler" /> James initiated a small crusade, but a storm descended on his fleet as they attempted their crossing, forcing most of the ships to turn back. The crusade was ultimately handled by James's two sons Fernando Sanchez and Pedro Fernandez, who arrived in Acre in December 1269.<ref>Bisson. p. 70.</ref> Abaqa, despite his earlier promises of assistance, was in the process of facing another threat, an invasion in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] by Mongols from [[Turkestan]], and so could only commit a small force for the Holy Land, which did little but brandish the threat of an invasion along the Syrian frontier in October 1269. He raided as far as [[Harem, Syria|Harim]] and [[Apamea, Syria|Afamiyaa]] in October, but retreated as soon as Baibars' forces advanced.<ref name="jackson-167" />

==== Edward I's crusade (1269–1274) ====
In 1269, the English Prince Edward (the future [[Edward I of England|Edward I]]), inspired by tales of his great-uncle, [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]], and the second crusade of the French King Louis, started on a crusade of his own, the [[Ninth Crusade]].<ref name="Hindley205">Hindley. pp. 205–207.</ref> The number of knights and retainers that accompanied Edward on the crusade was quite small, possibly around 230 knights, with a total complement of approximately 1,000 people, transported in a flotilla of 13 ships.<ref name="tyerman-815" /><ref>Nicolle. ''The Crusades''. p. 47.</ref> Edward understood the value of an alliance with the Mongols, and upon his arrival in Acre on {{nowrap|May 9, 1271}}, he immediately sent an embassy to the Mongol ruler Abaqa, requesting assistance.<ref>Richard. p. 433. "On landing at Acre, Edward at once sent his messengers to Abaga. He received a reply only in 1282, when he had left the Holy Land. The il-khan apologized for not having kept the agreed rendezvous, which seems to confirm that the crusaders of 1270 had devised their plan of campaign in the light of Mongol promises, and that these envisaged joint operation in 1271. In default of his own arrival and that of his army, Abaga ordered the commander of this forces stationed in Turkey, the 'noyan of the noyans', Samaghar, to descend into Syria to assist the crusaders."</ref> Abaqa answered positively to Edward's request, asking him to coordinate his activities with his general [[Samagar]], whom he sent on an offensive against the Mamluks with 10,000 Mongols to join Edward's army.<ref name="jackson-167">Jackson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FLUMVIqIvwC&pg=PA167 ''Mongols and the West'']. pp. 167–168.</ref><ref>Sicker. [https://books.google.com/books?id=v3AdA-Ogl34C&pg=PA123 p. 123]. "Abaqa now decided to send some 10,000 Mongol troops to join Edward's Crusader army".</ref> But Edward was able only to engage in some fairly ineffectual raids that did not actually achieve success in gaining new territory.<ref name="Hindley205" /> For example, when he engaged in a raid into the [[Sharon plain|Plain of Sharon]], he proved unable to even take the small Mamluk fortress of [[Qaqun]].<ref name="jackson-167" /> However, Edward's military operations, limited though they were, were still of assistance in persuading the Mamluk leader Baibars to agree to a 10-year truce between the city of Acre and the Mamluks, signed in 1272.<ref>Hindley. p. 207.</ref> Edward's efforts were described by historian Reuven Amitai as "the nearest thing to real Mongol-Frankish military coordination that was ever to be achieved, by Edward or any other Frankish leader."<ref name="amitai-161" />

[[File:Gregorio X.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Colorful drawing of an older man, in profile and looking to the right. He is wearing high-collared papal vestments and a conical skull cap. |Pope Gregory X (1210–1276) promulgated a new crusade in liaison with the Mongols in 1274.<ref name="richard-487">Richard. p. 487. "1274: Promulgation of a Crusade, in liaison with the Mongols".</ref>]]

==== Council of Lyon (1274) ====
In 1274 [[Pope Gregory X]] convened the [[Second Council of Lyon]]. Abaqa sent a delegation of 13 to 16 Mongols to the Council, which created a great stir, particularly when three of their members underwent a public [[baptism]].<ref>Setton. p. 116.</ref> Abaqa's Latin secretary [[Rychaldus]] delivered a report to the Council which outlined previous European-Ilkhanid relations under Abaqa's father, Hulagu, affirming that after Hulagu had welcomed Christian ambassadors to his court, he had agreed to exempt Latin Christians from taxes and charges, in exchange for their prayers for the Khan. According to Rychaldus, Hulagu had also prohibited the molestation of Frank establishments, and had committed to return Jerusalem to the Franks.<ref>Richard. p. 422.</ref> Rychaldus assured the assembly that even after Hulagu's death, his son Abaqa was still determined to drive the Mamluks from Syria.<ref name="jackson-167" />

At the Council, Pope Gregory promulgated a new crusade in liaison with the Mongols,<ref name="richard-487" /> putting in place a vast program in his "Constitutions for the zeal of the faith", with four main elements: imposing a new tax for three years, forbidding trade with the [[Saracen|Sarazins]] (Muslims), arranging the supply of ships by the Italian [[maritime republics]], and the alliance of the West with both [[Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty|Byzantium]] and the Mongol Ilkhan Abaqa.<ref>Balard. p. 210. "Le Pape Grégoire X s'efforce alors de mettre sur pied un vaste programme d'aide à la Terre Sainte, les "Constitutions pour le zèle de la foi", qui sont acceptées au Concile de Lyon de 1274. Ce texte prévoit la levée d'une dime pendant trois ans pour la croisade, l'interdiction de tout commerce avec les Sarasins, la fourniture de bateaux par les républiques maritimes italiennes, et une alliance de l'Occident avec Byzance et l'Il-Khan Abagha".</ref> Abaqa then sent another embassy, led by the Georgian Vassali brothers, to further notify Western leaders of military preparations. Gregory answered that his [[Papal legate|legate]]s would accompany the crusade, and that they would be in charge of coordinating military operations with the Ilkhan.<ref name="richard-452">Richard. pp. 452–456.</ref>

However, the papal plans were not supported by the other European monarchs, who had lost enthusiasm for the Crusades. Only one western monarch attended the Council, the elderly James I of Aragon, who could only offer a small force. There was fundraising for a new crusade, and plans were made, but never followed through. The projects essentially came to a halt with the death of Pope Gregory on {{nowrap|January 10, 1276}}, and the money which had been raised to finance the expedition was instead distributed in Italy.<ref name="tyerman-815">Tyerman. pp. 815–818.</ref>
{{clear}}

==== Invasion of Syria (1280–1281) ====

{{see also|Mongol invasions of Syria}}
[[File:1281BattleOfHoms.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Colorful medieval depiction of a battle. Several figures are shown on horseback riding to the left, with a group of several Mongols being chased by Muslims|Defeat of the Mongols (left) at the 1281 Battle of Homs]]

Without support from the Europeans, some Franks in [[Outremer]], particularly the [[Knights Hospitaller]] of the fortress of [[Margat|Marqab]], and to some extent the Franks of Cyprus and Antioch, attempted to join in combined operations with the Mongols in 1280–1281.<ref name="richard-452" /><ref name="jackson-168" /> The death of the Egyptian leader Baibars in 1277 led to disorganization in the Muslim territories, making conditions ripe for a new action by other factions in the Holy Land.<ref name="richard-452" /> The Mongols seized the opportunity, organized a new invasion of Syria, and in September 1280 occupied [[Bagras]] and [[Trapessac|Darbsak]], followed by Aleppo on October 20. The Mongol leader Abaqa, taking advantage of his momentum, sent envoys to Edward I of England, the Franks of Acre, [[Hugh III of Cyprus|King Hugh of Cyprus]], and [[Bohemond VII, Count of Tripoli|Bohemond VII of Tripoli]] (son of Bohemond VI), requesting their support for the campaign.<ref name="mam-ilk-war" /> But the Crusaders were not organized enough themselves to be of much help. In Acre, the Patriarch's Vicar replied that the city was suffering from hunger, and that the king of Jerusalem was already embroiled in another war.<ref name="richard-452" /> Local Knights Hospitaller from Marqab (in the area which had previously been Antioch/Tripoli) were able to make raids into the Beqaa Valley, as far as the Mamluk-held [[Krak des Chevaliers]] in 1280 and 1281. Hugh and Bohemond of Antioch mobilized their armies, but their forces were prevented from joining those of the Mongols by Baibars' successor, the new Egyptian Sultan [[Al Mansur Qalawun|Qalawun]]. He advanced north from Egypt in March 1281, positioned his own army between the Franks and Mongols,<ref name="richard-452" /><ref name="jackson-168" /> and then further divided the potential allies by renewing a truce with the Barons of Acre on {{nowrap|May 3, 1281}}, extending it for another ten years and ten months (a truce he would later breach).<ref name="mam-ilk-war">Amitai. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dIaFbxD64nUC&pg=PA185 ''Mongols and Mamluks'']. pp. 185–186.</ref> He also renewed a second 10-year truce with Bohemond VII of Tripoli on {{nowrap|July 16, 1281}}, and affirmed pilgrim access to Jerusalem.<ref name="richard-452" />

In September 1281 the Mongols returned, with 19,000 of their own troops, plus 20,000 others including Armenians under [[Leo II, King of Armenia|Leo III]], Georgians, and 200 Knights Hospitaller from Marqab, who sent a contingent even though the Franks of Acre had agreed a truce with the Mamluks.<ref name="mam-ilk-war" /><ref name="harpur-116">Harpur. [https://books.google.com/books?id=OCGuWrNyjiEC&pg=PA116 p. 116].</ref><ref name="Cambridge Med 715"/> The Mongols and their auxiliary troops fought against the Mamluks at the [[Second Battle of Homs]] on October 30, 1281, but the encounter was indecisive, with the Sultan suffering heavy losses.<ref name="jackson-168">Jackson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FLUMVIqIvwC&pg=PA168 ''Mongols and the West'']. p. 168.</ref> In retaliation, Qalawun later besieged and captured the Hospitaller fortress of Marqab in 1285.<ref name="harpur-116" />

=== Arghun (1284–1291) ===
{{main|Arghun}}
[[File:ArghunLetterToPhilippeLeBelExtract1289.jpg|thumb|alt=Two-part image. The upper half shows the entirety of a long horizontal scroll of paper, with dozens of widely spaced lines of vertical calligraphic script, and the lower half showing a closeup of the right-hand third of the scroll. The scroll has been stamped three times with a large red square, filled with an intricate official-looking pattern.|1289 letter of Arghun to Philip IV of France, in the [[Mongolian script]], with detail of the introduction. The letter was conveyed to the French king by Buscarel of Gisolfe.<ref>''Grands Documents de l'Histoire de France'' (2007), Archives Nationales de France. p. 38.</ref>]]
[[File:LetterArghunToNicholasIV1290VaticanArchives.jpg|thumb|1290 letter from Arghun to Pope Nicholas IV.]]

Abaqa died in 1282 and was briefly replaced by his brother [[Tekuder]], who had converted to Islam. Tekuder reversed Abaqa's policy of seeking an alliance with the Franks, offering instead an alliance to the Mamluk Sultan Qalawun, who continued his own advance, capturing the Hospitaller fortress of Margat in 1285, [[Lattakia]] in 1287, and the County of Tripoli in 1289.<ref name="tyerman-815" /><ref name="richard-452" /> However, Tekuder's pro-Muslim stance was not popular, and in 1284, Abaqa's Buddhist son Arghun, with the support of the [[Kublai Khan|Great Khan Kublai]], led a revolt and had Tekuder executed. Arghun then revived the idea of an alliance with the West, and sent multiple envoys to Europe.<ref name="Jackson169" />

The first of Arghun's embassies was led by [[Isa Kelemechi]], a Christian Assyrian interpreter who had been head of Kublai Khan's Office of Western Astronomy and sent to Greater Iran at the order of the Great Khan.<ref>Glick. p. 485.</ref> The embassy was sent because the Great Khan Kublai (Qubilai) ordered Arghun to free Holy Land and protect Christians.<ref>René Grousset, Naomi Walford (Translator), The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, p. 127</ref><ref>JOHN ANDREW BOYLE, "THE IL-KHANS OF PERSIA AND THE PRINCES OF EUROPE, Central Asiatic Journal Vol. 20, No. 1/2 (1976), pp.31"</ref> Kelemechi met with [[Pope Honorius IV]] in 1285, offering to "remove" the [[Saracen]]s (Muslims) and divide "the land of Sham, namely Egypt" with the Franks.<ref name="Jackson169" >Jackson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FLUMVIqIvwC&pg=PA169 ''Mongols and the West'']. p. 169.</ref><ref name="Cambridge370">Fisher and Boyle. [https://books.google.com/books?id=BxRwJUrnr20C&pg=PA370 p. 370].</ref> The second embassy, and probably the most famous, was that of the elderly cleric [[Rabban Bar Sauma]], who had been visiting the Ilkhanate during a remarkable pilgrimage from China to Jerusalem.<ref name="Jackson169" />

Through Bar Sauma and other later envoys, such as [[Buscarello de Ghizolfi]], Arghun promised the European leaders that if Jerusalem were conquered, he would have himself baptized and would return Jerusalem to the Christians.<ref>Rossabi. pp. 99, 173.</ref><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. pp. 174–175.</ref><ref>Richard. p. 455.</ref> Bar Sauma was greeted warmly by the European monarchs,<ref name="Jackson169" /> but Western Europe was no longer as interested in the Crusades, and the mission to form an alliance was ultimately fruitless.<ref name="jackson-170">Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 170. "Arghun had persisted in the quest for a Western alliance right down to his death without ever taking the field against the mutual enemy."</ref><ref>Mantran. "A Turkish or Mongolian Islam" in ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 1250–1520''. p. 298.</ref> England did respond by sending a representative, [[Geoffrey of Langley]], who had been a member of Edward I's Crusade 20 years earlier, and was sent to the Mongol court as an ambassador in 1291.<ref>Phillips. [https://books.google.com/books?id=T1pcTl11iawC&pg=PA126 p. 126].</ref>

==== Genoese shipmakers ====
Another link between Europe and the Mongols was attempted in 1290, when the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] endeavored to assist the Mongols with naval operations. The plan was to construct and man two galleys to attack Mamluk ships in the [[Red Sea]], and operate a blockade of Egypt's trade with India.<ref name="Richard 455" /><ref name="Cambridge Med 715" /> As the Genoese were traditional supporters of the Mamluks, this was a major shift in policy, apparently motivated by the attack of the Egyptian Sultan Qalawun on the Cilician Armenians in 1285.<ref name="Jackson169" /> To build and man the fleet, a squadron of 800 Genoese carpenters, sailors and crossbowmen went to Baghdad, working on the [[Tigris]]. However, due to a feud between the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines]], the Genoese soon degenerated into internal bickering, and killed each other in [[Basra]], putting an end to the project.<ref name="Richard 455">Richard. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KszvJSv7t30C&pg=PA455 p. 455].</ref><ref name="Cambridge Med 715">Jackson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bclfdU_2lesC&pg=PA715 "Mongols and Europe"]. p. 715.</ref> Genoa finally cancelled the agreement and signed a new treaty with the Mamluks instead.<ref name="Jackson169" />

All these attempts to mount a combined offensive between the Franks and Mongols were too little and too late. In May 1291, the city of Acre was conquered by the Egyptian Mamluks in the [[Siege of Acre (1291)|siege of Acre]]. When [[Pope Nicholas IV]] learned of this, he wrote to Arghun, again asking him to be baptized and to fight against the Mamluks.<ref name="Jackson169" /> But Arghun had died on {{nowrap|March 10, 1291}}, and Pope Nicholas died as well in March 1292, putting an end to their efforts towards combined action.<ref name="tyerman-816">Tyerman. p. 816. "The Mongol alliance, despite six further embassies to the west between 1276 and 1291, led nowhere. The prospect of an anti-Mamluk coalition faded as the westerners' inaction rendered them useless as allies for the Mongols, who, in turn, would only seriously be considered by western rulers as potential partners in the event of a new crusade which never happened."</ref>

=== Ghazan (1295–1304) ===
{{see also|Mongol invasions of Syria|Mongol raids into Palestine}}

After Arghun's death, he was followed in rapid succession by two brief and fairly ineffective leaders, one of whom only held power for a few months. Stability was restored when Arghun's son Ghazan took power in 1295, though to secure cooperation from other influential Mongols, he made a public conversion to Islam when he took the throne, marking a major turning point in the state religion of the Ilkhanate. Despite being an official Muslim, however, Ghazan remained tolerant of multiple religions, and worked to maintain good relations with his Christian vassal states such as Cilician Armenia and Georgia.<ref>Richard. pp. 455–456. "When Ghazan got rid of him [Nawruz] (March 1297), he revived his projects against Egypt, and the rebellion of the Mamluk governor of Damascus, Saif al-Din Qipchaq, provided him with the opportunity for a new Syrian campaign; Franco-Mongol cooperation thus survived both the loss of Acre by the Franks and the conversion of the Mongols of Persia to Islam. It was to remain one of the givens of crusading politics until the peace treaty with the Mamluks, which was concluded only in 1322 by the khan Abu Said."</ref>

[[File:Mongol raids into Syria and Palestine ca 1300.svg|right|thumb|alt=Map of the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, showing Cilicia to the north, part of the island of Cyprus, and various cities south of the Euphrates river. Red arrows show the direction of Mongol troop movements and raids, reaching as far south as Gaza|In 1299/1300, the Mongols engaged in battles for cities in Syria, and engaged in raids as far south as Gaza.]]

In 1299, he made the first of what were to be three attempts to invade Syria.<ref>Amitai. "Ghazan's first campaign into Syria (1299–1300)". p. 222.</ref> As he launched his new invasion, he also sent letters to the Franks of Cyprus ([[Henry II of Jerusalem|Henry II, King of Cyprus]]; and the heads of the [[Military order (society)|military order]]s), inviting them to come join him in his attack on the Mamluks in Syria.<ref>Barber. p. 22: "The aim was to link up with Ghazan, the Mongol Il-Khan of Persia, who had invited the Cypriots to participate in joint operations against the Mamluks".</ref><ref name="Nicholson 45" /> The Mongols successfully took the city of Aleppo, and were there joined by their vassal King [[Hethum II, King of Armenia|Hethum II]], whose forces participated in the rest of the offensive. The Mongols soundly defeated the Mamluks in the [[Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar]],  on December 23 or 24, 1299.<ref name="demurger-99">Demurger. ''The Last Templar''. p. 99.</ref> This success in Syria led to wild rumors in Europe that the Mongols had successfully re-captured the Holy Land, and had even conquered the Mamluks in Egypt and were on a mission to conquer Tunisia in northern Africa. But in reality, Jerusalem had been neither taken nor even besieged.<ref>Phillips. p. 128.</ref> All that had been managed were some Mongol raids into Palestine in early 1300. The raids went as far as Gaza, passing through several towns, probably including Jerusalem. But when the Egyptians again advanced from Cairo in May, the Mongols retreated without resistance.<ref name="schein-811" />

In July 1300, the Crusaders launched naval operations to press the advantage.<ref name="Jotischky">Jotischky. [https://books.google.com/books?id=yG9OqY08E98C&pg=249 p. 249].</ref> A fleet of sixteen galleys with some smaller vessels was equipped in Cyprus, commanded by King Henry of Cyprus, accompanied by his brother [[Amalric, Prince of Tyre]], the heads of the military orders, and Ghazan's ambassador "Chial" ([[Isol the Pisan]]).<ref name="schein-811" /><ref name="Jotischky" /><ref name="demurger-100">Demurger. ''The Last Templar''. p. 100.</ref> The ships left [[Famagusta]] on {{nowrap|July 20, 1300}}, to raid the coasts of Egypt and Syria: [[Rosette (Egypt)|Rosette]], [[Alexandria]], Acre, Tortosa, and [[Maraclea]], before returning to Cyprus.<ref name="schein-811">Schein. p. 811.</ref><ref name="demurger-100" />

==== Ruad expedition ====
{{main|Fall of Ruad}}
Ghazan announced that he would return by November 1300, and sent letters and ambassadors to the West so that they could prepare themselves. After their own naval raids, the Cypriots attempted a major operation to re-take the former Syrian Templar stronghold of [[Tartus|Tortosa]].<ref name="Edbury 105">Edbury. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DmYeAuWUPK8C&pg=PA105 p. 105].</ref><ref name="Nicholson 45">Nicholson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=oGppfVJMKjsC&pg=PA45 p. 45].</ref><ref name="Barber 22">Barber. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rqfE2l0cowgC&pg=RA1-PA22 p. 22].</ref><ref name="Jackson 171">Jackson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FLUMVIqIvwC&pg=PA171 ''Mongols and the West'']. p. 171.</ref> They prepared the largest force they could muster at the time, approximately 600 men: 300 under Amalric, and similar contingents from the Templars and Hospitallers. In November 1300 they attempted to occupy Tortosa on the mainland, but were unable to gain control of the city. The Mongols were delayed, and the Cypriots moved offshore to the nearby island of Ruad to establish a base.<ref name="Barber 22" /> The Mongols continued to be delayed, and the bulk of the Crusader forces returned to Cyprus, leaving only a garrison on Ruad.<ref name="Edbury 105" /><ref name="Jackson 171" /> In February 1301, Ghazan's Mongols finally made a new advance into Syria. The force was commanded by the Mongol general [[Kutlushka]], who was joined by Armenian troops, and [[Guy of Ibelin (died 1304)|Guy of Ibelin]] and [[Jean II de Giblet|John, lord of Giblet]]. But despite a force of 60,000, Kutluskha could do little else than engage in some raids around Syria, and then retreated.<ref name="Edbury 105" />

[[File:GhazanAndKingOfArmenia1303.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Colorful painting from an illuminated manuscript, showing a tent with a dignified and crowned bearded man seated in a chair in front of the tent's opening. A cowled monk kneels on the left, offering something to the man in the chair. Several figures in armor are standing to the right, deferential to the man in the chair.|In a miniature from a 15th-century [[The Travels of Marco Polo|''Travels of Marco Polo'']], Ghazan orders the King of Armenia Hethum II to accompany Kutlushka on the 1303 attack on Damascus.<ref>Mutafian. pp. 74–75.</ref>]]

Plans for combined operations between the Franks and the Mongols were again made for the following winter offensives, in 1301 and 1302. But in mid-1301 the island of Ruad was attacked by the Egyptian Mamluks. After a lengthy siege, the island surrendered in 1302.<ref name="Barber 22" /><ref name="Jackson 171" /> The Mamluks slaughtered many of the inhabitants, and captured the surviving Templars to send them to prison in Cairo.<ref name="Barber 22" /> In late 1301, Ghazan sent letters to the pope asking him to send troops, priests, and peasants, to make the Holy Land a Frank state again.<ref>Richard. p. 469.</ref>

In 1303, Ghazan sent another letter to Edward I, via Buscarello de Ghizolfi, who had also been an ambassador for Arghun. The letter reiterated their ancestor Hulagu's promise that the Ilkhans would give Jerusalem to the Franks in exchange for help against the Mamluks. That year, the Mongols again attempted to invade Syria, appearing in great strength (about 80,000) together with the Armenians. But they were again defeated at Homs on {{nowrap|March 30, 1303}}, and at the decisive [[Battle of Shaqhab]], south of Damascus, on {{nowrap|April 21, 1303}}.<ref name="iranica" /> It is considered to be the last major Mongol invasion of Syria.<ref>Nicolle. ''The Crusades''. p. 80.</ref> Ghazan died on {{nowrap|May 10, 1304}}, and Frankish dreams of a rapid reconquest of the Holy Land were destroyed.<ref>Demurger. ''The Last Templar''. p. 109.</ref>

=== Oljeitu (1304–1316) ===
[[Muhammad Khodabandeh (Oljeitu)|Oljeitu]], also named Mohammad Khodabandeh, was great-grandson of Ilkhanate founder Hulagu, and brother and successor of Ghazan. In his youth he at first converted to Buddhism, and then later to Sunni Islam with his brother Ghazan, and changed his first name to the Islamic ''Muhammad''.<ref>Stewart. ''Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks''. p. 181.</ref> In April 1305, Oljeitu sent letters to [[Philip IV of France]], [[Pope Clement V]], and Edward I of England. As had his predecessors, Oljeitu offered a military collaboration between the Mongols and the Christian nations of Europe, against the Mamluks.<ref name="iranica" /> European nations prepared a crusade, but were delayed. In the meantime Oljeitu launched a last campaign against the Mamluks (1312–1313), in which he was unsuccessful. A final settlement with the Mamluks would only be found when Oljeitu's son [[Abu Sa'id (Ilkhanid dynasty)|Abu Sa'id]] signed the [[Treaty of Aleppo]] in 1322.<ref name="iranica" />

== Last contacts ==
[[File:HaytonRemittingHisReportToThePope.JPG|alt=Illuminated manuscript with many colorful designs all around the margins. On the lower half of the page is calligraphic text. On the upper half is an image of a kneeling monk in a white robe giving a book to a seated pope who is wearing a lavish dark blue robe. Two assistants stand behind him. |thumb|[[Hayton of Corycus]] presenting his report on the Mongols to Pope Clement V in 1307.]]

In the 14th century, diplomatic contact continued between the Franks and the Mongols, until the Ilkhanate dissolved in the 1330s, and the ravages of the [[Black Death]] in Europe caused contact with the East to be severed.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 216.</ref> A few marital alliances between Christian rulers and the Mongols of the Golden Horde continued, such as when the [[Byzantine]] emperor [[Andronicus II]] gave daughters in marriage to [[Toqta]] (d. 1312) and later to his successor [[Özbeg Khan|Özbeg]] (1312–1341).<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 203.</ref>

After Abu Sa'id, relations between Christian princes and the Ilkhanate became very sparse. Abu Sa'id died in 1335 with neither heir nor successor, and the Ilkhanate lost its status after his death, becoming a plethora of little kingdoms run by Mongols, Turks, and Persians.<ref name="knobler" />

In 1336, an embassy to the French [[Pope Benedict XII]] in Avignon was sent by [[Toghun Temür]], the last [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] emperor in [[Khanbaliq|Dadu]]. The embassy was led by two Genoese travelers in the service of the Mongol emperor, who carried letters representing that the Mongols had been eight years (since Archbishop [[John of Montecorvino]]'s death) without a spiritual guide, and earnestly desired one.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 314.</ref> Pope Benedict appointed four ecclesiastics as his legates to the Khan's court. In 1338, a total of 50 ecclesiastics were sent by the pope to Peking, among them [[Giovanni de' Marignolli|John of Marignolli]], who returned to Avignon in 1353 with a letter from the Yuan emperor to [[Pope Innocent VI]]. But soon, the [[Han Chinese]] rose up and [[Red Turban Rebellion|drove the Mongols out of China]], establishing the [[Ming Dynasty]] in 1368.<ref>Phillips. p. 112.</ref>

[[File:Letter of Tamerlane to Charles VI 1402.jpg|left|alt=Long vertical mottled grey paper, with a dozen widely spaced lines of horizontal Arabic-looking script. There are two small oval red designs which have been stamped along the righthand margin of the paper.|upright|thumb|Letter of Timur to Charles VI of France, 1402.]]

In the early 15th century, [[Timur]] [[Timurid relations with Europe|resumed relations with Europe]], attempting to form an alliance against the Egyptian Mamluks and the [[Ottoman Empire]], and engaged in communications with [[Charles VI of France]] and [[Henry III of Castile]], but died in 1405.<ref name="knobler" /><ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 360.</ref><ref name="Sinor190">Sinor. [https://books.google.com/books?id=foS-y-ShWJ0C&pg=PA190 ''Inner Asia'']. p. 190.</ref><ref>Daniel and Mahdi. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZIjyEi1pd8C&pg=PA25 p. 25].</ref><ref name="Wood 136">Wood. [https://books.google.com/books?id=zvoCv3h2QCsC&pg=PA136 p. 136].</ref>

=== Cultural contacts ===
In the cultural sphere, there were some [[Mongol elements in Western medieval art]], especially in Italy, of which most surviving examples are from the 14th century, after the chance of a military alliance had faded. These included the depiction of textiles from the Mongol Empire and [[Mongol script]] in various contexts, the latter often anachronistic. Imports of textiles had a considerable influence on Italian textile design. Mongol military costume is sometimes worn by soldiers, typically those acting against Christian figures, as in martyrdoms or [[Crucifixion of Jesus|''Crucifixion'']] scenes. These were perhaps copied from drawings made of Mongol envoys to Europe, or ones brought back from Outremer.<ref>Mack. Throughout, but especially pp. 16–18, 36–40 (textiles), 151 (costume).</ref>

== Views from historians ==
Most historians describe the contacts between the Mongol Empire and the Western Europeans as a series of attempts,<ref name="jackson-173">Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 173. "In their successive attempts to secure assistance from the Latin world, the Ilkhans took care to select personnel who would elicit the confidence of Western rulers and to impart a Christian complexion to their overtures."</ref> missed opportunities,<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 119.</ref><ref name="Jackson4">Jackson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FLUMVIqIvwC&pg=PA4 ''Mongols and the West'']. p. 4.</ref><ref>Morgan. ''The Mongols''. p. 136. "This has long been seen as a 'missed opportunity' for the Crusaders. According to that opinion, most eloquently expressed by Grousset and frequently repeated by other scholars, the Crusaders ought to have allied themselves with the pro-Christian, anti-Muslim Mongols against the Mamluks. They might thus have prevented their own destruction by the Mamluks in the succeeding decades, and possibly even have secured the return of Jerusalem by favour of the Mongols."</ref> and failed negotiations.<ref name="atwood-583" /><ref name="tyerman-816" /><ref name="jackson-173" /><ref>Prawer. p. 32. "The attempts of the crusaders to create an alliance with the Mongols failed."</ref> Christopher Atwood, in the 2004 ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire'', summed up the relations between Western Europe and the Mongols: "Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam."<ref name="atwood-583" />

A few other historians argue there was an actual alliance,<ref name="demurger-100" /><ref name="richard-424" /> but do not agree on the details: Jean Richard wrote that an alliance began around 1263.<ref name="richard-424">Richard. pp. 424–469.</ref> [[Reuven Amitai]] stated that the closest thing to actual Mongol-Frankish military coordination was when Prince Edward of England attempted to coordinate activities with Abaga in 1271. Amitai also mentioned the other attempts towards cooperation, but said, "In none of these episodes, however, can we speak of Mongols and troops from the Frankish West being on the Syrian mainland at the same time."<ref name="amitai-161">Amitai. [https://books.google.com/books?id=n9dEpOsfVdIC&pg=PA75 "Edward of England and Abagha Ilkhan"]. p. 161.</ref> Timothy May described the alliance as having its peak at the [[Second Council of Lyon|Council of Lyon]] in 1274,<ref>May. p. 152.</ref> but that it began to unravel in 1275 with the death of Bohemond, and May too admitted that the forces never engaged in joint operations.<ref>May. p. 154.</ref> Alain Demurger, in his own book ''The Last Templar'', said that an alliance was not sealed until 1300.<ref name="demurger-100 w/quote">Demurger. ''The Last Templar''. p. 100. "Above all, the expedition made manifest the unity of the Cypriot Franks and, through a material act, put the seal on the Mongol alliance."</ref>

There also continues to be debate about whether or not an alliance would have been a wise idea, and whether the Crusaders at that point in history were even relevant to the Persian-Mongol conflict.<ref name="historyindispute" /> The 20th-century historian Glenn Burger said, "The refusal of the Latin Christian states in the area to follow Hethum's example and adapt to changing conditions by allying themselves with the new Mongol empire must stand as one of the saddest of the many failures of Outremer."<ref>Burger. pp. xiii–xiv. "The refusal of the Latin Christian states in the area to follow Hethum's example and adapt to changing conditions by allying themselves with the new Mongol empire must stand as one of the saddest of the many failures of Outremer."</ref> This was similar to the view of [[Steven Runciman]], who argued, "Had the Mongol alliance been achieved and honestly implemented by the West, the existence of Outremer would almost certainly have been prolonged. The Mameluks would have been crippled if not destroyed; and the Ilkhanate of Persia would have survived as a power friendly to the Christians and the West".<ref name="runciman-402">Runciman. p. 402.</ref> However, [[David Nicolle]], describing the Mongols as "potential allies",<ref>Nicolle. ''The Crusades''. p. 42. "The Mongol Hordes under Genghis Khan and his descendants had already invaded the eastern Islamic world, raising visions in Europe of a potent new ally, which would join Christians in destroying Islam. Even after the Mongol invasion of Orthodox Christian Russia, followed by their terrifying rampage across Catholic Hungary and parts of Poland, many in the West still regarded the Mongols as potential allies."</ref> said that early historians were writing from the benefit of hindsight,<ref>Nicolle and Hook. ''The Mongol Warlords''. p. 114. "In later years Christian chroniclers would bemoan a lost opportunity in which Crusaders and Mongols might have joined forces to defeat the Muslims. But they were writing from the benefit of hindsight, after the Crusader States had been destroyed by the Muslim Mamluks."</ref> and that overall the major players were the Mamluks and the Mongols, with Christians just "pawns in a greater game."<ref name="nicolle-44">Nicolle. ''The Crusades''. p. 44. "Eventually the conversion of the Il-Khans (as the Mongol occupiers of Persia and Iraq were known) to Islam at the end of the 13th century meant that the struggle became one between rival Muslim dynasties rather than between Muslims and alien outsiders. Though the feeble Crusader States and occasional Crusading expeditions from the West were drawn in, the Crusaders were now little more than pawns in a greater game."</ref>

== Reasons for failure ==
[[File:Mongol dominions1.jpg|alt=Detailed map of Asia, outlining different regions|thumb|right|250px|The Mongol Empire, ca. 1300. The gray area is the later Timurid empire. The geographic distance between the Ilkhanid Mongols, along with their Great Khan in [[Khanbalic]], and the Europeans was large.]]

There has been much discussion among historians as to why the Franco-Mongol alliance never became a reality and why, despite all the diplomatic contacts, it stayed a chimera or fantasy.<ref name="jackson-4" /><ref name="historyindispute" /> Many reasons have been proposed: one was that the Mongols at that stage in their empire were not entirely focused on expanding to the West. By the late 13th century, the Mongol leaders were several generations removed from the great Genghis Khan, and internal disruption was brewing. The original nomadic Mongols from the day of Genghis had become more settled, and had turned into administrators instead of conquerors. Battles were springing up that were Mongol against Mongol, which took troops away from the front in Syria.<ref name="west">Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. pp. 165–185.</ref> There was also confusion within Europe as to the differences between the Mongols of the Ilkhanate in the Holy Land, and the Mongols of the Golden Horde, who were attacking Hungary and Poland. Within the Mongol Empire, the Ilkhanids and the Golden Horde considered each other enemies, but it took time for Western observers to be able to distinguish between the different parts of the Mongol Empire.<ref name="west" /> From the Mongol side, there were also concerns as to just how much clout the Franks could have brought to bear,<ref>Amitai. "Edward of England and Abagha Ilkhan". p. 81.</ref> especially as there was decreased interest in Europe in pursuing the Crusades.<ref name="nicolle-44" /> Court historians of Mongol Persia made no mention whatsoever of the communications between the Ilkhans and the Christian West, and barely mentioned the Franks at all. The communications were evidently not seen as important by the Mongols, and may have even been considered embarrassing. The Mongol leader Ghazan, a converted Muslim since 1295, might not have wanted to be perceived as trying to gain the assistance of infidels against his fellow Muslims in Egypt. When Mongol historians did make notes of foreign territories, the areas were usually categorized as either "enemies", "conquered", or "in rebellion". The Franks, in that context, were listed in the same category as the Egyptians, in that they were enemies to be conquered. The idea of "ally" was foreign to the Mongols.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. pp. 121, 180–181.</ref>

Some European monarchs responded positively to Mongol inquiries, but became vague and evasive when asked to actually commit troops and resources. Logistics also became more complex – the Egyptian Mamluks were genuinely concerned about the threat of another wave of Crusader forces, so each time the Mamluks captured another castle or port, instead of occupying it, they systematically destroyed it so that it could never be used again. This both made it more difficult for the Crusaders to plan military operations, and increased the expense of those operations. Monarchs in Western Europe often gave [[wikt:lip service|lip service]] to the idea of going on crusade, as a way of making an emotional appeal to their subjects, but in reality they would take years to prepare, and sometimes never actually left for Outremer. Internal wars in Europe, such as the [[War of the Vespers]], were also distracting attention, and making it less likely for European nobles to want to commit their military to the Crusades, when they were more needed at home.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 179.</ref><ref>Phillips. p. 130.</ref>

The Europeans were also concerned about the long-term goals of the Mongols. Early Mongol diplomacy had been not a simple offer of cooperation, but straightforward demands for submission. It was only in later communications that Mongol diplomats started to adopt a more conciliatory tone; but they still used language that implied more command than entreaty. Even the Armenian historian [[Hayton of Corycus]], the most enthusiastic advocate of Western-Mongol collaboration, freely admitted that the Mongol leadership was not inclined to listen to European advice. His recommendation was that even if working together, European armies and Mongol armies should avoid contact because of Mongol arrogance. European leaders were aware that the Mongols would not have been content to stop at the Holy Land, but were on a clear quest for world domination. If the Mongols had achieved a successful alliance with the West and destroyed the Mamluk Sultanate, they certainly would have eventually turned upon the Franks of Cyprus and the Byzantines.<ref>Jackson. ''Mongols and the West''. p. 183.</ref> They also would have surely conquered Egypt, from which they could have continued an advance into Africa, where no strong state could have stood in their way until [[Morocco#Foundation and early Islamic era|Morocco]] and the [[Marinid dynasty|Islamic caliphates]] in the [[Maghreb]].<ref name="west" /><ref>Amitai. "Mongol imperial ideology". p. 59.</ref>

Lastly, there was not much support among the general populace in Europe for a Mongol alliance. Writers in Europe were creating [[recovery of the Holy Land|"recovery" literature]] with their ideas about how best to recover the Holy Land, but few mentioned the Mongols as a genuine possibility. In 1306, when [[Pope Clement V]] asked the leaders of the military orders, [[Jacques de Molay]] and [[Foulques de Villaret|Fulk de Villaret]], to present their proposals for how the Crusades should proceed, neither of them factored in any kind of a Mongol alliance. A few later proposals talked briefly about the Mongols as being a force that could invade Syria and keep the Mamluks distracted, but not as a force that could be counted on for cooperation.<ref name="west" />

== See also ==
* [[Mongol invasion of Europe]]
* [[France-Mongolia relations]]

== Notes ==

{{reflist|30em}}

== References ==
{{refbegin|30em }}
* {{cite book |author1=Abate, Mark T. |author2=Marx, Todd | title = History in Dispute: The Crusades, 1095–1291 | year = 2002 | volume = 10 | publisher = [[Gale (publisher)|St. James Press]] | location = Detroit, Michigan, USA | isbn = 978-1-55862-454-2 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Amitai, Reuven | title = Mongol Raids into Palestine (AD 1260 and 1300)|journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]] | year = 1987 | issue = 2 | pages = 236–255 | jstor = 25212151 | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA | publisher = Cambridge University Press }}
* {{cite book | author = Amitai-Preiss, Reuven | author-link = Reuven Amitai | title = Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281 | year = 1995 | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn = 978-0-521-46226-6 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/mongolsmamluksma0000amit }}
* {{cite book|author=Amitai-Preiss, Reuven|chapter=Mongol imperial ideology and the Ilkhanid war against the Mamluks|title=The Mongol empire and its legacy |editor=Morgan, David |editor2=Amitai-Preiss, Reuven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OqflvIsBT_4C&pg=PR7|isbn=978-90-04-11048-9|year=1999|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, The Netherlands}}
* {{cite book | author = Amitai, Reuven | title = Tolerance and Intolerance: Social Conflict in the Age of the Crusades|chapter=Edward of England and Abagha Ilkhan: A reexamination of a failed attempt at Mongol-Frankish cooperation | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=n9dEpOsfVdIC&pg=PA7 |editor= Gervers, Michael |editor2=Powell, James M. | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-8156-2869-9 | publisher = [[Syracuse University Press]] | location = Syracuse, New York, USA }}
*{{cite book|author=Amitai, Reuven|title=The Mongols in the Islamic lands: studies in the history of the Ilkhanate|chapter=Whither the Ilkhanid army: Ghazan's first campaign into Syria (1299–1300)|year=2007|publisher=Ashgate/Variorium|location=Burlington, Vermont, USA|isbn=978-0-7546-5914-3}}
* {{cite book | editor = Angold, Michael | title = Cambridge History of Christianity: Eastern Christianity | volume = 5 | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-521-81113-2 | doi = 10.1017/CHOL9780521811132 }}
* {{cite book | author = Atwood, Christopher P. | title = Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire | year = 2004 | location = New York, New York, USA | publisher = [[Infobase Publishing|Facts on File, Inc.]] | isbn = 978-0-8160-4671-3 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo0000atwo }}
* {{cite book | author = Balard, Michel | title = Les Latins en Orient (XIe–XVe siècle)| year = 2006 | publisher = [[Presses Universitaires de France]] | location = Paris, France | isbn = 978-2-13-051811-2 }}
* {{cite book | author = Barber, Malcolm | author-link = Malcolm Barber | title = The Trial of the Templars | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA|edition=2nd | year = 2001 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-67236-8 }}
* {{cite book | author = Bisson, Thomas N. | title = The Medieval Crown of Aragon: A Short History | isbn = 978-0-19-821987-3 | year = 1986 | publisher = Clarendon Press [Oxford University Press] | location = New York, New York, USA }}
* {{cite book | author = Bournoutian, George A. | title = A Concise History of the Armenian People: From Ancient Times to the Present | year = 2002 | location = Costa Mesa, California, USA | publisher = Mazda Publishers | isbn = 978-1-56859-141-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor }}
* {{cite book | author = Burger, Glenn | title = A Lytell Cronycle: Richard Pynson's Translation (c. 1520) of La Fleur des histoires de la terre d'Orient (Hetoum c. 1307) | isbn = 978-0-8020-2626-2 | location = Toronto, Canada | publisher = [[University of Toronto Press]] | year = 1988 }}
* {{cite web | author = Calmard, Jean | title = Encyclopædia Iranica | location = Costa Mesa, California, USA | publisher = Mazda Publishers | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/france-index | access-date = March 27, 2010 }}
* {{cite book | author = Daftary, Farhad | title = The Assassin Legends: Myths of the Isma'ilis | year = 1994 | location = London, UK; New York, New York, USA | publisher = [[I.B. Tauris]] | isbn = 978-1-85043-705-5 }}
* {{cite book | author = Daniel, Elton L. | title = Culture and Customs of Iran | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZIjyEi1pd8C&pg=PA25|author2=Ali Akbar Mahdi | location = Westport, Connecticut, USA | isbn = 978-0-313-32053-8 | year = 2006 | publisher = Greenwood Press }}
* {{cite book | author = Dawson, Christopher | title = The Mongol Mission: Narratives and Letters of the Franciscan Missionaries in Mongolia and China in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries | others = Translated by a nun of Stanbrook Abbey | year = 1955 | publisher = [[Rowman & Littlefield|Sheed and Ward]] | location = New York, New York, USA | isbn = 978-1-4051-3539-9 }}
* {{cite book | author = Demurger, Alain | author-link = Alain Demurger | title = The Last Templar | isbn = 978-1-86197-553-9 | location = London, UK | publisher = [[Profile Books]] | year = 2005 | orig-year = First published in French in 2002, translated to English in 2004 by Antonia Nevill | url = https://archive.org/details/lasttemplartrage00demu }}
* {{cite book | author = Demurger, Alain | title = Croisades et Croisés au Moyen Age | year = 2006|language=fr | publisher = Flammarion | isbn = 978-2-08-080137-1 | location = Paris, France }}
* {{cite book | author = Edbury, Peter W. | title = Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades, 1191–1374 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DmYeAuWUPK8C&pg=PA105 | location = Cambridge, UK | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-521-26876-9 }}
* {{cite book|author1=Fisher, William Bayne |author2=Boyle, John Andrew | year = 1968 | title = The Cambridge history of Iran | volume = 5 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK | isbn = 0-521-06936-X}}
* {{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Xifq5OE7174C&pg=PA349 | title = Crusader art in the Holy Land: from the Third Crusade to the fall of Acre | author = Folda, Jaroslav | isbn = 978-0-521-83583-1 | year = 2005 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK }}
* {{cite book | author = Foltz, Richard C. | author-link = Richard Foltz | title = Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century | location = New York, New York, USA | publisher = [[St. Martin's Press]] | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-0-312-23338-9 }}
* {{cite book|author=Ghazarian, Jacob G.|title=The Armenian kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades|year=2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3W89PVbKLZwC&pg=PA56|publisher=Curzon Press|location=Surrey, England, UK|isbn=978-0-7007-1418-6}}
* {{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SaJlbWK_-FcC&pg=PA485 | title=Medieval science, technology, and medicine: an encyclopedia |author1=Glick, Thomas F. |author2=Livesey, Steven John |author3=Wallis, Faith | publisher=Routledge | year=2005 | location=New York, New York, USA | isbn = 978-0-415-96930-7 }}
* {{cite book | author = Grousset, René | author-link = René Grousset | title = Histoire des Croisades III, 1188–1291 L'anarchie franque|language=fr | location = Paris, France | publisher = Perrin | year = 1936 | isbn = 978-2-262-02569-4 }}
* {{cite book | author = Harpur, James | title = The Crusades: The Two Hundred Years War: The Clash Between the Cross and the Crescent in the Middle East | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OCGuWrNyjiEC&pg=PA116 | publisher = Rosen Publishing Group | location = New York, New York, USA | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-1-4042-1367-8 }}
* {{cite book | author = Hindley, Geoffrey | title = The Crusades: Islam and Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy | url = https://archive.org/details/crusadeshistoryo00hind | url-access = registration | publisher = [[Carroll & Graf Publishers]] | year = 2004 | location = New York, New York, USA | isbn = 978-0-7867-1344-8 }}
* {{New Cambridge Medieval History|volume=5| last = Irwin | first= Robert | chapter=The Rise of the Mamluks | page = [https://archive.org/details/newcambridgemedi00allm/page/n637 616] }}
* {{cite journal | author = Jackson, Peter | author-link = Peter Jackson (historian) | title = The Crisis in the Holy Land in 1260|journal=[[The English Historical Review]] | volume = 95 | issue = 376| pages=481–513 |date=July 1980 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = London, UK; New York, New York, USA|issn=0013-8266 | doi = 10.1093/ehr/XCV.CCCLXXVI.481 | jstor = 568054 }}
* {{New Cambridge Medieval History|volume=5 | last = Jackson | first= Peter |chapter=The Mongols and Europe | page = 703 }}
* {{cite book | author = Jackson, Peter | location = Harlow, UK; New York, New York, USA | title = The Mongols and the West: 1221–1410 | year = 2005 | publisher = [[Longman]] | isbn = 978-0-582-36896-5 }}
* {{cite book | author = Joseph, John | title = Muslim-Christian Relations and Inter-Christian Rivalries in the Middle East: The Case of the Jacobites in an Age of Transition | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lKaL3_dfFJAC&pg=PA16 | location = Albany, New York, USA | publisher = [[SUNY Press]] | year = 1983 | isbn = 978-0-87395-600-0 }}
* {{cite book | author = Jotischky, Andrew | title = Crusading and the Crusader States | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yG9OqY08E98C&pg=249 | location = Harlow, UK | publisher = [[Pearson Education]] | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-582-41851-6 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Knobler, Adam | title = Pseudo-Conversions and Patchwork Pedigrees: The Christianization of Muslim Princes and the Diplomacy of Holy War|journal=[[Journal of World History]]|date=Fall 1996 | pages = 181–197 | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | url = http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v007/7.2knobler.html | doi = 10.1353/jwh.2005.0040 | publisher = [[University of Hawaii Press]] | location = Honolulu, Hawaii, USA|issn=1045-6007 }}
* Knobler, Adam. 1996. "Pseudo-conversions and Patchwork Pedigrees: The Christianization of Muslim Princes and the Diplomacy of Holy War". Journal of World History 7 (2). University of Hawai'i Press: 181–97. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20078675.
* {{cite book | author = Lane, George | title = Daily Life in the Mongol Empire | location = Westport, Connecticut, USA | publisher = [[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood Press]] | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-313-33226-5 }}
* {{cite book | author = Lebédel, Claude | title = Les Croisades, Origines et Conséquences | publisher = Editions Ouest-France | location = Rennes, France|language=fr | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-2-7373-4136-6 }}
* {{cite book | author = Mack, Rosamond E. | title = Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300–1600 | publisher = University of California Press | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-520-22131-4 | location = Berkeley, California, USA }}
* {{cite book | author = Mantran, Robert | editor = Fossier, Robert | others = trans. Hanbury-Tenison, Sarah | chapter = A Turkish or Mongolian Islam | title = The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 1250–1520 | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA | volume = 3 | page = [https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00robe/page/298 298] | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1986 | isbn = 978-0-521-26646-8 | url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00robe/page/298 }}
* {{cite book | author = Marshall, Christopher | title = Warfare in the Latin East, 1192–1291| year=1994 | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-47742-0 }}
* {{cite book| author=May, Timothy M.|editor1=Kagay, Donald J. |editor2=Villalon, L. J. Andrew|chapter=The Mongol Presence and Impact in the Lands of the Eastern Mediterranean|title=Crusaders, condottieri, and cannon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYip5QLrBvAC|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|isbn=978-90-04-12553-7|year=2002}}
* {{cite book | author = Michaud, Yahia (Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies)|language=fr | title = Ibn Taymiyya, Textes Spirituels I–XVI | url = http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/it/works/ITA%20Texspi.pdf | publisher = Le Musulman, Oxford-Le Chebec | year = 2002 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Morgan, David | author-link = David Morgan (historian) | title = The Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean: Latins and Greeks in the Eastern Mediterranean after 1204 | journal=[[Mediterranean Historical Review]] | volume = 4 | issue = 1 |date=June 1989 | page = 204 | doi = 10.1080/09518968908569567}}
* {{cite book | author = Morgan, David | title = The Mongols|edition=2nd | year = 2007 | publisher = [[Blackwell Publishing]] | location = Malden, Massachusetts, USA; Oxford, UK; Carlton, Victoria, AU | isbn = 978-1-4051-3539-9 }}
* {{cite book | author = Mutafian, Claude|language=fr | title = Le Royaume Arménien de Cilicie, XIIe-XIVe siècle | location = Paris, France | publisher = [[French National Centre for Scientific Research|CNRS Editions]] | orig-year = 1993 | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-2-271-05105-9 }}
* {{cite book | author = Nersessian, Sirarpie Der | title = A History of the Crusades: The Later Crusades, 1189–1311|chapter=The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia | pages = 630–660 | author-link = Sirarpie Der-Nersessian|editor=Hazard, Harry W. |editor2=Wolff, Robert Lee | volume = 2 | year = 1969 | publisher = [[University of Wisconsin Press]] | location = Madison, Wisconsin, USA | isbn = 978-0-299-04844-0|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=v1Kx3QGYsdcC&pg=PA630 }}
* {{cite book | author = Nicholson, Helen | title = The Knights Hospitaller | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oGppfVJMKjsC&pg=PA45 | publisher = [[Boydell & Brewer|The Boydell Press]] | year = 2001| isbn=978-0-85115-845-7 | location = Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK; Rochester, New York, USA }}
* {{cite book | author = Nicolle, David | author-link = David Nicolle | title = The Crusades | series = Essential Histories | location = Oxford, UK | publisher = [[Osprey Publishing]] | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-1-84176-179-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/crusades00nico }}
* {{cite book | author = Nicolle, David|author2=Hook, Richard | title = The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulegu, Tamerlane | year = 2004 | publisher = [[Brockhampton Press]] | isbn = 978-1-86019-407-8 | location = London, UK }}
* {{cite book | author = Phillips, John Roland Seymour | title = The Medieval Expansion of Europe | edition = 2nd | publisher = Clarendon Press | location = Oxford, UK | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-19-820740-5 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/medievalexpansio0000phil }}
* {{cite book | author = Prawer, Joshua | author-link = Joshua Prawer | title = The Crusaders' Kingdom: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages | year = 1972 | publisher = Praeger Publishers | location = New York, New York, USA | isbn = 978-0-297-99397-1 }}
* {{cite book | author = Reinert, Stephen W.|editor=Mango, Cyril A. | title = The Oxford History of Byzantium|chapter=Fragmentation (1204–1453) | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford, UK; New York, New York, USA | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-19-814098-6 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Richard, Jean | author-link = Jean Richard (historian) | title = The Mongols and the Franks | year = 1969 | journal = Journal of Asian History | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 45–57}}
* {{cite book | author = Richard, Jean | others = trans. Birrell, Jean | title = The Crusades, c. 1071–c. 1291 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK | year = 1999|orig-year=published in French 1996 | isbn = 978-0-521-62566-1 }}
* {{cite book | author = Riley-Smith, Jonathan | title = Crusades: A History|edition=2nd | publisher = [[Continuum International Publishing Group]] | location = London, UK; New York, New York, USA | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-8264-7270-0 }}
* {{cite book | author = Rossabi, Morris | title = Voyager from Xanadu: Rabban Sauma and the First Journey from China to the West | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-4-7700-1650-8 | publisher = [[Kodansha|Kodansha International]] | location = Tokyo, Japan; New York, New York, USA | url = https://archive.org/details/voyagerfromxanad00ross }}
* {{Runciman-A History of the Crusades|volume=3 | publisher = [[Penguin Books]] | isbn = 978-0-14-013705-7 | year = 1987 | location = Harmondsworth, UK }}
* {{cite journal | author = Ryan, James D. | title = Christian Wives of Mongol Khans: Tartar Queens and Missionary Expectations in Asia|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society | volume = 8 | issue = 3|date=November 1998 | pages = 411–421 | jstor = 25183572 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA | doi = 10.1017/S1356186300010506 }}
* {{cite book | author = Saunders, John Joseph | title = The History of the Mongol Conquests | year = 2001 | location = Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA | publisher = [[University of Pennsylvania Press]]|orig-year=1971 | isbn = 978-0-8122-1766-7 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Schein, Sylvia | title = Gesta Dei per Mongolos 1300. The Genesis of a Non-Event|journal=The English Historical Review | volume = 94 | issue = 373| pages=805–819 |date=October 1979 | doi = 10.1093/ehr/XCIV.CCCLXXIII.805 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = London, UK; New York, New York, USA | jstor = 565554 }}
* {{The Papacy and the Levant|volume=3}}
* {{cite book | author = Sicker, Martin | title = The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=v3AdA-Ogl34C&pg=PA123 | publisher = Praeger Publishers | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-275-96892-2 | location = Westport, Connecticut, USA }}
* {{cite book | author = Sinor, Denis | author-link = Denis Sinor | title = A History of the Crusades: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries | volume = 3|chapter=The Mongols and Western Europe | page = 513 |editor= Setton, Kenneth Meyer |editor2=Hazard, Harry W. | year = 1975 | publisher = University of Wisconsin Press | isbn = 978-0-299-06670-3 | location = Madison, Wisconsin, USA }}
* {{cite book | author = Sinor, Denis | title = Inner Asia: Uralic and Altaic series, Volumes 1–150, 1960–1990 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=foS-y-ShWJ0C&pg=PA190 | volume = 96 | year = 1997 | publisher = Routledge/Curzon | isbn = 978-0-7007-0896-3 | location = London, UK }}
* {{cite book | author = Stewart, Angus Donal | title = The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks: War and Diplomacy During the Reigns of Het'um II (1289–1307) | volume = 34 | publisher = [[Brill Publishers|Brill]] | year = 2001 | location = Leiden, Netherlands; Boston, Massachusetts, USA | isbn = 978-90-04-12292-5 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Stewart, Angus | doi = 10.1080/09503110220114407 | title = The Logic of Conquest: Tripoli, 1289; Acre, 1291; why not Sis, 1293? |journal=Al-Masaq: Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean | volume = 14 | issue = 1 |date=January 2002 | pages = 7–16 | publisher = Routledge | location = London, UK|issn=0950-3110}}
* {{cite book | author = Takahashi, Hidemi | title = Barhebraeus: a Bio-Bibliography | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4ovTbDkRDOIC&pg=PA102 | year = 2005 | location = Piscataway, New Jersey, USA | publisher = [[Gorgias Press]] | isbn = 978-1-59333-148-1 }}
* {{cite book | author = Tyerman, Christopher | author-link = Christopher Tyerman |year = 2006 | title = God's War: A New History of the Crusades | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA | publisher = [[Harvard University Press]] | isbn = 978-0-674-02387-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer }}
* {{cite book | author = Wood, Frances | title = The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zvoCv3h2QCsC&pg=PA136 | publisher = [[University of California Press]] | year = 2002 | location = Berkeley, California, USA | isbn = 978-0-520-24340-8 }}
{{refend}}

{{Mongol Empire}}
{{Featured article}}
{{bots|deny=Citation bot}}

[[Category:13th-century military alliances]]
[[Category:13th-century crusades]]
[[Category:History of the foreign relations of France]]
[[Category:13th century in France]]
[[Category:Military history of the Mongol Empire]]
[[Category:Hulagu Khan]]

Cathay

2024-02-19T17:24:00Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Use in English */

{{short description|Alternative name for China in some languages}}
{{other uses}}
{{use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
[[File:Empire_of_the_Great_Khan_(Catayo)_according_to_the_Catalan_Atlas_(1375).jpg|thumb|300px|[[Yuan dynasty|Empire of the Great Khan]] (''Catayo'' for Cathay) according to the [[Catalan Atlas]] (1375, rotated 180°). [[Xinjiang]] with its caravan of traders appears in the bottom right corner, while the Pacific coast runs along the top-left corner. [[Kublai Khan]] is seen enthroned. A flag with three red crescent moons ([[File:Catalan Atlas, Flag of Cathay (Chinese Empire).png|15px]]) appears on all the territory.<ref>{{cite web |title=Catalan Atlas. The Cresques Project - Panel VI |url=https://www.cresquesproject.net/catalan-atlas-legends/panel-vi |website=www.cresquesproject.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cavallo |first1=Jo Ann |title=The World Beyond Europe in the Romance Epics of Boiardo and Ariosto |date=28 October 2013 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-6667-2 |page=32 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dYyBAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT32 |language=en}}</ref>]]
'''Cathay''' ({{IPAc-en|k|æ|ˈ|θ|eɪ}} {{respell|ka|THAY}}) is a [[names of China|historical name]] for [[China]] that was used in Europe. During the early modern period, the term ''Cathay'' initially evolved as a term referring to what is now Northern China, completely separate and distinct from China, which was a reference to southern China. As knowledge of [[East Asia]] increased, Cathay came to be seen as the same polity as China as a whole. The term ''Cathay'' became a poetic name for China.

The name ''Cathay'' originates from the term ''[[Khitan people|Khitan]]''<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
| year = 2009
| encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica Online
| publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica
| title = Cathay
| url = http://www.britannica.com/place/Cathay-medieval-region-China
| access-date = 2009-06-23
}}</ref> ({{zh|c=契丹|p=Qìdān}}), a [[para-Mongolic]] nomadic people who ruled the [[Liao dynasty]] in [[northern China]] from 916 to 1125, and who later migrated west after they were overthrown by the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] to form the [[Qara Khitai]] (Western Liao dynasty) for another century thereafter. Originally, this name was the name applied by Central and Western Asians and Europeans to northern China; the name was also used in [[Marco Polo]]'s book on his [[The Travels of Marco Polo|travels]] in [[Yuan dynasty]] China (he referred to [[southern China]] as ''[[Names of China#Mangi|Mangi]]''). [[Odoric of Pordenone]] (d. 1331) also writes about Cathay and the Khan in his travelbooks from his journey before 1331, perhaps 1321–1330.

== History ==
[[File:FraMauroMapChataio.jpg|thumb|"Chataio" on [[Fra Mauro map]], {{circa|1450}} (South is up.)]]
[[File:CEM-09-Asiae-Nova-Descriptio-China-2510.jpg|thumb|On this 1570 map by [[Abraham Ortelius]], ''Cataio'' is located inland of ''China'' (referring to today's [[Guangdong]]) and ''Chequan'' ([[Zhejiang]]), and borders on "[[Tibet|Thebet]]" in the southwest and "[[Kumul (city)|Camul]]" in the west. There is also ''[[Names of China#Mangi|Mangi]]'' (between "Cataio" and ''Xanton'' ([[Shandong]])). The objects in "Cataio" are based on Marco Polo's description and include the capital ''[[Khanbaliq|Cambalu]]'', ''[[Xanadu, Inner Mongolia|Xandu]]'', and a [[Marco Polo Bridge|marble bridge]].]]

The term ''Cathay'' came from the name for the Khitans. A form of the name ''Cathai'' is attested in a [[Old Uyghur language|Uyghur]] [[Manichaean]] document describing the external people circa 1000.<ref name="wf">Wittfogel (1946), p. 1.</ref> The Khitans refer to themselves as Qidan ([[Khitan small script]]: [[File:Khita-i small.png|50px]]; {{zh|c=契丹}}), but in the language of the ancient [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]] the final -n or -ń became -y, and this form may have been the source of the name ''Khitai'' for later Muslim writers.<ref>{{citation |last = Sinor |first = D. |chapter = Chapter 11 – The Kitan and the Kara Kitay |year = 1998 |title = History of Civilisations of Central Asia |editor1-last = Asimov |editor1-first = M.S. |editor2-last = Bosworth |editor2-first = C.E. |volume = 4 part I |publisher = UNESCO Publishing |isbn = 92-3-103467-7 }}</ref> This version of the name was then introduced to medieval and early modern Europe via Muslim and Russian sources.<ref name="millward">{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XuvqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 |editor = S.F. Starr |author1 = James A. Millward |author2 = Peter C. Perdue |name-list-style=amp |title = Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland |year= 2004 |page = 43 |publisher = M.E. Sharpe |isbn = 9781317451372 }}</ref>

The Khitans were known to Muslim Central Asia: in 1026, the [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid court]] (in [[Ghazna]], in today's Afghanistan) was visited by envoys from the Liao ruler, he was described as a "Qatā Khan", i.e. the ruler of ''Qatā''; ''Qatā'' or ''Qitā'' appears in writings of [[al-Biruni]] and [[Abu Said Gardezi]] in the following decades.<ref name="wf" /> The Persian scholar and administrator [[Nizam al-Mulk]] (1018–1092) mentions ''Khita'' and ''China'' in his ''Book on the Administration of the State'', apparently as two separate countries<ref name=wf/> (presumably, referring to the [[Liao Empire|Liao]] and [[Song Empire]]s, respectively).

The name's currency in the Muslim world survived the replacement of the Khitan Liao dynasty with the Jurchen [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] in the early 12th century. When describing the fall of the Jin Empire to the Mongols (1234), Persian history described the conquered country as ''Khitāy'' or ''Djerdaj Khitāy'' (i.e., "Jurchen Cathay").<ref name=wf/> The Mongols themselves, in their ''[[The Secret History of the Mongols|Secret History]]'' (13th century) talk of both Khitans and Kara-Khitans.<ref name=wf/>

In about 1340 [[Francesco Balducci Pegolotti]], a merchant from [[Florence]], compiled the ''[[Pratica della mercatura]]'', a guide about trade in China, a country he called ''Cathay'', noting the size of [[Khanbaliq]] (modern [[Beijing]]) and how merchants could exchange silver for [[Economy of the Song dynasty|Chinese]] [[Jiaozi (currency)|paper money]] that could be used to buy luxury items such as silk.<ref>Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2011). ''Western Civilization: a Brief History'', Boston: Wadsworth, Cencage Learning, p. 183, {{ISBN|0-495-57147-4}}.</ref><ref>See the following source for the title "Cathay and the Way Tither": Editors of the Encyclopædia Britannica. "[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francesco-Balducci-Pegolotti Francesco Balducci Pegolotti]." ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (online source). Accessed 6 September 2016.</ref>

Words related to Khitay are still used in many [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] and [[Slavic languages]] to refer to China. The ethnonym derived from Khitay in the [[Uyghur language]] for [[Han Chinese]] is considered pejorative by both its users and its referents, and the [[People's Republic of China|PRC]] authorities have attempted to ban its use.<ref name="millward" /> The term also strongly connotes [[Uyghur nationalism]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Xinjiang: China's Muslim Far Northwest|url=https://archive.org/details/xinjiangchinasmu00dill|url-access=limited|first=Michael|last=Dillon|year=2003|page=[https://archive.org/details/xinjiangchinasmu00dill/page/n207 177]}}</ref>

== Cathay and Mangi ==
{{See also|Names of China#Mangi}}

As European and Arab travelers started reaching the [[Mongol Empire]], they described the Mongol-controlled Northern China as ''Cathay'' in a number of spelling variants. The name occurs in the writings of [[Giovanni da Pian del Carpine]] (c. 1180–1252) (as ''Kitaia''), and [[William of Rubruck]] (c. 1220–c. 1293) (as ''Cataya'' or ''Cathaia'').<ref name=wf2>Wittfogel (1946), p. 2</ref> ''Travels in the Land of Kublai Khan'' by [[Marco Polo]] has a story called "The Road to Cathay". [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]], [[ibn Battuta]], and Marco Polo all referred to Northern China as Cathay, while Southern China, ruled by the [[Song dynasty]], was ''Mangi'', ''Manzi'', ''Chin'', or ''Sin''.<ref name=wf2/> The word ''Manzi'' (蠻子) or ''Mangi'' is a derogatory term in Chinese meaning "barbarians of the south" (''Man'' was used to describe [[Sinicised|unsinicised]] Southern China in its earlier periods), and would therefore not have been used by the Chinese to describe themselves or their own country, but it was adopted by the Mongols to describe the people and country of Southern China.<ref>{{citation |title= Cathay and the Way Thither: Preliminary essay on the intercourse between China and the western nations previous to the discovery of the Cape route |page =177 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dS4XAQAAMAAJ |author= Henry Yule |author2= Henri Cordier |year= 1967 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bnCMBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA247 |title=Dynastic China: An Elementary History|author= Tan Koon San |page=247 |publisher=The Other Press|isbn=9789839541885 |date=15 August 2014}}</ref> The name for South China commonly used on Western medieval maps was ''Mangi'', a term still used in maps in the 16th century.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xD52ge5a8vYC&pg=PA817 |title=Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume I: The Century of Discovery |author= Donald F. Lach |page=817 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226467085|date=15 July 2008 }}</ref>

== Identifying China as Cathay ==
{{further|Europeans in Medieval China|Sino-Roman relations|Serica|Daqin}}
The division of China into northern and southern parts ruled by, in succession, the [[Liao dynasty|Liao]], [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] dynasties in the north, and the [[Song dynasty]] in the south, ended in the late 13th century with the conquest of southern China by the Yuan dynasty.

While Central Asia had long known China under names similar to ''Cathay'', that country was known to the peoples of [[Southeast Asia]] and India under names similar to ''China'' (cf. e.g. ''Cina'' in modern Malay). Meanwhile, in China itself, people usually referred to the realm in which they lived on the name of the ruling dynasty, e.g. ''[[Ming dynasty|Da Ming Guo]]'' ("Great Ming state") and ''[[Qing dynasty|Da Qing Guo]]'' ("Great Qing state"), or as ''Zhongguo'' (中國, lit. ''Middle Kingdom'' or ''Central State''); see also [[Names of China]] for details.

When the Portuguese reached Southeast Asia ([[Afonso de Albuquerque]] conquering [[Melaka|Malacca]] in 1511) and the southern coast of China ([[Jorge Álvares]] reaching the [[Pearl River (China)|Pearl River]] estuary in 1513), they started calling the country by the name used in South and Southeast Asia.<ref>[[Matteo Ricci]], writing less than a century after the events, states: "Today the people of [[Kochi, India|Cochin]] and the Siamese as well, from whom the Portuguese learned to call the empire China, call this country Cin". (Gallagher (1953), pp. 6–7)</ref> It was not immediately clear to the Europeans whether this ''China'' is the same country as ''Cathay'' known from [[Marco Polo]]. Therefore, it would not be uncommon for 16th-century maps to apply the label ''China'' just to the coastal region already well known to the Europeans (e.g., just [[Guangdong]] on [[Abraham Ortelius]]' 1570 map), and to place the mysterious Cathay somewhere inland.

[[File:CEM-15-Asia-Mercator-1595-Tartaria-2532.jpg|thumb|[[Gerardus Mercator]]'s placing of the "Kingdom of Cathay" (''Cathay Reg.'') on the Pacific Coast north-east of China remained typical for a number of maps published in the decades to follow (originally published 1595)]]

It was a small group of [[Jesuit China missions|Jesuits]], led by [[Matteo Ricci]] who, being able both to travel throughout China and to read, learned about the country from Chinese books and from conversation with people of all walks of life. During his first fifteen years in China (1583–1598) Matteo Ricci formed a strong suspicion that Marco Polo's ''Cathay'' is simply the Tatar (i.e., [[Mongol]]) name for the
country he was in, i.e. China. Ricci supported his arguments by numerous correspondences between Marco Polo's accounts and his own observations:

* The River "[[Yangtze]]" divides the empire into two halves, with nine provinces ("kingdoms") south of the river and six to the north;
* Marco Polo's "Cathay" was just south of "[[Tartary]]", and Ricci learned that there was no other country between the [[Ming dynasty|Ming Empire]] and "Tartary" (i.e., the lands of Mongols and Manchus).
* People in China had not heard of any place called "Cathay".

Most importantly, when the Jesuits first arrived to Beijing 1598, they also met a number of "Mohammedans" or "Arabian Turks" – visitors or immigrants from the Muslim countries to the west of China, who told Ricci that now they ''were'' living in the Great Cathay. This all made them quite convinced that Cathay was indeed China.<ref>Gallagher (trans.) (1953), pp. 311–312. Also, in p.7, Ricci and [[Nicolas Trigault|Trigault]] unambiguously state, "the [[Saracens]], who live to the west, speak of it [China] as Cathay".</ref>

[[Jesuit China missions|China-based Jesuits]] promptly informed their colleagues in [[Goa]] (Portuguese India) and Europe about their discovery of the Cathay–China identity. This was stated e.g. in a 1602 letter of Ricci's comrade [[Diego de Pantoja]], which was published in Europe along with other Jesuits' letters in 1605.<ref>Lach & Van Kley (1993), p. 1565. Pantoja's letter appeared in ''Relación de la entrade de algunos padres de la Compania de Iesus en la China'' (1605)</ref> The Jesuits in India, however, were not convinced, because, according to their informants (merchants who visited the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] capitals [[Agra]] and [[Lahore]]), Cathay – a country that could be reached via [[Kashgar]] – had a large Christian population, while the Jesuits in China had not found any Christians there.<ref name=yule534>Yule, pp. 534–535</ref><ref name=lach1575>Lach & Kley (1993), pp. 1575–1577</ref>

[[File:CEM-19-Asiae-nova-description-1610-Jodocus-Hondius-2538.jpg|thumb|A typical early 17th-century depiction of "Cataia" as China's northeastern neighbour, [[Jodocus Hondius]], 1610]]
In retrospect, the Central Asian Muslim informants' idea of the Ming China being a heavily Christian country may be explained by numerous similarities between [[Buddhism and Christianity|Christian and Buddhist]] ecclesiastical rituals – from having sumptuous statuary and ecclesiastical robes to [[Gregorian chant]] – which would make the two religions appear externally similar to a Muslim merchant.<ref>Gallagher, p. 500; Yule, pp. 551–552</ref> This may also have been the genesis of the [[Prester John]] myth.

To resolve the ''China''–''Cathay'' controversy, the India Jesuits sent a Portuguese lay brother, [[Bento de Góis]], on an overland expedition north and east, with the goal of reaching Cathay and finding out once and for all whether it is China or some other country. Góis spent almost three years (1603–1605) crossing [[Afghanistan]], [[Badakhshan]], [[Kashgaria]], and Kingdom of [[Karasahr|Cialis]] with Muslim trade [[camel train|caravans]]. In 1605, in [[Karasahr|Cialis]], he, too, became convinced that his destination ''is'' China, as he met the members of a caravan returning from Beijing to Kashgar, who told them about staying in the same Beijing inn with Portuguese Jesuits. (In fact, those were the same very "Saracens" who had, a few months earlier, confirmed it to Ricci that they were in "Cathay"). De Góis died in [[Suzhou District|Suzhou, Gansu]] – the first [[Ming dynasty|Ming China]] city he reached – while waiting for an entry permit to proceed toward Beijing; but, in the words of [[Henry Yule]], it was his expedition that made "''Cathay''... finally disappear from view, leaving ''China'' only in the mouths and minds of men".<ref>[[Henry Yule]] (1866), p. 530.</ref>

[[File:John-Speed-The-Kingdome-of-China-1626-2544.jpg|thumb|left|Not convinced by the Jesuits, [[John Speed]] in 1626 follows [[Jodocus Hondius]]' layout: He shows the chain of [[Silk Road]] cities visited by de Góis ([[Kuqa City|Cuchia]], [[Karasahr|Chialis]], [[Turfan]], [[Kumul, Xinjiang|Camul]]) – but has it directed not toward China's [[Shaanxi]] ''Sancii'', as shown by de Góis, but toward the mysterious "Cathaya, the Chief Kingdome of Great [[Khan (title)|Cam]]", northeast of China. Naturally, [[Khanbaliq|Cambalu]] and [[Shangdu|Xandu]] are shown in Cathay, while Shuntien (Beijing) is in China.]]
Ricci's and de Gois' conclusion was not, however, completely convincing for everybody in Europe yet.
[[Samuel Purchas]], who in 1625 published an English translation of Pantoja's letter and Ricci's account, thought that perhaps Cathay still can be found somewhere north of China.<ref name=lach1575/> In this period, many cartographers were placing Cathay on the Pacific coast, north of Beijing (Pekin) which was already well known to Europeans. The borders drawn on some of these maps would first make Cathay the northeastern section of China (e.g. [[:commons:File:CEM-15-Asia-Mercator-1595-2531.jpg|1595 map]] by [[Gerardus Mercator]]), or, later, a region separated by China by the [[Great Wall]] and possibly some mountains and/or wilderness (as in a [[:commons:File:CEM-19-Asiae-nova-description-1610-Jodocus-Hondius-2538.jpg|1610 map]] by [[Jodocus Hondius]], or a [[:commons:File:John-Speed-The-Kingdome-of-China-1626-2544.jpg|1626 map]] by [[John Speed]]).
[[J. J. L. Duyvendak]] hypothesized that it was the ignorance of the fact that "China" is the mighty "Cathay" of Marco Polo that allowed the Dutch [[Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies|governor of East Indies]] [[Jan Pieterszoon Coen]] to embark on an "unfortunate" (for the Dutch) policy of treating the Ming Empire as "merely another 'oriental' kingdom".<ref>{{citation|first=J. J. L.|last= Duyvendak|title=Review of "Fidalgos in the Far East, 1550–1770. Fact and Fancy in the History of Macao" by C. R. Boxer
| journal=T'oung Pao |series=Second Series|volume=39|issue= 1/3|year=1950|pages= 183–197
| publisher= BRILL|jstor= 4527279}} (specifically pp. 185–186)</ref>

[[File:CEM-36-Regno-della-China-2355.jpg|thumb|Cathay is finally gone: This 1689 map by [[Giacomo Cantelli da Vignola]] from [[Modena]] identifies it (and Mangi) with China.]]
The last nail into the coffin of the idea of there being a Cathay as a country separate from China was, perhaps, driven in 1654, when the Dutch [[oriental studies|Orientalist]] [[Jacobus Golius]] met with the China-based Jesuit [[Martino Martini]], who was passing through [[Leyden]]. Golius knew no Chinese, but he was familiar with ''[[Zij-i Ilkhani]]'', a work by the Persian astronomer [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]], completed in 1272, in which he described the [[Chinese calendar|Chinese ("Cathayan") calendar]].<ref>van Dalen, Benno; Kennedy, E.S.; Saiyid, Mustafa K., "The Chinese-Uighur Calendar in Tusi's Zij-i Ilkhani", ''Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften'' 11 (1997) 111–151</ref> Upon meeting Martini, Golius started reciting the names of the [[Earthly Branches|12 divisions]] into which, according to Nasir al-Din, the "Cathayans" were dividing the day – and Martini, who of course knew no Persian, was able to continue the list. The names of the 24 [[solar term]]s matched as well. The story, soon published by Martini in the "Additamentum" to his Atlas of China, seemed to have finally convinced most European scholars that China and Cathay were the same.<ref name=lach1575/>

Even then, some people still viewed Cathay as distinct from China, as did [[John Milton]] in the 11th Book of his ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' (1667).<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/pss/3723329 "Why Did Milton Err on Two Chinas?"] Y. Z. Chang, ''The Modern Language Review'', Vol. 65, No. 3 (Jul., 1970), pp. 493–498.</ref>

In 1939, Hisao Migo ({{Lang-ja|御江久夫}}, a Japanese botanist<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Plants of China|author1=De-Yuan Hong|author2=Stephen Blackmore|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=91e3BwAAQBAJ&q=Hisao+Migo+japanese&pg=PA223|pages=222–223|isbn=9781107070172}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kun.ac.cn/article/show/id/244|access-date=2015-10-09|title=中国植物采集简史I — 1949年之前外国人在华采集（三）|publisher=中国科学院昆明植物研究所标本馆|date=2014-12-01|language=zh}}</ref>) published a paper describing ''[[Iris cathayensis]]'' (meaning "Chinese iris") in the ''Journal of the Shanghai Science Institute''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Iridaceae Iris cathayensis Migo |url=http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idPlantNameSearch.do?id=438464-1 |publisher=ipni.org (International Plant Names Index) |access-date=21 January 2014}}</ref>

== Etymological progression ==
{{Further|Names of China}}
Below is the etymological progression from "Khitan" to Cathay as the word travelled westward:
{{Names of China}}
* [[Classical Mongolian]]: {{MongolUnicode|lang=mong|ᠬᠢᠲᠠᠳ}} {{transl|cmg|Qitad}} (cf. modern [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] {{lang|mn|Хятад}} {{transl|mn|Khyatad}})
* [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]: {{lang|ug|خىتاي}} ({{transl|ug|Xitay}})
* [[Persian language|Persian]]: {{lang|fa|ختای}} ({{transl|fa|khatāy}})
* [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]: {{lang|ky|Кытай}} ({{transl|ky|Kytai}})
* [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]: {{lang|kk|قىتاي}}, {{lang|kk|Қытай}}, {{lang|kk|Qıtay}}
* [[Tatar language#Dialects|Kazan Tatar]]: {{lang|tt|Кытай}} ({{transl|tt|Qıtay}})
* [[Russian language|Russian]]: {{lang|ru|Китай}} ({{transl|ru|Kitay}})
* [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]: {{lang|uk|Китай}} ({{transl|uk|Kytaj}})
* [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]: {{lang|be|Кітай}} ({{transl|be|Kitaj}})
* [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: {{lang|bg|Китай}} ({{transl|bg|Kitay}})
* [[Georgian language|Georgian]]: {{lang|ka|ხატაეთი}} ({{transl|ka|Khataeti}}) (archaic or obsolete)
* [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]: {{lang|uz|Хитой}} ({{transl|uz|Xitoy}})
* [[Polish language|Polish]]: {{lang|pl|Kitaj}}
* [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]: {{lang|sl|Kitaj}} ({{transl|sl|Китаj}})
* [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: {{lang|hr|Kitaj}}
* [[Medieval Latin]]: {{lang|la|Cataya}}, {{lang|la|Kitai}}
* [[Italian language|Italian]]: {{lang|it|Catai}}
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: {{lang|es|Catay}}
* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: {{lang|pt|Cataio}} or {{lang|pt|Catai}}
* [[French language|French]], [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[North Germanic languages|Scandinavian]]:{{Citation needed|reason=Neither ODS (Ordbog over det danske Sprog) nor SAOB (Svenska akademiens ordbok) mention this word|date=May 2014}} Cathay

In many [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] and [[Slavic languages]] a form of "Cathay" (e.g., {{lang-ru|Китай}}, {{transl|ru|Kitay}}) remains the usual modern name for China. In [[Javanese language|Javanese]], the word {{lang|jv|ꦏꦠꦻ}} ({{transl|jv|Katai}}, {{transl|jv|Katé}}) exists,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.detik.com/berita/3107581/ini-delapan-ramalan-joyoboyo-tentang-nusantara-yang-dipercaya-sakti/5 |title=Ini Delapan Ramalan Joyoboyo tentang Nusantara yang Dipercaya Sakti |work=Detik News}} (in Indonesian, transcription of King Jayabaya's prophecy)</ref> and it refers to 'East Asian', literally meaning 'dwarf' or 'short-legged' in today's language.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

== Use in English ==

In the [[English language]], the word ''Cathay'' was sometimes used for China, although increasingly only in a poetic sense, until the 19th century, when it was completely replaced by ''China''. Demonyms for the people of Cathay (i.e., [[Chinese people]]) were ''Cathayan'' and ''Cataian''. The terms ''China'' and ''Cathay'' have histories of approximately equal length in English. ''Cathay'' is still used poetically. The [[Hong Kong]] flag-bearing airline is named ''[[Cathay Pacific]]''. One of the largest commercial banks of Taiwan is named ''[[Cathay United Bank]]''.

The novel ''[[Creation (novel)|Creation]]'' by [[Gore Vidal]] uses the name in reference to "those states between the Yangtze and the Yellow Rivers" as the novel is set in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C. [[Ezra Pound]]'s ''[[Cathay (poetry collection)|Cathay]]'' (1915) is a collection of classical Chinese poems translated freely into English verse.

In [[Robert E. Howard]]'s [[Hyborian Age]] stories (including the tales of [[Conan the Barbarian]]), the analog of China is called ''Khitai''.

In ''[[Warhammer Fantasy (setting)|Warhammer Fantasy]]'', a fantastical reimagination of the world used as a setting for various novels and games produced by [[Games Workshop]], Grand Cathay is the largest human empire, situated in the far east of the setting and based on medieval China.<ref name="pcgamer">{{cite web |last1=Zak |first1=Robert |title=Our first look at Total War: Warhammer 3's Cathay army in action is spectacular |url=https://www.pcgamer.com/our-first-look-at-total-war-warhammer-3s-cathay-army-in-action-is-spectacular/ |website=PC Gamer |access-date=11 January 2022 |language=en |date=19 October 2021}}</ref>

== In the names of organized entities ==

''Cathay'' is more prevalent in proper terms, such as in ''[[Cathay Pacific|Cathay Pacific Airways]]'' or ''[[Cathay Hotel]]''.

[[Cathay Bank]] is a bank with multiple branches throughout the United States and other countries.

[[Cathay Cineplex]] is a cinema operator in Singapore operated by the [[Cathay Organisation]].

[[Cathay United Bank]] and [[Cathay Life Insurance]] are, respectively, a financial services company and an insurance company, both located in Taiwan.

== References ==

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}

* Karl A. Wittfogel and Feng Chia-Sheng, "History of Chinese Society: Liao (907–1125)". in ''Transactions of American Philosophical Society'' (vol. 36, Part 1, 1946). Available [https://books.google.com/books?id=g08LAAAAIAAJ on Google Books].
* [[Nicolas Trigault|Trigault, Nicolas]] S. J. "China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Mathew Ricci: 1583–1610". English translation by [[Louis J. Gallagher]], S.J. (New York: Random House, Inc. 1953) of the Latin work, ''[[De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas]]'' based on [[Matteo Ricci]]'s journals completed by [[Nicolas Trigault]]. Of particular relevance are Book Five, Chapter 11, "Cathay and China: The Extraordinary Odyssey of a Jesuit Lay Brother" and Chapter 12, "Cathay and China Proved to Be Identical." (pp. 499–521 in 1953 edition). There is also [https://books.google.com/books?id=iLsWAAAAQAAJ full Latin text] available on [[Google Books]].
* "The Journey of Benedict Goës from Agra to Cathay" – [[Henry Yule]]'s translation of the relevant chapters of ''[[De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas]]'', with detailed notes and an introduction. In: {{cite book |editor-first = Sir Henry |editor-last = Yule |translator-first = Sir Henry |translator-last = Yule

| publisher = Printed for the Hakluyt society |year = 1866
| title = Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China. Issue 37 of Works issued by the Hakluyt Society
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KzEMAAAAIAAJ |pages = 529–596}}

* {{citation |first1 = Donald F. |last1 = Lach |first2 = Edwin J. |last2 = Van Kley |title = Asia in the Making of Europe |location = Chicago |publisher = University of Chicago Press |year = 1994 |isbn = 978-0-226-46734-4}}. Volume III, ''A Century of Advance'', Book Four, ''East Asia''.

{{refend}}

{{-}}
{{Liao dynasty topics}}

[[Category:Names of China]]

Michigan Center, Michigan

2024-02-19T16:22:20Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Demographics */

{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Michigan Center, Michigan
|settlement_type = [[Census-designated place]] (CDP) & [[unincorporated area|unincorporated community]]
|nickname =
|motto =


|image_skyline =
|imagesize =
|image_caption =
|image_flag =
|image_seal =


|pushpin_map = Michigan#USA
|pushpin_label_position = left
|pushpin_label = Michigan Center
|pushpin_map_caption = Location within the state of Michigan
|pushpin_mapsize =
|image_map = Michigan Center (CDP), MI location.png
|mapsize = 250
|map_caption = Location within [[Jackson County, Michigan|Jackson County]]


|subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
|subdivision_name = United States
|subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Michigan]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Michigan|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Jackson County, Michigan|Jackson]]
|subdivision_type3 = [[Civil township|Township]]
|subdivision_name3 = [[Leoni Township, Michigan|Leoni]]


|government_footnotes =
|government_type =
|leader_title =
|leader_name =
|leader_title1 =
|leader_name1 =
|established_title = [[Plat]]ted
|established_date = 1837


|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes = <ref name="CenPopGazetteer2020">{{cite web|title=2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_place_26.txt|publisher=United States Census Bureau|accessdate=May 21, 2022}}</ref>
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 14.76
|area_land_km2 = 13.06
|area_water_km2 = 1.70
|area_total_sq_mi = 5.70
|area_land_sq_mi = 5.04
|area_water_sq_mi = 0.66


|population_as_of = [[2020 United States Census|2020]]
|population_footnotes =
|population_total = 4609
|population_density_km2 = 353.04
|population_density_sq_mi = 914.30


|timezone = [[North American Eastern Time Zone|Eastern (EST)]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = EDT
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|elevation_footnotes = <ref name="gnis"/>
|elevation_m = 288
|elevation_ft = 945
|coordinates = {{coord|42|13|59|N|84|19|38|W|region:US-MI_type:city_source:GNIS|display=inline,title}}
|postal_code_type = [[ZIP Code|ZIP code(s)]]
|postal_code = 49254
|area_code = [[Area code 517|517]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 26-53580<ref name="GR2">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=U.S. Census website}}</ref>
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 0632205<ref name="gnis">{{gnis|0632205}}</ref>
|website =
|footnotes =
|pop_est_as_of =
|pop_est_footnotes =
|population_est =
}}
'''Michigan Center''' is an [[Unincorporated area|unincorporated community]] and [[census-designated place]] (CDP) in [[Jackson County, Michigan|Jackson County]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Michigan]]. The population was 4,672 at the [[2010 United States Census|2010 census]].<ref name="Census 2010">{{Cite web| url=https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_SF1/G001/1600000US2653580| title=Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Census Summary File 1 (G001): Michigan Center CDP, Michigan| publisher=U.S. Census Bureau| work=American Factfinder| accessdate=August 1, 2018| archive-url=https://archive.today/20200213112608/https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_SF1/G001/1600000US2653580| archive-date=February 13, 2020| url-status=dead}}</ref> The CDP is located within [[Leoni Township, Michigan|Leoni Township]] on the eastern border of the city of [[Jackson, Michigan|Jackson]].

Michigan Center was [[plat]]ted as "Michigan Centre" in 1837 by Abel Fitch and Paul Ring, although there were settlements in the area from at least 1834. The name was presumably derived from the proximity to the [[Michigan meridian]] which divided the state into eastern and western portions for surveying. The community is not close to any sort of geographical center of the state. Fitch became the first postmaster in 1838.

Michigan Center began developing as a mill town on a tributary of the [[Grand River (Michigan)|Grand River]]. There was a station on the [[Michigan Central Railroad]]. However, nearby Jackson rapidly outpaced Michigan Center, which has since become a bedroom community to the city.

==Geography==
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the CDP has a total area of {{convert|5.70|sqmi|sqkm|2}}, of which {{convert|5.04|sqmi|sqkm|2}} is land and {{convert|0.66|sqmi|sqkm|2}} (11.58%) is water.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-24.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019111423/http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-24.pdf |archive-date=2012-10-19 |url-status=live|format=PDF |title=Michigan: 2010 Population and Housing Unit Counts 2010 Census of Population and Housing | date = September 2012|publisher = [[United States Census Bureau]]| work = [[2010 United States Census]]| accessdate = May 1, 2020|page=26 Michigan}}</ref>

Michigan Center is in eastern Jackson County, in the southern part of Leoni Township. The CDP shares a slight western border with the city of [[Jackson, Michigan|Jackson]] but is otherwise surrounded by [[Leoni Township, Michigan|Leoni Township]] on the north, east, and west with a southern boundary with [[Napoleon Township, Michigan|Napoleon Township]].

The community is situated primarily around the northern end of Center Lake, formed by a dam on a tributary of the Grand River. Several other nearby lakes on the same tributary form a connected chain of lakes: Round Lake, Price Lake, Moon Lake, Little Dollar Lake, Dollar Lake, Olcott Lake, Little Olcott Lake, Wolf Lake and Little Wolf Lake. Local residents travel between the first several lakes using small boats or personal watercraft.

==Demographics==
{{US Census population
|2020= 4609
|footnote=U.S. Decennial Census<ref name="DecennialCensus">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html|title=Census of Population and Housing|publisher=Census.gov|accessdate=June 4, 2016}}</ref>
}}
As of the [[census]]<ref name="GR2" /> of 2000, there were 4,641 people, 1,856 households, and 1,308 families residing in the CDP. The population density was {{convert|895.6|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|sp=us|adj=off}}. There were 1,961 housing units at an average density of {{convert|378.4|/sqmi|/km2|sp=us|adj=off}}. The racial makeup of the CDP was 97.72% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.34% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (United States Census)|African American]], 0.43% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.43% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.26% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 0.82% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 1.53% of the population.

There were 1,856 households, out of which 29.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.1% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.5% were non-families. 23.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.94.

In the CDP, 23.5% of the population was under the age of 18, 6.8% was from 18 to 24, 30.3% from 25 to 44, 24.2% from 45 to 64, and 15.2% was 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.8 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $43,056, and the median income for a family was $49,159. Males had a median income of $38,233 versus $29,048 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the CDP was $18,701. About 3.6% of families and 4.9% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 4.3% of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over.

== Local events ==
Michigan Center hosts the annual Carp Carnival at Leoni Township Park in June. The festival features a parade, fishing contest, midway games and rides, chicken barbecue dinners and beer tent.

==See also==
*[[Michigan Center High School]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://mccardinals.org/ Michigan Center School District]
*[http://www.carpcarnival.com/ Carp Carnival]

{{Jackson County, Michigan}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Census-designated places in Michigan]]
[[Category:Unincorporated communities in Michigan]]
[[Category:Unincorporated communities in Jackson County, Michigan]]
[[Category:Census-designated places in Jackson County, Michigan]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1837]]
[[Category:1837 establishments in Michigan]]

Siege of Acre (1291)

2024-02-19T16:11:17Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Aftermath */

{{Short description|Part of the Crusades}}
{{About|the Siege of Acre (1291)|other sieges|Siege of Acre (disambiguation){{!}}Siege of Acre}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Acre (1291)
| partof = the [[Crusades|Crusades]]
| image = Image:1291 siège d'Acre.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = ''[[Matthew of Clermont|Matthieu de Clermont]] défend [[Ptolemais in Phoenicia|Ptolémaïs]] en 1291'', by [[Dominique Papety]] (1815–49) at [[Salles des Croisades]] in [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]]
| date = 4 April – 18 May 1291
| place = [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
| coordinates = {{coord|32|56|N|35|05|E|region:IL_type:event_source:kolossus-cawiki|display=title,inline}}
| result = Decisive [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] victory
End of the Levant [[Crusades]]
| territory = Acre captured by the Mamluks
| combatant1 = [[Mamluk Sultanate]]
* [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] [[List of Ayyubid rulers|remnant emirate]] of [[Hama]]
| combatant2 = {{plainlist|
* [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] {{small|(in [[Personal union|union]] with [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus]])}}
* [[Knights Templar]]
* [[Knights Hospitaller]]
* [[Teutonic Order]]
* [[Knights of Saint Thomas|Order of St. Thomas]]
* [[Order of Saint Lazarus|Order of St. Lazarus]]}}
| commander1 = {{Plainlist|
* [[Al-Ashraf Khalil]]
* [[Lajin|Hussam ad-Din Lajin]]
* [[Al-Muzaffar III Mahmud]]
* [[Baybars al-Mansuri]]
* Sayf al-Din Bilban}}
| commander2 = {{Plainlist|
* [[Henry II of Jerusalem|Henry II, King of Jerusalem and Cyprus]]
* [[Amalric of Tyre]]
* [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]]{{KIA}}
* [[Thibaud Gaudin]]
* [[Pierre de Severy]]{{KIA}}
* [[Jean de Villiers (Grand Master)|Jean de Villiers]]
* [[Matthew of Clermont]]{{KIA}}
* [[Konrad von Feuchtwangen]]
* [[Otto de Grandson]]
* [[Jean I de Grailly|Jean de Grailly]]}} {{DOW}}
| strength1 = Unknown
| strength2 = Acre: 15,000<ref name="Folda_485">Folda (2005), p. 485</ref>
Cyprus: 700<ref name="Nicolle, p. 39">Nicolle (2005), p. 39</ref>
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = 10,000+<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sean McGlynn |date=18 May 2018 |title=The Siege of Acre: a monstrous blot on the Third Crusade |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2018/05/the-siege-of-acre-a-monstrous-blot-on-the-third-crusade/ |access-date=17 August 2019 |website=[[The Spectator]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180514085514/https://www.spectator.co.uk/2018/05/the-siege-of-acre-a-monstrous-blot-on-the-third-crusade/|archive-date=May 14, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> 
| notes =
}}

{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}
The '''siege of Acre''' (also called the '''fall of Acre''') took place in 1291 and resulted in the [[Crusades|Crusaders]]' losing control of [[Acre (city)|Acre]] to the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluks]]. It is considered one of the most important battles of the period. Although the crusading movement continued for several more centuries, the capture of the city marked the end of further crusades to the [[Levant]]. When Acre fell, the Crusaders lost their last major stronghold of the Crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. They still maintained a fortress at the northern city of [[Tartus]] (now in north-western Syria), engaged in some coastal raids, and attempted an incursion from the tiny island of [[Arwad|Ruad]]; but, when they lost that, too, in [[siege of Ruad|a siege in 1302]], the Crusaders no longer controlled any part of the [[Holy Land]].<ref name="crusade-en">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Acre, Siege of (1291) |encyclopedia=The Crusades: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=[[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6cSXSgAACAAJ |last=Burgtorf |first=Jochen |editor-last=Alan V. Murray |volume=1 |pages=13–14 |oclc=70122512}}</ref>

==Background==
In 1187, [[Saladin]] conquered much of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (also called the [[Latin Kingdom]]), including Acre and [[Jerusalem]], after winning the [[Battle of Hattin]] and inflicting heavy losses on the Crusaders. The [[Third Crusade]] was launched in response; the Crusaders [[Siege of Acre (1189)|besieged]] and eventually recaptured Acre in 1191. Acre became the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The religious orders made their headquarters in and around the city, and from there made crucial military and diplomatic decisions. For example, when the [[Mongol]]s arrived from the East in the mid-13th century, the Christians saw them as potential allies.

In 1250, the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] arose in [[Egypt]]; it was a more dangerous enemy than the [[Ayyubids]]. The Mamluks fielded heavy cavalry – a match for the Crusader knights – and were much more hostile. The Crusaders initally attempted to maintain a cautious neutrality with the Mamluks. In 1260,
the Barons of Acre granted the Mamluks safe passage through the Latin Kingdom en route to fighting the Mongols; the Mamluks subsequently won the pivotal [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in [[Galilee]] against the Mongols. This was an example of atypically cordial relations between the Christians and the Mamluks.<ref name="britannica">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Ayn-Jalut|title=Battle of Ayn Jalut | Summary | Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref>

However, as early as 1261, after the Battle of Ain Jalut, [[Sultan]] [[Baibars]] led the Mamluks against the Crusaders. Baibars captured [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], [[Haifa]], and [[Arsuf]] in 1265, all the important Crusader holdings in Galilee the following year, and then [[Siege of Antioch (1268)|Antioch]] in 1268.<ref>Folda, Jaroslav (2005). Crusader art in the Holy Land : from the Third Crusade to the fall of Acre, 1187–1291. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521835831.</ref>

European states launched a number of minor Crusading expeditions to reinforce the Crusader states, including the [[Eighth Crusade|abortive Crusade]] of [[Louis IX of France]] to [[Tunis]] in 1270, and the minor [[Ninth Crusade]] of Prince Edward (later [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]) of England in 1271–1272. The expeditions failed to provide the required relief; they were too small, too short-lived, and the interests of the participants were too diverse.<ref> Newman, Albert Henry, A Manual of Church History, p. 461</ref>

[[Image:Siege of Tripoli Painting (1289).jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Fall of Tripoli (1289)|fall of Tripoli]] in 1289 triggered frantic preparations to save Acre.]]
More seriously, no major reinforcing Crusade was forthcoming. [[Pope Gregory X]] was unable to rally support for another great Crusade. Papal advisors blamed the lack of enthusiasm to the laziness and vice of the European nobility and to clerical corruption. A more fundamental reason seems to have been the debasement of the Crusading ideal; Gregory X's predecessors had used Crusades to raise armies against the Papacy's European enemies.<ref> Newman, Albert Henry, A Manual of Church History, p. 461</ref>

The Crusader states continued to deteriorate from continuing attacks and political instability. In 1276, the unpopular "[[King of Jerusalem]]" [[Hugh III of Cyprus|Hugh III]] moved his court to [[Cyprus]].<ref>Edbury, Peter W. (1994). The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades, 1191–1374. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45837-5, pp 90.</ref> Under Sultan [[Al-Mansur Qalawun]], the Mamluks captured [[Lattakia]] in 1278, and [[Fall of Tripoli (1289)|conquered]] the [[County of Tripoli]] in 1289. Qalawun concluded a ten-year truce with the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1284.<ref>Rabbat, Nasser O. (2021). The Citadel of Cairo. Brill. p. 136. ISBN 978-90-04-49248-6.</ref>

Following the fall of Tripoli, King [[Henry II of Jerusalem|Henry II]], son of Hugh III, sent [[seneschal]] [[Jean I de Grailly|Jean de Grailly]] to warn European monarchs of the critical situation in the [[Levant]].<ref name="Runciman_408">Runciman (1951), p. 408</ref> [[Pope Nicholas IV]] supported Jean by writing letters urging European potentates to act. However, the [[War of the Sicilian Vespers|Sicilian question]] overshadowed calls for a new Crusade, and Edward I of England was too entangled by troubles at home.<ref>Schneidman, J.Lee (December 1969). "Ending the War of the Sicilian Vespers". Journal of Peace Research. 6 (4): 335–347. doi:10.1177/002234336900600404. ISSN 0022-3433. S2CID 110273792.</ref>

Decades of communications between the Europeans and the Mongols failed to secure a meaningful [[Franco-Mongol alliance]].<ref>Atwood. "Western Europe and the Mongol Empire" in Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. p. 583. "Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam".</ref><ref>Ryan, James D. (November 1998). "Christian Wives of Mongol Khans: Tartar Queens and Missionary Expectations in Asia". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. 8 (3): 411–421. doi:10.1017/S1356186300010506. JSTOR 25183572.</ref>

===Pretext for attack===
One Arabian account claims that an affair between a rich young wife of the city and a ''Mussulman'' was discovered by the husband who:

{{quote|gathers together some friends goes out from Ptolemais [...] and immolates them both to his injured honour. Some Mussulmans are drawn to the spot, the Christians come up in still greater numbers, the quarrel becomes angry and general and every Mussulman is massacred.|The History of the Crusades, Vol. 3, p. 73, Michaud and Robson<ref name="michaud">Michaud, ''The History of the Crusades'', Vol. 3, p. 18; available [https://books.google.com/books?id=mAcMAAAAYAAJ in full at Google Books]. Note that in a footnote Michaud claims reliance on "the chronicle of Ibn Ferat" (Michaud, Vol. 3, p. 22) for much of the information he has concerning the ''Mussulmans''.</ref>}}

The Crusaders feared that Qalawun would use this as a pretext to resume the war, and petitioned the pontiff for reinforcements. According to Michaud, 25 Venetian galleys carrying 1600 men "levied in haste in Italy" were sent.<ref name=michaud/> Other sources claim 20 galleys of peasants and unemployed townfolks from [[Tuscany]] and [[Lombardy]], led by [[Nicholas Tiepolo]], the son of [[Doge (title)|Doge]] [[Lorenzo Tiepolo]], who was assisted by the returning Jean de Grailly and [[Roux of Sully]]. These were joined by five galleys from King [[James II of Aragon]] who wished to help despite his conflict with the Pope and Venice.<ref name="Runciman_409">Runciman (1951), p. 409</ref>

The Italian reinforcements were ill-disciplined and without regular pay; they pillaged indiscriminately from both Muslims and Christians before setting out from Acre. According to Runciman they attacked and killed some Muslim merchants around Acre in August 1290,<ref name="Runciman_408" /> although in Michaud's account they instead pillaged and massacred towns and villages. Qalawun demanded the [[extradition]] of the Christian perpetrators. On the suggestion of [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]], the [[Grand Masters of the Knights Templar|Grand Master]] of the [[Knights Templar]], the Council of Acre debated the issue; the Sultan's demand was rejected, with the Crusaders claiming that the murdered Muslims had been responsible for their own deaths.<ref>Runciman (1951), pp. 410–411</ref>

==Siege==

===Prelude to battle===
Sultan Qalawun dissolved the truce with Acre and the Mamluks began mobilizing by October 1290. Qalawun died in December and was succeeded by his son, [[Al-Ashraf Khalil]]<ref name="Claster_286">Claster (2009), p. 286</ref> (sometimes spelled ''Chalil''.<ref name=michaud/>) Guillaume de Beaujeu received a message from Khalil, which stated the latter's intention to attack Acre and to refuse peace overtures.<ref>"Because you have been a true man, so we send you advance notice of our intentions, and give you to understand that we are coming into your parts to right the wrongs that have been done. Therefore we do not want the community of Acre to send us any letters or presents (regarding this matter), for we will by no means receive them." —From the letter of Al-Ashraf Khalil to [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]], The [[Templar of Tyre]], ''[[Gestes des Chiprois]]'', p. 104 / part 3</ref> Nonetheless, the Crusaders dispatched a peace delegation, led by Sir Philip Mainebeuf,<ref name=":1">The Templar of Tyre, ''Gestes des Chiprois'', p. 104 / part 3</ref><ref>Philip Mainebeuf, who spoke Arabic, was accompanied by a knight named Bartholomew Pisan and a scribe named George. The Templar of Tyre, ''Gestes des Chiprois'', p. 104 / part 3</ref> to Cairo; the delegation was imprisoned.{{Unreliable source?|date=October 2009}}<ref>Asili, p. 110</ref><ref name=":1"/> Khalil set out from Cairo in March 1291.<ref name="Claster_286" />

The assembled Mamluk army greatly outnumbered the Crusaders. Khalil called upon Syria to reinforce his Egyptian army;<ref name="Folda_485" /> he was answered by contingents from Damascus (led by [[Lajin]]), [[Hama]] (led by al-Muzaffar Taqai ad-Din), [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] (led by Bilban) and [[Al-Karak]] (led by Baibars al-Dewadar.)<ref>There are no reliable figures for the Muslim army, according to some sources it consisted of 60 000 cavalry and 160 000 infantry. Though the numbers seem exaggerated, the army of the Muslim was probably larger than that of the Crusaders. Asili, p. 111</ref><ref>Michaud, ''ibid'', pp. 75–76, gives account of 7 emirs leaving in ''Kalouan's'' (ie Sultan Qalawun) stead as he was ill; he reports that each emir had 4,000 horse and 20,000-foot at his command – giving about 160,000 men.</ref> A significant portion of the troops were volunteers.<ref>[[Abu al-Fida]], p. 278 / vol. 13. According to Ibn Taghri most of Khalil's troops were volunteers. Ibn Taghri, p. 5 / vol. 8</ref> The army included a substantial artillery train<ref name="Folda_485" /> drawn from fortresses across the Mamluk empire. Hama sent the enormous catapult "The Victorious"<ref name="Claster_286" /> ({{lang|ar|المنصورى}}, ''{{transl|ar|Al-Mansuri}}''.){{refn|group=nb|This may have been a reference to the Sultan, who was Khalil Al-Mansuri.}} Another large catapult was "The Furious" ({{lang|ar|الغاضبة}}, ''{{transl|ar|Al-Ghadibah}}''.) There were also lighter [[mangonel]]s called "Black Bulls" ({{lang|ar|الثيران السوداء}}, ''{{transl|ar|Al-Thiran Al-Sawda'a}}''.).<ref>Asili, p. 110; Templar of Tyre, p. 105</ref>

Notable historians in the Mamluks ranks included Baibars al-Dewadar,<ref>Rukn ad-Din Baibars al-Dewadar was also a historian. He gave his account about the battle for Acre in his book "Zobdat al-Fikrah Fi Tarikh al-Hijrah ( 11 volumes )".</ref> and [[Abu al-Fida]] in the Haman contingent.<ref>Asli, p. 114</ref>

The Crusaders appeals for aid met with little success. England sent a few knights, including [[Otto de Grandson]] of [[Savoy]]. The only noteworthy reinforcements came from Henry II of Cyprus, who fortified the walls and sent troops led by his brother [[Amalric, Prince of Tyre|Amalric]]. [[Burchard von Schwanden]] suddenly resigned as [[Grand Master of the Teutonic Order|Grand Master]] of the [[Teutonic Order]] and left Acre for Europe; he was succeeded by [[Konrad von Feuchtwangen]]. The only major contingent to leave were the [[Genoa|Genoese]], who concluded a separate treaty with Khalil. Many women and children were evacuated from Acre to Cyprus in March.<ref name="Claster_286" />

Acre was defended by an inner and outer wall, with a total of twelve towers built by European kings and rich pilgrims.<ref>Among these towers were the Tower of the Countess of Blois, the Accursed Tower, the Tower of the Legate, the Tower of the Patriarch, the Tower of St. Nicholas, the English Tower, the Germans Tower, the Tower of Henri II, the Tower of King Hugh and the Tower of St. Lazarus. Asili, p. 113; Templar of Tyre, p. 106 / note2</ref><ref>The English tower was built by Henry I. Asili, p. 113</ref><ref>The Tower of the Countess of Blois was built by the Countess of Blois. Asili, p. 114</ref>

===Siege begins===
[[Image:Map of Acre in 1291.svg|thumb|upright|right|Map of Acre in 1291]]
Sultan Khalil and the Egyptian army arrived at Acre on 6 April 1291,<ref name="Folda_485" /><ref name="Claster_286" /> with the Syrian contingents arriving two days later with siege engines. The Mamluk encampment spanned from one coast to the other about two kilometres from the city walls. The red ''dihliz'' – the Sultan's personal tent and headquarters – was on a small hill west of the Legate's Tower. There was little fighting during the first eight days as the besiegers established their camp. From days nine to eleven the Mamluks pushed forward barricades and [[wicker]] screens until they reached the [[Moat|fosse]] before the outer wall; Carabohas, rapid-fire siege engines, were brought up. The besiegers began mining and bombarding the walls.<ref name="Folda_485" /> Acre's gates remained open – but heavily defended – as [[sally port]]s.<ref name="Folda_485" />

The Crusaders launched multiple attacks on the Mamluk camp. An amphibious assault on the Hamans – stationed on the northernmost section of the line by the sea – was successful although the Crusaders suffered heavy casualties.<ref name="Folda_485" /> In another raid, three hundred Templar, led by [[Jean I de Grailly|Jean de Grailly]] and [[Otto de Grandson]], rode out under moonlight to attack Haman artillery with [[Greek fire]]; while the artillery was not destroyed, the Templar engaged over 1000 Mamluks and returned with trophies and captured supplies. Khalil punished some subordinates for the humiliation caused by the Templar. In general, Crusader attacks failed to disrupt Mamluk preparations for a direct assault on the walls.<ref name="Folda_486">Folda (2005), p. 486</ref>

Henry II of Cyprus arrived on 4 May with reinforcements<ref name="Folda_486" /><ref name="Claster_286" /> of 700 troops aboard 40 ships.<ref name="Nicolle, p. 39" /> The king's arrival temporarily buoyed morale, but an inspection of the city convinced Henry II to attempt a negotiated settlement; the Crusaders believed that tribute could buy a truce. On 17 May, William of Villiers, a knight, and William of Caffran, of Guillaume de Beaujeu's household, were sent to negotiate with the Sultan. The negotiations were unsuccessful. The Crusaders refused to surrender, and appealed to Khalil to lift the siege and accept peace for the sake of the civilian inhabitants. Khalil remained intent on conquering the city, perhaps encouraged by the popularity of the cause among his troops; his counteroffer to allow the defenders to surrender and leave with their lives and property was rejected. Toward the end of the meeting, a Crusader artillery stone landed near the ''dihliz''; the Sultan was greatly angered and ordered a full assault the following day. The messengers returned to the city unharmed.<ref name="Folda_486" />

The Mamluk assault was preceded by weeks of preparation. By 18 May, multiple towers and parts of the wall were collapsed by [[Tunnel warfare|undermining]], and sections of the fosse filled in. The collapse of the Tower of the King was particularly demoralizing among the defenders, and the evacuation of women and children accelerated.<ref name="Folda_486" />

===Storming the city===
[[File:Siège d'Acre (1291).png|thumb|upright|14th-century illustration of the siege in the ''[[Grandes Chroniques de France]]'', depicting the Mamluks [[Tunnel warfare|undermining]] the city walls]]
The Mamluk army assembled before dawn on 18 May<ref name="Folda_486" /> and attacked the entire length of the wall to the sound of trumpets and drums carried on 300 camels.<ref>Al-Maqrizi, p. 223 / vol. 2; Asili, p. 118</ref><ref>Michaud, ''ibid'', p. 78</ref> The Mamluks poured through the breaches; by 9{{nbsp}}a.m. the outcome seems to have been beyond doubt.<ref name="Folda_487" /> The Mamluks captured the Accursed Tower on the inner wall<ref>The Accursed Tower was placed between the Tower of King Henri II and the Tower of the Teutonic Knights. Templar of Tyre, p. 106; Asili, p. 113</ref> and forced the Crusaders to retreat to the Gate of St. Anthony.<ref name=":0">Templar of Tyre, p. 113</ref> Guillaume de Beaujeu was mortally wounded defending the Gate of St. Anthony.{{refn|group=nb|He was buried in the Templar fortress before the fall of the city.<ref name="Folda_487">Folda (2005), p. 487</ref>}}<ref name="Folda_486" /> On the Montmusard walls, the Lazarists remained while the Templars and Hospitallers<ref name="accursed_tower_216"> {{cite book |last1=Crowley |first1=Roger |title=The Accursed Tower: The Fall of Acre and the End of the Crusades |date=2019 |publisher=Hachette Book Group INC. |location=New York, NY |page=216}}</ref> made a failed attempt to retake the Accursed Tower.<ref name=":0"/> The redeployment allowed the Hamans to break through the Montmusard walls and kill the Lazarists. The Mamluks gained more penetrations as the Crusaders abandoned the walls.<ref name="accursed_tower_216"/>

The Mamluks pushed into the city, looting<ref name="accursed_tower_216"/> and massacring any they encountered.<ref name="Folda_487" />{{refn|group=nb|According to Ludolph of Suchem (which seems exaggerated): "In Acre and the other places nearly a hundred and six thousand men were slain or taken, and more than two hundred thousand escaped from thence. Of the Saracens more than three hundred thousand were slain, as is well known even to this day."<ref name=":2">Ludolph of Suchem, pp. 268-272</ref>}} Organized Crusader resistance collapsed, and the retreat to the harbour and the ships was chaotic;<ref name="Folda_487" /><ref name="accursed_tower_216"/> wealthy refugees offered exorbitant sums for safe passage.{{refn|group=nb|[[Roger de Flor]], a mercenary commander and Knight Templar, made his fortune by selling passage to fleeing nobles and blackmailing refugees.<ref>Asili, pp. 120-121</ref>}}{{refn|group=nb|"More than five hundred most noble ladies and maidens, the daughters of kings and princes, came down to the seashore, when the city was about to fall, carrying with them all their jewels and ornaments of gold and precious stones, of priceless value, in their bosoms, and cried aloud, whether there were any sailor there who would take all their jewels and take whichever of them he chose to wife, if only he would take them, even naked, to some safe land or island"<ref name=":2"/>}} Henry II and [[Jean de Villiers (Grand Master)|Jean de Villiers]], [[List of Grand Masters of the Knights Hospitaller|Grand Master]] of the [[Knights Hospitaller]], were among those evacuated. The evacuation was made more difficult by the poor weather.<ref name="Folda_487" />

===Acre falls===
[[File:SiegeOfAcre1291BNF.JPG|thumb|right|upright|The city of Acre fell in 1291, and its Latin Christian population was killed or enslaved.|alt=Image of siege of Acre]]
By the night of 18 May,<ref>Templar of Tyre, p. 104</ref> Acre was in Mamluk hands, except for the seaside Templar fortress at the western tip of the city.<ref name="Folda_487"/> The fortress contained four towers, and within were remnants of the Templar, Hospitallers, and Teutonic Knights, and thousands of civilians.<ref name="crusade_christendom">{{cite book |editor1-last=Bird |editor1-first=Jessalynn |editor2-last=Peters |editor2-first=Edward |editor3-last=Powell |editor3-first=James M. |title=Crusade and Christendom: Annotated Documents in Translation from Innocent III to the Fall of Acre, 1187–1291 |series=The Middle Ages Series |date=2013 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-4478-6 |pages=489–491}}</ref><ref name="accursed_tower_"/> The fortress held out for ten more days, during which [[Matthew of Clermont]], a Hospitaller marshal, was killed.<ref name="Folda_487" /> Templar [[Thibaud Gaudin]] and a few others left the fortress under the cover of darkness, taking the Templar treasury with them to [[Sidon]].{{refn|group=nb|Thibaud Gaudin was elected as Grand Master of the Knights Templar at Sidon.}}{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}<ref name="accursed_tower_"/>
On 20 May, the tower held by the Templars, led by Peter de Severy, asked for amnesty.<ref name="crusade_christendom"/>
Sultan Khalil agreed to allow the woman and children to leave the city. The gates were opened and 400 horseman entered the complex, but they immediately attacked the women and children. Peter de Severy refused to accept this and ordered the gates to be closed, trapping the horsemen. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref> A battle ensued, but this time the Christians had the advantage. Of the 400 horsemen who entered the fortress, only a handful escaped. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref> The others were either killed or beheaded. The battles were fierce and relentless. This wasn't just the last stand at Acre, it was the last stand of the crusader states.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref> When the fighting stopped, Peter de Severy received another letter from the Sultan. In it, he stated that his men deserved their deaths for their undisciplined behavior. Furthermore, he asked the marshal to leave his fortress to discuss terms. It was a lie. Trying to spare the civilian population under his protection, Peter de Severy opened the gates and stepped forward with a delegation of Knights Templar. Before they could reach the enemy's encampments they were killed by the Sultan's troops.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref>
Further offers of amnesty were rejected by the Crusaders. On 28 May, the final tower surrendered; Mamluk mines were prepared to destroy the tower making further resistance useless.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} The tower collapsed after prisoners and booty had been removed; according to Mamluk accounts, a few sightseers and looters were killed.<ref name="accursed_tower_">{{cite book |last1=Crowley |first1=Roger |title=The Accursed Tower: The Fall of Acre and the End of the Crusades |date=2019 |publisher=Hachette Book Group INC. |location=New York, NY}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=November 2020}}{{refn|group=nb|According to Ludolph of Suchem, the Templars deliberately caused the collapse by undermining the walls.<ref>Ludolphi, Rectoris Ecclesiæ Parochialis in suchem, p. 46</ref>}}

News of the Mamluk victory caused celebrations in Damascus and Cairo. In Damascus, Khalil entered the city with chained Crusader prisoners and captured Crusader standards – carried upside-down in defeat. The Sultan returned to Cairo with the gate of the [[Church of Saint Andrew, Acre|Church of Saint Andrew]] from Acre, which was used to construct a mosque<ref>Asili, p. 123</ref> and released Philip Mainebeuf's delegation.<ref>Ibn Taghri, p. 9 / vol. 8</ref> Furthermore, celebrations were described as:
“The entire city had been decorated, and sheets of satin had been laid along his triumphal path through the city leading to the palace of the governor. The regal sultan was proceeded by 280 fettered prisoners. One bore a reversed Frankish banner; another carried a banner and spear from which the hair of slain comrades was suspended. Al-Ashraf was greeted by the whole population of Damascus and the surrounding countryside lining the route, ulama [legal scholars], mosque officials, Sufi sheiks, Christians and Jews, all holding candles even though the parade took place before noon.”<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nicolle |first1=David |title=Acre 1291: Bloody Sunset of the Crusade |date=2005 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=Oxford, UK |page=87 }}</ref>

==Aftermath==
{{see also|Fall of Ruad}}
The fall of Acre signaled the end of the Jerusalem crusades. No effective crusade was raised to recapture the Holy Land afterwards, though talk of further crusades was common enough. By 1291, other ideals had captured the interest and enthusiasm of the monarchs and nobility of Europe and even strenuous papal efforts to raise expeditions to retake the [[Holy Land]] met with little response.

The Latin Kingdom continued to exist, theoretically, on the island of Cyprus. There the [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Latin kings]] planned to recapture the mainland, but in vain. Money, men, and the will to do the task were all lacking. One last effort was made by [[Peter I of Cyprus|King Peter I]] in 1365, when he successfully landed in Egypt and [[Alexandrian Crusade|sacked Alexandria]]. Once the city was taken, however, the Crusaders returned to Cyprus. As a crusade, the episode was futile, and this and further coastal raids over the following decades led in 1410–11 to a destructive counter-raid by the [[Mamluk Sultanate]]; in 1426 Cyprus was forced into Mamluk vassalship with a hefty yearly [[tribute]].

The 14th century witnessed other organized campaigns such as the [[Crusade of Nicopolis]], but these enterprises differed in many ways from the 11th- and 12th-century expeditions which are properly called Crusades. The crusades of the 14th century aimed not at the recapture of Jerusalem and the Christian shrines of the [[Holy Land]], but rather at checking the advance of the [[Ottoman Empire]] into Europe. While many of the crusaders in these 14th-century undertakings looked upon the defeat of the Ottomans as a preliminary to the ultimate recapture of the Holy Land, none of the later crusades attempted any direct attack upon Palestine or Syria.

==Historiography==
Two short works dedicated to the siege were produced by contemporaries on the basis of eyewitness accounts: the ''Hystoria de desolacione'' of [[Thaddeus of Naples]] and the anonymous ''[[Excidium Acconis]]''. These survive in four and six manuscripts, respectively.{{sfn|Edgington|2006a}}{{sfn|Edgington|2006b}} The ''[[Gestes des Chiprois]]'', written a generation later and surviving in a single manuscript, is the other main source from the crusaders' perspective.{{sfn|Edgington|2006a}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite book |last=Asili |first=B. |title=Al-Zahir Baibars and the End of the Old Crusades |publisher=Dar Alnafaes |year=1992 |location=Beirut}}
*{{Cite book |last=Claster |first=Jill N. |title=Sacred Violence: The European Crusades to the Middle East, 1095–1396 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=9781442604308}}
*{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Roger |title=The Accursed Tower: The Fall of Acre and the End of the Crusades |publisher=Basic Books |year=2019 |isbn=978-1541697348 |author-link=Roger Crowley}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |first=Susan B. |last=Edgington |title=Excidium Acconis |encyclopedia=The Crusades: An Encyclopedia |editor=Alan V. Murray |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |volume=2 |page=448 |ref={{harvid|Edgington|2006a}}}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |first=Susan B. |last=Edgington |title=Thaddeus of Naples |encyclopedia=The Crusades: An Encyclopedia |editor=Alan V. Murray |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |volume=4 |page=1169 |ref={{harvid|Edgington|2006b}}}}
*{{Cite book |last=Folda |first=Jaroslav |title=Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=9780521835831}}
*{{Cite book |last=Hosler |first=John D. |title=The Siege of Acre, 1189-1191: Saladin, Richard the Lionheart, and the Battle That Decided the Third Crusade |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-300-21550-2 |location=New Haven}}
*{{Cite book |last=Nicolle |first=David |title=Acre 1291: Bloody sunset of the Crusader states |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2005}}
*{{Cite book |last=Runciman |first=Steven |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofcrusade02runc |title=A History of the Crusades |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1951 |url-access=registration}}
*{{Cite book |title=The 'Templar of Tyre': Part III of the 'Deeds of the Cypriots' |publisher=Ashgate |year=2003 |isbn=9781840146189 |translator-last=Crawford |translator-first=Paul}}
*{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=D. |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |publisher=Head Of Zeus |year=2017 |location=London, UK |page=334}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* Antonio Musarra, ''Acri 1291. La caduta degli stati crociati'', Bologna, il Mulino, 2017.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120309203403/http://historyavenue.com/conquest_of_acre_1291.html Siege of Acre 1291]
* ''The history of the crusades'', Volume 3, pp [https://books.google.com/books?id=mAcMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA70 70–89 (Google Books, full view)], by [[Joseph François Michaud]], trans. [[William Robson (writer)|William Robson]]. Note that in this account Acre is referred to as "[[Acre, Israel#Greek and Roman periods|Ptolemaïs]]", Sultan Qalawun as "Kalouan" and Khalil as "Chalil" and throughout the work Muslims are referred to as "Mussulmans". Several contemporary manuscripts, such as the chronicles of [[Ibn Ferat]], are referenced and appendices give some translations.
* ''The Crusades'' by Edward Gibbon (1963), pp. [https://archive.org/stream/crusades00scotgoog#page/n87/mode/1up 76–78], provides a useful short summary of the events of the siege including an overview of the situation in Acre at the time.

{{Sovereign Military Order of Malta}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siege of Acre (1291)}}
[[Category:Sieges of the Crusades|Acre (1291)]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1291]]
[[Category:History of Acre, Israel]]
[[Category:1291 in Asia]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Kingdom of Jerusalem|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Knights Hospitaller|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Knights Templar|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Mamluk Sultanate|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:13th century in the Mamluk Sultanate|Acre]]
[[Category:Military history of the Crusader states after Lord Edward's crusade]]
[[Category:Battles of Fall of Outremer]]
[[Category:Wars in the Land of Israel]]

Siege of Acre (1291)

2024-02-19T16:10:30Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Aftermath */

{{Short description|Part of the Crusades}}
{{About|the Siege of Acre (1291)|other sieges|Siege of Acre (disambiguation){{!}}Siege of Acre}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Acre (1291)
| partof = the [[Crusades|Crusades]]
| image = Image:1291 siège d'Acre.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = ''[[Matthew of Clermont|Matthieu de Clermont]] défend [[Ptolemais in Phoenicia|Ptolémaïs]] en 1291'', by [[Dominique Papety]] (1815–49) at [[Salles des Croisades]] in [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]]
| date = 4 April – 18 May 1291
| place = [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
| coordinates = {{coord|32|56|N|35|05|E|region:IL_type:event_source:kolossus-cawiki|display=title,inline}}
| result = Decisive [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] victory
End of the Levant [[Crusades]]
| territory = Acre captured by the Mamluks
| combatant1 = [[Mamluk Sultanate]]
* [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] [[List of Ayyubid rulers|remnant emirate]] of [[Hama]]
| combatant2 = {{plainlist|
* [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] {{small|(in [[Personal union|union]] with [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus]])}}
* [[Knights Templar]]
* [[Knights Hospitaller]]
* [[Teutonic Order]]
* [[Knights of Saint Thomas|Order of St. Thomas]]
* [[Order of Saint Lazarus|Order of St. Lazarus]]}}
| commander1 = {{Plainlist|
* [[Al-Ashraf Khalil]]
* [[Lajin|Hussam ad-Din Lajin]]
* [[Al-Muzaffar III Mahmud]]
* [[Baybars al-Mansuri]]
* Sayf al-Din Bilban}}
| commander2 = {{Plainlist|
* [[Henry II of Jerusalem|Henry II, King of Jerusalem and Cyprus]]
* [[Amalric of Tyre]]
* [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]]{{KIA}}
* [[Thibaud Gaudin]]
* [[Pierre de Severy]]{{KIA}}
* [[Jean de Villiers (Grand Master)|Jean de Villiers]]
* [[Matthew of Clermont]]{{KIA}}
* [[Konrad von Feuchtwangen]]
* [[Otto de Grandson]]
* [[Jean I de Grailly|Jean de Grailly]]}} {{DOW}}
| strength1 = Unknown
| strength2 = Acre: 15,000<ref name="Folda_485">Folda (2005), p. 485</ref>
Cyprus: 700<ref name="Nicolle, p. 39">Nicolle (2005), p. 39</ref>
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = 10,000+<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sean McGlynn |date=18 May 2018 |title=The Siege of Acre: a monstrous blot on the Third Crusade |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2018/05/the-siege-of-acre-a-monstrous-blot-on-the-third-crusade/ |access-date=17 August 2019 |website=[[The Spectator]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180514085514/https://www.spectator.co.uk/2018/05/the-siege-of-acre-a-monstrous-blot-on-the-third-crusade/|archive-date=May 14, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> 
| notes =
}}

{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}
The '''siege of Acre''' (also called the '''fall of Acre''') took place in 1291 and resulted in the [[Crusades|Crusaders]]' losing control of [[Acre (city)|Acre]] to the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluks]]. It is considered one of the most important battles of the period. Although the crusading movement continued for several more centuries, the capture of the city marked the end of further crusades to the [[Levant]]. When Acre fell, the Crusaders lost their last major stronghold of the Crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. They still maintained a fortress at the northern city of [[Tartus]] (now in north-western Syria), engaged in some coastal raids, and attempted an incursion from the tiny island of [[Arwad|Ruad]]; but, when they lost that, too, in [[siege of Ruad|a siege in 1302]], the Crusaders no longer controlled any part of the [[Holy Land]].<ref name="crusade-en">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Acre, Siege of (1291) |encyclopedia=The Crusades: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=[[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6cSXSgAACAAJ |last=Burgtorf |first=Jochen |editor-last=Alan V. Murray |volume=1 |pages=13–14 |oclc=70122512}}</ref>

==Background==
In 1187, [[Saladin]] conquered much of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (also called the [[Latin Kingdom]]), including Acre and [[Jerusalem]], after winning the [[Battle of Hattin]] and inflicting heavy losses on the Crusaders. The [[Third Crusade]] was launched in response; the Crusaders [[Siege of Acre (1189)|besieged]] and eventually recaptured Acre in 1191. Acre became the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The religious orders made their headquarters in and around the city, and from there made crucial military and diplomatic decisions. For example, when the [[Mongol]]s arrived from the East in the mid-13th century, the Christians saw them as potential allies.

In 1250, the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] arose in [[Egypt]]; it was a more dangerous enemy than the [[Ayyubids]]. The Mamluks fielded heavy cavalry – a match for the Crusader knights – and were much more hostile. The Crusaders initally attempted to maintain a cautious neutrality with the Mamluks. In 1260,
the Barons of Acre granted the Mamluks safe passage through the Latin Kingdom en route to fighting the Mongols; the Mamluks subsequently won the pivotal [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in [[Galilee]] against the Mongols. This was an example of atypically cordial relations between the Christians and the Mamluks.<ref name="britannica">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Ayn-Jalut|title=Battle of Ayn Jalut | Summary | Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref>

However, as early as 1261, after the Battle of Ain Jalut, [[Sultan]] [[Baibars]] led the Mamluks against the Crusaders. Baibars captured [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], [[Haifa]], and [[Arsuf]] in 1265, all the important Crusader holdings in Galilee the following year, and then [[Siege of Antioch (1268)|Antioch]] in 1268.<ref>Folda, Jaroslav (2005). Crusader art in the Holy Land : from the Third Crusade to the fall of Acre, 1187–1291. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521835831.</ref>

European states launched a number of minor Crusading expeditions to reinforce the Crusader states, including the [[Eighth Crusade|abortive Crusade]] of [[Louis IX of France]] to [[Tunis]] in 1270, and the minor [[Ninth Crusade]] of Prince Edward (later [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]) of England in 1271–1272. The expeditions failed to provide the required relief; they were too small, too short-lived, and the interests of the participants were too diverse.<ref> Newman, Albert Henry, A Manual of Church History, p. 461</ref>

[[Image:Siege of Tripoli Painting (1289).jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Fall of Tripoli (1289)|fall of Tripoli]] in 1289 triggered frantic preparations to save Acre.]]
More seriously, no major reinforcing Crusade was forthcoming. [[Pope Gregory X]] was unable to rally support for another great Crusade. Papal advisors blamed the lack of enthusiasm to the laziness and vice of the European nobility and to clerical corruption. A more fundamental reason seems to have been the debasement of the Crusading ideal; Gregory X's predecessors had used Crusades to raise armies against the Papacy's European enemies.<ref> Newman, Albert Henry, A Manual of Church History, p. 461</ref>

The Crusader states continued to deteriorate from continuing attacks and political instability. In 1276, the unpopular "[[King of Jerusalem]]" [[Hugh III of Cyprus|Hugh III]] moved his court to [[Cyprus]].<ref>Edbury, Peter W. (1994). The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades, 1191–1374. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45837-5, pp 90.</ref> Under Sultan [[Al-Mansur Qalawun]], the Mamluks captured [[Lattakia]] in 1278, and [[Fall of Tripoli (1289)|conquered]] the [[County of Tripoli]] in 1289. Qalawun concluded a ten-year truce with the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1284.<ref>Rabbat, Nasser O. (2021). The Citadel of Cairo. Brill. p. 136. ISBN 978-90-04-49248-6.</ref>

Following the fall of Tripoli, King [[Henry II of Jerusalem|Henry II]], son of Hugh III, sent [[seneschal]] [[Jean I de Grailly|Jean de Grailly]] to warn European monarchs of the critical situation in the [[Levant]].<ref name="Runciman_408">Runciman (1951), p. 408</ref> [[Pope Nicholas IV]] supported Jean by writing letters urging European potentates to act. However, the [[War of the Sicilian Vespers|Sicilian question]] overshadowed calls for a new Crusade, and Edward I of England was too entangled by troubles at home.<ref>Schneidman, J.Lee (December 1969). "Ending the War of the Sicilian Vespers". Journal of Peace Research. 6 (4): 335–347. doi:10.1177/002234336900600404. ISSN 0022-3433. S2CID 110273792.</ref>

Decades of communications between the Europeans and the Mongols failed to secure a meaningful [[Franco-Mongol alliance]].<ref>Atwood. "Western Europe and the Mongol Empire" in Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. p. 583. "Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam".</ref><ref>Ryan, James D. (November 1998). "Christian Wives of Mongol Khans: Tartar Queens and Missionary Expectations in Asia". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. 8 (3): 411–421. doi:10.1017/S1356186300010506. JSTOR 25183572.</ref>

===Pretext for attack===
One Arabian account claims that an affair between a rich young wife of the city and a ''Mussulman'' was discovered by the husband who:

{{quote|gathers together some friends goes out from Ptolemais [...] and immolates them both to his injured honour. Some Mussulmans are drawn to the spot, the Christians come up in still greater numbers, the quarrel becomes angry and general and every Mussulman is massacred.|The History of the Crusades, Vol. 3, p. 73, Michaud and Robson<ref name="michaud">Michaud, ''The History of the Crusades'', Vol. 3, p. 18; available [https://books.google.com/books?id=mAcMAAAAYAAJ in full at Google Books]. Note that in a footnote Michaud claims reliance on "the chronicle of Ibn Ferat" (Michaud, Vol. 3, p. 22) for much of the information he has concerning the ''Mussulmans''.</ref>}}

The Crusaders feared that Qalawun would use this as a pretext to resume the war, and petitioned the pontiff for reinforcements. According to Michaud, 25 Venetian galleys carrying 1600 men "levied in haste in Italy" were sent.<ref name=michaud/> Other sources claim 20 galleys of peasants and unemployed townfolks from [[Tuscany]] and [[Lombardy]], led by [[Nicholas Tiepolo]], the son of [[Doge (title)|Doge]] [[Lorenzo Tiepolo]], who was assisted by the returning Jean de Grailly and [[Roux of Sully]]. These were joined by five galleys from King [[James II of Aragon]] who wished to help despite his conflict with the Pope and Venice.<ref name="Runciman_409">Runciman (1951), p. 409</ref>

The Italian reinforcements were ill-disciplined and without regular pay; they pillaged indiscriminately from both Muslims and Christians before setting out from Acre. According to Runciman they attacked and killed some Muslim merchants around Acre in August 1290,<ref name="Runciman_408" /> although in Michaud's account they instead pillaged and massacred towns and villages. Qalawun demanded the [[extradition]] of the Christian perpetrators. On the suggestion of [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]], the [[Grand Masters of the Knights Templar|Grand Master]] of the [[Knights Templar]], the Council of Acre debated the issue; the Sultan's demand was rejected, with the Crusaders claiming that the murdered Muslims had been responsible for their own deaths.<ref>Runciman (1951), pp. 410–411</ref>

==Siege==

===Prelude to battle===
Sultan Qalawun dissolved the truce with Acre and the Mamluks began mobilizing by October 1290. Qalawun died in December and was succeeded by his son, [[Al-Ashraf Khalil]]<ref name="Claster_286">Claster (2009), p. 286</ref> (sometimes spelled ''Chalil''.<ref name=michaud/>) Guillaume de Beaujeu received a message from Khalil, which stated the latter's intention to attack Acre and to refuse peace overtures.<ref>"Because you have been a true man, so we send you advance notice of our intentions, and give you to understand that we are coming into your parts to right the wrongs that have been done. Therefore we do not want the community of Acre to send us any letters or presents (regarding this matter), for we will by no means receive them." —From the letter of Al-Ashraf Khalil to [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]], The [[Templar of Tyre]], ''[[Gestes des Chiprois]]'', p. 104 / part 3</ref> Nonetheless, the Crusaders dispatched a peace delegation, led by Sir Philip Mainebeuf,<ref name=":1">The Templar of Tyre, ''Gestes des Chiprois'', p. 104 / part 3</ref><ref>Philip Mainebeuf, who spoke Arabic, was accompanied by a knight named Bartholomew Pisan and a scribe named George. The Templar of Tyre, ''Gestes des Chiprois'', p. 104 / part 3</ref> to Cairo; the delegation was imprisoned.{{Unreliable source?|date=October 2009}}<ref>Asili, p. 110</ref><ref name=":1"/> Khalil set out from Cairo in March 1291.<ref name="Claster_286" />

The assembled Mamluk army greatly outnumbered the Crusaders. Khalil called upon Syria to reinforce his Egyptian army;<ref name="Folda_485" /> he was answered by contingents from Damascus (led by [[Lajin]]), [[Hama]] (led by al-Muzaffar Taqai ad-Din), [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] (led by Bilban) and [[Al-Karak]] (led by Baibars al-Dewadar.)<ref>There are no reliable figures for the Muslim army, according to some sources it consisted of 60 000 cavalry and 160 000 infantry. Though the numbers seem exaggerated, the army of the Muslim was probably larger than that of the Crusaders. Asili, p. 111</ref><ref>Michaud, ''ibid'', pp. 75–76, gives account of 7 emirs leaving in ''Kalouan's'' (ie Sultan Qalawun) stead as he was ill; he reports that each emir had 4,000 horse and 20,000-foot at his command – giving about 160,000 men.</ref> A significant portion of the troops were volunteers.<ref>[[Abu al-Fida]], p. 278 / vol. 13. According to Ibn Taghri most of Khalil's troops were volunteers. Ibn Taghri, p. 5 / vol. 8</ref> The army included a substantial artillery train<ref name="Folda_485" /> drawn from fortresses across the Mamluk empire. Hama sent the enormous catapult "The Victorious"<ref name="Claster_286" /> ({{lang|ar|المنصورى}}, ''{{transl|ar|Al-Mansuri}}''.){{refn|group=nb|This may have been a reference to the Sultan, who was Khalil Al-Mansuri.}} Another large catapult was "The Furious" ({{lang|ar|الغاضبة}}, ''{{transl|ar|Al-Ghadibah}}''.) There were also lighter [[mangonel]]s called "Black Bulls" ({{lang|ar|الثيران السوداء}}, ''{{transl|ar|Al-Thiran Al-Sawda'a}}''.).<ref>Asili, p. 110; Templar of Tyre, p. 105</ref>

Notable historians in the Mamluks ranks included Baibars al-Dewadar,<ref>Rukn ad-Din Baibars al-Dewadar was also a historian. He gave his account about the battle for Acre in his book "Zobdat al-Fikrah Fi Tarikh al-Hijrah ( 11 volumes )".</ref> and [[Abu al-Fida]] in the Haman contingent.<ref>Asli, p. 114</ref>

The Crusaders appeals for aid met with little success. England sent a few knights, including [[Otto de Grandson]] of [[Savoy]]. The only noteworthy reinforcements came from Henry II of Cyprus, who fortified the walls and sent troops led by his brother [[Amalric, Prince of Tyre|Amalric]]. [[Burchard von Schwanden]] suddenly resigned as [[Grand Master of the Teutonic Order|Grand Master]] of the [[Teutonic Order]] and left Acre for Europe; he was succeeded by [[Konrad von Feuchtwangen]]. The only major contingent to leave were the [[Genoa|Genoese]], who concluded a separate treaty with Khalil. Many women and children were evacuated from Acre to Cyprus in March.<ref name="Claster_286" />

Acre was defended by an inner and outer wall, with a total of twelve towers built by European kings and rich pilgrims.<ref>Among these towers were the Tower of the Countess of Blois, the Accursed Tower, the Tower of the Legate, the Tower of the Patriarch, the Tower of St. Nicholas, the English Tower, the Germans Tower, the Tower of Henri II, the Tower of King Hugh and the Tower of St. Lazarus. Asili, p. 113; Templar of Tyre, p. 106 / note2</ref><ref>The English tower was built by Henry I. Asili, p. 113</ref><ref>The Tower of the Countess of Blois was built by the Countess of Blois. Asili, p. 114</ref>

===Siege begins===
[[Image:Map of Acre in 1291.svg|thumb|upright|right|Map of Acre in 1291]]
Sultan Khalil and the Egyptian army arrived at Acre on 6 April 1291,<ref name="Folda_485" /><ref name="Claster_286" /> with the Syrian contingents arriving two days later with siege engines. The Mamluk encampment spanned from one coast to the other about two kilometres from the city walls. The red ''dihliz'' – the Sultan's personal tent and headquarters – was on a small hill west of the Legate's Tower. There was little fighting during the first eight days as the besiegers established their camp. From days nine to eleven the Mamluks pushed forward barricades and [[wicker]] screens until they reached the [[Moat|fosse]] before the outer wall; Carabohas, rapid-fire siege engines, were brought up. The besiegers began mining and bombarding the walls.<ref name="Folda_485" /> Acre's gates remained open – but heavily defended – as [[sally port]]s.<ref name="Folda_485" />

The Crusaders launched multiple attacks on the Mamluk camp. An amphibious assault on the Hamans – stationed on the northernmost section of the line by the sea – was successful although the Crusaders suffered heavy casualties.<ref name="Folda_485" /> In another raid, three hundred Templar, led by [[Jean I de Grailly|Jean de Grailly]] and [[Otto de Grandson]], rode out under moonlight to attack Haman artillery with [[Greek fire]]; while the artillery was not destroyed, the Templar engaged over 1000 Mamluks and returned with trophies and captured supplies. Khalil punished some subordinates for the humiliation caused by the Templar. In general, Crusader attacks failed to disrupt Mamluk preparations for a direct assault on the walls.<ref name="Folda_486">Folda (2005), p. 486</ref>

Henry II of Cyprus arrived on 4 May with reinforcements<ref name="Folda_486" /><ref name="Claster_286" /> of 700 troops aboard 40 ships.<ref name="Nicolle, p. 39" /> The king's arrival temporarily buoyed morale, but an inspection of the city convinced Henry II to attempt a negotiated settlement; the Crusaders believed that tribute could buy a truce. On 17 May, William of Villiers, a knight, and William of Caffran, of Guillaume de Beaujeu's household, were sent to negotiate with the Sultan. The negotiations were unsuccessful. The Crusaders refused to surrender, and appealed to Khalil to lift the siege and accept peace for the sake of the civilian inhabitants. Khalil remained intent on conquering the city, perhaps encouraged by the popularity of the cause among his troops; his counteroffer to allow the defenders to surrender and leave with their lives and property was rejected. Toward the end of the meeting, a Crusader artillery stone landed near the ''dihliz''; the Sultan was greatly angered and ordered a full assault the following day. The messengers returned to the city unharmed.<ref name="Folda_486" />

The Mamluk assault was preceded by weeks of preparation. By 18 May, multiple towers and parts of the wall were collapsed by [[Tunnel warfare|undermining]], and sections of the fosse filled in. The collapse of the Tower of the King was particularly demoralizing among the defenders, and the evacuation of women and children accelerated.<ref name="Folda_486" />

===Storming the city===
[[File:Siège d'Acre (1291).png|thumb|upright|14th-century illustration of the siege in the ''[[Grandes Chroniques de France]]'', depicting the Mamluks [[Tunnel warfare|undermining]] the city walls]]
The Mamluk army assembled before dawn on 18 May<ref name="Folda_486" /> and attacked the entire length of the wall to the sound of trumpets and drums carried on 300 camels.<ref>Al-Maqrizi, p. 223 / vol. 2; Asili, p. 118</ref><ref>Michaud, ''ibid'', p. 78</ref> The Mamluks poured through the breaches; by 9{{nbsp}}a.m. the outcome seems to have been beyond doubt.<ref name="Folda_487" /> The Mamluks captured the Accursed Tower on the inner wall<ref>The Accursed Tower was placed between the Tower of King Henri II and the Tower of the Teutonic Knights. Templar of Tyre, p. 106; Asili, p. 113</ref> and forced the Crusaders to retreat to the Gate of St. Anthony.<ref name=":0">Templar of Tyre, p. 113</ref> Guillaume de Beaujeu was mortally wounded defending the Gate of St. Anthony.{{refn|group=nb|He was buried in the Templar fortress before the fall of the city.<ref name="Folda_487">Folda (2005), p. 487</ref>}}<ref name="Folda_486" /> On the Montmusard walls, the Lazarists remained while the Templars and Hospitallers<ref name="accursed_tower_216"> {{cite book |last1=Crowley |first1=Roger |title=The Accursed Tower: The Fall of Acre and the End of the Crusades |date=2019 |publisher=Hachette Book Group INC. |location=New York, NY |page=216}}</ref> made a failed attempt to retake the Accursed Tower.<ref name=":0"/> The redeployment allowed the Hamans to break through the Montmusard walls and kill the Lazarists. The Mamluks gained more penetrations as the Crusaders abandoned the walls.<ref name="accursed_tower_216"/>

The Mamluks pushed into the city, looting<ref name="accursed_tower_216"/> and massacring any they encountered.<ref name="Folda_487" />{{refn|group=nb|According to Ludolph of Suchem (which seems exaggerated): "In Acre and the other places nearly a hundred and six thousand men were slain or taken, and more than two hundred thousand escaped from thence. Of the Saracens more than three hundred thousand were slain, as is well known even to this day."<ref name=":2">Ludolph of Suchem, pp. 268-272</ref>}} Organized Crusader resistance collapsed, and the retreat to the harbour and the ships was chaotic;<ref name="Folda_487" /><ref name="accursed_tower_216"/> wealthy refugees offered exorbitant sums for safe passage.{{refn|group=nb|[[Roger de Flor]], a mercenary commander and Knight Templar, made his fortune by selling passage to fleeing nobles and blackmailing refugees.<ref>Asili, pp. 120-121</ref>}}{{refn|group=nb|"More than five hundred most noble ladies and maidens, the daughters of kings and princes, came down to the seashore, when the city was about to fall, carrying with them all their jewels and ornaments of gold and precious stones, of priceless value, in their bosoms, and cried aloud, whether there were any sailor there who would take all their jewels and take whichever of them he chose to wife, if only he would take them, even naked, to some safe land or island"<ref name=":2"/>}} Henry II and [[Jean de Villiers (Grand Master)|Jean de Villiers]], [[List of Grand Masters of the Knights Hospitaller|Grand Master]] of the [[Knights Hospitaller]], were among those evacuated. The evacuation was made more difficult by the poor weather.<ref name="Folda_487" />

===Acre falls===
[[File:SiegeOfAcre1291BNF.JPG|thumb|right|upright|The city of Acre fell in 1291, and its Latin Christian population was killed or enslaved.|alt=Image of siege of Acre]]
By the night of 18 May,<ref>Templar of Tyre, p. 104</ref> Acre was in Mamluk hands, except for the seaside Templar fortress at the western tip of the city.<ref name="Folda_487"/> The fortress contained four towers, and within were remnants of the Templar, Hospitallers, and Teutonic Knights, and thousands of civilians.<ref name="crusade_christendom">{{cite book |editor1-last=Bird |editor1-first=Jessalynn |editor2-last=Peters |editor2-first=Edward |editor3-last=Powell |editor3-first=James M. |title=Crusade and Christendom: Annotated Documents in Translation from Innocent III to the Fall of Acre, 1187–1291 |series=The Middle Ages Series |date=2013 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-4478-6 |pages=489–491}}</ref><ref name="accursed_tower_"/> The fortress held out for ten more days, during which [[Matthew of Clermont]], a Hospitaller marshal, was killed.<ref name="Folda_487" /> Templar [[Thibaud Gaudin]] and a few others left the fortress under the cover of darkness, taking the Templar treasury with them to [[Sidon]].{{refn|group=nb|Thibaud Gaudin was elected as Grand Master of the Knights Templar at Sidon.}}{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}<ref name="accursed_tower_"/>
On 20 May, the tower held by the Templars, led by Peter de Severy, asked for amnesty.<ref name="crusade_christendom"/>
Sultan Khalil agreed to allow the woman and children to leave the city. The gates were opened and 400 horseman entered the complex, but they immediately attacked the women and children. Peter de Severy refused to accept this and ordered the gates to be closed, trapping the horsemen. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref> A battle ensued, but this time the Christians had the advantage. Of the 400 horsemen who entered the fortress, only a handful escaped. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref> The others were either killed or beheaded. The battles were fierce and relentless. This wasn't just the last stand at Acre, it was the last stand of the crusader states.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref> When the fighting stopped, Peter de Severy received another letter from the Sultan. In it, he stated that his men deserved their deaths for their undisciplined behavior. Furthermore, he asked the marshal to leave his fortress to discuss terms. It was a lie. Trying to spare the civilian population under his protection, Peter de Severy opened the gates and stepped forward with a delegation of Knights Templar. Before they could reach the enemy's encampments they were killed by the Sultan's troops.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref>
Further offers of amnesty were rejected by the Crusaders. On 28 May, the final tower surrendered; Mamluk mines were prepared to destroy the tower making further resistance useless.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} The tower collapsed after prisoners and booty had been removed; according to Mamluk accounts, a few sightseers and looters were killed.<ref name="accursed_tower_">{{cite book |last1=Crowley |first1=Roger |title=The Accursed Tower: The Fall of Acre and the End of the Crusades |date=2019 |publisher=Hachette Book Group INC. |location=New York, NY}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=November 2020}}{{refn|group=nb|According to Ludolph of Suchem, the Templars deliberately caused the collapse by undermining the walls.<ref>Ludolphi, Rectoris Ecclesiæ Parochialis in suchem, p. 46</ref>}}

News of the Mamluk victory caused celebrations in Damascus and Cairo. In Damascus, Khalil entered the city with chained Crusader prisoners and captured Crusader standards – carried upside-down in defeat. The Sultan returned to Cairo with the gate of the [[Church of Saint Andrew, Acre|Church of Saint Andrew]] from Acre, which was used to construct a mosque<ref>Asili, p. 123</ref> and released Philip Mainebeuf's delegation.<ref>Ibn Taghri, p. 9 / vol. 8</ref> Furthermore, celebrations were described as:
“The entire city had been decorated, and sheets of satin had been laid along his triumphal path through the city leading to the palace of the governor. The regal sultan was proceeded by 280 fettered prisoners. One bore a reversed Frankish banner; another carried a banner and spear from which the hair of slain comrades was suspended. Al-Ashraf was greeted by the whole population of Damascus and the surrounding countryside lining the route, ulama [legal scholars], mosque officials, Sufi sheiks, Christians and Jews, all holding candles even though the parade took place before noon.”<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nicolle |first1=David |title=Acre 1291: Bloody Sunset of the Crusade |date=2005 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=Oxford, UK |page=87 }}</ref>

==Aftermath==
{{see also|Fall of Ruad}}
The fall of Acre signaled the end of the Jerusalem crusades. No effective crusade was raised to recapture the Holy Land afterwards, though talk of further crusades was common enough. By 1291, other ideals had captured the interest and enthusiasm of the monarchs and nobility of Europe and even strenuous papal efforts to raise expeditions to retake the [[Holy Land]] met with little response.

The Latin Kingdom continued to exist, theoretically, on the island of Cyprus. There the [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Latin kings]] planned to recapture the mainland, but in vain. Money, men, and the will to do the task were all lacking. One last effort was made by [[Peter I of Cyprus|King Peter I]] in 1365, when he successfully landed in Egypt and [[Alexandrian Crusade|sacked Alexandria]]. Once the city was taken, however, the Crusaders returned to Cyprus. As a crusade, the episode was futile, and this and further coastal raids over the following decades led in 1410–11 to a destructive counter-raid by the [[Mamluk Sultanate]]; in 1426 Cyprus was forced into Mamluk vassalship with a hefty yearly [[tribute]].

The 14th century witnessed other organized campaigns such as the [[Crusade of Nicopolis], but these enterprises differed in many ways from the 11th- and 12th-century expeditions which are properly called Crusades. The crusades of the 14th century aimed not at the recapture of Jerusalem and the Christian shrines of the [[Holy Land]], but rather at checking the advance of the [[Ottoman Empire]] into Europe. While many of the crusaders in these 14th-century undertakings looked upon the defeat of the Ottomans as a preliminary to the ultimate recapture of the Holy Land, none of the later crusades attempted any direct attack upon Palestine or Syria.

==Historiography==
Two short works dedicated to the siege were produced by contemporaries on the basis of eyewitness accounts: the ''Hystoria de desolacione'' of [[Thaddeus of Naples]] and the anonymous ''[[Excidium Acconis]]''. These survive in four and six manuscripts, respectively.{{sfn|Edgington|2006a}}{{sfn|Edgington|2006b}} The ''[[Gestes des Chiprois]]'', written a generation later and surviving in a single manuscript, is the other main source from the crusaders' perspective.{{sfn|Edgington|2006a}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite book |last=Asili |first=B. |title=Al-Zahir Baibars and the End of the Old Crusades |publisher=Dar Alnafaes |year=1992 |location=Beirut}}
*{{Cite book |last=Claster |first=Jill N. |title=Sacred Violence: The European Crusades to the Middle East, 1095–1396 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=9781442604308}}
*{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Roger |title=The Accursed Tower: The Fall of Acre and the End of the Crusades |publisher=Basic Books |year=2019 |isbn=978-1541697348 |author-link=Roger Crowley}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |first=Susan B. |last=Edgington |title=Excidium Acconis |encyclopedia=The Crusades: An Encyclopedia |editor=Alan V. Murray |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |volume=2 |page=448 |ref={{harvid|Edgington|2006a}}}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |first=Susan B. |last=Edgington |title=Thaddeus of Naples |encyclopedia=The Crusades: An Encyclopedia |editor=Alan V. Murray |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |volume=4 |page=1169 |ref={{harvid|Edgington|2006b}}}}
*{{Cite book |last=Folda |first=Jaroslav |title=Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=9780521835831}}
*{{Cite book |last=Hosler |first=John D. |title=The Siege of Acre, 1189-1191: Saladin, Richard the Lionheart, and the Battle That Decided the Third Crusade |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-300-21550-2 |location=New Haven}}
*{{Cite book |last=Nicolle |first=David |title=Acre 1291: Bloody sunset of the Crusader states |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2005}}
*{{Cite book |last=Runciman |first=Steven |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofcrusade02runc |title=A History of the Crusades |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1951 |url-access=registration}}
*{{Cite book |title=The 'Templar of Tyre': Part III of the 'Deeds of the Cypriots' |publisher=Ashgate |year=2003 |isbn=9781840146189 |translator-last=Crawford |translator-first=Paul}}
*{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=D. |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |publisher=Head Of Zeus |year=2017 |location=London, UK |page=334}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* Antonio Musarra, ''Acri 1291. La caduta degli stati crociati'', Bologna, il Mulino, 2017.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120309203403/http://historyavenue.com/conquest_of_acre_1291.html Siege of Acre 1291]
* ''The history of the crusades'', Volume 3, pp [https://books.google.com/books?id=mAcMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA70 70–89 (Google Books, full view)], by [[Joseph François Michaud]], trans. [[William Robson (writer)|William Robson]]. Note that in this account Acre is referred to as "[[Acre, Israel#Greek and Roman periods|Ptolemaïs]]", Sultan Qalawun as "Kalouan" and Khalil as "Chalil" and throughout the work Muslims are referred to as "Mussulmans". Several contemporary manuscripts, such as the chronicles of [[Ibn Ferat]], are referenced and appendices give some translations.
* ''The Crusades'' by Edward Gibbon (1963), pp. [https://archive.org/stream/crusades00scotgoog#page/n87/mode/1up 76–78], provides a useful short summary of the events of the siege including an overview of the situation in Acre at the time.

{{Sovereign Military Order of Malta}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siege of Acre (1291)}}
[[Category:Sieges of the Crusades|Acre (1291)]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1291]]
[[Category:History of Acre, Israel]]
[[Category:1291 in Asia]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Kingdom of Jerusalem|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Knights Hospitaller|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Knights Templar|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Mamluk Sultanate|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:13th century in the Mamluk Sultanate|Acre]]
[[Category:Military history of the Crusader states after Lord Edward's crusade]]
[[Category:Battles of Fall of Outremer]]
[[Category:Wars in the Land of Israel]]

Siege of Acre (1291)

2024-02-19T16:07:48Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Background */

{{Short description|Part of the Crusades}}
{{About|the Siege of Acre (1291)|other sieges|Siege of Acre (disambiguation){{!}}Siege of Acre}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Acre (1291)
| partof = the [[Crusades|Crusades]]
| image = Image:1291 siège d'Acre.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = ''[[Matthew of Clermont|Matthieu de Clermont]] défend [[Ptolemais in Phoenicia|Ptolémaïs]] en 1291'', by [[Dominique Papety]] (1815–49) at [[Salles des Croisades]] in [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]]
| date = 4 April – 18 May 1291
| place = [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
| coordinates = {{coord|32|56|N|35|05|E|region:IL_type:event_source:kolossus-cawiki|display=title,inline}}
| result = Decisive [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] victory
End of the Levant [[Crusades]]
| territory = Acre captured by the Mamluks
| combatant1 = [[Mamluk Sultanate]]
* [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] [[List of Ayyubid rulers|remnant emirate]] of [[Hama]]
| combatant2 = {{plainlist|
* [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] {{small|(in [[Personal union|union]] with [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus]])}}
* [[Knights Templar]]
* [[Knights Hospitaller]]
* [[Teutonic Order]]
* [[Knights of Saint Thomas|Order of St. Thomas]]
* [[Order of Saint Lazarus|Order of St. Lazarus]]}}
| commander1 = {{Plainlist|
* [[Al-Ashraf Khalil]]
* [[Lajin|Hussam ad-Din Lajin]]
* [[Al-Muzaffar III Mahmud]]
* [[Baybars al-Mansuri]]
* Sayf al-Din Bilban}}
| commander2 = {{Plainlist|
* [[Henry II of Jerusalem|Henry II, King of Jerusalem and Cyprus]]
* [[Amalric of Tyre]]
* [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]]{{KIA}}
* [[Thibaud Gaudin]]
* [[Pierre de Severy]]{{KIA}}
* [[Jean de Villiers (Grand Master)|Jean de Villiers]]
* [[Matthew of Clermont]]{{KIA}}
* [[Konrad von Feuchtwangen]]
* [[Otto de Grandson]]
* [[Jean I de Grailly|Jean de Grailly]]}} {{DOW}}
| strength1 = Unknown
| strength2 = Acre: 15,000<ref name="Folda_485">Folda (2005), p. 485</ref>
Cyprus: 700<ref name="Nicolle, p. 39">Nicolle (2005), p. 39</ref>
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = 10,000+<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sean McGlynn |date=18 May 2018 |title=The Siege of Acre: a monstrous blot on the Third Crusade |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2018/05/the-siege-of-acre-a-monstrous-blot-on-the-third-crusade/ |access-date=17 August 2019 |website=[[The Spectator]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180514085514/https://www.spectator.co.uk/2018/05/the-siege-of-acre-a-monstrous-blot-on-the-third-crusade/|archive-date=May 14, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> 
| notes =
}}

{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}
The '''siege of Acre''' (also called the '''fall of Acre''') took place in 1291 and resulted in the [[Crusades|Crusaders]]' losing control of [[Acre (city)|Acre]] to the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluks]]. It is considered one of the most important battles of the period. Although the crusading movement continued for several more centuries, the capture of the city marked the end of further crusades to the [[Levant]]. When Acre fell, the Crusaders lost their last major stronghold of the Crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. They still maintained a fortress at the northern city of [[Tartus]] (now in north-western Syria), engaged in some coastal raids, and attempted an incursion from the tiny island of [[Arwad|Ruad]]; but, when they lost that, too, in [[siege of Ruad|a siege in 1302]], the Crusaders no longer controlled any part of the [[Holy Land]].<ref name="crusade-en">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Acre, Siege of (1291) |encyclopedia=The Crusades: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=[[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6cSXSgAACAAJ |last=Burgtorf |first=Jochen |editor-last=Alan V. Murray |volume=1 |pages=13–14 |oclc=70122512}}</ref>

==Background==
In 1187, [[Saladin]] conquered much of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (also called the [[Latin Kingdom]]), including Acre and [[Jerusalem]], after winning the [[Battle of Hattin]] and inflicting heavy losses on the Crusaders. The [[Third Crusade]] was launched in response; the Crusaders [[Siege of Acre (1189)|besieged]] and eventually recaptured Acre in 1191. Acre became the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The religious orders made their headquarters in and around the city, and from there made crucial military and diplomatic decisions. For example, when the [[Mongol]]s arrived from the East in the mid-13th century, the Christians saw them as potential allies.

In 1250, the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] arose in [[Egypt]]; it was a more dangerous enemy than the [[Ayyubids]]. The Mamluks fielded heavy cavalry – a match for the Crusader knights – and were much more hostile. The Crusaders initally attempted to maintain a cautious neutrality with the Mamluks. In 1260,
the Barons of Acre granted the Mamluks safe passage through the Latin Kingdom en route to fighting the Mongols; the Mamluks subsequently won the pivotal [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in [[Galilee]] against the Mongols. This was an example of atypically cordial relations between the Christians and the Mamluks.<ref name="britannica">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Ayn-Jalut|title=Battle of Ayn Jalut | Summary | Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref>

However, as early as 1261, after the Battle of Ain Jalut, [[Sultan]] [[Baibars]] led the Mamluks against the Crusaders. Baibars captured [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], [[Haifa]], and [[Arsuf]] in 1265, all the important Crusader holdings in Galilee the following year, and then [[Siege of Antioch (1268)|Antioch]] in 1268.<ref>Folda, Jaroslav (2005). Crusader art in the Holy Land : from the Third Crusade to the fall of Acre, 1187–1291. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521835831.</ref>

European states launched a number of minor Crusading expeditions to reinforce the Crusader states, including the [[Eighth Crusade|abortive Crusade]] of [[Louis IX of France]] to [[Tunis]] in 1270, and the minor [[Ninth Crusade]] of Prince Edward (later [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]) of England in 1271–1272. The expeditions failed to provide the required relief; they were too small, too short-lived, and the interests of the participants were too diverse.<ref> Newman, Albert Henry, A Manual of Church History, p. 461</ref>

[[Image:Siege of Tripoli Painting (1289).jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Fall of Tripoli (1289)|fall of Tripoli]] in 1289 triggered frantic preparations to save Acre.]]
More seriously, no major reinforcing Crusade was forthcoming. [[Pope Gregory X]] was unable to rally support for another great Crusade. Papal advisors blamed the lack of enthusiasm to the laziness and vice of the European nobility and to clerical corruption. A more fundamental reason seems to have been the debasement of the Crusading ideal; Gregory X's predecessors had used Crusades to raise armies against the Papacy's European enemies.<ref> Newman, Albert Henry, A Manual of Church History, p. 461</ref>

The Crusader states continued to deteriorate from continuing attacks and political instability. In 1276, the unpopular "[[King of Jerusalem]]" [[Hugh III of Cyprus|Hugh III]] moved his court to [[Cyprus]].<ref>Edbury, Peter W. (1994). The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades, 1191–1374. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45837-5, pp 90.</ref> Under Sultan [[Al-Mansur Qalawun]], the Mamluks captured [[Lattakia]] in 1278, and [[Fall of Tripoli (1289)|conquered]] the [[County of Tripoli]] in 1289. Qalawun concluded a ten-year truce with the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1284.<ref>Rabbat, Nasser O. (2021). The Citadel of Cairo. Brill. p. 136. ISBN 978-90-04-49248-6.</ref>

Following the fall of Tripoli, King [[Henry II of Jerusalem|Henry II]], son of Hugh III, sent [[seneschal]] [[Jean I de Grailly|Jean de Grailly]] to warn European monarchs of the critical situation in the [[Levant]].<ref name="Runciman_408">Runciman (1951), p. 408</ref> [[Pope Nicholas IV]] supported Jean by writing letters urging European potentates to act. However, the [[War of the Sicilian Vespers|Sicilian question]] overshadowed calls for a new Crusade, and Edward I of England was too entangled by troubles at home.<ref>Schneidman, J.Lee (December 1969). "Ending the War of the Sicilian Vespers". Journal of Peace Research. 6 (4): 335–347. doi:10.1177/002234336900600404. ISSN 0022-3433. S2CID 110273792.</ref>

Decades of communications between the Europeans and the Mongols failed to secure a meaningful [[Franco-Mongol alliance]].<ref>Atwood. "Western Europe and the Mongol Empire" in Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. p. 583. "Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam".</ref><ref>Ryan, James D. (November 1998). "Christian Wives of Mongol Khans: Tartar Queens and Missionary Expectations in Asia". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. 8 (3): 411–421. doi:10.1017/S1356186300010506. JSTOR 25183572.</ref>

===Pretext for attack===
One Arabian account claims that an affair between a rich young wife of the city and a ''Mussulman'' was discovered by the husband who:

{{quote|gathers together some friends goes out from Ptolemais [...] and immolates them both to his injured honour. Some Mussulmans are drawn to the spot, the Christians come up in still greater numbers, the quarrel becomes angry and general and every Mussulman is massacred.|The History of the Crusades, Vol. 3, p. 73, Michaud and Robson<ref name="michaud">Michaud, ''The History of the Crusades'', Vol. 3, p. 18; available [https://books.google.com/books?id=mAcMAAAAYAAJ in full at Google Books]. Note that in a footnote Michaud claims reliance on "the chronicle of Ibn Ferat" (Michaud, Vol. 3, p. 22) for much of the information he has concerning the ''Mussulmans''.</ref>}}

The Crusaders feared that Qalawun would use this as a pretext to resume the war, and petitioned the pontiff for reinforcements. According to Michaud, 25 Venetian galleys carrying 1600 men "levied in haste in Italy" were sent.<ref name=michaud/> Other sources claim 20 galleys of peasants and unemployed townfolks from [[Tuscany]] and [[Lombardy]], led by [[Nicholas Tiepolo]], the son of [[Doge (title)|Doge]] [[Lorenzo Tiepolo]], who was assisted by the returning Jean de Grailly and [[Roux of Sully]]. These were joined by five galleys from King [[James II of Aragon]] who wished to help despite his conflict with the Pope and Venice.<ref name="Runciman_409">Runciman (1951), p. 409</ref>

The Italian reinforcements were ill-disciplined and without regular pay; they pillaged indiscriminately from both Muslims and Christians before setting out from Acre. According to Runciman they attacked and killed some Muslim merchants around Acre in August 1290,<ref name="Runciman_408" /> although in Michaud's account they instead pillaged and massacred towns and villages. Qalawun demanded the [[extradition]] of the Christian perpetrators. On the suggestion of [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]], the [[Grand Masters of the Knights Templar|Grand Master]] of the [[Knights Templar]], the Council of Acre debated the issue; the Sultan's demand was rejected, with the Crusaders claiming that the murdered Muslims had been responsible for their own deaths.<ref>Runciman (1951), pp. 410–411</ref>

==Siege==

===Prelude to battle===
Sultan Qalawun dissolved the truce with Acre and the Mamluks began mobilizing by October 1290. Qalawun died in December and was succeeded by his son, [[Al-Ashraf Khalil]]<ref name="Claster_286">Claster (2009), p. 286</ref> (sometimes spelled ''Chalil''.<ref name=michaud/>) Guillaume de Beaujeu received a message from Khalil, which stated the latter's intention to attack Acre and to refuse peace overtures.<ref>"Because you have been a true man, so we send you advance notice of our intentions, and give you to understand that we are coming into your parts to right the wrongs that have been done. Therefore we do not want the community of Acre to send us any letters or presents (regarding this matter), for we will by no means receive them." —From the letter of Al-Ashraf Khalil to [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]], The [[Templar of Tyre]], ''[[Gestes des Chiprois]]'', p. 104 / part 3</ref> Nonetheless, the Crusaders dispatched a peace delegation, led by Sir Philip Mainebeuf,<ref name=":1">The Templar of Tyre, ''Gestes des Chiprois'', p. 104 / part 3</ref><ref>Philip Mainebeuf, who spoke Arabic, was accompanied by a knight named Bartholomew Pisan and a scribe named George. The Templar of Tyre, ''Gestes des Chiprois'', p. 104 / part 3</ref> to Cairo; the delegation was imprisoned.{{Unreliable source?|date=October 2009}}<ref>Asili, p. 110</ref><ref name=":1"/> Khalil set out from Cairo in March 1291.<ref name="Claster_286" />

The assembled Mamluk army greatly outnumbered the Crusaders. Khalil called upon Syria to reinforce his Egyptian army;<ref name="Folda_485" /> he was answered by contingents from Damascus (led by [[Lajin]]), [[Hama]] (led by al-Muzaffar Taqai ad-Din), [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] (led by Bilban) and [[Al-Karak]] (led by Baibars al-Dewadar.)<ref>There are no reliable figures for the Muslim army, according to some sources it consisted of 60 000 cavalry and 160 000 infantry. Though the numbers seem exaggerated, the army of the Muslim was probably larger than that of the Crusaders. Asili, p. 111</ref><ref>Michaud, ''ibid'', pp. 75–76, gives account of 7 emirs leaving in ''Kalouan's'' (ie Sultan Qalawun) stead as he was ill; he reports that each emir had 4,000 horse and 20,000-foot at his command – giving about 160,000 men.</ref> A significant portion of the troops were volunteers.<ref>[[Abu al-Fida]], p. 278 / vol. 13. According to Ibn Taghri most of Khalil's troops were volunteers. Ibn Taghri, p. 5 / vol. 8</ref> The army included a substantial artillery train<ref name="Folda_485" /> drawn from fortresses across the Mamluk empire. Hama sent the enormous catapult "The Victorious"<ref name="Claster_286" /> ({{lang|ar|المنصورى}}, ''{{transl|ar|Al-Mansuri}}''.){{refn|group=nb|This may have been a reference to the Sultan, who was Khalil Al-Mansuri.}} Another large catapult was "The Furious" ({{lang|ar|الغاضبة}}, ''{{transl|ar|Al-Ghadibah}}''.) There were also lighter [[mangonel]]s called "Black Bulls" ({{lang|ar|الثيران السوداء}}, ''{{transl|ar|Al-Thiran Al-Sawda'a}}''.).<ref>Asili, p. 110; Templar of Tyre, p. 105</ref>

Notable historians in the Mamluks ranks included Baibars al-Dewadar,<ref>Rukn ad-Din Baibars al-Dewadar was also a historian. He gave his account about the battle for Acre in his book "Zobdat al-Fikrah Fi Tarikh al-Hijrah ( 11 volumes )".</ref> and [[Abu al-Fida]] in the Haman contingent.<ref>Asli, p. 114</ref>

The Crusaders appeals for aid met with little success. England sent a few knights, including [[Otto de Grandson]] of [[Savoy]]. The only noteworthy reinforcements came from Henry II of Cyprus, who fortified the walls and sent troops led by his brother [[Amalric, Prince of Tyre|Amalric]]. [[Burchard von Schwanden]] suddenly resigned as [[Grand Master of the Teutonic Order|Grand Master]] of the [[Teutonic Order]] and left Acre for Europe; he was succeeded by [[Konrad von Feuchtwangen]]. The only major contingent to leave were the [[Genoa|Genoese]], who concluded a separate treaty with Khalil. Many women and children were evacuated from Acre to Cyprus in March.<ref name="Claster_286" />

Acre was defended by an inner and outer wall, with a total of twelve towers built by European kings and rich pilgrims.<ref>Among these towers were the Tower of the Countess of Blois, the Accursed Tower, the Tower of the Legate, the Tower of the Patriarch, the Tower of St. Nicholas, the English Tower, the Germans Tower, the Tower of Henri II, the Tower of King Hugh and the Tower of St. Lazarus. Asili, p. 113; Templar of Tyre, p. 106 / note2</ref><ref>The English tower was built by Henry I. Asili, p. 113</ref><ref>The Tower of the Countess of Blois was built by the Countess of Blois. Asili, p. 114</ref>

===Siege begins===
[[Image:Map of Acre in 1291.svg|thumb|upright|right|Map of Acre in 1291]]
Sultan Khalil and the Egyptian army arrived at Acre on 6 April 1291,<ref name="Folda_485" /><ref name="Claster_286" /> with the Syrian contingents arriving two days later with siege engines. The Mamluk encampment spanned from one coast to the other about two kilometres from the city walls. The red ''dihliz'' – the Sultan's personal tent and headquarters – was on a small hill west of the Legate's Tower. There was little fighting during the first eight days as the besiegers established their camp. From days nine to eleven the Mamluks pushed forward barricades and [[wicker]] screens until they reached the [[Moat|fosse]] before the outer wall; Carabohas, rapid-fire siege engines, were brought up. The besiegers began mining and bombarding the walls.<ref name="Folda_485" /> Acre's gates remained open – but heavily defended – as [[sally port]]s.<ref name="Folda_485" />

The Crusaders launched multiple attacks on the Mamluk camp. An amphibious assault on the Hamans – stationed on the northernmost section of the line by the sea – was successful although the Crusaders suffered heavy casualties.<ref name="Folda_485" /> In another raid, three hundred Templar, led by [[Jean I de Grailly|Jean de Grailly]] and [[Otto de Grandson]], rode out under moonlight to attack Haman artillery with [[Greek fire]]; while the artillery was not destroyed, the Templar engaged over 1000 Mamluks and returned with trophies and captured supplies. Khalil punished some subordinates for the humiliation caused by the Templar. In general, Crusader attacks failed to disrupt Mamluk preparations for a direct assault on the walls.<ref name="Folda_486">Folda (2005), p. 486</ref>

Henry II of Cyprus arrived on 4 May with reinforcements<ref name="Folda_486" /><ref name="Claster_286" /> of 700 troops aboard 40 ships.<ref name="Nicolle, p. 39" /> The king's arrival temporarily buoyed morale, but an inspection of the city convinced Henry II to attempt a negotiated settlement; the Crusaders believed that tribute could buy a truce. On 17 May, William of Villiers, a knight, and William of Caffran, of Guillaume de Beaujeu's household, were sent to negotiate with the Sultan. The negotiations were unsuccessful. The Crusaders refused to surrender, and appealed to Khalil to lift the siege and accept peace for the sake of the civilian inhabitants. Khalil remained intent on conquering the city, perhaps encouraged by the popularity of the cause among his troops; his counteroffer to allow the defenders to surrender and leave with their lives and property was rejected. Toward the end of the meeting, a Crusader artillery stone landed near the ''dihliz''; the Sultan was greatly angered and ordered a full assault the following day. The messengers returned to the city unharmed.<ref name="Folda_486" />

The Mamluk assault was preceded by weeks of preparation. By 18 May, multiple towers and parts of the wall were collapsed by [[Tunnel warfare|undermining]], and sections of the fosse filled in. The collapse of the Tower of the King was particularly demoralizing among the defenders, and the evacuation of women and children accelerated.<ref name="Folda_486" />

===Storming the city===
[[File:Siège d'Acre (1291).png|thumb|upright|14th-century illustration of the siege in the ''[[Grandes Chroniques de France]]'', depicting the Mamluks [[Tunnel warfare|undermining]] the city walls]]
The Mamluk army assembled before dawn on 18 May<ref name="Folda_486" /> and attacked the entire length of the wall to the sound of trumpets and drums carried on 300 camels.<ref>Al-Maqrizi, p. 223 / vol. 2; Asili, p. 118</ref><ref>Michaud, ''ibid'', p. 78</ref> The Mamluks poured through the breaches; by 9{{nbsp}}a.m. the outcome seems to have been beyond doubt.<ref name="Folda_487" /> The Mamluks captured the Accursed Tower on the inner wall<ref>The Accursed Tower was placed between the Tower of King Henri II and the Tower of the Teutonic Knights. Templar of Tyre, p. 106; Asili, p. 113</ref> and forced the Crusaders to retreat to the Gate of St. Anthony.<ref name=":0">Templar of Tyre, p. 113</ref> Guillaume de Beaujeu was mortally wounded defending the Gate of St. Anthony.{{refn|group=nb|He was buried in the Templar fortress before the fall of the city.<ref name="Folda_487">Folda (2005), p. 487</ref>}}<ref name="Folda_486" /> On the Montmusard walls, the Lazarists remained while the Templars and Hospitallers<ref name="accursed_tower_216"> {{cite book |last1=Crowley |first1=Roger |title=The Accursed Tower: The Fall of Acre and the End of the Crusades |date=2019 |publisher=Hachette Book Group INC. |location=New York, NY |page=216}}</ref> made a failed attempt to retake the Accursed Tower.<ref name=":0"/> The redeployment allowed the Hamans to break through the Montmusard walls and kill the Lazarists. The Mamluks gained more penetrations as the Crusaders abandoned the walls.<ref name="accursed_tower_216"/>

The Mamluks pushed into the city, looting<ref name="accursed_tower_216"/> and massacring any they encountered.<ref name="Folda_487" />{{refn|group=nb|According to Ludolph of Suchem (which seems exaggerated): "In Acre and the other places nearly a hundred and six thousand men were slain or taken, and more than two hundred thousand escaped from thence. Of the Saracens more than three hundred thousand were slain, as is well known even to this day."<ref name=":2">Ludolph of Suchem, pp. 268-272</ref>}} Organized Crusader resistance collapsed, and the retreat to the harbour and the ships was chaotic;<ref name="Folda_487" /><ref name="accursed_tower_216"/> wealthy refugees offered exorbitant sums for safe passage.{{refn|group=nb|[[Roger de Flor]], a mercenary commander and Knight Templar, made his fortune by selling passage to fleeing nobles and blackmailing refugees.<ref>Asili, pp. 120-121</ref>}}{{refn|group=nb|"More than five hundred most noble ladies and maidens, the daughters of kings and princes, came down to the seashore, when the city was about to fall, carrying with them all their jewels and ornaments of gold and precious stones, of priceless value, in their bosoms, and cried aloud, whether there were any sailor there who would take all their jewels and take whichever of them he chose to wife, if only he would take them, even naked, to some safe land or island"<ref name=":2"/>}} Henry II and [[Jean de Villiers (Grand Master)|Jean de Villiers]], [[List of Grand Masters of the Knights Hospitaller|Grand Master]] of the [[Knights Hospitaller]], were among those evacuated. The evacuation was made more difficult by the poor weather.<ref name="Folda_487" />

===Acre falls===
[[File:SiegeOfAcre1291BNF.JPG|thumb|right|upright|The city of Acre fell in 1291, and its Latin Christian population was killed or enslaved.|alt=Image of siege of Acre]]
By the night of 18 May,<ref>Templar of Tyre, p. 104</ref> Acre was in Mamluk hands, except for the seaside Templar fortress at the western tip of the city.<ref name="Folda_487"/> The fortress contained four towers, and within were remnants of the Templar, Hospitallers, and Teutonic Knights, and thousands of civilians.<ref name="crusade_christendom">{{cite book |editor1-last=Bird |editor1-first=Jessalynn |editor2-last=Peters |editor2-first=Edward |editor3-last=Powell |editor3-first=James M. |title=Crusade and Christendom: Annotated Documents in Translation from Innocent III to the Fall of Acre, 1187–1291 |series=The Middle Ages Series |date=2013 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-4478-6 |pages=489–491}}</ref><ref name="accursed_tower_"/> The fortress held out for ten more days, during which [[Matthew of Clermont]], a Hospitaller marshal, was killed.<ref name="Folda_487" /> Templar [[Thibaud Gaudin]] and a few others left the fortress under the cover of darkness, taking the Templar treasury with them to [[Sidon]].{{refn|group=nb|Thibaud Gaudin was elected as Grand Master of the Knights Templar at Sidon.}}{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}<ref name="accursed_tower_"/>
On 20 May, the tower held by the Templars, led by Peter de Severy, asked for amnesty.<ref name="crusade_christendom"/>
Sultan Khalil agreed to allow the woman and children to leave the city. The gates were opened and 400 horseman entered the complex, but they immediately attacked the women and children. Peter de Severy refused to accept this and ordered the gates to be closed, trapping the horsemen. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref> A battle ensued, but this time the Christians had the advantage. Of the 400 horsemen who entered the fortress, only a handful escaped. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref> The others were either killed or beheaded. The battles were fierce and relentless. This wasn't just the last stand at Acre, it was the last stand of the crusader states.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref> When the fighting stopped, Peter de Severy received another letter from the Sultan. In it, he stated that his men deserved their deaths for their undisciplined behavior. Furthermore, he asked the marshal to leave his fortress to discuss terms. It was a lie. Trying to spare the civilian population under his protection, Peter de Severy opened the gates and stepped forward with a delegation of Knights Templar. Before they could reach the enemy's encampments they were killed by the Sultan's troops.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref>
Further offers of amnesty were rejected by the Crusaders. On 28 May, the final tower surrendered; Mamluk mines were prepared to destroy the tower making further resistance useless.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} The tower collapsed after prisoners and booty had been removed; according to Mamluk accounts, a few sightseers and looters were killed.<ref name="accursed_tower_">{{cite book |last1=Crowley |first1=Roger |title=The Accursed Tower: The Fall of Acre and the End of the Crusades |date=2019 |publisher=Hachette Book Group INC. |location=New York, NY}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=November 2020}}{{refn|group=nb|According to Ludolph of Suchem, the Templars deliberately caused the collapse by undermining the walls.<ref>Ludolphi, Rectoris Ecclesiæ Parochialis in suchem, p. 46</ref>}}

News of the Mamluk victory caused celebrations in Damascus and Cairo. In Damascus, Khalil entered the city with chained Crusader prisoners and captured Crusader standards – carried upside-down in defeat. The Sultan returned to Cairo with the gate of the [[Church of Saint Andrew, Acre|Church of Saint Andrew]] from Acre, which was used to construct a mosque<ref>Asili, p. 123</ref> and released Philip Mainebeuf's delegation.<ref>Ibn Taghri, p. 9 / vol. 8</ref> Furthermore, celebrations were described as:
“The entire city had been decorated, and sheets of satin had been laid along his triumphal path through the city leading to the palace of the governor. The regal sultan was proceeded by 280 fettered prisoners. One bore a reversed Frankish banner; another carried a banner and spear from which the hair of slain comrades was suspended. Al-Ashraf was greeted by the whole population of Damascus and the surrounding countryside lining the route, ulama [legal scholars], mosque officials, Sufi sheiks, Christians and Jews, all holding candles even though the parade took place before noon.”<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nicolle |first1=David |title=Acre 1291: Bloody Sunset of the Crusade |date=2005 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=Oxford, UK |page=87 }}</ref>

==Aftermath==
{{see also|Fall of Ruad}}
The fall of Acre signaled the end of the Jerusalem crusades. No effective crusade was raised to recapture the Holy Land afterwards, though talk of further crusades was common enough. By 1291, other ideals had captured the interest and enthusiasm of the monarchs and nobility of Europe and even strenuous papal efforts to raise expeditions to retake the [[Holy Land]] met with little response.

The Latin Kingdom continued to exist, theoretically, on the island of Cyprus. There the [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Latin kings]] planned to recapture the mainland, but in vain. Money, men, and the will to do the task were all lacking. One last effort was made by [[Peter I of Cyprus|King Peter I]] in 1365, when he successfully landed in Egypt and [[Alexandrian Crusade|sacked Alexandria]]. Once the city was taken, however, the Crusaders returned to Cyprus. As a crusade, the episode was futile, and this and further coastal raids over the following decades led in 1410–11 to a destructive counter-raid by the [[Mamluk Sultanate]]; in 1426 Cyprus was forced into Mamluk vassalship with a hefty yearly [[tribute]].

The 14th century saw some other crusades organized such as the [[Crusade of Nicopolis]], but these enterprises differed in many ways from the 11th- and 12th-century expeditions which are properly called Crusades. The crusades of the 14th century aimed not at the recapture of Jerusalem and the Christian shrines of the [[Holy Land]], but rather at checking the advance of the [[Ottoman Empire]] into Europe. While many of the crusaders in these 14th-century undertakings looked upon the defeat of the Ottomans as a preliminary to the ultimate recapture of the Holy Land, none of the later crusades attempted any direct attack upon Palestine or Syria.

==Historiography==
Two short works dedicated to the siege were produced by contemporaries on the basis of eyewitness accounts: the ''Hystoria de desolacione'' of [[Thaddeus of Naples]] and the anonymous ''[[Excidium Acconis]]''. These survive in four and six manuscripts, respectively.{{sfn|Edgington|2006a}}{{sfn|Edgington|2006b}} The ''[[Gestes des Chiprois]]'', written a generation later and surviving in a single manuscript, is the other main source from the crusaders' perspective.{{sfn|Edgington|2006a}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite book |last=Asili |first=B. |title=Al-Zahir Baibars and the End of the Old Crusades |publisher=Dar Alnafaes |year=1992 |location=Beirut}}
*{{Cite book |last=Claster |first=Jill N. |title=Sacred Violence: The European Crusades to the Middle East, 1095–1396 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=9781442604308}}
*{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Roger |title=The Accursed Tower: The Fall of Acre and the End of the Crusades |publisher=Basic Books |year=2019 |isbn=978-1541697348 |author-link=Roger Crowley}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |first=Susan B. |last=Edgington |title=Excidium Acconis |encyclopedia=The Crusades: An Encyclopedia |editor=Alan V. Murray |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |volume=2 |page=448 |ref={{harvid|Edgington|2006a}}}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |first=Susan B. |last=Edgington |title=Thaddeus of Naples |encyclopedia=The Crusades: An Encyclopedia |editor=Alan V. Murray |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |volume=4 |page=1169 |ref={{harvid|Edgington|2006b}}}}
*{{Cite book |last=Folda |first=Jaroslav |title=Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=9780521835831}}
*{{Cite book |last=Hosler |first=John D. |title=The Siege of Acre, 1189-1191: Saladin, Richard the Lionheart, and the Battle That Decided the Third Crusade |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-300-21550-2 |location=New Haven}}
*{{Cite book |last=Nicolle |first=David |title=Acre 1291: Bloody sunset of the Crusader states |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2005}}
*{{Cite book |last=Runciman |first=Steven |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofcrusade02runc |title=A History of the Crusades |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1951 |url-access=registration}}
*{{Cite book |title=The 'Templar of Tyre': Part III of the 'Deeds of the Cypriots' |publisher=Ashgate |year=2003 |isbn=9781840146189 |translator-last=Crawford |translator-first=Paul}}
*{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=D. |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |publisher=Head Of Zeus |year=2017 |location=London, UK |page=334}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* Antonio Musarra, ''Acri 1291. La caduta degli stati crociati'', Bologna, il Mulino, 2017.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120309203403/http://historyavenue.com/conquest_of_acre_1291.html Siege of Acre 1291]
* ''The history of the crusades'', Volume 3, pp [https://books.google.com/books?id=mAcMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA70 70–89 (Google Books, full view)], by [[Joseph François Michaud]], trans. [[William Robson (writer)|William Robson]]. Note that in this account Acre is referred to as "[[Acre, Israel#Greek and Roman periods|Ptolemaïs]]", Sultan Qalawun as "Kalouan" and Khalil as "Chalil" and throughout the work Muslims are referred to as "Mussulmans". Several contemporary manuscripts, such as the chronicles of [[Ibn Ferat]], are referenced and appendices give some translations.
* ''The Crusades'' by Edward Gibbon (1963), pp. [https://archive.org/stream/crusades00scotgoog#page/n87/mode/1up 76–78], provides a useful short summary of the events of the siege including an overview of the situation in Acre at the time.

{{Sovereign Military Order of Malta}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siege of Acre (1291)}}
[[Category:Sieges of the Crusades|Acre (1291)]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1291]]
[[Category:History of Acre, Israel]]
[[Category:1291 in Asia]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Kingdom of Jerusalem|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Knights Hospitaller|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Knights Templar|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Mamluk Sultanate|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:13th century in the Mamluk Sultanate|Acre]]
[[Category:Military history of the Crusader states after Lord Edward's crusade]]
[[Category:Battles of Fall of Outremer]]
[[Category:Wars in the Land of Israel]]

Siege of Acre (1291)

2024-02-19T16:03:10Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B:

{{Short description|Part of the Crusades}}
{{About|the Siege of Acre (1291)|other sieges|Siege of Acre (disambiguation){{!}}Siege of Acre}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Acre (1291)
| partof = the [[Crusades|Crusades]]
| image = Image:1291 siège d'Acre.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = ''[[Matthew of Clermont|Matthieu de Clermont]] défend [[Ptolemais in Phoenicia|Ptolémaïs]] en 1291'', by [[Dominique Papety]] (1815–49) at [[Salles des Croisades]] in [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]]
| date = 4 April – 18 May 1291
| place = [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
| coordinates = {{coord|32|56|N|35|05|E|region:IL_type:event_source:kolossus-cawiki|display=title,inline}}
| result = Decisive [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] victory
End of the Levant [[Crusades]]
| territory = Acre captured by the Mamluks
| combatant1 = [[Mamluk Sultanate]]
* [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] [[List of Ayyubid rulers|remnant emirate]] of [[Hama]]
| combatant2 = {{plainlist|
* [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] {{small|(in [[Personal union|union]] with [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus]])}}
* [[Knights Templar]]
* [[Knights Hospitaller]]
* [[Teutonic Order]]
* [[Knights of Saint Thomas|Order of St. Thomas]]
* [[Order of Saint Lazarus|Order of St. Lazarus]]}}
| commander1 = {{Plainlist|
* [[Al-Ashraf Khalil]]
* [[Lajin|Hussam ad-Din Lajin]]
* [[Al-Muzaffar III Mahmud]]
* [[Baybars al-Mansuri]]
* Sayf al-Din Bilban}}
| commander2 = {{Plainlist|
* [[Henry II of Jerusalem|Henry II, King of Jerusalem and Cyprus]]
* [[Amalric of Tyre]]
* [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]]{{KIA}}
* [[Thibaud Gaudin]]
* [[Pierre de Severy]]{{KIA}}
* [[Jean de Villiers (Grand Master)|Jean de Villiers]]
* [[Matthew of Clermont]]{{KIA}}
* [[Konrad von Feuchtwangen]]
* [[Otto de Grandson]]
* [[Jean I de Grailly|Jean de Grailly]]}} {{DOW}}
| strength1 = Unknown
| strength2 = Acre: 15,000<ref name="Folda_485">Folda (2005), p. 485</ref>
Cyprus: 700<ref name="Nicolle, p. 39">Nicolle (2005), p. 39</ref>
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = 10,000+<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sean McGlynn |date=18 May 2018 |title=The Siege of Acre: a monstrous blot on the Third Crusade |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2018/05/the-siege-of-acre-a-monstrous-blot-on-the-third-crusade/ |access-date=17 August 2019 |website=[[The Spectator]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180514085514/https://www.spectator.co.uk/2018/05/the-siege-of-acre-a-monstrous-blot-on-the-third-crusade/|archive-date=May 14, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> 
| notes =
}}

{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}
The '''siege of Acre''' (also called the '''fall of Acre''') took place in 1291 and resulted in the [[Crusades|Crusaders]]' losing control of [[Acre (city)|Acre]] to the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluks]]. It is considered one of the most important battles of the period. Although the crusading movement continued for several more centuries, the capture of the city marked the end of further crusades to the [[Levant]]. When Acre fell, the Crusaders lost their last major stronghold of the Crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. They still maintained a fortress at the northern city of [[Tartus]] (now in north-western Syria), engaged in some coastal raids, and attempted an incursion from the tiny island of [[Arwad|Ruad]]; but, when they lost that, too, in [[siege of Ruad|a siege in 1302]], the Crusaders no longer controlled any part of the [[Holy Land]].<ref name="crusade-en">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Acre, Siege of (1291) |encyclopedia=The Crusades: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=[[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6cSXSgAACAAJ |last=Burgtorf |first=Jochen |editor-last=Alan V. Murray |volume=1 |pages=13–14 |oclc=70122512}}</ref>

==Background==
In 1187, [[Saladin]] conquered much of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (also called the [[Latin Kingdom]]), including Acre and [[Jerusalem]], after winning the [[Battle of Hattin]] and inflicting heavy losses on the Crusaders. The [[Third Crusade]] was launched in response; the Crusaders [[Siege of Acre (1189)|besieged]] and eventually recaptured Acre in 1191. Acre became the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The religious orders made their headquarters in and around the city, and from there made crucial military and diplomatic decisions. For example, when the [[Mongol]]s arrived from the East in the mid-13th century, the Christians saw them as potential allies while also maintaining a cautious neutrality with the Muslim [[Mamluks]]. In 1260, the Barons of Acre granted the Mamluks safe passage through the Latin Kingdom en route to fighting the Mongols; the Mamluks subsequently won the pivotal [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in [[Galilee]] against the Mongols. This was an example of atypically cordial relations between the Christians and the Mamluks.<ref name="britannica">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Ayn-Jalut|title=Battle of Ayn Jalut | Summary | Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref>

In 1250, the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] arose in [[Egypt]]; it was a more dangerous enemy than the [[Ayyubids]]. The Mamluks fielded heavy cavalry – a match for the Crusader knights – and were much more hostile. As early as 1261, after the Battle of Ain Jalut, [[Sultan]] [[Baibars]] led the Mamluks against the Crusaders. Baibars captured [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], [[Haifa]], and [[Arsuf]] in 1265, all the important Crusader holdings in Galilee the following year, and then [[Siege of Antioch (1268)|Antioch]] in 1268.<ref>Folda, Jaroslav (2005). Crusader art in the Holy Land : from the Third Crusade to the fall of Acre, 1187–1291. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521835831.</ref>

Europe launched a number of minor Crusading expeditions to reinforce the Crusader states, including the [[Eighth Crusade|abortive Crusade]] of [[Louis IX of France]] to [[Tunis]] in 1270, and the minor [[Ninth Crusade]] of Prince Edward (later [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]) of England in 1271–1272. The expeditions failed to provide the required relief; they were too small, too short-lived, and the interests of the participants were too diverse.<ref> Newman, Albert Henry, A Manual of Church History, p. 461</ref>

[[Image:Siege of Tripoli Painting (1289).jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Fall of Tripoli (1289)|fall of Tripoli]] in 1289 triggered frantic preparations to save Acre.]]
More seriously, no major reinforcing Crusade was forthcoming. [[Pope Gregory X]] was unable to rally support for another great Crusade. Papal advisors blamed the lack of enthusiasm to the laziness and vice of the European nobility and to clerical corruption. A more fundamental reason seems to have been the debasement of the Crusading ideal; Gregory X's predecessors had used Crusades to raise armies against the Papacy's European enemies.<ref> Newman, Albert Henry, A Manual of Church History, p. 461</ref>

The Crusader states continued to deteriorate from continuing attacks and political instability. In 1276, the unpopular "[[King of Jerusalem]]" [[Hugh III of Cyprus|Hugh III]] moved his court to [[Cyprus]].<ref>Edbury, Peter W. (1994). The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades, 1191–1374. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45837-5, pp 90.</ref> Under Sultan [[Al-Mansur Qalawun]], the Mamluks captured [[Lattakia]] in 1278, and [[Fall of Tripoli (1289)|conquered]] the [[County of Tripoli]] in 1289. Qalawun concluded a ten-year truce with the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1284.<ref>Rabbat, Nasser O. (2021). The Citadel of Cairo. Brill. p. 136. ISBN 978-90-04-49248-6.</ref>

Following the fall of Tripoli, King [[Henry II of Jerusalem|Henry II]], son of Hugh III, sent [[seneschal]] [[Jean I de Grailly|Jean de Grailly]] to warn European monarchs of the critical situation in the [[Levant]].<ref name="Runciman_408">Runciman (1951), p. 408</ref> [[Pope Nicholas IV]] supported Jean by writing letters urging European potentates to act. However, the [[War of the Sicilian Vespers|Sicilian question]] overshadowed calls for a new Crusade, and Edward I of England was too entangled by troubles at home.<ref>Schneidman, J.Lee (December 1969). "Ending the War of the Sicilian Vespers". Journal of Peace Research. 6 (4): 335–347. doi:10.1177/002234336900600404. ISSN 0022-3433. S2CID 110273792.</ref>

Decades of communications between the Europeans and the Mongols failed to secure a meaningful [[Franco-Mongol alliance]].<ref>Atwood. "Western Europe and the Mongol Empire" in Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. p. 583. "Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam".</ref><ref>Ryan, James D. (November 1998). "Christian Wives of Mongol Khans: Tartar Queens and Missionary Expectations in Asia". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Cambridge, UK; New York, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. 8 (3): 411–421. doi:10.1017/S1356186300010506. JSTOR 25183572.</ref>

===Pretext for attack===
One Arabian account claims that an affair between a rich young wife of the city and a ''Mussulman'' was discovered by the husband who:

{{quote|gathers together some friends goes out from Ptolemais [...] and immolates them both to his injured honour. Some Mussulmans are drawn to the spot, the Christians come up in still greater numbers, the quarrel becomes angry and general and every Mussulman is massacred.|The History of the Crusades, Vol. 3, p. 73, Michaud and Robson<ref name="michaud">Michaud, ''The History of the Crusades'', Vol. 3, p. 18; available [https://books.google.com/books?id=mAcMAAAAYAAJ in full at Google Books]. Note that in a footnote Michaud claims reliance on "the chronicle of Ibn Ferat" (Michaud, Vol. 3, p. 22) for much of the information he has concerning the ''Mussulmans''.</ref>}}

The Crusaders feared that Qalawun would use this as a pretext to resume the war, and petitioned the pontiff for reinforcements. According to Michaud, 25 Venetian galleys carrying 1600 men "levied in haste in Italy" were sent.<ref name=michaud/> Other sources claim 20 galleys of peasants and unemployed townfolks from [[Tuscany]] and [[Lombardy]], led by [[Nicholas Tiepolo]], the son of [[Doge (title)|Doge]] [[Lorenzo Tiepolo]], who was assisted by the returning Jean de Grailly and [[Roux of Sully]]. These were joined by five galleys from King [[James II of Aragon]] who wished to help despite his conflict with the Pope and Venice.<ref name="Runciman_409">Runciman (1951), p. 409</ref>

The Italian reinforcements were ill-disciplined and without regular pay; they pillaged indiscriminately from both Muslims and Christians before setting out from Acre. According to Runciman they attacked and killed some Muslim merchants around Acre in August 1290,<ref name="Runciman_408" /> although in Michaud's account they instead pillaged and massacred towns and villages. Qalawun demanded the [[extradition]] of the Christian perpetrators. On the suggestion of [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]], the [[Grand Masters of the Knights Templar|Grand Master]] of the [[Knights Templar]], the Council of Acre debated the issue; the Sultan's demand was rejected, with the Crusaders claiming that the murdered Muslims had been responsible for their own deaths.<ref>Runciman (1951), pp. 410–411</ref>

==Siege==

===Prelude to battle===
Sultan Qalawun dissolved the truce with Acre and the Mamluks began mobilizing by October 1290. Qalawun died in December and was succeeded by his son, [[Al-Ashraf Khalil]]<ref name="Claster_286">Claster (2009), p. 286</ref> (sometimes spelled ''Chalil''.<ref name=michaud/>) Guillaume de Beaujeu received a message from Khalil, which stated the latter's intention to attack Acre and to refuse peace overtures.<ref>"Because you have been a true man, so we send you advance notice of our intentions, and give you to understand that we are coming into your parts to right the wrongs that have been done. Therefore we do not want the community of Acre to send us any letters or presents (regarding this matter), for we will by no means receive them." —From the letter of Al-Ashraf Khalil to [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]], The [[Templar of Tyre]], ''[[Gestes des Chiprois]]'', p. 104 / part 3</ref> Nonetheless, the Crusaders dispatched a peace delegation, led by Sir Philip Mainebeuf,<ref name=":1">The Templar of Tyre, ''Gestes des Chiprois'', p. 104 / part 3</ref><ref>Philip Mainebeuf, who spoke Arabic, was accompanied by a knight named Bartholomew Pisan and a scribe named George. The Templar of Tyre, ''Gestes des Chiprois'', p. 104 / part 3</ref> to Cairo; the delegation was imprisoned.{{Unreliable source?|date=October 2009}}<ref>Asili, p. 110</ref><ref name=":1"/> Khalil set out from Cairo in March 1291.<ref name="Claster_286" />

The assembled Mamluk army greatly outnumbered the Crusaders. Khalil called upon Syria to reinforce his Egyptian army;<ref name="Folda_485" /> he was answered by contingents from Damascus (led by [[Lajin]]), [[Hama]] (led by al-Muzaffar Taqai ad-Din), [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] (led by Bilban) and [[Al-Karak]] (led by Baibars al-Dewadar.)<ref>There are no reliable figures for the Muslim army, according to some sources it consisted of 60 000 cavalry and 160 000 infantry. Though the numbers seem exaggerated, the army of the Muslim was probably larger than that of the Crusaders. Asili, p. 111</ref><ref>Michaud, ''ibid'', pp. 75–76, gives account of 7 emirs leaving in ''Kalouan's'' (ie Sultan Qalawun) stead as he was ill; he reports that each emir had 4,000 horse and 20,000-foot at his command – giving about 160,000 men.</ref> A significant portion of the troops were volunteers.<ref>[[Abu al-Fida]], p. 278 / vol. 13. According to Ibn Taghri most of Khalil's troops were volunteers. Ibn Taghri, p. 5 / vol. 8</ref> The army included a substantial artillery train<ref name="Folda_485" /> drawn from fortresses across the Mamluk empire. Hama sent the enormous catapult "The Victorious"<ref name="Claster_286" /> ({{lang|ar|المنصورى}}, ''{{transl|ar|Al-Mansuri}}''.){{refn|group=nb|This may have been a reference to the Sultan, who was Khalil Al-Mansuri.}} Another large catapult was "The Furious" ({{lang|ar|الغاضبة}}, ''{{transl|ar|Al-Ghadibah}}''.) There were also lighter [[mangonel]]s called "Black Bulls" ({{lang|ar|الثيران السوداء}}, ''{{transl|ar|Al-Thiran Al-Sawda'a}}''.).<ref>Asili, p. 110; Templar of Tyre, p. 105</ref>

Notable historians in the Mamluks ranks included Baibars al-Dewadar,<ref>Rukn ad-Din Baibars al-Dewadar was also a historian. He gave his account about the battle for Acre in his book "Zobdat al-Fikrah Fi Tarikh al-Hijrah ( 11 volumes )".</ref> and [[Abu al-Fida]] in the Haman contingent.<ref>Asli, p. 114</ref>

The Crusaders appeals for aid met with little success. England sent a few knights, including [[Otto de Grandson]] of [[Savoy]]. The only noteworthy reinforcements came from Henry II of Cyprus, who fortified the walls and sent troops led by his brother [[Amalric, Prince of Tyre|Amalric]]. [[Burchard von Schwanden]] suddenly resigned as [[Grand Master of the Teutonic Order|Grand Master]] of the [[Teutonic Order]] and left Acre for Europe; he was succeeded by [[Konrad von Feuchtwangen]]. The only major contingent to leave were the [[Genoa|Genoese]], who concluded a separate treaty with Khalil. Many women and children were evacuated from Acre to Cyprus in March.<ref name="Claster_286" />

Acre was defended by an inner and outer wall, with a total of twelve towers built by European kings and rich pilgrims.<ref>Among these towers were the Tower of the Countess of Blois, the Accursed Tower, the Tower of the Legate, the Tower of the Patriarch, the Tower of St. Nicholas, the English Tower, the Germans Tower, the Tower of Henri II, the Tower of King Hugh and the Tower of St. Lazarus. Asili, p. 113; Templar of Tyre, p. 106 / note2</ref><ref>The English tower was built by Henry I. Asili, p. 113</ref><ref>The Tower of the Countess of Blois was built by the Countess of Blois. Asili, p. 114</ref>

===Siege begins===
[[Image:Map of Acre in 1291.svg|thumb|upright|right|Map of Acre in 1291]]
Sultan Khalil and the Egyptian army arrived at Acre on 6 April 1291,<ref name="Folda_485" /><ref name="Claster_286" /> with the Syrian contingents arriving two days later with siege engines. The Mamluk encampment spanned from one coast to the other about two kilometres from the city walls. The red ''dihliz'' – the Sultan's personal tent and headquarters – was on a small hill west of the Legate's Tower. There was little fighting during the first eight days as the besiegers established their camp. From days nine to eleven the Mamluks pushed forward barricades and [[wicker]] screens until they reached the [[Moat|fosse]] before the outer wall; Carabohas, rapid-fire siege engines, were brought up. The besiegers began mining and bombarding the walls.<ref name="Folda_485" /> Acre's gates remained open – but heavily defended – as [[sally port]]s.<ref name="Folda_485" />

The Crusaders launched multiple attacks on the Mamluk camp. An amphibious assault on the Hamans – stationed on the northernmost section of the line by the sea – was successful although the Crusaders suffered heavy casualties.<ref name="Folda_485" /> In another raid, three hundred Templar, led by [[Jean I de Grailly|Jean de Grailly]] and [[Otto de Grandson]], rode out under moonlight to attack Haman artillery with [[Greek fire]]; while the artillery was not destroyed, the Templar engaged over 1000 Mamluks and returned with trophies and captured supplies. Khalil punished some subordinates for the humiliation caused by the Templar. In general, Crusader attacks failed to disrupt Mamluk preparations for a direct assault on the walls.<ref name="Folda_486">Folda (2005), p. 486</ref>

Henry II of Cyprus arrived on 4 May with reinforcements<ref name="Folda_486" /><ref name="Claster_286" /> of 700 troops aboard 40 ships.<ref name="Nicolle, p. 39" /> The king's arrival temporarily buoyed morale, but an inspection of the city convinced Henry II to attempt a negotiated settlement; the Crusaders believed that tribute could buy a truce. On 17 May, William of Villiers, a knight, and William of Caffran, of Guillaume de Beaujeu's household, were sent to negotiate with the Sultan. The negotiations were unsuccessful. The Crusaders refused to surrender, and appealed to Khalil to lift the siege and accept peace for the sake of the civilian inhabitants. Khalil remained intent on conquering the city, perhaps encouraged by the popularity of the cause among his troops; his counteroffer to allow the defenders to surrender and leave with their lives and property was rejected. Toward the end of the meeting, a Crusader artillery stone landed near the ''dihliz''; the Sultan was greatly angered and ordered a full assault the following day. The messengers returned to the city unharmed.<ref name="Folda_486" />

The Mamluk assault was preceded by weeks of preparation. By 18 May, multiple towers and parts of the wall were collapsed by [[Tunnel warfare|undermining]], and sections of the fosse filled in. The collapse of the Tower of the King was particularly demoralizing among the defenders, and the evacuation of women and children accelerated.<ref name="Folda_486" />

===Storming the city===
[[File:Siège d'Acre (1291).png|thumb|upright|14th-century illustration of the siege in the ''[[Grandes Chroniques de France]]'', depicting the Mamluks [[Tunnel warfare|undermining]] the city walls]]
The Mamluk army assembled before dawn on 18 May<ref name="Folda_486" /> and attacked the entire length of the wall to the sound of trumpets and drums carried on 300 camels.<ref>Al-Maqrizi, p. 223 / vol. 2; Asili, p. 118</ref><ref>Michaud, ''ibid'', p. 78</ref> The Mamluks poured through the breaches; by 9{{nbsp}}a.m. the outcome seems to have been beyond doubt.<ref name="Folda_487" /> The Mamluks captured the Accursed Tower on the inner wall<ref>The Accursed Tower was placed between the Tower of King Henri II and the Tower of the Teutonic Knights. Templar of Tyre, p. 106; Asili, p. 113</ref> and forced the Crusaders to retreat to the Gate of St. Anthony.<ref name=":0">Templar of Tyre, p. 113</ref> Guillaume de Beaujeu was mortally wounded defending the Gate of St. Anthony.{{refn|group=nb|He was buried in the Templar fortress before the fall of the city.<ref name="Folda_487">Folda (2005), p. 487</ref>}}<ref name="Folda_486" /> On the Montmusard walls, the Lazarists remained while the Templars and Hospitallers<ref name="accursed_tower_216"> {{cite book |last1=Crowley |first1=Roger |title=The Accursed Tower: The Fall of Acre and the End of the Crusades |date=2019 |publisher=Hachette Book Group INC. |location=New York, NY |page=216}}</ref> made a failed attempt to retake the Accursed Tower.<ref name=":0"/> The redeployment allowed the Hamans to break through the Montmusard walls and kill the Lazarists. The Mamluks gained more penetrations as the Crusaders abandoned the walls.<ref name="accursed_tower_216"/>

The Mamluks pushed into the city, looting<ref name="accursed_tower_216"/> and massacring any they encountered.<ref name="Folda_487" />{{refn|group=nb|According to Ludolph of Suchem (which seems exaggerated): "In Acre and the other places nearly a hundred and six thousand men were slain or taken, and more than two hundred thousand escaped from thence. Of the Saracens more than three hundred thousand were slain, as is well known even to this day."<ref name=":2">Ludolph of Suchem, pp. 268-272</ref>}} Organized Crusader resistance collapsed, and the retreat to the harbour and the ships was chaotic;<ref name="Folda_487" /><ref name="accursed_tower_216"/> wealthy refugees offered exorbitant sums for safe passage.{{refn|group=nb|[[Roger de Flor]], a mercenary commander and Knight Templar, made his fortune by selling passage to fleeing nobles and blackmailing refugees.<ref>Asili, pp. 120-121</ref>}}{{refn|group=nb|"More than five hundred most noble ladies and maidens, the daughters of kings and princes, came down to the seashore, when the city was about to fall, carrying with them all their jewels and ornaments of gold and precious stones, of priceless value, in their bosoms, and cried aloud, whether there were any sailor there who would take all their jewels and take whichever of them he chose to wife, if only he would take them, even naked, to some safe land or island"<ref name=":2"/>}} Henry II and [[Jean de Villiers (Grand Master)|Jean de Villiers]], [[List of Grand Masters of the Knights Hospitaller|Grand Master]] of the [[Knights Hospitaller]], were among those evacuated. The evacuation was made more difficult by the poor weather.<ref name="Folda_487" />

===Acre falls===
[[File:SiegeOfAcre1291BNF.JPG|thumb|right|upright|The city of Acre fell in 1291, and its Latin Christian population was killed or enslaved.|alt=Image of siege of Acre]]
By the night of 18 May,<ref>Templar of Tyre, p. 104</ref> Acre was in Mamluk hands, except for the seaside Templar fortress at the western tip of the city.<ref name="Folda_487"/> The fortress contained four towers, and within were remnants of the Templar, Hospitallers, and Teutonic Knights, and thousands of civilians.<ref name="crusade_christendom">{{cite book |editor1-last=Bird |editor1-first=Jessalynn |editor2-last=Peters |editor2-first=Edward |editor3-last=Powell |editor3-first=James M. |title=Crusade and Christendom: Annotated Documents in Translation from Innocent III to the Fall of Acre, 1187–1291 |series=The Middle Ages Series |date=2013 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-4478-6 |pages=489–491}}</ref><ref name="accursed_tower_"/> The fortress held out for ten more days, during which [[Matthew of Clermont]], a Hospitaller marshal, was killed.<ref name="Folda_487" /> Templar [[Thibaud Gaudin]] and a few others left the fortress under the cover of darkness, taking the Templar treasury with them to [[Sidon]].{{refn|group=nb|Thibaud Gaudin was elected as Grand Master of the Knights Templar at Sidon.}}{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}<ref name="accursed_tower_"/>
On 20 May, the tower held by the Templars, led by Peter de Severy, asked for amnesty.<ref name="crusade_christendom"/>
Sultan Khalil agreed to allow the woman and children to leave the city. The gates were opened and 400 horseman entered the complex, but they immediately attacked the women and children. Peter de Severy refused to accept this and ordered the gates to be closed, trapping the horsemen. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref> A battle ensued, but this time the Christians had the advantage. Of the 400 horsemen who entered the fortress, only a handful escaped. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref> The others were either killed or beheaded. The battles were fierce and relentless. This wasn't just the last stand at Acre, it was the last stand of the crusader states.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref> When the fighting stopped, Peter de Severy received another letter from the Sultan. In it, he stated that his men deserved their deaths for their undisciplined behavior. Furthermore, he asked the marshal to leave his fortress to discuss terms. It was a lie. Trying to spare the civilian population under his protection, Peter de Severy opened the gates and stepped forward with a delegation of Knights Templar. Before they could reach the enemy's encampments they were killed by the Sultan's troops.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |date=2017 |publisher=Head Of Zeus |location=London |isbn=978-0525428305 |page=334}}</ref>
Further offers of amnesty were rejected by the Crusaders. On 28 May, the final tower surrendered; Mamluk mines were prepared to destroy the tower making further resistance useless.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} The tower collapsed after prisoners and booty had been removed; according to Mamluk accounts, a few sightseers and looters were killed.<ref name="accursed_tower_">{{cite book |last1=Crowley |first1=Roger |title=The Accursed Tower: The Fall of Acre and the End of the Crusades |date=2019 |publisher=Hachette Book Group INC. |location=New York, NY}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=November 2020}}{{refn|group=nb|According to Ludolph of Suchem, the Templars deliberately caused the collapse by undermining the walls.<ref>Ludolphi, Rectoris Ecclesiæ Parochialis in suchem, p. 46</ref>}}

News of the Mamluk victory caused celebrations in Damascus and Cairo. In Damascus, Khalil entered the city with chained Crusader prisoners and captured Crusader standards – carried upside-down in defeat. The Sultan returned to Cairo with the gate of the [[Church of Saint Andrew, Acre|Church of Saint Andrew]] from Acre, which was used to construct a mosque<ref>Asili, p. 123</ref> and released Philip Mainebeuf's delegation.<ref>Ibn Taghri, p. 9 / vol. 8</ref> Furthermore, celebrations were described as:
“The entire city had been decorated, and sheets of satin had been laid along his triumphal path through the city leading to the palace of the governor. The regal sultan was proceeded by 280 fettered prisoners. One bore a reversed Frankish banner; another carried a banner and spear from which the hair of slain comrades was suspended. Al-Ashraf was greeted by the whole population of Damascus and the surrounding countryside lining the route, ulama [legal scholars], mosque officials, Sufi sheiks, Christians and Jews, all holding candles even though the parade took place before noon.”<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nicolle |first1=David |title=Acre 1291: Bloody Sunset of the Crusade |date=2005 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |location=Oxford, UK |page=87 }}</ref>

==Aftermath==
{{see also|Fall of Ruad}}
The fall of Acre signaled the end of the Jerusalem crusades. No effective crusade was raised to recapture the Holy Land afterwards, though talk of further crusades was common enough. By 1291, other ideals had captured the interest and enthusiasm of the monarchs and nobility of Europe and even strenuous papal efforts to raise expeditions to retake the [[Holy Land]] met with little response.

The Latin Kingdom continued to exist, theoretically, on the island of Cyprus. There the [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Latin kings]] planned to recapture the mainland, but in vain. Money, men, and the will to do the task were all lacking. One last effort was made by [[Peter I of Cyprus|King Peter I]] in 1365, when he successfully landed in Egypt and [[Alexandrian Crusade|sacked Alexandria]]. Once the city was taken, however, the Crusaders returned to Cyprus. As a crusade, the episode was futile, and this and further coastal raids over the following decades led in 1410–11 to a destructive counter-raid by the [[Mamluk Sultanate]]; in 1426 Cyprus was forced into Mamluk vassalship with a hefty yearly [[tribute]].

The 14th century saw some other crusades organized such as the [[Crusade of Nicopolis]], but these enterprises differed in many ways from the 11th- and 12th-century expeditions which are properly called Crusades. The crusades of the 14th century aimed not at the recapture of Jerusalem and the Christian shrines of the [[Holy Land]], but rather at checking the advance of the [[Ottoman Empire]] into Europe. While many of the crusaders in these 14th-century undertakings looked upon the defeat of the Ottomans as a preliminary to the ultimate recapture of the Holy Land, none of the later crusades attempted any direct attack upon Palestine or Syria.

==Historiography==
Two short works dedicated to the siege were produced by contemporaries on the basis of eyewitness accounts: the ''Hystoria de desolacione'' of [[Thaddeus of Naples]] and the anonymous ''[[Excidium Acconis]]''. These survive in four and six manuscripts, respectively.{{sfn|Edgington|2006a}}{{sfn|Edgington|2006b}} The ''[[Gestes des Chiprois]]'', written a generation later and surviving in a single manuscript, is the other main source from the crusaders' perspective.{{sfn|Edgington|2006a}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Cite book |last=Asili |first=B. |title=Al-Zahir Baibars and the End of the Old Crusades |publisher=Dar Alnafaes |year=1992 |location=Beirut}}
*{{Cite book |last=Claster |first=Jill N. |title=Sacred Violence: The European Crusades to the Middle East, 1095–1396 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=9781442604308}}
*{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Roger |title=The Accursed Tower: The Fall of Acre and the End of the Crusades |publisher=Basic Books |year=2019 |isbn=978-1541697348 |author-link=Roger Crowley}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |first=Susan B. |last=Edgington |title=Excidium Acconis |encyclopedia=The Crusades: An Encyclopedia |editor=Alan V. Murray |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |volume=2 |page=448 |ref={{harvid|Edgington|2006a}}}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |first=Susan B. |last=Edgington |title=Thaddeus of Naples |encyclopedia=The Crusades: An Encyclopedia |editor=Alan V. Murray |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |volume=4 |page=1169 |ref={{harvid|Edgington|2006b}}}}
*{{Cite book |last=Folda |first=Jaroslav |title=Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=9780521835831}}
*{{Cite book |last=Hosler |first=John D. |title=The Siege of Acre, 1189-1191: Saladin, Richard the Lionheart, and the Battle That Decided the Third Crusade |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-300-21550-2 |location=New Haven}}
*{{Cite book |last=Nicolle |first=David |title=Acre 1291: Bloody sunset of the Crusader states |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2005}}
*{{Cite book |last=Runciman |first=Steven |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofcrusade02runc |title=A History of the Crusades |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1951 |url-access=registration}}
*{{Cite book |title=The 'Templar of Tyre': Part III of the 'Deeds of the Cypriots' |publisher=Ashgate |year=2003 |isbn=9781840146189 |translator-last=Crawford |translator-first=Paul}}
*{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=D. |title=The Templars: The Rise and Spectacular Fall of God's Holy Warriors |publisher=Head Of Zeus |year=2017 |location=London, UK |page=334}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* Antonio Musarra, ''Acri 1291. La caduta degli stati crociati'', Bologna, il Mulino, 2017.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120309203403/http://historyavenue.com/conquest_of_acre_1291.html Siege of Acre 1291]
* ''The history of the crusades'', Volume 3, pp [https://books.google.com/books?id=mAcMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA70 70–89 (Google Books, full view)], by [[Joseph François Michaud]], trans. [[William Robson (writer)|William Robson]]. Note that in this account Acre is referred to as "[[Acre, Israel#Greek and Roman periods|Ptolemaïs]]", Sultan Qalawun as "Kalouan" and Khalil as "Chalil" and throughout the work Muslims are referred to as "Mussulmans". Several contemporary manuscripts, such as the chronicles of [[Ibn Ferat]], are referenced and appendices give some translations.
* ''The Crusades'' by Edward Gibbon (1963), pp. [https://archive.org/stream/crusades00scotgoog#page/n87/mode/1up 76–78], provides a useful short summary of the events of the siege including an overview of the situation in Acre at the time.

{{Sovereign Military Order of Malta}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siege of Acre (1291)}}
[[Category:Sieges of the Crusades|Acre (1291)]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1291]]
[[Category:History of Acre, Israel]]
[[Category:1291 in Asia]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Kingdom of Jerusalem|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Knights Hospitaller|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Knights Templar|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Mamluk Sultanate|Acre 1291]]
[[Category:13th century in the Mamluk Sultanate|Acre]]
[[Category:Military history of the Crusader states after Lord Edward's crusade]]
[[Category:Battles of Fall of Outremer]]
[[Category:Wars in the Land of Israel]]

Fall of Ruad

2024-02-19T16:01:38Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Background */

{{Short description|Siege; brought the Crusader period to an end in the Holy Land}}
{{infobox military conflict
| conflict = Fall of Ruad
| partof = the [[Crusades|Crusades]]
| image = Cours de la forteresse d'Arouad.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Ruins of the fortress of Ruad, where the Crusaders attempted to set up a bridgehead to re-take the Holy Land
| date = 1302
| place = [[Arwad|Isle of Ruad]]
| result = [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk]] victory
Expulsion of the [[Crusaders]] from the Holy Land
| territory =
| combatant1 = [[Mamluk Sultanate]]
| combatant2 = [[Knights Templar]]
| commander1 = [[Sayf al-Din Salar]]
| commander2 = [[Barthélemy de Quincy]]{{KIA}}
| strength1 = Unknown
| strength2 = {{plainlist|
*120 [[Knights Templar]]
*500 Templar archers
*400 Templar sergeants}}
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = Almost all Knights Templar (except some 40 knights as prisoners). Most archers and sergeants were killed.
| notes =
}}

The '''fall of Ruad''' in 1302 was one of the culminating events of the [[Crusades]] in the Eastern Mediterranean. In 1291, the Crusaders had lost their main power base at the coastal city of [[Siege of Acre (1291)|Acre]], and the Muslim [[Mamluk|Mamluks]] had been systematically destroying the remaining Crusader ports and fortresses in the region, forcing the Crusaders to relocate the dwindling [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] to the island of [[Cyprus]]. In 1299–1300, the Cypriots sought to retake the Syrian port city of [[Tartus|Tortosa]], by setting up a staging area on Ruad, two miles (3 km) off the coast of Tortosa. The plans were to [[Franco-Mongol alliance|coordinate an offensive]] between the forces of the Crusaders, and those of the [[Ilkhanate]] (Mongol Persia). However, though the Crusaders successfully established a bridgehead on the island, the Mongols did not arrive, and the Crusaders were forced to withdraw the bulk of their forces to Cyprus. The [[Knights Templar]] set up a permanent garrison on the island in 1300, but the Mamluks besieged and captured Ruad in 1302. With the loss of the island, the Crusaders lost their last foothold in the [[Holy Land]] and it marked the end of
crusader presence in the [[Levant]] region.<ref>Demurger, chapter "The Isle of Ruad", in ''The Last Templar''.</ref><ref>Tyerman, p. 771</ref>

{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}

==Background==
[[File:Mongol raids into Syria and Palestine ca 1300.svg|right|thumb|Mongol advances, 1299–1303. They had a major success near Homs in 1300 at the [[Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar]] (also called the Third Battle of Homs), and were able to launch some raids southwards into Palestine for a few months before retreating. In 1303, they suffered a crushing defeat at the [[Battle of Marj al-Saffar (1303)|Battle of Marj al-Saffar]], which marked the end of their incursions into Syria.]]

When [[Jerusalem]] was lost in 1187, the Crusaders moved their headquarters to the coastal city of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], which they held for another century, until it [[Siege of Acre (1291)|fell in 1291]] to Mumluk forces. They then moved their headquarters north to [[Tartus|Tortosa]] on the coast of [[Syria]], but lost that too three months later, as well as the stronghold of [[Château Pèlerin|Atlit]] (south of Acre).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=BgQ6AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA70 ''The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem'' by Denys Pringle p.70]</ref> The remaining elements of the dwindling [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] relocated their headquarters offshore to the island of [[Cyprus]].<ref name="Barber-22">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rqfE2l0cowgC&pg=RA1-PA22 | title=The trial of the templars, p.22''ff''| author=Malcolm Barber | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2006 | isbn=0-521-85639-6 }}</ref>

In 1298–99 the Mamluks attacked Syria, capturing [[Servantikar]] and [[Roche-Guillaume]] (in what had previously been Antioch). This marked the capture of the last Templar stronghold in the Levant.<ref name="Demurger 142">Demurger, p.142''ff''</ref> The Grand Master of the Templars, [[Jacques de Molay]], and the leader of the [[Hospitallers]], [[Guillaume de Villaret]], apparently participated in the ineffective defense of these fortresses, the losses of which prompted the Armenian king [[Hethum II, King of Armenia|Hethum II]] to request the intervention of the [[Ilkhanate|Mongol ruler of Persia]], [[Ghazan]].<ref name="Demurger 142"/>

In 1299, as he prepared an offensive against Syria, Ghazan had sent embassies to [[Henry II of Jerusalem]] (now located on Cyprus) and to [[Pope Boniface VIII]], inviting them to participate in combined operations against the Mamluks.<ref name="Barber-22"/><ref name="Jackson 171"/> Henry made some attempts to combine with the Mongols,<ref name="Jackson 171"/> and in the autumn of 1299 sent a small fleet of two galleys, led by [[Guy of Ibelin (died 1304)|Guy of Ibelin]] and [[Jean II de Giblet|John of Giblet]], to join Ghazan. The fleet successfully reoccupied [[Botrun]] on the mainland (in modern times this would be along the coast of [[Lebanon]]), and for a few months, until February 1300, began rebuilding the fortress of [[Enfeh|Nephin]].<ref name="Demurger 142"/><ref name="Jackson 171"/>

Ghazan inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mamluks on 22 December 1299 at the [[Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar]] near Homs in Syria. He was assisted by his vassal Hethum II, whose forces included a contingent of Templars and Hospitallers from Little Armenia.<ref name="Demurger 142"/><ref name="Jackson 171"/> But Ghazan then had to retreat the bulk of his forces in February, due to a revolt in the East during the Mongol civil war, as he was being attacked by one of his cousins, [[Qutlugh Khwaja|Qutlugh-Khoja]], the son of the [[Chagatai Khanate|Jagataid]] ruler of [[Turkestan]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=v3AdA-Ogl34C&pg=PA128 ''The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna'' by Martin Sicker p.128]</ref> Before leaving, Ghazan announced that he would return by November 1300, and sent letters and ambassadors to the West so that they could prepare themselves. Ghazan's remaining forces in the area launched some [[Mongol raids into Palestine]] from December 1299 until May 1300, raiding the [[Jordan River Valley]], reaching as far as [[Gaza City|Gaza]] and entering multiple towns, probably including Jerusalem.<ref>Amitai, "Mongol Raids into Palestine"</ref> The Mongols' success in Syria inspired enthusiastic rumours in the West, that the Holy Land had been conquered and that Jerusalem was to be returned to the West.<ref name="Demurger 142"/><ref name="Jotischky">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yG9OqY08E98C&pg=249 | title=Crusading and the crusader states, p.249 | author=Andrew Jotischky | publisher=Pearson Education | year=2004 | isbn=0-582-41851-8}}</ref><ref name="Nicholson 45">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oGppfVJMKjsC&pg=PA45 | title=The Knights Hospitaller, p.45| author=Helen Nicholson | publisher=Boydell & Brewer | year=2001 | isbn=0-85115-845-5 }}</ref> In May however, when the Egyptians again advanced from Cairo, the remaining Mongols retreated with little resistance.<ref name="Jackson 171"/>

In July 1300,<ref>Barber, Malcolm. ''The new Knighthood'', Cambridge University Press, 1995, {{ISBN|0-521-55872-7}}, p.293</ref> King Henry II of Jerusalem and the other Cypriots set up a naval raiding operation. Sixteen galleys combining the forces of Cyprus with those of the Templars and Hospitallers, and accompanied by Ghazan's ambassador [[Isol the Pisan]], were able to raid [[Rosetta]], [[Alexandria]], [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], Tortosa and [[Maraclea]].<ref name="Barber-22"/><ref name="Jackson 171"/><ref>Demurger, pp. 142 & 147</ref>

==Ruad as bridgehead==
[[File:1301FrancoMongolOffensiveLevant.jpg|thumb|Though they were not able to satisfactorily combine their activities, the Europeans (green arrows) and Mongols (red arrows) did attempt to coordinate an offensive near Tortosa and the Isle of Ruad]]The [[Château Pèlerin|citadel of Atlit]] having been dismantled by the Mamluks in 1291, Tortosa remained the most likely stronghold on the mainland which had the potential to be recaptured. From Cyprus, King Henry and members of the three military orders ([[Knights Templar]], [[Knights Hospitaller]] and [[Teutonic Knights]]), attempted to retake Tortosa in 1300. The plan was to establish a bridgehead on the tiny waterless island of Ruad, just two miles (3 km) off the coast, from which they could launch raids on the city.<ref name="Barber-294"/>

On the eve of the Ruad expedition, relations between the Templars and the [[Kingdom of Cyprus|King of Cyprus]], [[Henry II of Cyprus|Henry II]], were strained, as the former Grand Master [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]] had supported a rival claimant to the Cypriot throne.<ref name="Barber-22"/> [[Pope Boniface VIII]] had since ordered Jacques de Molay to resolve the disputes with Henry II.<ref name="Barber-22"/>

In November 1300, Jacques de Molay and the king's brother, [[Amalric, Lord of Tyre|Amaury of Lusignan]], launched an expedition to reoccupy Tortosa. Six hundred troops, including about 150 Templars, were ferried to Ruad in preparation for a seaborne assault on the city.<ref name="Barber-22"/><ref name="Jackson 171">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7FLUMVIqIvwC&pg=PA170 | title=The Mongols and the West, 1221-1410, p.170''ff''| author=Peter Jackson | publisher=Pearson Education | year=2005 | isbn=0-582-36896-0 }}</ref> The hopes were that in synchronization with the naval assault, there would also be a land-based attack by the Mongols of the [[Ilkhanate]], as Ghazan had promised that his own forces would arrive in late 1300.<ref name="Barber-294">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPvHPy7i5dQC&pg=PA294| title=The New Knighthood, p. 294| author=Malcolm Barber| publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1995 | isbn=0-521-55872-7}}</ref><ref>"From 1299, [[Jacques de Molay]] and his Order fully committed, with the other Christian forces of Cyprus and Armenia, to a reconquest of the [[Holy Land]] in liaison with the offensives of [[Ghazan]], the Mongol khan of [[Persia]]; the occupation of Ruad for two years, on the Syrian coast near [[Tortosa]], must be understood in this perspective, and would even add, in this perspective only." Alain Demurger, p.139</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xifq5OE7174C&pg=PA525 ''Crusader art in the Holy Land'' Jaroslav Folda p.525]</ref> While the Templar Grand Master had high hopes for the operation,<ref name="Jackson 171"/><ref name="Demurger, p.159">Demurger, p.159</ref> the attempt to reoccupy Tortosa lasted only twenty-five days, and the Crusaders acted more like plunderers, destroying property and taking captives. They did not stay permanently in the city, but set up base on Ruad.<ref name="Barber-22"/><ref name="Demurger 142"/> However, Ghazan's Mongols did not show up as planned, being delayed by the rigorous winter, and the planned junction did not happen.<ref name="Barber-294"/>

In February 1301 the Mongols, accompanied by the Armenian king Hethum II, finally made their promised advance into Syria.<ref name="Jackson 171"/><ref name="Barber-294"/> General [[Kutlushka]] went to Little Armenia to fetch troops and from there moved south past [[Antioch]].<ref name="Demurger 142"/> The Armenians were also accompanied by Guy of Ibelin, [[County of Jaffa and Ascalon|Count of Jaffa]], and John of Giblet.<ref name="Demurger 142"/><ref name="Edbury 105"/> While Kutlushka had a force of 60,000, he could do little else than engage in some perfunctory raiding as far as the environs of [[Aleppo]].<ref name="Jackson 171"/> When Ghazan announced that he had canceled his operations for the year, the Crusaders, after some deliberations, decided to return to Cyprus, leaving only a garrison on Ruad.<ref name="Demurger 142"/><ref name="Jackson 171"/><ref name="Edbury 105">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmYeAuWUPK8C&pg=PA105 | title=Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades, 1191-1374, p.105| author=Peter W. Edbury | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1991 | isbn=0-521-26876-1 }}</ref>

==Reinforcement of Ruad==
{| class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left: 1em;" style="font-size: 80%;"
|-
| colspan="3" align="center" cellspacing="0" style="background:lightgrey; color:black" | '''Crusader troops at Ruad'''
|-
| align=center rowspan=1 |
|align=center rowspan=1|November 1300 –January 1301
| colspan="1" align=center |May 1301 –April 1302
|-
| [[Cyprus|Cypriots]]
|300
|500
|-
| [[Templars]]
|150
|120
|-
| [[Hospitallers]]
|150
|0
|}
From his stronghold of [[Limassol]], in Cyprus, Jacques de Molay continued to send appeals to the West to organize the sending of troops and supplies.<ref name="Demurger, p.159"/> In November 1301, Pope Boniface VIII officially granted Ruad to the Knights Templar.<ref name="Barber-22"/> They strengthened its fortifications, and installed a force of 120 knights, 500 archers and 400 servants as a permanent garrison.<ref name="Demurger 142"/><ref name="Barber-294"/> This represented a considerable commitment: "close to half the size of the normal complement [of Templars] for the twelfth-century Kingdom of Jerusalem".<ref name="Barber-294"/><ref name="Edbury 105"/> They were under the command of the Templar marshal [[Barthélemy de Quincy]].<ref name="Demurger 142"/><ref name="Barber-294"/>

Plans for combined operations between the Europeans and the Mongols were made for the winters of 1301 and 1302.<ref name="Demurger 154">Demurger, p.154''ff''</ref> A surviving letter from Jacques de Molay to [[Edward I of England]], dated 8 April 1301, informed the king of the troubles encountered by Ghazan, but announced de Molay's planned expedition in the autumn:

{{quote|"And our convent, with all our galleys and ''tarides'' (light galleys) [lacuna] has been transported to the isle of Tortosa to await Ghazan's army and his Tartars."|Jacques de Molay, letter to Edward I, April 8, 1301<ref>Quoted in Demurger, p.154. [[Public Record Office|PRO]], Ancient Correspondence, Special Collections 1/55, f. 22; published in [[Sacrae Domus Militiae Templi]], p. 368.</ref>}}

In a letter to [[James II of Aragon]] a few months later, Jacques de Molay wrote:<ref name="Demurger 154"/>

{{quote|"The king of Armenia had sent his messengers to the king of Cyprus to tell him . . . that Ghazan was now on the point of coming to the sultan's lands with a multitude of Tartars. Knowing this, we now intend to go to the isle of Tortosa, where our convent has remained all this year with horses and arms, causing much damage to the ''casaux'' along the coast and capturing many Saracens. We intend to go there and settle in to await the Tartars."|Jacques de Molay, letter to James II of Aragon, 1301.<ref name="Demurger 154"/>}}

==Siege==

Ruad was to be the last Crusader base in the Levant.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=aoX4bsr0EEIC&pg=PA19 ''Ibn Khaldun: the Mediterranean in the 14th century : rise and fall of Empires''p.19]</ref> In 1302, the Mamluks sent a fleet of 16 ships from [[Egypt]], to [[County of Tripoli|Tripoli]], from which they besieged the island of Ruad.<ref name=barber-294>Barber, ''The New Knighthood'', p. 294</ref> They disembarked at two points and set up their own encampment. The Templars fought the invaders, but were eventually starved out. The Cypriots had been assembling a fleet to rescue Ruad, which set out from [[Famagusta]], but did not arrive in time.<ref name=barber-294/>

On Ruad, Brother Hugh of [[House of Dampierre|Dampierre]] negotiated a surrender to the Mamluks on September 26, under the condition that they could safely escape to a Christian land of their choice. However after they emerged conflict soon started, Barthélemy de Quincy was killed in the conflict, all the bowmen and Syrian Christian footsoldiers were executed, and dozens of the surviving Templar knights were taken as prisoners to Cairo.<ref name="Barber-22"/> About 40 of the Templars were still in prison in Cairo several years later, refusing to [[apostatize]].<ref name="Barber-22"/> According to some accounts, they eventually died of starvation after years of ill treatment.<ref name="Barber-22"/><ref name="Jackson 171"/><ref>"Nearly 40 of these men were still in prison in Cairo years later where, according to a former fellow prisoner, the Genoese Matthew Zaccaria, they died of starvation, having refused an offer of 'many riches and goods' in return for apostatising" ''The Trial of the Templars'', Malcolm Barber, p.22</ref>

==Aftermath==
The Franks from Cyprus did continue to engage in some naval attacks along the Syrian coast, destroying [[Damour]], south of [[Beyrout]].<ref>Demurger, "Jacques de Molay", p.158</ref> Ghazan made a last attack on the Mamluks in Spring 1303, with 30,000 troops in combination with the [[Cilician Armenia|Armenians]], but the expedition ended in disaster. His generals [[Mulay]] and [[Qutlugh Shah]] were defeated near [[Damascus]] at the [[Battle of Marj al-Saffar (1303)|Battle of Marj al-Saffar]] on 20 April.<ref name="Jackson 171"/><ref name=demurger-158>Demurger, p. 158</ref> It is considered to be the last major Mongol invasion of Syria.<ref>Nicolle, p. 80</ref> When Ghazan died in 1304, Jacques de Molay's dream of a rapid reconquest of the Holy Land was doused.

Subsequently the Grand Master opposed small-scale attacks in anticipation of larger forces as a strategy to recapture the Holy Land.<ref name="Barber-22"/> In 1305 [[Pope Clement V]] made new plans for a Crusade,<ref name="Barber-22"/> and in 1307 received new ambassadors from the Mongol leader [[Oljeitu]], which cheered him "like spiritual sustenance" and encouraged him to evoke the restitution of the Holy Land by the Mongols as a strong possibility.<ref name="Jackson 171"/> In 1306, [[Pope Clement V]] had asked the leaders of the military orders, Jacques de Molay and Fulk de Villaret, to present their proposals for how the crusades should proceed, but neither of them factored in any kind of a Mongol alliance. A few later proposals talked briefly about the Mongols as being a force that could invade Syria and keep the Mamluks distracted, but not as a force that could be counted on for cooperation.<ref name="Barber-22"/><ref>Jackson, ''Mongols and the West'', pp. 165–185</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
*{{cite journal|author=Amitai, Reuven|author-link=Reuven Amitai|title=Mongol Raids into Palestine (AD 1260 and 1300)|journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]]|year=1987|pages=236–255}}
* {{cite book | last = Barber | first = Malcolm | title = The New Knighthood: A History of the Order of the Temple | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | location = Cambridge | year = 1994 | isbn = 0-521-42041-5|author-link=Malcolm Barber }}
* {{cite book|author=Barber, Malcolm|author-link=Malcolm Barber|title=The Trial of the Templars|edition=2nd|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-67236-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Demurger, Alain|author-link=Alain Demurger|title=The Last Templar|url=https://archive.org/details/lasttemplartrage00demu|url-access=registration|publisher=[[Profile Books]]|year=2005|orig-year=First published in French in 2002, translated to English in 2004 by Antonia Nevill|isbn= 2-228-90235-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Jackson, Peter|author-link=Peter Jackson (historian)|title=The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410|year=2005|publisher=[[Longman]]|isbn=978-0-582-36896-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Tyerman, Christopher|author-link =Christopher Tyerman | title=God's War|year=2006|publisher =Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn =9780674023871 |url=https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer|url-access=registration}}
*Antonio Musarra, ''Acri 1291. La caduta degli stati crociati'', Bologna, il Mulino, 2017.

{{coord|34|51|22|N|35|51|30|E|type:city|display=title}}

[[Category:Sieges of the Crusades|Ruad]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Knights Templar|Ruad]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Mamluk Sultanate|Ruad]]
[[Category:14th century in the Mamluk Sultanate]]
[[Category:1302 in Asia]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1302]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Knights Hospitaller|Ruad]]
[[Category:Military history of the Crusader states after Lord Edward's crusade]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Kingdom of Cyprus|Ruad]]
[[Category:1300s in the Middle East]]
[[Category:Arwad]]
[[Category:Battles of Fall of Outremer]]

Siege of Jerusalem (1099)

2024-02-19T06:54:23Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Final assault */

{{Short description|Christian conquest of the First Crusade}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Jerusalem (1099)
| image = Counquest of Jeusalem (1099).jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = ''Taking of Jerusalem by the Crusaders'' (1847) by [[Émile Signol]]
| partof = the [[First Crusade]]
| date = 7 June 1099 – 15 July 1099 ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=06|day1=07|year1=1099|month2=07|day2=15|year2=1099}})
| place = [[Jerusalem]]
| result = Crusader victory<ref>{{
Cite book
| edition=2
| first=François
| language=de
| last=Valentin
| oclc=681425816
| publication-place=Regensburg
| publisher=Druck und Verlag von Georg Joseph Manz
| title=Geschichte der Kreuzzüge
| translator-first=Robert
| translator-last=della Torre
| url=
{{Google Books URL
| id=wRYMAAAAYAAJ
}}
| year=1867
}}</ref>
| territory = Founding of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
| combatant1 = [[Christian forces of the First Crusade|Crusaders]]
| combatant2 = [[Fatimid Caliphate]]
| commander1 = {{unbulletedlist
| [[Godfrey of Bouillon]]
| [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse|Raymond IV of Toulouse]]
| [[Robert Curthose|Robert II of Normandy]]
| [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert II of Flanders]]
| [[Eustace III, Count of Boulogne|Eustace III of Boulogne]]
| [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred of Galilee]]
| [[Girard I of Roussillon]]
| [[Gaston IV, Viscount of Béarn|Gaston IV of Béarn]]
| [[Berenguer Ramon II, Count of Barcelona|Berenguer Ramon II of Barcelona]]
| [[Guglielmo Embriaco|Guglielmo Embriaco of Genoa]]}}
| commander2 = {{unbulletedlist
| [[Iftikhar al-Dawla|Iftikhar ad-Dawla]]{{surrendered}}}}
| strength1 = 12,200–13,300 soldiers<ref>{{harvnb|France|1994|p=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=308}}</ref>{{bulletedlist
| 11,000–12,000 infantry
| 1,200–1,300 knights
| 2 [[siege towers]], 1 [[battering ram]], and several [[catapults]]<ref>{{harvnb|France|1994|pp=346-350}}</ref>}}
| strength2 = Total unknown<ref name="auto1">{{harvnb|France|1994|p=343}}</ref>{{bulletedlist
| Sizeable garrison of infantry and archers<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=300}}</ref>
| 400 cavalry<ref name="auto1"/>
| 14 catapults<ref>{{harvnb|Rubenstein|2011|p=297}}</ref>}}
| casualties1 = ~3,000 killed and wounded<ref>{{harvnb|France|1994|p=131}}</ref>
| casualties2 = Entire garrison killed<hr>3,000–70,000 [[Muslims]] and [[Jews]] massacred<ref>The "massacre" at the sack of Jerusalem has become a commonplace motive in popular depictions, but the historical event is difficult to reconstruct with any certainty. Arab sources give figures of between 3,000 and 70,000 casualties (in [[Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi]], and in [[Ali ibn al-Athir|Ibn al-Athir]], respectively). The latter figure is rejected as unrealistic as it is very unlikely that the city at the time had a total population of this order; medieval chroniclers tend to substantially exaggerate both troop strength and casualty figures; they cannot be taken at face value naively, and it is less than straightforward to arrive at realistic estimates based on them. For a further study of the Arab accounts see Hirschler, Konrad (2014). The Jerusalem Conquest of 492/1099 in the Medieval Arabic Historiography of the Crusades: From Regional Plurality to Islamic Narrative.</ref>
| map_type = Mediterranean
| map_label = Jerusalem
| map_size = 300
| map_caption = {{align|center|Site of the siege relative to the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]]}}
| map_relief = yes
| coordinates = {{WikidataCoord|Q1218|region:IL-JM_type:city|display=inline,title}}
}}

{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}
{{Jerusalem large}}

The '''siege of Jerusalem''' during the [[First Crusade]] lasted for one month and eight days, from 7 June 1099 to 15 July 1099. It was carried out by the [[Christian forces of the First Crusade|Crusader army]], which successfully captured [[Jerusalem]] from the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] and subsequently founded the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. Having returned the city and the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] to Christian rule, the siege was the final major armed engagement of the First Crusade, which had been proclaimed in 1095 to recover the [[Holy Land]] for the [[Christians]] in the context of the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Muslim conquest]]. A number of eyewitness accounts of the battle were recorded, with the most quoted events being derived from the anonymous [[Latin]]-language chronicle {{Lang-la|[[Gesta Francorum]]|label=none}}.

After Jerusalem was captured, thousands of [[Muslims]] and [[Jews]] were massacred by Crusader soldiers. As the Crusaders secured control over the [[Temple Mount]], revered as the site of the two destroyed [[Temple in Jerusalem|Jewish Temples]], they also seized [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] and the [[Dome of the Rock]] and repurposed them as Christian shrines.<ref>France, John. "Jerusalem, Siege of (1099)". In ''The Crusades – An Encyclopedia,'' Alan V. Murray, ed. pp. 677–679.</ref> French nobleman [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], prominent among the Crusader leadership, was elected to govern the new Christian state as the [[King of Jerusalem]].

==Background==

=== Muslim conquest of the Levant ===
At the [[Council of Piacenza]] in 1095, [[Pope Urban II]] received envoys from [[Byzantine Emperor]] [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]] asking [[Western Roman Empire|Western Christians]] for assistance in liberating large parts of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] from the [[Seljuk Turks]] who had conquered large parts of the region since 1070. The Seljuk [[Atsiz ibn Uwaq]] had conquered Jerusalem from the Fatimids in 1073, making the pilgrimage to Jerusalem more difficult and suppressing a revolt of the city in 1077 in bloodbath.<ref>Cline, Eric H.(2007) [2004]. ''Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel''. University of Michigan Press. pp. 159–160. {{ISBN|978-0-472-03120-7}}.</ref> Responding to the call, Urban gave a sermon at the [[Council of Clermont]] in November 1095 which included a rousing call to arms for the conquest of the [[Holy Land]] and the return of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in Jerusalem to Christian hands.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite book|last=Allen, S. J. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/983482121|title=An introduction to the crusades|date=2017 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0023-2|oclc=983482121}}</ref> His appeal marked the beginning of the [[Crusades]], a holy war for God, in which he guaranteed participants a place in heaven.

=== Crusader routes ===
After the successful [[siege of Antioch]] in June 1098, the [[Crusade]]rs remained in the area for the rest of the year. The [[papal legate]] [[Adhemar of Le Puy]] had died, and [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]] had claimed [[Antioch]] for himself. [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin of Boulogne]] remained in [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], captured earlier in 1098. There was dissent among the princes over what to do next; [[Raymond IV of Toulouse|Raymond of Toulouse]], frustrated, left Antioch to capture the fortress at [[Maarrat al-Nu'man|Ma'arrat al-Numan]] in the [[siege of Maarat]]. By the end of the year, the minor knights and infantry were threatening to march to [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]] without them. Eventually, on January 13, 1099, Raymond began the [[First Crusade: March down the Mediterranean coast|march south, down the coast of the Mediterranean]], followed by [[Robert Curthose|Robert of Normandy]] and Bohemond's nephew [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]], who agreed to become his vassals.

On their way, the crusaders [[Siege of Arqa|besieged Arqa]] but failed to capture it and abandoned the siege on May 13. Fatimids had attempted to make peace, on the condition that the crusaders did not continue towards Jerusalem, but this was ignored; [[Iftikhar ad-Daula|Iftikhar al-Dawla]], the Fatimid governor of Jerusalem, was aware of the crusaders' intentions. Therefore, he expelled all of Jerusalem's Christian inhabitants.<ref>Thomas F. Madden, ''The New Concise History of the Crusades'' at 33 (Rowman & Littlefield Pub., Inc., 2005). The Syriac Chronicle to 1234 is one source claiming that Christians were expelled from Jerusalem before the crusaders' arrival. {{harv|Tritton|Gibb|1933|p=273}} Presumably, this was done to prevent their collusion with the crusaders.</ref> The further march towards Jerusalem met no resistance.

==Offensive==

=== Fatimid preparations ===
The Fatimid governor [[Iftikhar al-Dawla]] prepared the city for the siege after he heard about the arrival of the Crusaders. He prepared an elite troop of 400 Egyptian cavalrymen and expelled all Eastern Christians from the city for fear of being betrayed by them (in the siege of Antioch, an Armenian man, Firouz, had helped Crusaders enter the city by opening the gates). To make the situation worse for the Crusaders, ad-Daula poisoned all the water wells in the surrounding area, and cut down all trees outside Jerusalem. On June 7, 1099, the Crusaders reached the outer fortifications of Jerusalem, which had been recaptured from the [[Seljuqs]] by the Fatimids only the year before. The city was guarded by a defensive wall stretching four kilometers long, which was three meters thick and fifteen meters high. There were five major gates each guarded by a pair of towers.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|last=Asbridge, Thomas S.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1089166882|title=The first crusade : a new history : the roots of conflict between Christianity and Islam|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518905-6|oclc=1089166882}}</ref> The Crusaders divided themselves into two large groups: [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert of Flanders]] and [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]] planned to besiege from north, while [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse|Raymond of Toulouse]] positioned his forces to the south.

=== Dual-front siege ===
[[File:Gesta Francorum - Liber X (Capture of Jerusalem and Battle of Ascalon).webm|thumb|Reading of the contemporary source ''Gesta Francorum - Liber X'' detailing the capture of Jerusalem and Battle of Ascalon from the Crusader's perspective, in Latin with English subtitles]]
[[File:1099 Siege of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|13th-century [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]] depicting the siege]]
The Fatimids now had to be prepared to fight on two fronts. After taking their positions, the Crusaders launched their first attack on June 13; the main problem was that they had no access to wood for the construction of siege equipment, because all the trees had been cut down. However, Tancred had a vision of finding a stack of wood hidden in a cave, and they used it to make a ladder. A knight named Rainbold scaled the ladder to gain a foothold on the wall but was unsuccessful. Since that assault was a failure, the Crusaders retreated and did not make any attempt until they got their tools and equipment. The Crusaders faced many more difficulties such as the lack of water, the scorching summer heat of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and the shortage of food. By the end of June, word came that a Fatimid army was marching north from [[Egypt]]. The mounting pressure forced the Crusaders to act quickly.

=== Final assault ===
On 17 June 1099, the Crusaders heard about the arrival of English and [[Genoa|Genoese]] ships at the port of [[Jaffa]]. The English and Genoese sailors had brought all the necessary material with them for the construction of the siege equipment. [[Robert Curthose|Robert of Normandy]] and [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert of Flanders]] procured timber from the nearby forests. Under the command of [[Guglielmo Embriaco]] and [[Gaston IV, Viscount of Béarn|Gaston of Béarn]], the Crusaders began the construction of their siege weapons. They constructed the finest siege equipment of the 11th century in almost three weeks. This included: two massive wheel-mounted [[Siege tower|siege towers]], a battering ram with an iron-clad head, and numerous scaling ladders and a series of portable [[Wattle (construction)|wattle]] screens; now they were ready to attack<ref name="auto"/> The Fatimids kept an eye on the preparation by the Franks and they set up their [[Mangonel|mangonels]] on the wall in the firing range once an assault began.

On 14 July 1099, the Crusaders launched their attack. Godfrey and his allies were positioned towards the Northern wall of Jerusalem, and their priority was to break through the outer curtain of the walls of the city. By the end of the day they penetrated the first line of defense. On the South Raymond of Toulouse's forces were met with ferocious resistance by the Fatimids. On 15 July the assault recommenced in the Northern front; Godfrey and his allies gained success and the Crusader [[Ludolf of Tournai]] was the first to mount the wall. The Franks quickly gained a foothold on the wall, and as the city's defenses collapsed, waves of panic shook the Fatimids.

In the southwest area the [[Provence|Provencals]] managed to storm the city walls, which later led to the Crusaders calling the gate they built in this area [[Beaucaire, Gard|Beaucaire]] Gate.<ref>Eisenstadt, David (March 1997).[https://www2.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_9.html Jerusalem in the Crusader Period]. Accessed 12 May 2023.</ref>

==Aftermath==

=== Crusaders enter Jerusalem ===
On 15 July 1099, the crusaders made their way into the city through the tower of David and began massacring large numbers of the inhabitants, Muslims and Jews alike. The Fatimid governor of the city, [[Iftikhar al-Dawla|Iftikhar Ad-Daulah]], managed to escape.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Asbridge, Thomas S.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1089166882|title=The First Crusade : a new history : the roots of conflict between Christianity and Islam|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518905-6|oclc=1089166882}}</ref> According to eyewitness accounts the streets of Jerusalem were filled with blood. How many people were killed is a matter of debate, with the figure of 70,000 given by the Muslim historian [[Ali ibn al-Athir|Ibn al-Athir]] (writing c.1200) considered to be a significant exaggeration; 40,000 is plausible, given the city's population had been swollen by refugees fleeing the advance of the crusading army.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kostick, Conor|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/973781366|title=The Siege of Jerusalem|date=2009|publisher=Continuum|isbn=978-1-84-725231-9|oclc=973781366 }}</ref>

=== Massacre ===
The aftermath of the siege led to the mass slaughter of thousands of Muslims and Jews which contemporaneous sources suggest was savage and widespread and to the conversion of Muslim holy sites on the [[Temple Mount]] into Christian shrines.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Krey|first1=August. C.|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/cde-jlem.asp#raymond3|title=The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Participants|date=1921|publisher=Princeton Univ.|pages=257–62|quote=But these were small matters compared to what happened at the Temple of Solomon, a place where religious services are ordinarily chanted. What happened there? If I tell the truth, it will exceed your powers of belief. So let it suffice to say this much, at least, that in the Temple and porch of Solomon, men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle reins. [quoting eyewitness Raymond d'Aguiliers]|access-date=June 14, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Krey|first1=August. C.|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/gesta-cde.asp#jerusalem2|title=The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Participants|date=1921|publisher=Princeton Univ.|pages=256–57|quote=One of our knights, named Lethold, clambered up the wall of the city, and no sooner had he ascended than the defenders fled from the walls and through the city. Our men followed, killing and slaying even to the Temple of Solomon, where the slaughter was so great that our men waded in blood up to their ankles....|access-date=June 14, 2019}}</ref>

Atrocities committed against the inhabitants of cities taken by storm after a siege were normal in ancient<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hirschler|first=Konrad|date=2014|title=The Jerusalem Conquest of 492/1099 in the Medieval Arabic Historiography of the Crusades: From Regional Plurality to Islamic Narrative|journal=Crusades13|pages=74}}</ref> and medieval warfare by both Christians and Muslims. The crusaders had already done so [[Siege of Antioch|at Antioch]], and Fatimids had done so themselves at [[Siege of Taormina (962)|Taormina]], at [[Siege of Rometta|Rometta]], and at [[Revolt of Tyre (996–998)|Tyre]]. However, it is speculated that the massacre of the inhabitants of Jerusalem, both Muslims and Jews, may have exceeded even these standards.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bradbury|first1=Jim|title=The Medieval Siege|date=1992|publisher=The Boydell|location=Woodbridge|isbn=0851153577|page=296|edition=New}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Montefiore|first1=Simon Sebag|title=Jerusalem : the Biography|date=2012|publisher=[[Vintage Books]]|location=New York|isbn=978-0307280503|page=222|edition=|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780307280503/page/222}}</ref>

==== Muslims ====
Many Muslims sought shelter in the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque (building)|Al-Aqsa Mosque]] or [[Dome of the Rock]], both located on the [[Temple Mount]]. According to the ''Gesta Francorum'', speaking only of the Temple Mount area, "...[our men] were killing and slaying even to the Temple of Solomon, where the slaughter was so great that our men waded in blood up to their ankles..." According to Raymond of Aguilers, also writing solely of the Temple Mount area, " in the Temple and porch of Solomon men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle reins." Writing about the Temple Mount area alone, Fulcher of Chartres, who was not an eyewitness to the Jerusalem siege because he had stayed with [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin]] in Edessa at the time, says: "In this temple 10,000 were killed. Indeed, if you had been there you would have seen our feet coloured to our ankles with the blood of the slain. But what more shall I relate? None of them were left alive; neither women nor children were spared."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fulk (or Fulcher) of Chartres, "Gesta Francorum Jerusalem Expugnantium [The Deeds of the Franks Who Attacked Jerusalem]" |first1=republished |editor1-last=Krey |editor1-first=August C. |editor2-last=Duncan |editor2-first=Frederick |title=Parallel Source Problems in Medieval History |date=1912 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |location=New York |pages=109–115|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-jlem.html#fulcher1 |access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref>

The eyewitness ''Gesta Francorum'' states that some people were spared. Its anonymous author wrote,"When the pagans had been overcome, our men seized great numbers, both men and women, either killing them or keeping them captive, as they wished."<ref name="fordham.edu">{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/gesta-cde.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu}}</ref> Later the same source writes, "[Our leaders] also ordered all the [[Saracen]] dead to be cast outside because of the great stench, since the whole city was filled with their corpses; and so the living Saracens dragged the dead before the exits of the gates and arranged them in heaps, as if they were houses. No one ever saw or heard of such slaughter of pagan people, for funeral pyres were formed from them like pyramids, and no one knows their number except God alone. But Raymond caused the Emir and the others who were with him to be conducted to Ascalon, whole and unhurt."<ref name="fordham.edu"/>

Another eyewitness source, Raymond of Aguilers, reports that some Muslims survived. After recounting the slaughter on the Temple Mount, he reports of some who "took refuge in the Tower of David, and, petitioning Count Raymond for protection, surrendered the Tower into his hands."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/raymond-cde.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu}}</ref> These Muslims left with the Fatimid governor for Ascalon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://san.beck.org/AB18-Crusaders.html|title=Crusaders, Greeks, and Muslims by Sanderson Beck|website=san.beck.org}}</ref> A version of this tradition is also known to the later Muslim historian [[Ibn al-Athir]] (10, 193–95), who recounts that after the city was taken and pillaged: "A band of Muslims barricaded themselves into the Oratory of David (Mihrab Dawud) and fought on for several days. They were granted their lives in return for surrendering. The Franks honored their word and the group left by night for Ascalon."<ref>{{cite book |first=Francesco |last=Gabrieli |title=Arab Historians of the Crusades |chapter=From Godefry to Saladin |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |orig-year=1969 |year=1984 |page=11 |isbn=0-520-05224-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JU0eSxDCOmIC&pg=PA11 |url=https://archive.org/details/arabhistoriansof00gabr/page/11 }}</ref> One [[Cairo Geniza]] letter also refers to some Jewish residents who left with the Fatimid governor.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Peters |title=The First Crusade |edition=2nd |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1998 |page=265 |isbn=0-8122-1656-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=azwfTqidCLYC&pg=PA265 }}</ref>

Tancred claimed the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple quarter]] for himself and offered protection to some of the Muslims there, but he was unable to prevent their deaths at the hands of his fellow crusaders. Additionally, the crusaders claimed the Muslim holy sites of the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa mosque as important Christian sites, and renamed them ''Templum Domini'' and ''Templum Salomonis,'' respectively. In 1141, the ''Templum Domini'' would be consecrated, and the ''Templum Solomonis'' would become the headquarters for the Knights Templar.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1353/cjm.2013.0036|title=The Crusader Rebranding of Jerusalem's Temple Mount|journal=Comitatus: A Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies|volume=44|pages=77–94|year=2013|last1=Giebfried|first1=John|s2cid=162282953 }}</ref>

[[Albert of Aix|Albert of Aachen]], who personally was not present but wrote using independent interviews conducted with survivors back in Europe, wrote that even beyond the first round of slaughter that accompanied the fall of Jerusalem, there was another round, "On the third day after the victory judgement was pronounced by the leaders and everyone seized weapons and surged forth for a wretched massacre of all the crowd of gentiles which was still left...whom they had previously spared for the sake of money and human pity".<ref>{{Cite book|last=of Aachen|first=Albert|title=History of the Journey to Jerusalem|publisher=Ashgate Publishing Limited|year=2013|isbn=978-1409466529|location=Surrey, UK|pages=229|translator-last=Edgington|translator-first=Susan}}</ref> The number killed is not specified, nor is this massacre related in any other contemporary sources.

Although the crusaders killed many of the Muslim and Jewish residents, eyewitness accounts (Gesta Francorum, Raymond of Aguilers, and the Cairo Geniza documents) demonstrate that some Muslim and Jewish residents were allowed to live, as long as they left Jerusalem.<ref>See also Thomas F. Madden, ''New Concise History'' at 34</ref>

==== Jews ====
{{further|History of the Jews and the Crusades}}
[[File:Jerusalem map.jpg|thumb|map of [[Jerusalem]] during the [[Crusades]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Muir, Ramsay |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/41696665|title=Muir's historical atlas : mediæval & modern|date=1959|publisher=G. Philip|oclc=41696665}}</ref>]]
Jews had fought side-by-side with Muslim soldiers to defend the city, and as the crusaders breached the outer walls, the Jews of the city retreated to their synagogue to "prepare for death".<ref name=hoover>[[Saint Louis University]] Professor [[Thomas F. Madden]], author of ''A Concise History of the Crusades'' in
[https://web.archive.org/web/20071031040612/http://www.hoover.org/publications/uk/2994821.html CROSS PURPOSES: The Crusades] ([[Hoover Institute]] television show, 2007).</ref> According to the Muslim chronicle of [[Ibn al-Qalanisi]], "The Jews assembled in their synagogue, and the Franks burned it over their heads."<ref name=gibb>[[Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|Gibb, H. A. R]]. ''The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades: Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi''. Dover Publications, 2003 ({{ISBN|0486425193}}), p. 48</ref> A contemporary Jewish communication confirms the destruction of the synagogue, though it does not corroborate that any Jews were inside it when it was burned.<ref>[[Benjamin Z. Kedar|Kedar, Benjamin Z]]. "The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099 in the Western Historiography of the Crusades." The Crusades. Vol. 3 (2004) ({{ISBN|075464099X}}), pp. 15–76, p. 64. Edward Peters, ed. The First Crusade. 2nd ed. University of Pennsylvania, 1998, p. 264–272.</ref> This letter was discovered among the [[Cairo Geniza]] collection in 1975 by historian [[Shelomo Dov Goitein]].<ref name=kedar63>Kedar: p. 63</ref> Historians believe that it was written just two weeks after the siege, making it "the earliest account on the conquest in any language."<ref name=kedar63/> The [[letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon]] from the Cairo Geniza indicates that some prominent Jews held for ransom by the crusaders were freed when the Ascalon [[Karaite Judaism|Karaite]] Jewish community paid the requested sums of money.

===Presence of Eastern Christians===
No eyewitness source refers to crusaders killing Eastern Christians in Jerusalem, and early Eastern Christian sources (Matthew of Edessa, Anna Comnena, Michael the Syrian, etc.) make no such allegation about the crusaders in Jerusalem. According to the Syriac Chronicle, all the Christians had already been expelled from Jerusalem before the crusaders arrived.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The First and Second Crusades from an Anonymous Syriac Chronicle |first1=A. S. |last1=Tritton |first2=H. A. R. |last2=Gibb |author2-link=Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]] |year=1933 |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=273–305 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00074839 |s2cid=250347065 }}</ref> Presumably this would have been done by the Fatimid governor to prevent their possible collusion with the crusaders.<ref>Thomas F. Madden. A Concise History of the Crusades, 1999, p. 35</ref>

The ''[[Gesta Francorum]]'' claims that on Wednesday, August 9, two and a half weeks after the siege, Peter the Hermit encouraged all the "Greek and Latin priests and clerics" to make a thanksgiving procession to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.<ref>Gesta Francorum. Bk. 10.39, ed. R. Hill. London, 1962, p. 94.</ref> This indicates that some Eastern Christian clergy remained in or near Jerusalem during the siege. In November 1100, when Fulcher of Chartres personally accompanied Baldwin on a visit to Jerusalem, they were greeted by both Greek and Syrian clerics and laity (Book II, 3), indicating an Eastern Christian presence in the city a year later.

==Founding of the Latin Kingdom==
{{Main|Godfrey of Bouillon}}
[[File:Gustave dore crusades the discovery of the true cross.jpg|thumb|"The Discovery of the True Cross" ([[Gustave Doré]])]]

On 17 July, a council was held to discuss who would be crowned the king of Jerusalem. On 22 July, [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], who had played the most fundamental role in the city's conquest, was made ''[[Title of Godfrey of Bouillon|Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri]]'' ("advocate" or "defender" of the Holy Sepulchre). He would not accept the title of king, saying that he refused to wear a crown of gold in the city where Christ wore a [[crown of thorns]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hamilton|first1=Bernard|title=The Latin Church in the Crusader States|date=1980|publisher=Variorum Publications|page=12}}</ref> Raymond had refused any title at all, and Godfrey convinced him to give up the Tower of David as well. Raymond then went on a pilgrimage, and in his absence [[Arnulf of Chocques]], whom Raymond had opposed due to his own support for [[Peter Bartholomew]], was elected the first [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem|Latin Patriarch]] on August 1 (the claims of the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Greek Patriarch]] were ignored). On August 5, Arnulf, after consulting the surviving inhabitants of the city, discovered the relic of the [[True Cross]].

On August 12, Godfrey led an army, with the True Cross carried in the vanguard, against the Fatimid army at the [[Battle of Ascalon]] of 1099. The crusaders were successful, but following the victory, the majority of them considered their crusading vows to have been fulfilled, and all but a few hundred knights returned home. Nevertheless, their victory paved the way for the establishment of the crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]].

The siege quickly became legendary and in the 12th century it was the subject of the [[Chanson de Jérusalem]], a major ''[[chanson de geste]]'' in the [[Crusade cycle]].

== Conclusion ==
The first crusaders succeeded in their endeavor. [[Urban II]] had ignited the flame of holy war in the [[Council of Clermont]]. Many other crusades were launched through time for various reasons and motives. Jerusalem remained in Christian hands for almost a century until the crusaders were defeated by [[Saladin in Egypt|Saladin]] at the [[Battle of Hattin]] in 1187, and three months later, the last defenders were expelled from the city.<ref name="auto2"/> The conquest of Jerusalem in the First Crusade has continued to reverberate through time and has ever since shaped relations among the different faith traditions of the region.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{Portal|Christianity|Fatimid Caliphate
}}
{{Refbegin|}}
* [[Conor Kostick]], ''The Siege of Jerusalem'', London, 2009. {{ISBN?}}
* Rodney Stark, ''God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades'', New York, 2009.{{ISBN?}}
* Hans E. Mayer, ''The Crusades'', Oxford, 1965. {{ISBN?}}
* [[Jonathan Riley-Smith]], ''The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading'', Philadelphia, 1999. {{ISBN?}}
* Frederic Duncalf, [https://archive.org/details/parallelsourcepr00dunciala ''Parallel source problems in medieval history''], New York, London : Harper & Brothers, 1912. via [[Internet Archive]]. See Chapter III for background, sources and problems related to the siege of Jerusalem.
* {{cite book |last1=Rubenstein |first1=Jay |author-link=Jay Rubenstein |title=Armies of heaven : the first crusade and the quest for apocalypse |date=2011 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-01929-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=France |first1=John |title=Victory in the East : a military history of the First Crusade |date=1994 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521589871}}
* Sir Archibald Alison, ''Essays, Political, Historical, and Miscellaneous – vol. II'', London, 1850.
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-jlem.html The Siege and Capture of Jerusalem: Collected Accounts] Primary sources from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook.
* [http://historymedren.about.com/library/prm/bl1cfc.htm Climax of the First Crusade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051101135130/http://historymedren.about.com/library/prm/bl1cfc.htm |date=2005-11-01 }} Detailed examanination by J. Arthur McFall originally appeared in ''Military History'' magazine.
* {{cite book |last1=Asbridge |first1=Thomas S. |title=The First Crusade: A New History |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-7432-2084-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=61KQAAAAMAAJ |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Asbridge |first1=Thomas |title=The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-84983-770-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rK8nA9U0OE4C |language=en }}
* S.J. Allen, ''An Introduction to The Crusades,'' University of Toronto Press, 2017 {{ISBN?}}
{{Refend}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jerusalem (1099), Siege Of}}
[[Category:Sieges of Jerusalem|1099]]
[[Category:11th century in the Fatimid Caliphate]]
[[Category:1099 in Asia]]
[[Category:11th century in Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Battles of the First Crusade]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1099]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Fatimid Caliphate|Jerusalem 1099]]
[[Category:Sieges of the Crusades|Jerusalem 1099]]
[[Category:11th-century massacres]]
[[Category:Crusader–Fatimid wars]]
[[Category:Palestine under the Fatimid Caliphate]]

Siege of Jerusalem (1099)

2024-02-19T06:53:31Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Founding of the Latin Kingdom */

{{Short description|Christian conquest of the First Crusade}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Jerusalem (1099)
| image = Counquest of Jeusalem (1099).jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = ''Taking of Jerusalem by the Crusaders'' (1847) by [[Émile Signol]]
| partof = the [[First Crusade]]
| date = 7 June 1099 – 15 July 1099 ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=06|day1=07|year1=1099|month2=07|day2=15|year2=1099}})
| place = [[Jerusalem]]
| result = Crusader victory<ref>{{
Cite book
| edition=2
| first=François
| language=de
| last=Valentin
| oclc=681425816
| publication-place=Regensburg
| publisher=Druck und Verlag von Georg Joseph Manz
| title=Geschichte der Kreuzzüge
| translator-first=Robert
| translator-last=della Torre
| url=
{{Google Books URL
| id=wRYMAAAAYAAJ
}}
| year=1867
}}</ref>
| territory = Founding of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
| combatant1 = [[Christian forces of the First Crusade|Crusaders]]
| combatant2 = [[Fatimid Caliphate]]
| commander1 = {{unbulletedlist
| [[Godfrey of Bouillon]]
| [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse|Raymond IV of Toulouse]]
| [[Robert Curthose|Robert II of Normandy]]
| [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert II of Flanders]]
| [[Eustace III, Count of Boulogne|Eustace III of Boulogne]]
| [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred of Galilee]]
| [[Girard I of Roussillon]]
| [[Gaston IV, Viscount of Béarn|Gaston IV of Béarn]]
| [[Berenguer Ramon II, Count of Barcelona|Berenguer Ramon II of Barcelona]]
| [[Guglielmo Embriaco|Guglielmo Embriaco of Genoa]]}}
| commander2 = {{unbulletedlist
| [[Iftikhar al-Dawla|Iftikhar ad-Dawla]]{{surrendered}}}}
| strength1 = 12,200–13,300 soldiers<ref>{{harvnb|France|1994|p=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=308}}</ref>{{bulletedlist
| 11,000–12,000 infantry
| 1,200–1,300 knights
| 2 [[siege towers]], 1 [[battering ram]], and several [[catapults]]<ref>{{harvnb|France|1994|pp=346-350}}</ref>}}
| strength2 = Total unknown<ref name="auto1">{{harvnb|France|1994|p=343}}</ref>{{bulletedlist
| Sizeable garrison of infantry and archers<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=300}}</ref>
| 400 cavalry<ref name="auto1"/>
| 14 catapults<ref>{{harvnb|Rubenstein|2011|p=297}}</ref>}}
| casualties1 = ~3,000 killed and wounded<ref>{{harvnb|France|1994|p=131}}</ref>
| casualties2 = Entire garrison killed<hr>3,000–70,000 [[Muslims]] and [[Jews]] massacred<ref>The "massacre" at the sack of Jerusalem has become a commonplace motive in popular depictions, but the historical event is difficult to reconstruct with any certainty. Arab sources give figures of between 3,000 and 70,000 casualties (in [[Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi]], and in [[Ali ibn al-Athir|Ibn al-Athir]], respectively). The latter figure is rejected as unrealistic as it is very unlikely that the city at the time had a total population of this order; medieval chroniclers tend to substantially exaggerate both troop strength and casualty figures; they cannot be taken at face value naively, and it is less than straightforward to arrive at realistic estimates based on them. For a further study of the Arab accounts see Hirschler, Konrad (2014). The Jerusalem Conquest of 492/1099 in the Medieval Arabic Historiography of the Crusades: From Regional Plurality to Islamic Narrative.</ref>
| map_type = Mediterranean
| map_label = Jerusalem
| map_size = 300
| map_caption = {{align|center|Site of the siege relative to the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]]}}
| map_relief = yes
| coordinates = {{WikidataCoord|Q1218|region:IL-JM_type:city|display=inline,title}}
}}

{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}
{{Jerusalem large}}

The '''siege of Jerusalem''' during the [[First Crusade]] lasted for one month and eight days, from 7 June 1099 to 15 July 1099. It was carried out by the [[Christian forces of the First Crusade|Crusader army]], which successfully captured [[Jerusalem]] from the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] and subsequently founded the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. Having returned the city and the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] to Christian rule, the siege was the final major armed engagement of the First Crusade, which had been proclaimed in 1095 to recover the [[Holy Land]] for the [[Christians]] in the context of the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Muslim conquest]]. A number of eyewitness accounts of the battle were recorded, with the most quoted events being derived from the anonymous [[Latin]]-language chronicle {{Lang-la|[[Gesta Francorum]]|label=none}}.

After Jerusalem was captured, thousands of [[Muslims]] and [[Jews]] were massacred by Crusader soldiers. As the Crusaders secured control over the [[Temple Mount]], revered as the site of the two destroyed [[Temple in Jerusalem|Jewish Temples]], they also seized [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] and the [[Dome of the Rock]] and repurposed them as Christian shrines.<ref>France, John. "Jerusalem, Siege of (1099)". In ''The Crusades – An Encyclopedia,'' Alan V. Murray, ed. pp. 677–679.</ref> French nobleman [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], prominent among the Crusader leadership, was elected to govern the new Christian state as the [[King of Jerusalem]].

==Background==

=== Muslim conquest of the Levant ===
At the [[Council of Piacenza]] in 1095, [[Pope Urban II]] received envoys from [[Byzantine Emperor]] [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]] asking [[Western Roman Empire|Western Christians]] for assistance in liberating large parts of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] from the [[Seljuk Turks]] who had conquered large parts of the region since 1070. The Seljuk [[Atsiz ibn Uwaq]] had conquered Jerusalem from the Fatimids in 1073, making the pilgrimage to Jerusalem more difficult and suppressing a revolt of the city in 1077 in bloodbath.<ref>Cline, Eric H.(2007) [2004]. ''Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel''. University of Michigan Press. pp. 159–160. {{ISBN|978-0-472-03120-7}}.</ref> Responding to the call, Urban gave a sermon at the [[Council of Clermont]] in November 1095 which included a rousing call to arms for the conquest of the [[Holy Land]] and the return of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in Jerusalem to Christian hands.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite book|last=Allen, S. J. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/983482121|title=An introduction to the crusades|date=2017 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0023-2|oclc=983482121}}</ref> His appeal marked the beginning of the [[Crusades]], a holy war for God, in which he guaranteed participants a place in heaven.

=== Crusader routes ===
After the successful [[siege of Antioch]] in June 1098, the [[Crusade]]rs remained in the area for the rest of the year. The [[papal legate]] [[Adhemar of Le Puy]] had died, and [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]] had claimed [[Antioch]] for himself. [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin of Boulogne]] remained in [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], captured earlier in 1098. There was dissent among the princes over what to do next; [[Raymond IV of Toulouse|Raymond of Toulouse]], frustrated, left Antioch to capture the fortress at [[Maarrat al-Nu'man|Ma'arrat al-Numan]] in the [[siege of Maarat]]. By the end of the year, the minor knights and infantry were threatening to march to [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]] without them. Eventually, on January 13, 1099, Raymond began the [[First Crusade: March down the Mediterranean coast|march south, down the coast of the Mediterranean]], followed by [[Robert Curthose|Robert of Normandy]] and Bohemond's nephew [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]], who agreed to become his vassals.

On their way, the crusaders [[Siege of Arqa|besieged Arqa]] but failed to capture it and abandoned the siege on May 13. Fatimids had attempted to make peace, on the condition that the crusaders did not continue towards Jerusalem, but this was ignored; [[Iftikhar ad-Daula|Iftikhar al-Dawla]], the Fatimid governor of Jerusalem, was aware of the crusaders' intentions. Therefore, he expelled all of Jerusalem's Christian inhabitants.<ref>Thomas F. Madden, ''The New Concise History of the Crusades'' at 33 (Rowman & Littlefield Pub., Inc., 2005). The Syriac Chronicle to 1234 is one source claiming that Christians were expelled from Jerusalem before the crusaders' arrival. {{harv|Tritton|Gibb|1933|p=273}} Presumably, this was done to prevent their collusion with the crusaders.</ref> The further march towards Jerusalem met no resistance.

==Offensive==

=== Fatimid preparations ===
The Fatimid governor [[Iftikhar al-Dawla]] prepared the city for the siege after he heard about the arrival of the Crusaders. He prepared an elite troop of 400 Egyptian cavalrymen and expelled all Eastern Christians from the city for fear of being betrayed by them (in the siege of Antioch, an Armenian man, Firouz, had helped Crusaders enter the city by opening the gates). To make the situation worse for the Crusaders, ad-Daula poisoned all the water wells in the surrounding area, and cut down all trees outside Jerusalem. On June 7, 1099, the Crusaders reached the outer fortifications of Jerusalem, which had been recaptured from the [[Seljuqs]] by the Fatimids only the year before. The city was guarded by a defensive wall stretching four kilometers long, which was three meters thick and fifteen meters high. There were five major gates each guarded by a pair of towers.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|last=Asbridge, Thomas S.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1089166882|title=The first crusade : a new history : the roots of conflict between Christianity and Islam|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518905-6|oclc=1089166882}}</ref> The Crusaders divided themselves into two large groups: [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert of Flanders]] and [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]] planned to besiege from north, while [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse|Raymond of Toulouse]] positioned his forces to the south.

=== Dual-front siege ===
[[File:Gesta Francorum - Liber X (Capture of Jerusalem and Battle of Ascalon).webm|thumb|Reading of the contemporary source ''Gesta Francorum - Liber X'' detailing the capture of Jerusalem and Battle of Ascalon from the Crusader's perspective, in Latin with English subtitles]]
[[File:1099 Siege of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|13th-century [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]] depicting the siege]]
The Fatimids now had to be prepared to fight on two fronts. After taking their positions, the Crusaders launched their first attack on June 13; the main problem was that they had no access to wood for the construction of siege equipment, because all the trees had been cut down. However, Tancred had a vision of finding a stack of wood hidden in a cave, and they used it to make a ladder. A knight named Rainbold scaled the ladder to gain a foothold on the wall but was unsuccessful. Since that assault was a failure, the Crusaders retreated and did not make any attempt until they got their tools and equipment. The Crusaders faced many more difficulties such as the lack of water, the scorching summer heat of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and the shortage of food. By the end of June, word came that a Fatimid army was marching north from [[Egypt]]. The mounting pressure forced the Crusaders to act quickly.

=== Final assault ===
On 17 June 1099, the Crusaders heard about the arrival of English and [[Genoa|Genoese]] ships at the port of [[Jaffa]]. The English and Genoese sailors had brought all the necessary material with them for the construction of the siege equipment. [[Robert Curthose|Robert of Normandy]] and [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert of Flanders]] procured timber from the nearby forests. Under the command of [[Guglielmo Embriaco]] and [[Gaston IV, Viscount of Béarn|Gaston of Béarn]], the Crusaders began the construction of their siege weapons. They constructed the finest siege equipment of the 11th century in almost three weeks. This included: two massive wheel-mounted [[Siege tower|siege towers]], a battering ram with an iron-clad head, and numerous scaling ladders and a series of portable [[Wattle (construction)|wattle]] screens; now they were ready to attack<ref name="auto"/> The Fatimids kept an eye on the preparation by the Franks and they set up their [[Mangonel|mangonels]] on the wall in the firing range once an assault began.

On 14 July 1099, the Crusaders launched their attack. Godfrey and his allies were positioned towards the Northern wall of Jerusalem, and their priority was to break through the outer curtain of the walls of the city. By the end of the day they penetrated the first line of defense. On the South Raymond of Toulouse's forces were met with ferocious resistance by the Fatimids. On 15 July the assault recommenced in the Northern front; Godfrey and his allies gained success and the Crusader [[Ludolf of Tournai]] was the first to mount the wall. The Franks quickly gained a foothold on the wall, and as the city's defenses collapsed, waves of panic shook the Fatimids.

In the southwest area the [[Provence|Provencals]] managed to storm the city walls, which later led to the Crusaders calling the gate they built in this area, [[Beaucaire, Gard|Beaucaire]] Gate.<ref>Eisenstadt, David (March 1997).[https://www2.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_9.html Jerusalem in the Crusader Period]. Accessed 12 May 2023.</ref>

==Aftermath==

=== Crusaders enter Jerusalem ===
On 15 July 1099, the crusaders made their way into the city through the tower of David and began massacring large numbers of the inhabitants, Muslims and Jews alike. The Fatimid governor of the city, [[Iftikhar al-Dawla|Iftikhar Ad-Daulah]], managed to escape.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Asbridge, Thomas S.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1089166882|title=The First Crusade : a new history : the roots of conflict between Christianity and Islam|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518905-6|oclc=1089166882}}</ref> According to eyewitness accounts the streets of Jerusalem were filled with blood. How many people were killed is a matter of debate, with the figure of 70,000 given by the Muslim historian [[Ali ibn al-Athir|Ibn al-Athir]] (writing c.1200) considered to be a significant exaggeration; 40,000 is plausible, given the city's population had been swollen by refugees fleeing the advance of the crusading army.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kostick, Conor|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/973781366|title=The Siege of Jerusalem|date=2009|publisher=Continuum|isbn=978-1-84-725231-9|oclc=973781366 }}</ref>

=== Massacre ===
The aftermath of the siege led to the mass slaughter of thousands of Muslims and Jews which contemporaneous sources suggest was savage and widespread and to the conversion of Muslim holy sites on the [[Temple Mount]] into Christian shrines.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Krey|first1=August. C.|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/cde-jlem.asp#raymond3|title=The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Participants|date=1921|publisher=Princeton Univ.|pages=257–62|quote=But these were small matters compared to what happened at the Temple of Solomon, a place where religious services are ordinarily chanted. What happened there? If I tell the truth, it will exceed your powers of belief. So let it suffice to say this much, at least, that in the Temple and porch of Solomon, men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle reins. [quoting eyewitness Raymond d'Aguiliers]|access-date=June 14, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Krey|first1=August. C.|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/gesta-cde.asp#jerusalem2|title=The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Participants|date=1921|publisher=Princeton Univ.|pages=256–57|quote=One of our knights, named Lethold, clambered up the wall of the city, and no sooner had he ascended than the defenders fled from the walls and through the city. Our men followed, killing and slaying even to the Temple of Solomon, where the slaughter was so great that our men waded in blood up to their ankles....|access-date=June 14, 2019}}</ref>

Atrocities committed against the inhabitants of cities taken by storm after a siege were normal in ancient<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hirschler|first=Konrad|date=2014|title=The Jerusalem Conquest of 492/1099 in the Medieval Arabic Historiography of the Crusades: From Regional Plurality to Islamic Narrative|journal=Crusades13|pages=74}}</ref> and medieval warfare by both Christians and Muslims. The crusaders had already done so [[Siege of Antioch|at Antioch]], and Fatimids had done so themselves at [[Siege of Taormina (962)|Taormina]], at [[Siege of Rometta|Rometta]], and at [[Revolt of Tyre (996–998)|Tyre]]. However, it is speculated that the massacre of the inhabitants of Jerusalem, both Muslims and Jews, may have exceeded even these standards.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bradbury|first1=Jim|title=The Medieval Siege|date=1992|publisher=The Boydell|location=Woodbridge|isbn=0851153577|page=296|edition=New}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Montefiore|first1=Simon Sebag|title=Jerusalem : the Biography|date=2012|publisher=[[Vintage Books]]|location=New York|isbn=978-0307280503|page=222|edition=|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780307280503/page/222}}</ref>

==== Muslims ====
Many Muslims sought shelter in the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque (building)|Al-Aqsa Mosque]] or [[Dome of the Rock]], both located on the [[Temple Mount]]. According to the ''Gesta Francorum'', speaking only of the Temple Mount area, "...[our men] were killing and slaying even to the Temple of Solomon, where the slaughter was so great that our men waded in blood up to their ankles..." According to Raymond of Aguilers, also writing solely of the Temple Mount area, " in the Temple and porch of Solomon men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle reins." Writing about the Temple Mount area alone, Fulcher of Chartres, who was not an eyewitness to the Jerusalem siege because he had stayed with [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin]] in Edessa at the time, says: "In this temple 10,000 were killed. Indeed, if you had been there you would have seen our feet coloured to our ankles with the blood of the slain. But what more shall I relate? None of them were left alive; neither women nor children were spared."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fulk (or Fulcher) of Chartres, "Gesta Francorum Jerusalem Expugnantium [The Deeds of the Franks Who Attacked Jerusalem]" |first1=republished |editor1-last=Krey |editor1-first=August C. |editor2-last=Duncan |editor2-first=Frederick |title=Parallel Source Problems in Medieval History |date=1912 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |location=New York |pages=109–115|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-jlem.html#fulcher1 |access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref>

The eyewitness ''Gesta Francorum'' states that some people were spared. Its anonymous author wrote,"When the pagans had been overcome, our men seized great numbers, both men and women, either killing them or keeping them captive, as they wished."<ref name="fordham.edu">{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/gesta-cde.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu}}</ref> Later the same source writes, "[Our leaders] also ordered all the [[Saracen]] dead to be cast outside because of the great stench, since the whole city was filled with their corpses; and so the living Saracens dragged the dead before the exits of the gates and arranged them in heaps, as if they were houses. No one ever saw or heard of such slaughter of pagan people, for funeral pyres were formed from them like pyramids, and no one knows their number except God alone. But Raymond caused the Emir and the others who were with him to be conducted to Ascalon, whole and unhurt."<ref name="fordham.edu"/>

Another eyewitness source, Raymond of Aguilers, reports that some Muslims survived. After recounting the slaughter on the Temple Mount, he reports of some who "took refuge in the Tower of David, and, petitioning Count Raymond for protection, surrendered the Tower into his hands."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/raymond-cde.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu}}</ref> These Muslims left with the Fatimid governor for Ascalon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://san.beck.org/AB18-Crusaders.html|title=Crusaders, Greeks, and Muslims by Sanderson Beck|website=san.beck.org}}</ref> A version of this tradition is also known to the later Muslim historian [[Ibn al-Athir]] (10, 193–95), who recounts that after the city was taken and pillaged: "A band of Muslims barricaded themselves into the Oratory of David (Mihrab Dawud) and fought on for several days. They were granted their lives in return for surrendering. The Franks honored their word and the group left by night for Ascalon."<ref>{{cite book |first=Francesco |last=Gabrieli |title=Arab Historians of the Crusades |chapter=From Godefry to Saladin |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |orig-year=1969 |year=1984 |page=11 |isbn=0-520-05224-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JU0eSxDCOmIC&pg=PA11 |url=https://archive.org/details/arabhistoriansof00gabr/page/11 }}</ref> One [[Cairo Geniza]] letter also refers to some Jewish residents who left with the Fatimid governor.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Peters |title=The First Crusade |edition=2nd |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1998 |page=265 |isbn=0-8122-1656-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=azwfTqidCLYC&pg=PA265 }}</ref>

Tancred claimed the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple quarter]] for himself and offered protection to some of the Muslims there, but he was unable to prevent their deaths at the hands of his fellow crusaders. Additionally, the crusaders claimed the Muslim holy sites of the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa mosque as important Christian sites, and renamed them ''Templum Domini'' and ''Templum Salomonis,'' respectively. In 1141, the ''Templum Domini'' would be consecrated, and the ''Templum Solomonis'' would become the headquarters for the Knights Templar.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1353/cjm.2013.0036|title=The Crusader Rebranding of Jerusalem's Temple Mount|journal=Comitatus: A Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies|volume=44|pages=77–94|year=2013|last1=Giebfried|first1=John|s2cid=162282953 }}</ref>

[[Albert of Aix|Albert of Aachen]], who personally was not present but wrote using independent interviews conducted with survivors back in Europe, wrote that even beyond the first round of slaughter that accompanied the fall of Jerusalem, there was another round, "On the third day after the victory judgement was pronounced by the leaders and everyone seized weapons and surged forth for a wretched massacre of all the crowd of gentiles which was still left...whom they had previously spared for the sake of money and human pity".<ref>{{Cite book|last=of Aachen|first=Albert|title=History of the Journey to Jerusalem|publisher=Ashgate Publishing Limited|year=2013|isbn=978-1409466529|location=Surrey, UK|pages=229|translator-last=Edgington|translator-first=Susan}}</ref> The number killed is not specified, nor is this massacre related in any other contemporary sources.

Although the crusaders killed many of the Muslim and Jewish residents, eyewitness accounts (Gesta Francorum, Raymond of Aguilers, and the Cairo Geniza documents) demonstrate that some Muslim and Jewish residents were allowed to live, as long as they left Jerusalem.<ref>See also Thomas F. Madden, ''New Concise History'' at 34</ref>

==== Jews ====
{{further|History of the Jews and the Crusades}}
[[File:Jerusalem map.jpg|thumb|map of [[Jerusalem]] during the [[Crusades]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Muir, Ramsay |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/41696665|title=Muir's historical atlas : mediæval & modern|date=1959|publisher=G. Philip|oclc=41696665}}</ref>]]
Jews had fought side-by-side with Muslim soldiers to defend the city, and as the crusaders breached the outer walls, the Jews of the city retreated to their synagogue to "prepare for death".<ref name=hoover>[[Saint Louis University]] Professor [[Thomas F. Madden]], author of ''A Concise History of the Crusades'' in
[https://web.archive.org/web/20071031040612/http://www.hoover.org/publications/uk/2994821.html CROSS PURPOSES: The Crusades] ([[Hoover Institute]] television show, 2007).</ref> According to the Muslim chronicle of [[Ibn al-Qalanisi]], "The Jews assembled in their synagogue, and the Franks burned it over their heads."<ref name=gibb>[[Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|Gibb, H. A. R]]. ''The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades: Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi''. Dover Publications, 2003 ({{ISBN|0486425193}}), p. 48</ref> A contemporary Jewish communication confirms the destruction of the synagogue, though it does not corroborate that any Jews were inside it when it was burned.<ref>[[Benjamin Z. Kedar|Kedar, Benjamin Z]]. "The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099 in the Western Historiography of the Crusades." The Crusades. Vol. 3 (2004) ({{ISBN|075464099X}}), pp. 15–76, p. 64. Edward Peters, ed. The First Crusade. 2nd ed. University of Pennsylvania, 1998, p. 264–272.</ref> This letter was discovered among the [[Cairo Geniza]] collection in 1975 by historian [[Shelomo Dov Goitein]].<ref name=kedar63>Kedar: p. 63</ref> Historians believe that it was written just two weeks after the siege, making it "the earliest account on the conquest in any language."<ref name=kedar63/> The [[letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon]] from the Cairo Geniza indicates that some prominent Jews held for ransom by the crusaders were freed when the Ascalon [[Karaite Judaism|Karaite]] Jewish community paid the requested sums of money.

===Presence of Eastern Christians===
No eyewitness source refers to crusaders killing Eastern Christians in Jerusalem, and early Eastern Christian sources (Matthew of Edessa, Anna Comnena, Michael the Syrian, etc.) make no such allegation about the crusaders in Jerusalem. According to the Syriac Chronicle, all the Christians had already been expelled from Jerusalem before the crusaders arrived.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The First and Second Crusades from an Anonymous Syriac Chronicle |first1=A. S. |last1=Tritton |first2=H. A. R. |last2=Gibb |author2-link=Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]] |year=1933 |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=273–305 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00074839 |s2cid=250347065 }}</ref> Presumably this would have been done by the Fatimid governor to prevent their possible collusion with the crusaders.<ref>Thomas F. Madden. A Concise History of the Crusades, 1999, p. 35</ref>

The ''[[Gesta Francorum]]'' claims that on Wednesday, August 9, two and a half weeks after the siege, Peter the Hermit encouraged all the "Greek and Latin priests and clerics" to make a thanksgiving procession to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.<ref>Gesta Francorum. Bk. 10.39, ed. R. Hill. London, 1962, p. 94.</ref> This indicates that some Eastern Christian clergy remained in or near Jerusalem during the siege. In November 1100, when Fulcher of Chartres personally accompanied Baldwin on a visit to Jerusalem, they were greeted by both Greek and Syrian clerics and laity (Book II, 3), indicating an Eastern Christian presence in the city a year later.

==Founding of the Latin Kingdom==
{{Main|Godfrey of Bouillon}}
[[File:Gustave dore crusades the discovery of the true cross.jpg|thumb|"The Discovery of the True Cross" ([[Gustave Doré]])]]

On 17 July, a council was held to discuss who would be crowned the king of Jerusalem. On 22 July, [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], who had played the most fundamental role in the city's conquest, was made ''[[Title of Godfrey of Bouillon|Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri]]'' ("advocate" or "defender" of the Holy Sepulchre). He would not accept the title of king, saying that he refused to wear a crown of gold in the city where Christ wore a [[crown of thorns]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hamilton|first1=Bernard|title=The Latin Church in the Crusader States|date=1980|publisher=Variorum Publications|page=12}}</ref> Raymond had refused any title at all, and Godfrey convinced him to give up the Tower of David as well. Raymond then went on a pilgrimage, and in his absence [[Arnulf of Chocques]], whom Raymond had opposed due to his own support for [[Peter Bartholomew]], was elected the first [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem|Latin Patriarch]] on August 1 (the claims of the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Greek Patriarch]] were ignored). On August 5, Arnulf, after consulting the surviving inhabitants of the city, discovered the relic of the [[True Cross]].

On August 12, Godfrey led an army, with the True Cross carried in the vanguard, against the Fatimid army at the [[Battle of Ascalon]] of 1099. The crusaders were successful, but following the victory, the majority of them considered their crusading vows to have been fulfilled, and all but a few hundred knights returned home. Nevertheless, their victory paved the way for the establishment of the crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]].

The siege quickly became legendary and in the 12th century it was the subject of the [[Chanson de Jérusalem]], a major ''[[chanson de geste]]'' in the [[Crusade cycle]].

== Conclusion ==
The first crusaders succeeded in their endeavor. [[Urban II]] had ignited the flame of holy war in the [[Council of Clermont]]. Many other crusades were launched through time for various reasons and motives. Jerusalem remained in Christian hands for almost a century until the crusaders were defeated by [[Saladin in Egypt|Saladin]] at the [[Battle of Hattin]] in 1187, and three months later, the last defenders were expelled from the city.<ref name="auto2"/> The conquest of Jerusalem in the First Crusade has continued to reverberate through time and has ever since shaped relations among the different faith traditions of the region.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{Portal|Christianity|Fatimid Caliphate
}}
{{Refbegin|}}
* [[Conor Kostick]], ''The Siege of Jerusalem'', London, 2009. {{ISBN?}}
* Rodney Stark, ''God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades'', New York, 2009.{{ISBN?}}
* Hans E. Mayer, ''The Crusades'', Oxford, 1965. {{ISBN?}}
* [[Jonathan Riley-Smith]], ''The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading'', Philadelphia, 1999. {{ISBN?}}
* Frederic Duncalf, [https://archive.org/details/parallelsourcepr00dunciala ''Parallel source problems in medieval history''], New York, London : Harper & Brothers, 1912. via [[Internet Archive]]. See Chapter III for background, sources and problems related to the siege of Jerusalem.
* {{cite book |last1=Rubenstein |first1=Jay |author-link=Jay Rubenstein |title=Armies of heaven : the first crusade and the quest for apocalypse |date=2011 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-01929-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=France |first1=John |title=Victory in the East : a military history of the First Crusade |date=1994 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521589871}}
* Sir Archibald Alison, ''Essays, Political, Historical, and Miscellaneous – vol. II'', London, 1850.
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-jlem.html The Siege and Capture of Jerusalem: Collected Accounts] Primary sources from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook.
* [http://historymedren.about.com/library/prm/bl1cfc.htm Climax of the First Crusade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051101135130/http://historymedren.about.com/library/prm/bl1cfc.htm |date=2005-11-01 }} Detailed examanination by J. Arthur McFall originally appeared in ''Military History'' magazine.
* {{cite book |last1=Asbridge |first1=Thomas S. |title=The First Crusade: A New History |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-7432-2084-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=61KQAAAAMAAJ |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Asbridge |first1=Thomas |title=The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-84983-770-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rK8nA9U0OE4C |language=en }}
* S.J. Allen, ''An Introduction to The Crusades,'' University of Toronto Press, 2017 {{ISBN?}}
{{Refend}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jerusalem (1099), Siege Of}}
[[Category:Sieges of Jerusalem|1099]]
[[Category:11th century in the Fatimid Caliphate]]
[[Category:1099 in Asia]]
[[Category:11th century in Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Battles of the First Crusade]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1099]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Fatimid Caliphate|Jerusalem 1099]]
[[Category:Sieges of the Crusades|Jerusalem 1099]]
[[Category:11th-century massacres]]
[[Category:Crusader–Fatimid wars]]
[[Category:Palestine under the Fatimid Caliphate]]

Siege of Jerusalem (1099)

2024-02-19T06:53:01Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Founding of the Latin Kingdom */

{{Short description|Christian conquest of the First Crusade}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Jerusalem (1099)
| image = Counquest of Jeusalem (1099).jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = ''Taking of Jerusalem by the Crusaders'' (1847) by [[Émile Signol]]
| partof = the [[First Crusade]]
| date = 7 June 1099 – 15 July 1099 ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=06|day1=07|year1=1099|month2=07|day2=15|year2=1099}})
| place = [[Jerusalem]]
| result = Crusader victory<ref>{{
Cite book
| edition=2
| first=François
| language=de
| last=Valentin
| oclc=681425816
| publication-place=Regensburg
| publisher=Druck und Verlag von Georg Joseph Manz
| title=Geschichte der Kreuzzüge
| translator-first=Robert
| translator-last=della Torre
| url=
{{Google Books URL
| id=wRYMAAAAYAAJ
}}
| year=1867
}}</ref>
| territory = Founding of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
| combatant1 = [[Christian forces of the First Crusade|Crusaders]]
| combatant2 = [[Fatimid Caliphate]]
| commander1 = {{unbulletedlist
| [[Godfrey of Bouillon]]
| [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse|Raymond IV of Toulouse]]
| [[Robert Curthose|Robert II of Normandy]]
| [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert II of Flanders]]
| [[Eustace III, Count of Boulogne|Eustace III of Boulogne]]
| [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred of Galilee]]
| [[Girard I of Roussillon]]
| [[Gaston IV, Viscount of Béarn|Gaston IV of Béarn]]
| [[Berenguer Ramon II, Count of Barcelona|Berenguer Ramon II of Barcelona]]
| [[Guglielmo Embriaco|Guglielmo Embriaco of Genoa]]}}
| commander2 = {{unbulletedlist
| [[Iftikhar al-Dawla|Iftikhar ad-Dawla]]{{surrendered}}}}
| strength1 = 12,200–13,300 soldiers<ref>{{harvnb|France|1994|p=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=308}}</ref>{{bulletedlist
| 11,000–12,000 infantry
| 1,200–1,300 knights
| 2 [[siege towers]], 1 [[battering ram]], and several [[catapults]]<ref>{{harvnb|France|1994|pp=346-350}}</ref>}}
| strength2 = Total unknown<ref name="auto1">{{harvnb|France|1994|p=343}}</ref>{{bulletedlist
| Sizeable garrison of infantry and archers<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=300}}</ref>
| 400 cavalry<ref name="auto1"/>
| 14 catapults<ref>{{harvnb|Rubenstein|2011|p=297}}</ref>}}
| casualties1 = ~3,000 killed and wounded<ref>{{harvnb|France|1994|p=131}}</ref>
| casualties2 = Entire garrison killed<hr>3,000–70,000 [[Muslims]] and [[Jews]] massacred<ref>The "massacre" at the sack of Jerusalem has become a commonplace motive in popular depictions, but the historical event is difficult to reconstruct with any certainty. Arab sources give figures of between 3,000 and 70,000 casualties (in [[Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi]], and in [[Ali ibn al-Athir|Ibn al-Athir]], respectively). The latter figure is rejected as unrealistic as it is very unlikely that the city at the time had a total population of this order; medieval chroniclers tend to substantially exaggerate both troop strength and casualty figures; they cannot be taken at face value naively, and it is less than straightforward to arrive at realistic estimates based on them. For a further study of the Arab accounts see Hirschler, Konrad (2014). The Jerusalem Conquest of 492/1099 in the Medieval Arabic Historiography of the Crusades: From Regional Plurality to Islamic Narrative.</ref>
| map_type = Mediterranean
| map_label = Jerusalem
| map_size = 300
| map_caption = {{align|center|Site of the siege relative to the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]]}}
| map_relief = yes
| coordinates = {{WikidataCoord|Q1218|region:IL-JM_type:city|display=inline,title}}
}}

{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}
{{Jerusalem large}}

The '''siege of Jerusalem''' during the [[First Crusade]] lasted for one month and eight days, from 7 June 1099 to 15 July 1099. It was carried out by the [[Christian forces of the First Crusade|Crusader army]], which successfully captured [[Jerusalem]] from the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] and subsequently founded the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. Having returned the city and the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] to Christian rule, the siege was the final major armed engagement of the First Crusade, which had been proclaimed in 1095 to recover the [[Holy Land]] for the [[Christians]] in the context of the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Muslim conquest]]. A number of eyewitness accounts of the battle were recorded, with the most quoted events being derived from the anonymous [[Latin]]-language chronicle {{Lang-la|[[Gesta Francorum]]|label=none}}.

After Jerusalem was captured, thousands of [[Muslims]] and [[Jews]] were massacred by Crusader soldiers. As the Crusaders secured control over the [[Temple Mount]], revered as the site of the two destroyed [[Temple in Jerusalem|Jewish Temples]], they also seized [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] and the [[Dome of the Rock]] and repurposed them as Christian shrines.<ref>France, John. "Jerusalem, Siege of (1099)". In ''The Crusades – An Encyclopedia,'' Alan V. Murray, ed. pp. 677–679.</ref> French nobleman [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], prominent among the Crusader leadership, was elected to govern the new Christian state as the [[King of Jerusalem]].

==Background==

=== Muslim conquest of the Levant ===
At the [[Council of Piacenza]] in 1095, [[Pope Urban II]] received envoys from [[Byzantine Emperor]] [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]] asking [[Western Roman Empire|Western Christians]] for assistance in liberating large parts of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] from the [[Seljuk Turks]] who had conquered large parts of the region since 1070. The Seljuk [[Atsiz ibn Uwaq]] had conquered Jerusalem from the Fatimids in 1073, making the pilgrimage to Jerusalem more difficult and suppressing a revolt of the city in 1077 in bloodbath.<ref>Cline, Eric H.(2007) [2004]. ''Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel''. University of Michigan Press. pp. 159–160. {{ISBN|978-0-472-03120-7}}.</ref> Responding to the call, Urban gave a sermon at the [[Council of Clermont]] in November 1095 which included a rousing call to arms for the conquest of the [[Holy Land]] and the return of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in Jerusalem to Christian hands.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite book|last=Allen, S. J. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/983482121|title=An introduction to the crusades|date=2017 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0023-2|oclc=983482121}}</ref> His appeal marked the beginning of the [[Crusades]], a holy war for God, in which he guaranteed participants a place in heaven.

=== Crusader routes ===
After the successful [[siege of Antioch]] in June 1098, the [[Crusade]]rs remained in the area for the rest of the year. The [[papal legate]] [[Adhemar of Le Puy]] had died, and [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]] had claimed [[Antioch]] for himself. [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin of Boulogne]] remained in [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], captured earlier in 1098. There was dissent among the princes over what to do next; [[Raymond IV of Toulouse|Raymond of Toulouse]], frustrated, left Antioch to capture the fortress at [[Maarrat al-Nu'man|Ma'arrat al-Numan]] in the [[siege of Maarat]]. By the end of the year, the minor knights and infantry were threatening to march to [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]] without them. Eventually, on January 13, 1099, Raymond began the [[First Crusade: March down the Mediterranean coast|march south, down the coast of the Mediterranean]], followed by [[Robert Curthose|Robert of Normandy]] and Bohemond's nephew [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]], who agreed to become his vassals.

On their way, the crusaders [[Siege of Arqa|besieged Arqa]] but failed to capture it and abandoned the siege on May 13. Fatimids had attempted to make peace, on the condition that the crusaders did not continue towards Jerusalem, but this was ignored; [[Iftikhar ad-Daula|Iftikhar al-Dawla]], the Fatimid governor of Jerusalem, was aware of the crusaders' intentions. Therefore, he expelled all of Jerusalem's Christian inhabitants.<ref>Thomas F. Madden, ''The New Concise History of the Crusades'' at 33 (Rowman & Littlefield Pub., Inc., 2005). The Syriac Chronicle to 1234 is one source claiming that Christians were expelled from Jerusalem before the crusaders' arrival. {{harv|Tritton|Gibb|1933|p=273}} Presumably, this was done to prevent their collusion with the crusaders.</ref> The further march towards Jerusalem met no resistance.

==Offensive==

=== Fatimid preparations ===
The Fatimid governor [[Iftikhar al-Dawla]] prepared the city for the siege after he heard about the arrival of the Crusaders. He prepared an elite troop of 400 Egyptian cavalrymen and expelled all Eastern Christians from the city for fear of being betrayed by them (in the siege of Antioch, an Armenian man, Firouz, had helped Crusaders enter the city by opening the gates). To make the situation worse for the Crusaders, ad-Daula poisoned all the water wells in the surrounding area, and cut down all trees outside Jerusalem. On June 7, 1099, the Crusaders reached the outer fortifications of Jerusalem, which had been recaptured from the [[Seljuqs]] by the Fatimids only the year before. The city was guarded by a defensive wall stretching four kilometers long, which was three meters thick and fifteen meters high. There were five major gates each guarded by a pair of towers.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|last=Asbridge, Thomas S.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1089166882|title=The first crusade : a new history : the roots of conflict between Christianity and Islam|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518905-6|oclc=1089166882}}</ref> The Crusaders divided themselves into two large groups: [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert of Flanders]] and [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]] planned to besiege from north, while [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse|Raymond of Toulouse]] positioned his forces to the south.

=== Dual-front siege ===
[[File:Gesta Francorum - Liber X (Capture of Jerusalem and Battle of Ascalon).webm|thumb|Reading of the contemporary source ''Gesta Francorum - Liber X'' detailing the capture of Jerusalem and Battle of Ascalon from the Crusader's perspective, in Latin with English subtitles]]
[[File:1099 Siege of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|13th-century [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]] depicting the siege]]
The Fatimids now had to be prepared to fight on two fronts. After taking their positions, the Crusaders launched their first attack on June 13; the main problem was that they had no access to wood for the construction of siege equipment, because all the trees had been cut down. However, Tancred had a vision of finding a stack of wood hidden in a cave, and they used it to make a ladder. A knight named Rainbold scaled the ladder to gain a foothold on the wall but was unsuccessful. Since that assault was a failure, the Crusaders retreated and did not make any attempt until they got their tools and equipment. The Crusaders faced many more difficulties such as the lack of water, the scorching summer heat of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and the shortage of food. By the end of June, word came that a Fatimid army was marching north from [[Egypt]]. The mounting pressure forced the Crusaders to act quickly.

=== Final assault ===
On 17 June 1099, the Crusaders heard about the arrival of English and [[Genoa|Genoese]] ships at the port of [[Jaffa]]. The English and Genoese sailors had brought all the necessary material with them for the construction of the siege equipment. [[Robert Curthose|Robert of Normandy]] and [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert of Flanders]] procured timber from the nearby forests. Under the command of [[Guglielmo Embriaco]] and [[Gaston IV, Viscount of Béarn|Gaston of Béarn]], the Crusaders began the construction of their siege weapons. They constructed the finest siege equipment of the 11th century in almost three weeks. This included: two massive wheel-mounted [[Siege tower|siege towers]], a battering ram with an iron-clad head, and numerous scaling ladders and a series of portable [[Wattle (construction)|wattle]] screens; now they were ready to attack<ref name="auto"/> The Fatimids kept an eye on the preparation by the Franks and they set up their [[Mangonel|mangonels]] on the wall in the firing range once an assault began.

On 14 July 1099, the Crusaders launched their attack. Godfrey and his allies were positioned towards the Northern wall of Jerusalem, and their priority was to break through the outer curtain of the walls of the city. By the end of the day they penetrated the first line of defense. On the South Raymond of Toulouse's forces were met with ferocious resistance by the Fatimids. On 15 July the assault recommenced in the Northern front; Godfrey and his allies gained success and the Crusader [[Ludolf of Tournai]] was the first to mount the wall. The Franks quickly gained a foothold on the wall, and as the city's defenses collapsed, waves of panic shook the Fatimids.

In the southwest area the [[Provence|Provencals]] managed to storm the city walls, which later led to the Crusaders calling the gate they built in this area, [[Beaucaire, Gard|Beaucaire]] Gate.<ref>Eisenstadt, David (March 1997).[https://www2.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_9.html Jerusalem in the Crusader Period]. Accessed 12 May 2023.</ref>

==Aftermath==

=== Crusaders enter Jerusalem ===
On 15 July 1099, the crusaders made their way into the city through the tower of David and began massacring large numbers of the inhabitants, Muslims and Jews alike. The Fatimid governor of the city, [[Iftikhar al-Dawla|Iftikhar Ad-Daulah]], managed to escape.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Asbridge, Thomas S.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1089166882|title=The First Crusade : a new history : the roots of conflict between Christianity and Islam|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518905-6|oclc=1089166882}}</ref> According to eyewitness accounts the streets of Jerusalem were filled with blood. How many people were killed is a matter of debate, with the figure of 70,000 given by the Muslim historian [[Ali ibn al-Athir|Ibn al-Athir]] (writing c.1200) considered to be a significant exaggeration; 40,000 is plausible, given the city's population had been swollen by refugees fleeing the advance of the crusading army.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kostick, Conor|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/973781366|title=The Siege of Jerusalem|date=2009|publisher=Continuum|isbn=978-1-84-725231-9|oclc=973781366 }}</ref>

=== Massacre ===
The aftermath of the siege led to the mass slaughter of thousands of Muslims and Jews which contemporaneous sources suggest was savage and widespread and to the conversion of Muslim holy sites on the [[Temple Mount]] into Christian shrines.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Krey|first1=August. C.|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/cde-jlem.asp#raymond3|title=The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Participants|date=1921|publisher=Princeton Univ.|pages=257–62|quote=But these were small matters compared to what happened at the Temple of Solomon, a place where religious services are ordinarily chanted. What happened there? If I tell the truth, it will exceed your powers of belief. So let it suffice to say this much, at least, that in the Temple and porch of Solomon, men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle reins. [quoting eyewitness Raymond d'Aguiliers]|access-date=June 14, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Krey|first1=August. C.|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/gesta-cde.asp#jerusalem2|title=The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Participants|date=1921|publisher=Princeton Univ.|pages=256–57|quote=One of our knights, named Lethold, clambered up the wall of the city, and no sooner had he ascended than the defenders fled from the walls and through the city. Our men followed, killing and slaying even to the Temple of Solomon, where the slaughter was so great that our men waded in blood up to their ankles....|access-date=June 14, 2019}}</ref>

Atrocities committed against the inhabitants of cities taken by storm after a siege were normal in ancient<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hirschler|first=Konrad|date=2014|title=The Jerusalem Conquest of 492/1099 in the Medieval Arabic Historiography of the Crusades: From Regional Plurality to Islamic Narrative|journal=Crusades13|pages=74}}</ref> and medieval warfare by both Christians and Muslims. The crusaders had already done so [[Siege of Antioch|at Antioch]], and Fatimids had done so themselves at [[Siege of Taormina (962)|Taormina]], at [[Siege of Rometta|Rometta]], and at [[Revolt of Tyre (996–998)|Tyre]]. However, it is speculated that the massacre of the inhabitants of Jerusalem, both Muslims and Jews, may have exceeded even these standards.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bradbury|first1=Jim|title=The Medieval Siege|date=1992|publisher=The Boydell|location=Woodbridge|isbn=0851153577|page=296|edition=New}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Montefiore|first1=Simon Sebag|title=Jerusalem : the Biography|date=2012|publisher=[[Vintage Books]]|location=New York|isbn=978-0307280503|page=222|edition=|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780307280503/page/222}}</ref>

==== Muslims ====
Many Muslims sought shelter in the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque (building)|Al-Aqsa Mosque]] or [[Dome of the Rock]], both located on the [[Temple Mount]]. According to the ''Gesta Francorum'', speaking only of the Temple Mount area, "...[our men] were killing and slaying even to the Temple of Solomon, where the slaughter was so great that our men waded in blood up to their ankles..." According to Raymond of Aguilers, also writing solely of the Temple Mount area, " in the Temple and porch of Solomon men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle reins." Writing about the Temple Mount area alone, Fulcher of Chartres, who was not an eyewitness to the Jerusalem siege because he had stayed with [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin]] in Edessa at the time, says: "In this temple 10,000 were killed. Indeed, if you had been there you would have seen our feet coloured to our ankles with the blood of the slain. But what more shall I relate? None of them were left alive; neither women nor children were spared."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fulk (or Fulcher) of Chartres, "Gesta Francorum Jerusalem Expugnantium [The Deeds of the Franks Who Attacked Jerusalem]" |first1=republished |editor1-last=Krey |editor1-first=August C. |editor2-last=Duncan |editor2-first=Frederick |title=Parallel Source Problems in Medieval History |date=1912 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |location=New York |pages=109–115|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-jlem.html#fulcher1 |access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref>

The eyewitness ''Gesta Francorum'' states that some people were spared. Its anonymous author wrote,"When the pagans had been overcome, our men seized great numbers, both men and women, either killing them or keeping them captive, as they wished."<ref name="fordham.edu">{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/gesta-cde.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu}}</ref> Later the same source writes, "[Our leaders] also ordered all the [[Saracen]] dead to be cast outside because of the great stench, since the whole city was filled with their corpses; and so the living Saracens dragged the dead before the exits of the gates and arranged them in heaps, as if they were houses. No one ever saw or heard of such slaughter of pagan people, for funeral pyres were formed from them like pyramids, and no one knows their number except God alone. But Raymond caused the Emir and the others who were with him to be conducted to Ascalon, whole and unhurt."<ref name="fordham.edu"/>

Another eyewitness source, Raymond of Aguilers, reports that some Muslims survived. After recounting the slaughter on the Temple Mount, he reports of some who "took refuge in the Tower of David, and, petitioning Count Raymond for protection, surrendered the Tower into his hands."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/raymond-cde.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu}}</ref> These Muslims left with the Fatimid governor for Ascalon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://san.beck.org/AB18-Crusaders.html|title=Crusaders, Greeks, and Muslims by Sanderson Beck|website=san.beck.org}}</ref> A version of this tradition is also known to the later Muslim historian [[Ibn al-Athir]] (10, 193–95), who recounts that after the city was taken and pillaged: "A band of Muslims barricaded themselves into the Oratory of David (Mihrab Dawud) and fought on for several days. They were granted their lives in return for surrendering. The Franks honored their word and the group left by night for Ascalon."<ref>{{cite book |first=Francesco |last=Gabrieli |title=Arab Historians of the Crusades |chapter=From Godefry to Saladin |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |orig-year=1969 |year=1984 |page=11 |isbn=0-520-05224-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JU0eSxDCOmIC&pg=PA11 |url=https://archive.org/details/arabhistoriansof00gabr/page/11 }}</ref> One [[Cairo Geniza]] letter also refers to some Jewish residents who left with the Fatimid governor.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Peters |title=The First Crusade |edition=2nd |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1998 |page=265 |isbn=0-8122-1656-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=azwfTqidCLYC&pg=PA265 }}</ref>

Tancred claimed the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple quarter]] for himself and offered protection to some of the Muslims there, but he was unable to prevent their deaths at the hands of his fellow crusaders. Additionally, the crusaders claimed the Muslim holy sites of the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa mosque as important Christian sites, and renamed them ''Templum Domini'' and ''Templum Salomonis,'' respectively. In 1141, the ''Templum Domini'' would be consecrated, and the ''Templum Solomonis'' would become the headquarters for the Knights Templar.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1353/cjm.2013.0036|title=The Crusader Rebranding of Jerusalem's Temple Mount|journal=Comitatus: A Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies|volume=44|pages=77–94|year=2013|last1=Giebfried|first1=John|s2cid=162282953 }}</ref>

[[Albert of Aix|Albert of Aachen]], who personally was not present but wrote using independent interviews conducted with survivors back in Europe, wrote that even beyond the first round of slaughter that accompanied the fall of Jerusalem, there was another round, "On the third day after the victory judgement was pronounced by the leaders and everyone seized weapons and surged forth for a wretched massacre of all the crowd of gentiles which was still left...whom they had previously spared for the sake of money and human pity".<ref>{{Cite book|last=of Aachen|first=Albert|title=History of the Journey to Jerusalem|publisher=Ashgate Publishing Limited|year=2013|isbn=978-1409466529|location=Surrey, UK|pages=229|translator-last=Edgington|translator-first=Susan}}</ref> The number killed is not specified, nor is this massacre related in any other contemporary sources.

Although the crusaders killed many of the Muslim and Jewish residents, eyewitness accounts (Gesta Francorum, Raymond of Aguilers, and the Cairo Geniza documents) demonstrate that some Muslim and Jewish residents were allowed to live, as long as they left Jerusalem.<ref>See also Thomas F. Madden, ''New Concise History'' at 34</ref>

==== Jews ====
{{further|History of the Jews and the Crusades}}
[[File:Jerusalem map.jpg|thumb|map of [[Jerusalem]] during the [[Crusades]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Muir, Ramsay |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/41696665|title=Muir's historical atlas : mediæval & modern|date=1959|publisher=G. Philip|oclc=41696665}}</ref>]]
Jews had fought side-by-side with Muslim soldiers to defend the city, and as the crusaders breached the outer walls, the Jews of the city retreated to their synagogue to "prepare for death".<ref name=hoover>[[Saint Louis University]] Professor [[Thomas F. Madden]], author of ''A Concise History of the Crusades'' in
[https://web.archive.org/web/20071031040612/http://www.hoover.org/publications/uk/2994821.html CROSS PURPOSES: The Crusades] ([[Hoover Institute]] television show, 2007).</ref> According to the Muslim chronicle of [[Ibn al-Qalanisi]], "The Jews assembled in their synagogue, and the Franks burned it over their heads."<ref name=gibb>[[Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|Gibb, H. A. R]]. ''The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades: Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi''. Dover Publications, 2003 ({{ISBN|0486425193}}), p. 48</ref> A contemporary Jewish communication confirms the destruction of the synagogue, though it does not corroborate that any Jews were inside it when it was burned.<ref>[[Benjamin Z. Kedar|Kedar, Benjamin Z]]. "The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099 in the Western Historiography of the Crusades." The Crusades. Vol. 3 (2004) ({{ISBN|075464099X}}), pp. 15–76, p. 64. Edward Peters, ed. The First Crusade. 2nd ed. University of Pennsylvania, 1998, p. 264–272.</ref> This letter was discovered among the [[Cairo Geniza]] collection in 1975 by historian [[Shelomo Dov Goitein]].<ref name=kedar63>Kedar: p. 63</ref> Historians believe that it was written just two weeks after the siege, making it "the earliest account on the conquest in any language."<ref name=kedar63/> The [[letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon]] from the Cairo Geniza indicates that some prominent Jews held for ransom by the crusaders were freed when the Ascalon [[Karaite Judaism|Karaite]] Jewish community paid the requested sums of money.

===Presence of Eastern Christians===
No eyewitness source refers to crusaders killing Eastern Christians in Jerusalem, and early Eastern Christian sources (Matthew of Edessa, Anna Comnena, Michael the Syrian, etc.) make no such allegation about the crusaders in Jerusalem. According to the Syriac Chronicle, all the Christians had already been expelled from Jerusalem before the crusaders arrived.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The First and Second Crusades from an Anonymous Syriac Chronicle |first1=A. S. |last1=Tritton |first2=H. A. R. |last2=Gibb |author2-link=Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]] |year=1933 |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=273–305 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00074839 |s2cid=250347065 }}</ref> Presumably this would have been done by the Fatimid governor to prevent their possible collusion with the crusaders.<ref>Thomas F. Madden. A Concise History of the Crusades, 1999, p. 35</ref>

The ''[[Gesta Francorum]]'' claims that on Wednesday, August 9, two and a half weeks after the siege, Peter the Hermit encouraged all the "Greek and Latin priests and clerics" to make a thanksgiving procession to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.<ref>Gesta Francorum. Bk. 10.39, ed. R. Hill. London, 1962, p. 94.</ref> This indicates that some Eastern Christian clergy remained in or near Jerusalem during the siege. In November 1100, when Fulcher of Chartres personally accompanied Baldwin on a visit to Jerusalem, they were greeted by both Greek and Syrian clerics and laity (Book II, 3), indicating an Eastern Christian presence in the city a year later.

==Founding of the Latin Kingdom==
{{Main|Godfrey of Bouillon}}
[[File:Gustave dore crusades the discovery of the true cross.jpg|thumb|"The Discovery of the True Cross" ([[Gustave Doré]])]]

On 17 July, a council was held to discuss who would be crowned the king of Jerusalem. On 22 July, [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], who had played the most fundamental role in the city's conquest, was made ''[[Title of Godfrey of Bouillon|Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri]]'' ("advocate" or "defender" of the Holy Sepulchre). He would not accept the title of king in the city where Christ had died, saying that he refused to wear a crown of gold in the city where Christ wore a [[crown of thorns]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hamilton|first1=Bernard|title=The Latin Church in the Crusader States|date=1980|publisher=Variorum Publications|page=12}}</ref> Raymond had refused any title at all, and Godfrey convinced him to give up the Tower of David as well. Raymond then went on a pilgrimage, and in his absence [[Arnulf of Chocques]], whom Raymond had opposed due to his own support for [[Peter Bartholomew]], was elected the first [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem|Latin Patriarch]] on August 1 (the claims of the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Greek Patriarch]] were ignored). On August 5, Arnulf, after consulting the surviving inhabitants of the city, discovered the relic of the [[True Cross]].

On August 12, Godfrey led an army, with the True Cross carried in the vanguard, against the Fatimid army at the [[Battle of Ascalon]] of 1099. The crusaders were successful, but following the victory, the majority of them considered their crusading vows to have been fulfilled, and all but a few hundred knights returned home. Nevertheless, their victory paved the way for the establishment of the crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]].

The siege quickly became legendary and in the 12th century it was the subject of the [[Chanson de Jérusalem]], a major ''[[chanson de geste]]'' in the [[Crusade cycle]].

== Conclusion ==
The first crusaders succeeded in their endeavor. [[Urban II]] had ignited the flame of holy war in the [[Council of Clermont]]. Many other crusades were launched through time for various reasons and motives. Jerusalem remained in Christian hands for almost a century until the crusaders were defeated by [[Saladin in Egypt|Saladin]] at the [[Battle of Hattin]] in 1187, and three months later, the last defenders were expelled from the city.<ref name="auto2"/> The conquest of Jerusalem in the First Crusade has continued to reverberate through time and has ever since shaped relations among the different faith traditions of the region.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{Portal|Christianity|Fatimid Caliphate
}}
{{Refbegin|}}
* [[Conor Kostick]], ''The Siege of Jerusalem'', London, 2009. {{ISBN?}}
* Rodney Stark, ''God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades'', New York, 2009.{{ISBN?}}
* Hans E. Mayer, ''The Crusades'', Oxford, 1965. {{ISBN?}}
* [[Jonathan Riley-Smith]], ''The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading'', Philadelphia, 1999. {{ISBN?}}
* Frederic Duncalf, [https://archive.org/details/parallelsourcepr00dunciala ''Parallel source problems in medieval history''], New York, London : Harper & Brothers, 1912. via [[Internet Archive]]. See Chapter III for background, sources and problems related to the siege of Jerusalem.
* {{cite book |last1=Rubenstein |first1=Jay |author-link=Jay Rubenstein |title=Armies of heaven : the first crusade and the quest for apocalypse |date=2011 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-01929-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=France |first1=John |title=Victory in the East : a military history of the First Crusade |date=1994 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521589871}}
* Sir Archibald Alison, ''Essays, Political, Historical, and Miscellaneous – vol. II'', London, 1850.
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-jlem.html The Siege and Capture of Jerusalem: Collected Accounts] Primary sources from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook.
* [http://historymedren.about.com/library/prm/bl1cfc.htm Climax of the First Crusade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051101135130/http://historymedren.about.com/library/prm/bl1cfc.htm |date=2005-11-01 }} Detailed examanination by J. Arthur McFall originally appeared in ''Military History'' magazine.
* {{cite book |last1=Asbridge |first1=Thomas S. |title=The First Crusade: A New History |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-7432-2084-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=61KQAAAAMAAJ |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Asbridge |first1=Thomas |title=The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-84983-770-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rK8nA9U0OE4C |language=en }}
* S.J. Allen, ''An Introduction to The Crusades,'' University of Toronto Press, 2017 {{ISBN?}}
{{Refend}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jerusalem (1099), Siege Of}}
[[Category:Sieges of Jerusalem|1099]]
[[Category:11th century in the Fatimid Caliphate]]
[[Category:1099 in Asia]]
[[Category:11th century in Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Battles of the First Crusade]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1099]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Fatimid Caliphate|Jerusalem 1099]]
[[Category:Sieges of the Crusades|Jerusalem 1099]]
[[Category:11th-century massacres]]
[[Category:Crusader–Fatimid wars]]
[[Category:Palestine under the Fatimid Caliphate]]

March from Antioch to Jerusalem during the First Crusade

2024-02-19T06:47:08Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* March to Jerusalem */

[[File:Byzantium after the First crusade.PNG|thumb|right|300px|Route of the First Crusade through Asia]]

The '''[[First Crusade]] march down the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coast''', from [[Siege of Antioch|recently taken Antioch]] to [[Jerusalem]], started on 13 January 1099. During the march the Crusaders encountered little resistance, as local rulers preferred to make peace with them and furnish them with supplies rather than fight, with a notable exception of the aborted siege of Arqa.<ref name="Tyerman150">{{harvnb|Tyerman|2006|p=150}}.</ref> On 7 June, the Crusaders reached Jerusalem, which had been recaptured from the [[Seljuks]] by the [[Fatimids]] only the year before.<ref name="Tyerman153">{{harvnb|Tyerman|2006|pp=153–157}}.</ref>

==Background==
After the successful [[Siege of Antioch]] in June 1098, the Crusaders remained in the area for the rest of the year. The [[papal legate]] [[Adhemar of Le Puy]] had died, and [[Bohemund I of Antioch|Bohemund of Taranto]] had claimed [[Antioch]] for himself. [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin of Boulogne]] remained in [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], captured earlier in 1098. There was dissent among the princes what to do next. [[Raymond IV of Toulouse|Raymond of Toulouse]], frustrated, left Antioch, and [[Siege of Maarat|captured the fortress of Maarat]]. By the end of the year the minor knights and infantry were threatening to march to Jerusalem without the princes.

==March to Jerusalem==
At the end of December or early in January, [[Robert Curthose|Robert of Normandy]] and Bohemond's nephew [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]] agreed to become vassals of Raymond, who was wealthy enough to compensate them for their service. [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], however, who now had revenue from his brother's territories in Edessa, refused to do the same. On 5 January, Raymond dismantled the walls of Maarat. On 13 January he began the march south to [[Jerusalem]], barefoot and dressed as a pilgrim, followed by Robert and Tancred and their respective armies. Proceeding south along the coast, they encountered little resistance.

Raymond planned to take [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] for himself to set up a state equivalent to Bohemond's Antioch. First however, he besieged nearby [[Arqa]]. Meanwhile, Godfrey, along with [[Robert II of Flanders|Robert of Flanders]], who had also refused vassalage to Raymond, joined together with the remaining Crusaders at [[Latakia]] and marched south in February. Bohemond had originally marched out with them but quickly returned to Antioch in order to consolidate his rule against the advancing [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]]. At this time, Tancred left Raymond's service and joined with Godfrey, due to some unknown quarrel. Another separate force, though linked to Godfrey's, was led by [[Gaston IV of Béarn]].

Godfrey, Robert, Tancred, and Gaston arrived at Arqa in March, but the siege continued. [[Pons of Balazun]] died, struck by a stone missile. The situation was tense not only among the military leaders, but also among the clergy. Since Adhemar's death there had been no real leader of the crusade, and ever since the discovery of the [[Holy Lance]] by [[Peter Bartholomew]] in Antioch, there had been accusations of fraud among the clerical factions. Finally, in April, [[Arnulf of Chocques]] challenged Peter to an [[Trial by ordeal|ordeal by fire]]. Peter underwent the ordeal and died after days of agony from his wounds, which discredited the Holy Lance as a fake. This also undermined Raymond's authority over the Crusade, as he was the main proponent of its authenticity.

The siege of Arqa lasted until 13 May, when the Crusaders left having captured nothing. The [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]], the Egyptians who ruled over Jerusalem, had attempted to make a deal with the Crusaders, promising freedom of passage to any pilgrims to the Holy Land on the condition that the Crusaders not advance into their domains, but this deal was rejected. [[Iftikhar ad-Daula]], the Fatimid governor of Jerusalem, was aware of the Crusaders' intentions. Therefore, he expelled all of Jerusalem's Christian inhabitants.<ref name="madden">Madden, Thomas F. ''The New Concise History of the Crusades'' page 33 (Rowman & Littlefield Pub., Inc., 2005). The ''Syriac Chronicle to 1234'' is one source claiming that Christians were expelled from Jerusalem before the Crusaders' arrival. "The First and Second Crusades from an Anonymous Syriac Chronicle." Trans. A.S. Tritton. ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'', 1933, p. 73. Presumabaly this was done to prevent their collusion with the Crusaders.</ref> He also poisoned most of the wells in the area.<ref name="madden"/> On 13 May the Crusaders came to Tripoli, where the [[Emir]] there, [[Jalal al-Mulk Abu'l Hasan]], provided the crusader army with horses.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Runciman|first1=Steven|title=A History of the Crusades I: The First Crusade|date=1951–1952|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-141-98550-3|pages=227}}</ref> According to the anonymous chronicle ''[[Gesta Francorum]]'', he also vowed to convert to Christianity if the Crusaders defeated the Fatimids. Continuing south along the coast, the Crusaders passed [[Beirut]] on 19 May and [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] on 23 May. Turning inland at [[Jaffa, Israel|Jaffa]], on 3 June they reached [[Ramlah]], which had been abandoned by its inhabitants. The bishopric of Ramlah-[[Lod|Lydda]] was established there at the church of [[St. George]] (a popular crusader hero) before they continued on to Jerusalem. On 6 June, Godfrey sent Tancred and Gaston to capture [[Bethlehem]], where Tancred flew his banner over the [[Church of the Nativity]].

On 7 June, the Crusaders reached Jerusalem and [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|beseiged the city]].<ref name="Tyerman153"/>

==References==
* {{Cite book |last=Tyerman |first=Christopher |authorlink = Christopher Tyerman |title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge |year=2006 |isbn=0-674-02387-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer }}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:First Crusade]]

Siege of Antioch

2024-02-19T06:41:31Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Winter */

{{Short description|1097–98 invasion of Seljuk-held Antioch during the First Crusade}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Antioch
| image = SiegeofAntioch.jpeg
| image_size = 300
| caption = The siege of Antioch, from a 15th-century miniature painting
| partof = the [[First Crusade]]
| date = 20 October 1097 – 28 June 1098
| place = [[Antioch]] (present-day [[Antakya]], [[Turkey]])
| coordinates = {{Coord|36|12|08|N|36|09|41|E|display=inline,title}}
| result = Crusader victory
| territory = * Antioch captured by the Crusaders 
* [[Principality of Antioch]] is founded
| combatant1 = [[Crusaders]] [[Byzantine Empire]]
| combatant2 = [[Seljuk Empire]]
*[[Antioch|Emirate of Antioch]]
*[[List of rulers of Damascus#Seljuq emirs|Emirate of Damascus]]
*[[Homs|Emirate of Homs]]
*[[List of rulers of Aleppo#Seljuq Dynasty|Sultanate of Aleppo]]
*[[Mosul|Emirate of Mosul]]
*Various other Arab or Turkish [[Emirate]]s<ref>{{harvnb|France|1996|p=261}}</ref>
| commander1 = [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]] [[Raymond IV of Toulouse]] [[Adhemar of Le Puy]] [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] [[Robert II of Normandy]] [[Edgar Ætheling]] [[Robert II of Flanders]] 
[[Girard I of Roussillon]] [[Stephen, Count of Blois|Stephen of Blois]] [[Hugh, Count of Vermandois|Hugh of Vermandois]] [[Eustace III, Count of Boulogne|Eustace III of Boulogne]] [[Baldwin II, Count of Hainaut|Baldwin II of Hainaut]] [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred of Hauteville]] [[Rainald III of Toul]] [[Gaston IV, Viscount of Béarn|Gaston IV of Béarn]] Anselm of Ribemont [[Tatikios]]
| commander2 = [[Yağısıyan|Yaghi-Siyan]]{{KIA}} [[Duqaq (Seljuk ruler of Damascus)|Duqaq]] [[Toghtekin]] [[Janah ad-Dawla]] [[Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan]] Shams ad-Daulah [[Kerbogha]] Arslantash of [[Sinjar]] Qaradja of [[Harran]] Watthab ibn-Mahmud Balduk of [[Samosata]] [[Sökmen (Artuqid)|Soqman ibn Ortoq]] [[Ahmed ibn Merwan|Ahmad ibn-Marwan]]{{surrender}}
| strength1 = '''Crusaders''': ~40,000 total at the start of the siege (includes non-combatants) ~20,000 during the second siege against [[Kerbogha]]<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=233}}</ref> 
'''Byzantines''': 2,000 light infantry and naval support
| strength2 = '''Antiochene garrison''': ~5,000<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=160}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|France|1996|p=224}}</ref> '''Duqaq's relief force''': ~10,000<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=171}}</ref> '''Radwan's relief force''': ~12,000<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=181}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|France|1996|p=246}}</ref> '''Kerbogha's relief force''': ~35,000–40,000<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=204}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rubenstein|2011|p=206}}</ref>
| casualties1 = Heavy
*Thousands died of starvation, disease or in battle
*Nearly all the horses
| casualties2 = Heavy
*Entire garrison slain
*Every relief force destroyed and routed
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}
}}

The '''siege of Antioch''' took place during the [[First Crusade]] in 1097 and 1098, on the crusaders' way to [[Jerusalem]] through [[Syria (region)|Syria]]. Two sieges took place in succession. The first siege, by the crusaders against the city held by the [[Seljuk Empire]], lasted from 20 October 1097<ref name="brit_Sieg">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Siege of Antioch |last=Matthews |first=Rupert |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |date= |access-date=19 August 2021 |url= https://www.britannica.com/event/Siege-of-Antioch-1097-1098}}</ref> to 3 June 1098. The second siege, of the crusader-held city by a Seljuk relieving army, lasted three weeks in June 1098, leading to the [[Battle of Antioch (1098)|Battle of Antioch]] in which the crusaders defeated the relieving army led by [[Kerbogha]]. The crusaders then established the [[Principality of Antioch]], ruled by [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]].<ref>France, John (2006)."Sieges of Antioch (1097–1098)". In ''The Crusades – An Encyclopedia''. pp. 79–81.</ref>

[[Antioch]] (modern [[Antakya]]) lay in a strategic location on the crusaders' route to Palestine through the [[Syrian Coastal Mountain Range|Syrian Coastal mountain range]]. Supplies, reinforcements and retreat could all be controlled by the city. Anticipating that it would be attacked, the Seljuk governor of the city, [[Yağısıyan]], began stockpiling food and sending requests for help. The Byzantine walls surrounding the city presented a formidable obstacle to its capture, but the leaders of the crusade felt compelled to besiege Antioch anyway.

The crusaders arrived outside the city on 21 October and began the siege. The garrison sortied unsuccessfully on 29 December. After stripping the surrounding area of food, the crusaders were forced to look farther afield for supplies, opening themselves to ambush. On 31 December, a force of 20,000 crusaders encountered a relief army led by [[Shams al-Muluk Duqaq|Duqaq]], ruler of Damascus, heading to Antioch and defeated them. As the siege went on, supplies dwindled and in early 1098 one in seven of the crusaders was dying from starvation, and people began deserting.

A second relief force, this time under the command of Duqaq's brother [[Ridwan of Aleppo|Ridwan]], emir of Aleppo, advanced towards Antioch, arriving on 9 February. Like the army of Duqaq before, it was [[Battle of the Lake of Antioch|defeated]]. Antioch was captured on 3 June, although the citadel remained in the hands of the Turkish defenders. [[Kerbogha]], atabeg of Mosul, began the second siege, against the crusaders who had occupied Antioch, which lasted from 7 to 28 June 1098. The second siege ended when the crusaders exited the city to engage Kerbogha's army in battle on 28 June and succeeded in [[Battle of Antioch (1098)|defeating them]]. On seeing the Turkish army routed, the defenders remaining in the citadel surrendered.

==Background==
There are a number of contemporaneous sources relating to the siege of Antioch and the First Crusade. There are four narrative accounts: those of [[Fulcher of Chartres]], [[Peter Tudebode]], and [[Raymond of Aguilers]], and the anonymous ''[[Gesta Francorum]]''. Nine letters survive relating to or from the crusading army; five of them were written while the siege was underway and another in September, not long after the city had been taken.

While there are many sources the number of people on crusade is unclear because they fluctuated regularly and many non-combatants on pilgrimage accompanied the soldiers. Historian [[Jonathan Riley-Smith]] offers a rough guide, suggesting that perhaps 43,000 people (including soldiers, armed poor, and non-combatants) were involved in the [[siege of Nicaea]] in June 1097, while as few as 15,000 may have taken part in the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|siege of Jerusalem]] in July 1099.<ref>{{harvnb|Riley-Smith|1986|pp=60–63}}</ref>

Lying on the slopes of the [[Orontes River|Orontes Valley]], in 1097 Antioch covered more than {{convert|3.5|mi2|0}} and was encircled by walls studded by 400 towers. The river ran along the city's northern wall before entering Antioch from the northwest and exiting east through the northern half of the city. [[Silpium|Mount Silpius]], crested by a citadel, was Antioch's highest point and rose some {{convert|1000|ft}} above the valley floor. There were six gates through which the city could be entered: three along the northern wall, and one on each of the south, east, and west sides.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

The valley slopes made approaching from the south, east, or west difficult, so the most practical access route for a large number of people was from the north across flatter ground. The city's defences dated from the reign of the Emperor [[Justinian I]] in the 6th century. Though Antioch changed hands twice between then and the arrival of the crusaders in 1097, each time it was the result of betrayal rather than inadequacy of the defences.<ref>{{harvnb|Rogers|1997|pp=26–28}}</ref>

After the [[Byzantine Empire]] reconquered [[Antioch]] in 969 a programme of fortification building was undertaken in the surrounding area to secure the gains. As part of this, a citadel was built on Mount Silpius in Antioch. High enough to be separate from the city below, historian [[Hugh N. Kennedy|Hugh Kennedy]] opined that it "[relied] on inaccessibility as its main defence".<ref>{{harvnb|Kennedy|1994|pp=15–16}}</ref> At its fall to [[Seljuk dynasty]] in 1085, Antioch was the last Byzantine fortification in Syria.<ref>{{harvnb|Previté-Orton|1975|p=519}}</ref> [[Yaghi-Siyan]] was made Governor of Antioch in 1087 and held the position when the crusaders arrived in 1097.<ref name=Runciman309>{{harvnb|Runciman|1969|p=309}}</ref>

Yaghi-Siyan was aware of the approaching crusader army as it marched through Anatolia in 1097; the city stood between the crusaders and Palestine.<ref name=Runciman214-5>{{harvnb|Runciman|1951|pp=214–215}}</ref> Though under Turkish control, the majority of Antioch's inhabitants were Christians.<ref name=Runciman309/> Yaghi-Siyan had previously been tolerant of the Christian populace, however that changed as the crusaders approached. To prepare for their arrival he imprisoned the [[Eastern Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch]], [[John the Oxite]], turned St Paul's Cathedral into a stable and expelled many leading Christians from the city. Yaghi-Siyan then sent out appeals for help: his request was turned down by [[Ridwan of Aleppo]] because of personal animosity, however Yaghi-Siyan was more successful in his approaches to other nobles in the region and [[Duqaq (Seljuk ruler of Damascus)|Duqaq]] of [[Damascus]], [[Toghtekin]], [[Kerbogha]], the sultans of Baghdad and Persia, and the [[emir]] of Homs all agreed to send reinforcements. Meanwhile, back in Antioch Yaghi-Siyan began stockpiling supplies in anticipation of a siege.<ref name=Runciman214-5/>

Knowing they had to capture Antioch, the crusaders considered how best to go about the task. Attrition suffered during the army's long journey across Anatolia meant the leaders considered leaving an assault until reinforcements arrived in spring. [[Tatikios]], the Byzantine advisor to the crusade, suggested adopting tactics similar to those used by the Byzantines themselves when they moved to capture Antioch in 968. They had installed themselves at [[Baghras]] some {{convert|12|mi}} away and from there conducted a blockade of the city by cutting off its lines of communication.<ref name=Rogers25-6>{{harvnb|Rogers|1997|pp=25–26}}</ref> [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse]], was alone in advocating assaulting the city.<ref name=Runciman310>{{harvnb|Runciman|1969|p=310}}</ref> In the end, the crusaders chose to advance on Antioch and establish a siege close to Antioch.<ref name=Rogers25-6/>

==First siege==

===Starting the siege===
Before the siege could be properly started, the control of three key sites was essential: the town of [[Artah]], the [[Demirköprü, Antakya|Iron Bridge]] across the Orontes, as well as the [[Port Saint Symeon|harbour of St Simeon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2000|p=24}}</ref> Artah's importance resulted from its strategic position as it was situated on vital routes connecting the [[Euphrates]] and the [[Orontes River|Orontes]] valleys as well as [[Apamea, Syria|Apamea]], Aleppo and Antioch.<ref>{{harvnb|Beihammer|2017|p=141}}</ref> A detachment of the crusade army led by [[Robert II of Flanders|Robert of Flanders]] was sent to take the city but discovered that the local Armenian population had ejected the Turkish garrison and welcomed Robert and his forces with supplies for men and horses.<ref name="Asbridge 2000 25">{{harvnb|Asbridge|2000|p=25}}</ref> Yaghi-Siyan then sent a force to retake Artah but this force retreated upon arrival of the main army of the crusaders.<ref name="Asbridge 2000 25"/>

On 20 October 1097 the crusaders reached the Iron Bridge, a fortified crossing on the [[Orontes River]] {{convert|12|miles}} outside Antioch. [[Robert II, Count of Flanders]] and [[Adhemar of Le Puy]], the [[Bishop of Puy-en-Velay|Catholic Bishop of Puy-en-Velay]], led the charge across the bridge, opening the way for the advancing army. [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]] took a [[Vanguard (military formation)|vanguard]] along the river's south bank and headed towards Antioch on 21 October and the crusaders established themselves outside the city's north wall.<ref name=Rogers25-6/> The crusaders divided into several groups. Bohemond camped outside Saint Paul's Gate near the northernmost corner of the city walls and immediately to the west were [[Hugh I, Count of Vermandois]]; [[Robert Curthose]], Duke of Normandy; Robert II, Count of Flanders; and [[Stephen II, Count of Blois]]. Adhemar of Le Puy and Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, took up positions outside the Dog Gate either side of where the Orontes penetrated Antioch's defences. [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] was stationed west of the Duke's Gate in the northwest of the city walls. The bridge across the Orontes outside Antioch's west walls remained under Yaghi-Siyan's control at this point.<ref name=Roger27,9>{{harvnb|Rogers|1997|pp=27, 29}}</ref> The ensuing nine-month siege has been described as "one of the great sieges of the age".<ref>{{harvnb|Rogers|1997|p=25}}</ref>

[[File:Robert2Flandry.jpg|thumb|A 14th-century depiction of [[Robert II, Count of Flanders]] from a manuscript in the care of the [[National Library of the Netherlands]]]]
The sources emphasise that a direct assault would have failed.<ref name=Roger29-30>{{harvnb|Rogers|1997|pp=29–30}}</ref> For instance, Raymond of Aguilers noted that the chaplain of Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, said "[Antioch] is so well fortified that it need not fear attack by machinery nor the assault of man, even if all mankind came together against it".<ref>Quoted by {{harvnb|Rogers|1997|p=29}}</ref> According to Fulcher of Chartres the leaders resolved to maintain the siege until the city was forced into submission.<ref name=Roger29-30/> Though his figures may not be accurate, Raymond of Aguilers gave an account of the army defending the city: "There were, furthermore, in the city two thousand of the best knights, and four or five thousand common knights and ten thousand more footmen".<ref>Quoted by {{harvnb|France|1996|p=200}}</ref>

One of the problems of camping so close to the city was that it left the besiegers vulnerable to [[sortie]]s from the garrison and even missiles. For the first fortnight of the siege, the crusaders were able to forage in the surrounding area as the defenders chose not to leave the safety of the city walls.<ref name=Rogers30-1>{{harvnb|Rogers|1997|pp=30–31}}</ref> However, in November Yaghi-Siyan learned that the crusaders felt the city would not fall to an assault so was able to turn his attentions from the defensive to harrying the besiegers.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1969|pp=310–311}}</ref> He mobilised his cavalry and began harassing the besiegers. With the immediate area stripped clean, the crusaders' foraging parties had to search further afield for supplies leaving them more vulnerable and on several occasions were attacked by the garrisons of nearby fortifications.<ref name=Rogers30-1/> Yaghi-Siyan's men also used the Dog Bridge, outside the Dog Gate to harass the crusaders. Adhemar of Le Puy and Raymond IV's men, who were camped closest to the bridge, attempted to destroy it using picks and hammers, but made little impact on the strong structure while under missile fire from Antioch's defenders. Another attempt was made to render the bridge unusable, this time with a mobile shelter to protect the crusaders, but the garrison sortied and successfully drove them away. Soon after, three [[siege engine]]s were built opposite the Dog Gate. In the end, the crusaders erected a blockade on the bridge to obstruct potential sorties.<ref>{{harvnb|Rogers|1997|p=32}}</ref>

The port of [[Port Saint Symeon|St Symeon]] on the Mediterranean coast, {{convert|9|mi}} west of Antioch would allow the crusaders to bring reinforcements. Raymond of Aguilers mentions that the English landed at the port before the crusade reached Antioch, but did not record whether a battle for control of St Symeon took place. Reinforcements in the form of thirteen Genoese ships reached St Symeon on 17 November, and though the route from Antioch to St Symeon ran close to the city walls, meaning the garrison could impede travel, joined up with the rest of the crusaders.<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2000|pp=26–27}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|France|1996|p=229}}</ref> According to the Genoese chronicler [[Caffaro di Rustico da Caschifellone]], the Genoese suffered heavy casualties en route from St Symeon to Antioch.<ref>{{harvnb|Rogers|1997|p=33}}</ref> Bohemond's troops built a [[Sconce (fortification)|counterfort]] outside Saint Paul's Gate in Antioch's northeast wall to protect themselves against missiles from Antioch's defenders. Known as Malregard, the fort was built on a hill and probably consisted of earthen ramparts. The construction has been dated to around the time the Genoese arrived.<ref name=Rogers33>{{harvnb|Rogers|1997|p=33}}, citing {{harvnb|Mayer|1972|p=54}}</ref> The crusaders were further bolstered by the arrival of [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]],<ref name="Runciman310"/> who set up camp to the west of his uncle, Bohemond.<ref name=Roger27,9/>

===Winter===
As the crusaders' food supply reached critical levels in December,<ref name=Rogers33/> Godfrey fell ill. On 28 December, Bohemond and Robert of Flanders took about 20,000 men and went foraging for food and plunder upstream of the Orontes. Knowing the crusaders' force had been divided, Yaghi-Siyan waited until the night of 29 December before making a sortie. He attacked Count Raymond's encampment across the river, and though caught by surprise, Count Raymond was able to recover and turn Yaghi-Siyan's men back. He almost succeeded in reversing the attack entirely, forcing a way across the bridge and establishing a foothold on the other side and holding open the city gates. As the crusaders threatened to take the city, a horse lost its rider and, in the ensuing confusion in the dark, the crusaders panicked and withdrew across the bridge with the Seljuks in pursuit. The stalemate was restored, and both sides had suffered losses.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1951|p=220}}</ref>

[[File:Boh Tan.jpg|thumb|left|A 13th-century depiction of Bohemond and Tancred from a manuscript in the care of the Bibliothèque nationale de France]]

While Count Raymond was repulsing a sally from Antioch's garrison, an army under the leadership of Duqaq of Damascus was en route to relieve Antioch. Bohemond and Robert of Flanders were unaware that their foraging party was heading towards Duqaq's men. On 30 December news reached Duqaq while his army was at [[Shaizar]] that the crusaders were nearby. On the morning of 31 December Duqaq marched towards Bohemond and Robert's army and the two met at the village of [[Albara (village)|Albara]]. Robert was the first to encounter Duqaq's men as he was marching ahead of Bohemond. Bohemond joined the battle and with Robert fought back Duqaq's army and inflicted heavy casualties. Though they fought off Duqaq's army, which retreated to [[Hama]], the crusaders suffered too many casualties to keep foraging and returned to Antioch.<ref name=Runciman220-1>{{harvnb|Runciman|1951|pp=220–221}}</ref> As a result of the fight the crusaders lost the flock they had gathered for food<ref name="Rogers30-1"/> and returned with less food than they needed.<ref name=Runciman312>{{harvnb|Runciman|1969|p=312}}</ref> The month ended inauspiciously for both sides: there was an earthquake on 30 December, and the following weeks saw such unseasonably bad rain and cold weather that Duqaq had to return home without further engaging the crusaders.<ref name=Runciman312/> The crusaders feared the rain and earthquake were signs they had lost God's favour, and to atone for their sins such as pillaging, Adhemar of Le Puy ordered that a three-day fast should be observed. In any case at this time supplies were running dangerously low, and soon after one in seven men was dying of starvation.<ref name=Runciman220-1/>

Though local Christians brought food to the crusaders, they charged extortionate prices. The famine also affected the horses, and soon only 700 remained.<ref name=Runciman312/> The extent to which the crusader army was affected is difficult to gauge, but according to [[Matthew of Edessa]] one in five crusaders died from starvation during the siege and the poorer members were probably worse off.<ref>{{harvnb|Rogers|1997|p=34}}</ref> The famine damaged morale and some knights and soldiers began to desert in January 1098, including [[Peter the Hermit]] and [[William the Carpenter]]. On hearing of the desertion of such prominent figures, Bohemond despatched a force to bring them back. Peter was pardoned while William was berated and made to swear he would remain with the crusade.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1969|p=313}}</ref>

===Spring===
The arrival of spring in February saw the food situation improve for the crusaders.<ref name="Rogers 1997 26">{{harvnb|Rogers|1997|p=26}}</ref> That month Tatikios repeated his earlier advice to resort to a long-distance blockade but his suggestion was ignored;<ref name="Rogers 1997 26"/> he then left the army and returned home. Tatikios explained to the Byzantine Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] that Bohemond had informed him that there was a plan to kill him, as they believed Alexios was secretly encouraging the Seljuks. Those close to Bohemond claimed that this was treachery or cowardice, reason enough to break any obligations to return Antioch to the Byzantines. News arrived that a Seljuk army was approaching and Bohemond used the situation to his advantage. He declared that he would leave unless he was allowed to keep Antioch for himself when it was captured.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1969|pp=313–314}}</ref> Knowing fully that Bohemond had designs on taking the city for himself, and that he had probably engineered Tatikios' departure in order to facilitate this, Godfrey and Raymond did not give in to his demands, but Bohemond gained the sympathies and cooperation of the minor knights and soldiers.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

{{Main|Battle of the Lake of Antioch}}
Yaghi-Siyan had reconciled with Ridwan of Aleppo and the advancing army was under his command.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1969|p=314}}</ref> In early February news reached the besiegers that Ridwan had taken nearby [[Harem, Syria|Harim]] where he was preparing to advance on Antioch. At Bohemond's suggestion, the crusaders sent all their cavalry (numbering about 700 knights) to meet the advancing army while the infantry remained behind in case Antioch's defenders decided to attack. On the morning of 9 February, Ridwan moved towards the Iron Bridge. The crusaders had moved into position the previous night and charged the advancing army before it reached the bridge. The first charge caused few casualties, but Ridwan's army followed the crusaders to a narrow battlefield. With the river on one side and the [[Lake Amik|Lake of Antioch]] on the other, Ridwan was unable to outflank the crusaders and exploit his superior numbers. A second charge had more impact and the Seljuk army withdrew in disorder. At the same time, Yaghi-Siyan had led his garrison out of Antioch and attacked the crusader infantry. His offensive was forcing the besiegers back until the knights returned. Realising Ridwan had been defeated, Yaghi-Siyan retreated inside the city. As Ridwan's army passed through Harim panic spread to the garrison he had installed there and they abandoned the town, which was retaken by the Christians.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1951|pp=225–226}}</ref>

According to [[Orderic Vitalis]] an English fleet led by [[Edgar Ætheling]], the exiled Saxon claimant to the throne of England, arrived at St Symeon on 4 March carrying supplies from the Byzantines. Historian [[Steven Runciman]] repeated the assertion, however it is unknown where the fleet originated and would not have been under Edgar's command. Regardless, the fleet brought raw materials for constructing [[siege engine]]s, but these were almost lost on the journey from the port to Antioch when part of the garrison sallied out. Bohemond and Raymond escorted the material, and after losing some of the materials and 100 people, they fell back to the crusader camp outside Antioch.<ref name=Rogers35-6>{{harvnb|Rogers|1997|pp=35–36}}</ref> Before Bohemond and Raymond, rumours that they had been killed reached Godfrey who readied his men to rescue the survivors of the escort. However, his attention was diverted when another force sallied from the city to provide cover for the men returning from the ambush. Godfrey was able to hold off the attack until Bohemond and Raymond came to his aid.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1951|p=227}}</ref> The reorganised army then caught up with the garrison before it had reached the safety of Antioch's walls. The counter-attack was a success for the crusaders and resulted in the deaths of between 1,200 and 1,500 of Antioch's defenders.<ref name=Rogers35-6/> The crusaders set to work building siege engines, as well as a fort, called La Mahomerie, to block the Bridge Gate and prevent Yaghi-Siyan attacking the crusader supply line from the ports of Saint Simon and Alexandretta, whilst also repairing the abandoned monastery to the west of the Gate of Saint George, which was still being used to deliver food to the city. Tancred garrisoned the monastery, referred to in the chronicles as Tancred's Fort, for 400 silver marks, whilst Count Raymond of Toulouse took control of La Mahomerie. Finally the crusader siege was able to have some effect on the well-defended city. Food conditions improved for the crusaders as spring approached and the city was sealed off from raiders.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

===Fatimid embassy===
In April a [[Fatimid]] embassy from [[Egypt]] arrived at the crusader camp, hoping to establish a peace with the Christians, who were, after all, the enemy of their own enemies, the Seljuks. Peter the Hermit was sent to negotiate. These negotiations came to nothing. The Fatimids, assuming the crusaders were simply mercenary representatives of the Byzantines, were prepared to let the crusaders keep [[Syria]] if they agreed not to attack Fatimid [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], a state of affairs perfectly acceptable between Egypt and Byzantium before the Turkish invasions. But the crusaders could not accept any settlement that did not give them [[Jerusalem]]. Nevertheless, the Fatimids were treated hospitably and were given many gifts, plundered from the Seljuks who had been defeated in March, and no definitive agreement was reached.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1951|p=229}}</ref> Nevertheless, it taught the crusaders the value of diplomacy and they decided to send an embassy to Duqaq of Damscus asking for his neutrality, stating they had no ambitions on his territory. They were, however, rejected by Duqaq.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1951|p=230}}</ref>

==Capture of Antioch==
[[File:Antiochie Godefroi Robert.jpg|thumb|300px|A 14th-century depiction of the crusaders' capture of Antioch from a manuscript in the care of the National Library of the Netherlands]]

The siege continued, and at the end of May 1098 a Turkish army from [[Mosul]] under the command of [[Kerbogha]] approached Antioch. This army was much larger than the previous attempts to relieve the siege. Kerbogha had joined with Ridwan and Duqaq and his army also included troops from [[Persian Empire|Persia]] and from the [[Ortuqids]] of [[Mesopotamia]]. The crusaders were luckily granted time to prepare for their arrival, as Kerbogha had first made a three-week-long excursion to [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], which he was unable to recapture from [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin of Boulogne]], who had becomes its ruler earlier in March 1098.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1951|p=231}}</ref>

[[File:Gustave dore crusades bohemond alone mounts the rampart of antioch.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond]] and his Norman troops scale the walls of Antioch, in an [[engraving]] by [[Gustave Doré]]]]

[[File:Gustave dore crusades the massacre of antioch.jpg|thumb|The massacre of Antioch, in an [[engraving]] by Gustave Doré]]

The crusaders concluded that they would have to take the city before Kerbogha arrived if they had any chance of survival. Weeks earlier, Bohemond had secretly established contact with someone inside the city named [[Firouz]], an Armenian guard who controlled the Tower of the Two Sisters.<ref name=harari>{{cite book |chapter=The Gateway to the Middle East: Antioch, 1098 |title=Special Operations in the Age of Chivalry, 1100–1550 |first=Yuval Noah |last=Harari| author-link=Yuval Noah Harari|year=2007 |publisher=The Boydell Press |pages=53–73}}</ref> Firouz's motivation was unclear even to Bohemond, perhaps avarice or revenge, but he offered to let Bohemond into the city in exchange for money and a title.<ref name=harari/> Bohemond then approached the other crusaders and offered access to the city, through Firouz, if they would agree to make Bohemond the Prince of Antioch.<ref name=harari/> Raymond was furious and argued that the city should be handed over to Alexios, as they had agreed when they left Constantinople in 1097, but Godfrey, Tancred, Robert, and the other leaders, faced with a desperate situation, gave in to Bohemond's demand.<ref name=harari/>

Despite this, on 2 June, [[Stephen, Count of Blois|Stephen of Blois]] and some of the other crusaders deserted the army. Later on the same day, Firouz instructed Bohemond to feign a march south over the mountains to ostensibly confront Kerbogha, but then to double-back at night and scale the walls at the Tower of the Two Sisters where Firouz held watch. This was done. Firouz allowed a small contingent of crusaders to scale the tower (including Bohemond), who then opened a nearby [[postern gate]] allowing a larger contingent of soldiers hiding in the nearby rocks to enter the city and overwhelm the alerted garrison.<ref name=harari/> While Bohemond attempted to capture the citadel<ref name="Runciman 1951 234">{{harvnb|Runciman|1951|p=234}}</ref> and the remaining crusader soldiers fought the remaining Turkish defenders, the poorer crusaders seized everything they could in a disorderly manner.<ref name="Kostick">{{cite book |last1=Kostick |first1=Conor |title=The Social Structure |date=2008 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789047445029 |page=117}}</ref> In the ensuing chaos, the Armenians and Greeks joined the crusaders in fighting the Turks they could find although the deaths also included many non-Turkish civilians, including Firouz's own brother.<ref name="Runciman 1951 234"/><ref name=harari/> Yaghi-Siyan fled but was captured by Armenian and Syrian Christians some distance outside the city and his severed head was brought to Bohemond.<ref name=harari/>

==Second siege==
[[File:Kerbogha Antiochie.jpg|thumb|left|An illustration of Kerbogha besieging Antioch, from a 14th-century manuscript in the care of the [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]]]]
By the end of the day on 3 June, the crusaders controlled most of the city, except for the citadel, which remained in the hands of Yaghi-Siyan's son Shams ad-Daulah. John the Oxite was reinstated as patriarch by [[Adhemar of Le Puy]], the [[papal legate]], who wished to keep good relations with the Byzantines, especially as Bohemond was clearly planning to claim the city for himself. However, the city was now short on food, and Kerbogha's army was still on its way. Kerbogha arrived only two days later, on 5 June. He tried, and failed, to storm the city on 7 June, and by 9 June he had established his own siege around the city.<ref name="Riley-SmithRiley-Smith2003">{{cite book|author1=Jonathan Simon Christopher Riley-Smith|author2=Jonathan Riley-Smith|title=The First Crusade and Idea of Crusading|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RNP6MBmn-2EC&pg=PA59|date=1 April 2003|publisher=Continuum|isbn=978-0-8264-6726-3|page=59}}</ref>

More crusaders had deserted before Kerbogha arrived, and they joined Stephen of Blois in [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]]. Stephen had seen Kerbogha's army encamped near Antioch and assumed all hope was lost; the deserters confirmed his fears. On the way back to Constantinople, Stephen and the other deserters met Alexios, who was on his way to assist the crusaders, and did not know they had taken the city and were now under siege themselves. Stephen convinced him that the rest of the crusaders were as good as dead, and Alexios heard from his reconnaissance that there was another Seljuk army nearby in Anatolia. He therefore decided to return to Constantinople rather than risking battle.<ref name="Riley-SmithRiley-Smith2003"/>

===Discovery of the Holy Lance===
[[File:Holy Lance Antioch.jpg|thumb|Discovery of the [[Holy Lance]]]]

Meanwhile, in Antioch, on 10 June an otherwise insignificant priest from southern France<ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FG7Oep4dk4c |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308082438/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FG7Oep4dk4c |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 March 2016 |title=The Crusades: The Crescent and the Cross |access-date = 17 January 2015}}</ref> by the name of [[Peter Bartholomew]] came forward claiming to have had visions of [[St. Andrew]], who told him that the [[Holy Lance]] was inside the city.<ref name="Madden2013">{{cite book|author=Thomas F. Madden|title=The Concise History of the Crusades|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZb1AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27|date=19 September 2013|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-1576-4|pages=27–30}}</ref> The starving crusaders were prone to visions and hallucinations, and another monk named Stephen of Valence reported visions of [[Christ]] and the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]].<ref name="Riley-SmithRiley-Smith2003"/> On 14 June a [[meteor]] was seen landing in the enemy camp, interpreted as a good omen.<ref name="Madden2013"/> Although Adhemar was suspicious, as he had seen a [[relic]] of the Holy Lance in Constantinople,<ref name="Madden2013"/> Raymond believed Peter. Raymond, Raymond of Aguilers, [[William, Bishop of Orange]], and others began to dig in the cathedral of Saint Peter on 15 June, and when they came up empty, Peter went into the pit, reached down, and produced a spear point.<ref name="Madden2013"/> Raymond took this as a divine sign that they would survive and thus prepared for a final fight rather than surrender. Peter then reported another vision, in which St. Andrew instructed the crusader army to fast for five days (although they were already starving), after which they would be victorious.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

Bohemond was sceptical of the Holy Lance as well, but there is no question that its discovery increased the morale of the crusaders. It has also been suggested that the item Peter found was indeed an object which the local population believed to be the Holy Lance as Greek Orthodox sources document the possession and veneration of a Holy Lance in Antioch as early as the tenth century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=WELTECKE |first1=DOROTHEA |title=THE SYRIAC ORTHODOX IN THE PRINCIPALITY OF ANTIOCH DURING THE CRUSADER PERIOD |journal=Antioch from the Byzantine Reconquest Until the End of the Crusader Principality: Acta of the Congress Held at Hernen Castle in May 2003 |date=May 2003 |page=99}}</ref> It is also possible that Peter was reporting what Bohemond wanted (rather than what St. Andrew wanted) as Bohemond knew, from spies in Kerbogha's camp, that the various factions frequently argued with each other. Kerbogha of Mosul was indeed suspected by most emirs to yearn for sovereignty in Syria and often considered as a bigger threat to their interests than the Christian invaders. On 27 June, Peter the Hermit was sent by Bohemond to negotiate with Kerbogha, but this proved futile and battle with the Seljuks was thus unavoidable. Bohemond drew up six divisions: he commanded one himself, and the other five were led by [[Hugh I, Count of Vermandois|Hugh of Vermandois]] and Robert of Flanders, Godfrey, [[Robert Curthose|Robert of Normandy]], Adhemar, and Tancred and [[Gaston IV of Béarn]]. Raymond, who had fallen ill, remained inside to guard the citadel with 200 men, now held by [[Ahmed ibn Merwan]], an agent of Kerbogha.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

==Battle of Antioch==
{{Main|Battle of Antioch (1098)}}
[[File:Adhémar de Monteil à Antioche.jpeg|thumb|A 13th-century depiction of battle outside Antioch from [[William of Tyre]]'s ''Histoire d'Outremer'', in the care of the British Museum]]
On Monday 28 June the crusaders emerged from the city gate,<ref name="Riley-SmithRiley-Smith2003"/> with Raymond of Aguilers carrying the Holy Lance before them. Kerbogha hesitated against his generals' pleadings, hoping to attack them all at once rather than one division at a time, but he underestimated their size. He pretended to retreat to draw the crusaders to rougher terrain, while his archers continuously pelted the advancing crusaders with arrows. A detachment was dispatched to the crusader left wing, which was not protected by the river, but Bohemond quickly formed a seventh division and beat them back. The Seljuks were inflicting many casualties, including Adhemar's standard-bearer, and Kerbogha set fire to the grass between his position and the crusaders, but this did not deter them: they had visions of three saints riding along with them: [[St. George]], [[Saint Mercurius|St. Mercurius]], and [[St. Demetrius]]. The battle was brief and disastrous for the Seljuk empire. Duqaq deserted Kerbogha, as did Soqman and the Emir of Homs and this desertion reduced the great numerical advantage the Turkish army had over its Christian opponents. Soon the defeated Turkish troops were in panicked retreat.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1951|p=248}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
[[File:Alexios I Komnenos.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The crusaders decided not to return Antioch to Byzantine emperor, Alexios I, depicted here in a drawing of around 1300.]]
As Kerbogha fled, the citadel under command of [[Ahmed ibn Merwan]] finally surrendered, but only to Bohemond personally, rather than to Raymond; this seems to have been arranged beforehand without Raymond's knowledge. As expected, Bohemond claimed the city as his own<ref name="Riley-SmithRiley-Smith2003"/> although Adhemar and Raymond disagreed. Hugh of Vermandois and [[Baldwin II, Count of Hainaut|Baldwin of Hainaut]] were sent to Constantinople, although Baldwin disappeared after an ambush on the way.<ref name="Chronicle">By Gislebertus (of Mons), Laura Napran, Chronicle of Hainaut, 2005</ref> Alexios, however, was uninterested in sending an expedition to claim the city this late in the summer. Back in Antioch, Bohemond argued that Alexios had deserted the crusade and thus invalidated all of their oaths to him. Bohemond and Raymond occupied Yaghi-Siyan's palace, but Bohemond controlled most of the rest of the city and flew his standard from the citadel. It is a common assumption that the Franks of northern France, the Provencals of southern France, and the Normans of southern Italy considered themselves separate "nations" and that each wanted to increase its status. This may have had something to do with the disputes, but personal ambition is more likely the cause of the infighting.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

[[File:Gustave dore crusades barthelemi undergoing the ordeal of fire.jpg|thumb|[[Peter Bartholomew]] undergoing the [[Trial by ordeal|ordeal of fire]], by [[Gustave Doré]].]]

Soon an epidemic broke out,<ref name="Riley-SmithRiley-Smith2003"/> possibly of [[typhus]], and on 1 August Adhemar of le Puy died.<ref>{{harvnb|Riley-Smith|1986|p=59}}</ref> In September the leaders of the crusade wrote to [[Pope Urban II]], asking him to take personal control of Antioch,<ref name="Madden2013"/> but he declined. For the rest of 1098, they took control of the countryside surrounding Antioch, although there were now even fewer horses than before, and Arab peasants refused to give them food. The minor knights and soldiers became restless and starvation began to set in and they threatened to continue to Jerusalem without their squabbling leaders. In November, Raymond finally gave in to Bohemond for the sake of continuing the crusade in peace and to calm his mutinous starving troops. At the beginning of 1099 the march was renewed, leaving Bohemond behind as the first [[Principality of Antioch|Prince of Antioch]], and in the spring the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|siege of Jerusalem]] began under the leadership of Raymond.<ref name=VAL>{{cite book|title=Geschichte der Kreuzzüge |url=https://archive.org/details/geschichtederkr00torrgoog |first=François |last=Valentin |year=1867 |publisher=G.J. Manz |place=Regensburg}}</ref>

The success at Antioch was too much for Peter Bartholomew's skeptics. Peter's visions were far too convenient and too martial, and he was openly accused of lying. Challenged, Peter offered to undergo ordeal by fire to prove that he was divinely guided. Being in Biblical lands, they chose a Biblical ordeal: Peter would pass through a fiery furnace and would be protected by an angel of God. The crusaders constructed a path between walls of flame; Peter would walk down the path between the flames. He did so, and was horribly burned. He died after suffering in agony for twelve days on 20 April 1099.<ref name="Dass2011">{{cite book|author=Nirmal Dass|title=The Deeds of the Franks and Other Jerusalem-bound Pilgrims: The Earliest Chronicle of the First Crusades|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kt3qhN8CMosC&pg=PA140|year=2011|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-0497-3|page=140}}</ref> There was no more said about the Holy Lance, although the Provencal contingent of Raymond maintained that Peter had passed safely through the flames but had been pushed back by the crowd welcoming him. Also, count Raymond kept the Lance with all reverence in his chapel.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1951|p=274}}</ref>

The siege of Antioch quickly became legendary, and in the 12th century it was the subject of the ''[[chanson d'Antioche]]'' and the ''Siège d'Antioche'',<ref>[https://medievaldigital.ace.fordham.edu/siegeofantioch/ The Siege of Antioch Project] in ''fordham.edu'', retrieved 2023-11-06</ref> two ''[[chansons de geste]]'' in the [[Crusade cycle]].

''Count Bohemond'' by [[Alfred Duggan]] (1964) is a historical novel concerning the life of Bohemond and describes the siege of Antioch.<ref>Evelyn Waugh, "Preface", in Alfred Duggan, ''Count Bohemond'' (Reprint). London: Cassell Military, 2002, pp. 5–7. {{ISBN|9780304362738}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=Asbridge |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Asbridge |title=The Creation of the Principality of Antioch, 1098–1130 |year=2000 |publisher=The Boydell Press |isbn=978-0-85115-661-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/creationofprinci00thom }}
*{{citation |last=Asbridge |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Asbridge |title=The First Crusade: A New History |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195189056}}
*{{cite book |last1=Beihammer |first1=Alexander Daniel |title=Byzantium and the Emergence of Muslim-Turkish Anatolia, Ca. 1040-1130 Volumen 20 de Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781351983860}}
*{{citation |last=France |first=John |title=Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521589871 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/victoryineast00john }}
*{{citation |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh |author-link=Hugh N. Kennedy |title=Crusader Castles |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-521-42068-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521420686 }}
*{{citation |last=Mayer |first=Hans E. |title=The Crusades |editor=John Gillingham (translator) |year=1972 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198730156 |url=https://archive.org/details/crusades0000maye }}
*{{citation |last=Previté-Orton |author-link=Charles William Previté-Orton |first=Charles William |title=The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History Volume I |orig-year=1952 |edition=paperback |year=1975 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-09976-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/shortercambridge0000prev }}
*{{citation |last=Riley-Smith |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Riley-Smith |title=The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |year=1986 |isbn=9780485112917}}
*{{citation |last=Rogers |first=Randall |title=Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century |year=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198206897}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rubenstein|first=Jay|title=Armies of Heaven: The First Crusade and the Quest for Apocalypse|publisher=Basic Books|year=2011|location=New York}}
*{{citation |last=Runciman |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Runciman |title=The History of the Crusades Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1951}}
*{{citation |last=Runciman |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Runciman |contribution=The First Crusade: Antioch to Ascalon |editor1=Marshall W. Baldwin |editor2=Kenneth M. Setton |title=A History of the Crusades Volume One: The First Hundred Years |publisher=The University of Wisconsin Press |orig-year=1955 |year=1969 |edition=second |pages=308–343}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation |last=France |first=John |contribution=The Fall of Antioch during the First Crusade |title=Dei Gesta per Francos: Études sur les croisades dédiées a Jean Richard |year=2001 |editor1=Michael Balard |editor2=Benjamin Z. Kedar, and Jonathan Riley-Smith |publisher=Ashgate |pages=13–20}}
*{{citation |last=Morris |first=Colin |contribution=Policy and vision: The case of the Holy Lance found at Antioch |title=War and Government in the Middle Ages: Essays in honour of J. O. Prestwich |editor1=John Gillingham |editor2=J. C. Holt |publisher=The Boydell Press |year=1984 |pages=33–45}}
*{{citation |editor-last=Peters |editor-first=Edward |title=The First Crusade: The Chronicle of Fulcher of Chartres and Other Source Materials |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |year=1971}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Siege_of_Antioch.ogg|date=2008-06-05}}
{{commons category|Siege of Antioch}}
*[http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/cde-antioch.asp The Siege and Capture of Antioch: Collected Accounts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011094414/http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/cde-antioch.asp |date=11 October 2014 }}
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gesta-cde.html The ''Gesta Francorum''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814175953/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gesta-cde.html |date=14 August 2014 }} (see Chapters 10–15)
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/raymond-cde.html The ''Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Jerusalem''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814180008/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/raymond-cde.html |date=14 August 2014 }} of Raymond of Aguilers (see Chapters 4–9)
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/AnnaComnena-Alexiad.html ''The Alexiad''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814180000/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/AnnaComnena-Alexiad.html |date=14 August 2014 }} (see Chapter 11)
*[http://www.deremilitari.org/RESOURCES/SOURCES/tudebode.htm Peter Tudebode's account] at De Re Militari

[[Category:1097 in Asia]]
[[Category:1098 in Asia]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1097]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1098]]
[[Category:1090s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:11th-century massacres]]
[[Category:11th century in the Seljuk Empire]]
[[Category:Last stands]]
[[Category:Battles of the First Crusade|Antioch 1097]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Seljuk Empire|Antioch 1097]]
[[Category:Sieges of the Crusades|Antioch 1097]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Byzantine Empire|Antioch 1097]]
[[Category:Medieval Antioch]]
[[Category:Sieges of Antioch]]

Siege of Jerusalem (1099)

2024-02-19T06:37:26Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Muslims */

{{Short description|Christian conquest of the First Crusade}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Jerusalem (1099)
| image = Counquest of Jeusalem (1099).jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = ''Taking of Jerusalem by the Crusaders'' (1847) by [[Émile Signol]]
| partof = the [[First Crusade]]
| date = 7 June 1099 – 15 July 1099 ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=06|day1=07|year1=1099|month2=07|day2=15|year2=1099}})
| place = [[Jerusalem]]
| result = Crusader victory<ref>{{
Cite book
| edition=2
| first=François
| language=de
| last=Valentin
| oclc=681425816
| publication-place=Regensburg
| publisher=Druck und Verlag von Georg Joseph Manz
| title=Geschichte der Kreuzzüge
| translator-first=Robert
| translator-last=della Torre
| url=
{{Google Books URL
| id=wRYMAAAAYAAJ
}}
| year=1867
}}</ref>
| territory = Founding of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
| combatant1 = [[Christian forces of the First Crusade|Crusaders]]
| combatant2 = [[Fatimid Caliphate]]
| commander1 = {{unbulletedlist
| [[Godfrey of Bouillon]]
| [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse|Raymond IV of Toulouse]]
| [[Robert Curthose|Robert II of Normandy]]
| [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert II of Flanders]]
| [[Eustace III, Count of Boulogne|Eustace III of Boulogne]]
| [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred of Galilee]]
| [[Girard I of Roussillon]]
| [[Gaston IV, Viscount of Béarn|Gaston IV of Béarn]]
| [[Berenguer Ramon II, Count of Barcelona|Berenguer Ramon II of Barcelona]]
| [[Guglielmo Embriaco|Guglielmo Embriaco of Genoa]]}}
| commander2 = {{unbulletedlist
| [[Iftikhar al-Dawla|Iftikhar ad-Dawla]]{{surrendered}}}}
| strength1 = 12,200–13,300 soldiers<ref>{{harvnb|France|1994|p=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=308}}</ref>{{bulletedlist
| 11,000–12,000 infantry
| 1,200–1,300 knights
| 2 [[siege towers]], 1 [[battering ram]], and several [[catapults]]<ref>{{harvnb|France|1994|pp=346-350}}</ref>}}
| strength2 = Total unknown<ref name="auto1">{{harvnb|France|1994|p=343}}</ref>{{bulletedlist
| Sizeable garrison of infantry and archers<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=300}}</ref>
| 400 cavalry<ref name="auto1"/>
| 14 catapults<ref>{{harvnb|Rubenstein|2011|p=297}}</ref>}}
| casualties1 = ~3,000 killed and wounded<ref>{{harvnb|France|1994|p=131}}</ref>
| casualties2 = Entire garrison killed<hr>3,000–70,000 [[Muslims]] and [[Jews]] massacred<ref>The "massacre" at the sack of Jerusalem has become a commonplace motive in popular depictions, but the historical event is difficult to reconstruct with any certainty. Arab sources give figures of between 3,000 and 70,000 casualties (in [[Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi]], and in [[Ali ibn al-Athir|Ibn al-Athir]], respectively). The latter figure is rejected as unrealistic as it is very unlikely that the city at the time had a total population of this order; medieval chroniclers tend to substantially exaggerate both troop strength and casualty figures; they cannot be taken at face value naively, and it is less than straightforward to arrive at realistic estimates based on them. For a further study of the Arab accounts see Hirschler, Konrad (2014). The Jerusalem Conquest of 492/1099 in the Medieval Arabic Historiography of the Crusades: From Regional Plurality to Islamic Narrative.</ref>
| map_type = Mediterranean
| map_label = Jerusalem
| map_size = 300
| map_caption = {{align|center|Site of the siege relative to the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]]}}
| map_relief = yes
| coordinates = {{WikidataCoord|Q1218|region:IL-JM_type:city|display=inline,title}}
}}

{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}
{{Jerusalem large}}

The '''siege of Jerusalem''' during the [[First Crusade]] lasted for one month and eight days, from 7 June 1099 to 15 July 1099. It was carried out by the [[Christian forces of the First Crusade|Crusader army]], which successfully captured [[Jerusalem]] from the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] and subsequently founded the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. Having returned the city and the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] to Christian rule, the siege was the final major armed engagement of the First Crusade, which had been proclaimed in 1095 to recover the [[Holy Land]] for the [[Christians]] in the context of the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Muslim conquest]]. A number of eyewitness accounts of the battle were recorded, with the most quoted events being derived from the anonymous [[Latin]]-language chronicle {{Lang-la|[[Gesta Francorum]]|label=none}}.

After Jerusalem was captured, thousands of [[Muslims]] and [[Jews]] were massacred by Crusader soldiers. As the Crusaders secured control over the [[Temple Mount]], revered as the site of the two destroyed [[Temple in Jerusalem|Jewish Temples]], they also seized [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] and the [[Dome of the Rock]] and repurposed them as Christian shrines.<ref>France, John. "Jerusalem, Siege of (1099)". In ''The Crusades – An Encyclopedia,'' Alan V. Murray, ed. pp. 677–679.</ref> French nobleman [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], prominent among the Crusader leadership, was elected to govern the new Christian state as the [[King of Jerusalem]].

==Background==

=== Muslim conquest of the Levant ===
At the [[Council of Piacenza]] in 1095, [[Pope Urban II]] received envoys from [[Byzantine Emperor]] [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]] asking [[Western Roman Empire|Western Christians]] for assistance in liberating large parts of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] from the [[Seljuk Turks]] who had conquered large parts of the region since 1070. The Seljuk [[Atsiz ibn Uwaq]] had conquered Jerusalem from the Fatimids in 1073, making the pilgrimage to Jerusalem more difficult and suppressing a revolt of the city in 1077 in bloodbath.<ref>Cline, Eric H.(2007) [2004]. ''Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel''. University of Michigan Press. pp. 159–160. {{ISBN|978-0-472-03120-7}}.</ref> Responding to the call, Urban gave a sermon at the [[Council of Clermont]] in November 1095 which included a rousing call to arms for the conquest of the [[Holy Land]] and the return of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in Jerusalem to Christian hands.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite book|last=Allen, S. J. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/983482121|title=An introduction to the crusades|date=2017 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0023-2|oclc=983482121}}</ref> His appeal marked the beginning of the [[Crusades]], a holy war for God, in which he guaranteed participants a place in heaven.

=== Crusader routes ===
After the successful [[siege of Antioch]] in June 1098, the [[Crusade]]rs remained in the area for the rest of the year. The [[papal legate]] [[Adhemar of Le Puy]] had died, and [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]] had claimed [[Antioch]] for himself. [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin of Boulogne]] remained in [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], captured earlier in 1098. There was dissent among the princes over what to do next; [[Raymond IV of Toulouse|Raymond of Toulouse]], frustrated, left Antioch to capture the fortress at [[Maarrat al-Nu'man|Ma'arrat al-Numan]] in the [[siege of Maarat]]. By the end of the year, the minor knights and infantry were threatening to march to [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]] without them. Eventually, on January 13, 1099, Raymond began the [[First Crusade: March down the Mediterranean coast|march south, down the coast of the Mediterranean]], followed by [[Robert Curthose|Robert of Normandy]] and Bohemond's nephew [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]], who agreed to become his vassals.

On their way, the crusaders [[Siege of Arqa|besieged Arqa]] but failed to capture it and abandoned the siege on May 13. Fatimids had attempted to make peace, on the condition that the crusaders did not continue towards Jerusalem, but this was ignored; [[Iftikhar ad-Daula|Iftikhar al-Dawla]], the Fatimid governor of Jerusalem, was aware of the crusaders' intentions. Therefore, he expelled all of Jerusalem's Christian inhabitants.<ref>Thomas F. Madden, ''The New Concise History of the Crusades'' at 33 (Rowman & Littlefield Pub., Inc., 2005). The Syriac Chronicle to 1234 is one source claiming that Christians were expelled from Jerusalem before the crusaders' arrival. {{harv|Tritton|Gibb|1933|p=273}} Presumably, this was done to prevent their collusion with the crusaders.</ref> The further march towards Jerusalem met no resistance.

==Offensive==

=== Fatimid preparations ===
The Fatimid governor [[Iftikhar al-Dawla]] prepared the city for the siege after he heard about the arrival of the Crusaders. He prepared an elite troop of 400 Egyptian cavalrymen and expelled all Eastern Christians from the city for fear of being betrayed by them (in the siege of Antioch, an Armenian man, Firouz, had helped Crusaders enter the city by opening the gates). To make the situation worse for the Crusaders, ad-Daula poisoned all the water wells in the surrounding area, and cut down all trees outside Jerusalem. On June 7, 1099, the Crusaders reached the outer fortifications of Jerusalem, which had been recaptured from the [[Seljuqs]] by the Fatimids only the year before. The city was guarded by a defensive wall stretching four kilometers long, which was three meters thick and fifteen meters high. There were five major gates each guarded by a pair of towers.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|last=Asbridge, Thomas S.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1089166882|title=The first crusade : a new history : the roots of conflict between Christianity and Islam|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518905-6|oclc=1089166882}}</ref> The Crusaders divided themselves into two large groups: [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert of Flanders]] and [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]] planned to besiege from north, while [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse|Raymond of Toulouse]] positioned his forces to the south.

=== Dual-front siege ===
[[File:Gesta Francorum - Liber X (Capture of Jerusalem and Battle of Ascalon).webm|thumb|Reading of the contemporary source ''Gesta Francorum - Liber X'' detailing the capture of Jerusalem and Battle of Ascalon from the Crusader's perspective, in Latin with English subtitles]]
[[File:1099 Siege of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|13th-century [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]] depicting the siege]]
The Fatimids now had to be prepared to fight on two fronts. After taking their positions, the Crusaders launched their first attack on June 13; the main problem was that they had no access to wood for the construction of siege equipment, because all the trees had been cut down. However, Tancred had a vision of finding a stack of wood hidden in a cave, and they used it to make a ladder. A knight named Rainbold scaled the ladder to gain a foothold on the wall but was unsuccessful. Since that assault was a failure, the Crusaders retreated and did not make any attempt until they got their tools and equipment. The Crusaders faced many more difficulties such as the lack of water, the scorching summer heat of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and the shortage of food. By the end of June, word came that a Fatimid army was marching north from [[Egypt]]. The mounting pressure forced the Crusaders to act quickly.

=== Final assault ===
On 17 June 1099, the Crusaders heard about the arrival of English and [[Genoa|Genoese]] ships at the port of [[Jaffa]]. The English and Genoese sailors had brought all the necessary material with them for the construction of the siege equipment. [[Robert Curthose|Robert of Normandy]] and [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert of Flanders]] procured timber from the nearby forests. Under the command of [[Guglielmo Embriaco]] and [[Gaston IV, Viscount of Béarn|Gaston of Béarn]], the Crusaders began the construction of their siege weapons. They constructed the finest siege equipment of the 11th century in almost three weeks. This included: two massive wheel-mounted [[Siege tower|siege towers]], a battering ram with an iron-clad head, and numerous scaling ladders and a series of portable [[Wattle (construction)|wattle]] screens; now they were ready to attack<ref name="auto"/> The Fatimids kept an eye on the preparation by the Franks and they set up their [[Mangonel|mangonels]] on the wall in the firing range once an assault began.

On 14 July 1099, the Crusaders launched their attack. Godfrey and his allies were positioned towards the Northern wall of Jerusalem, and their priority was to break through the outer curtain of the walls of the city. By the end of the day they penetrated the first line of defense. On the South Raymond of Toulouse's forces were met with ferocious resistance by the Fatimids. On 15 July the assault recommenced in the Northern front; Godfrey and his allies gained success and the Crusader [[Ludolf of Tournai]] was the first to mount the wall. The Franks quickly gained a foothold on the wall, and as the city's defenses collapsed, waves of panic shook the Fatimids.

In the southwest area the [[Provence|Provencals]] managed to storm the city walls, which later led to the Crusaders calling the gate they built in this area, [[Beaucaire, Gard|Beaucaire]] Gate.<ref>Eisenstadt, David (March 1997).[https://www2.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_9.html Jerusalem in the Crusader Period]. Accessed 12 May 2023.</ref>

==Aftermath==

=== Crusaders enter Jerusalem ===
On 15 July 1099, the crusaders made their way into the city through the tower of David and began massacring large numbers of the inhabitants, Muslims and Jews alike. The Fatimid governor of the city, [[Iftikhar al-Dawla|Iftikhar Ad-Daulah]], managed to escape.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Asbridge, Thomas S.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1089166882|title=The First Crusade : a new history : the roots of conflict between Christianity and Islam|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518905-6|oclc=1089166882}}</ref> According to eyewitness accounts the streets of Jerusalem were filled with blood. How many people were killed is a matter of debate, with the figure of 70,000 given by the Muslim historian [[Ali ibn al-Athir|Ibn al-Athir]] (writing c.1200) considered to be a significant exaggeration; 40,000 is plausible, given the city's population had been swollen by refugees fleeing the advance of the crusading army.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kostick, Conor|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/973781366|title=The Siege of Jerusalem|date=2009|publisher=Continuum|isbn=978-1-84-725231-9|oclc=973781366 }}</ref>

=== Massacre ===
The aftermath of the siege led to the mass slaughter of thousands of Muslims and Jews which contemporaneous sources suggest was savage and widespread and to the conversion of Muslim holy sites on the [[Temple Mount]] into Christian shrines.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Krey|first1=August. C.|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/cde-jlem.asp#raymond3|title=The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Participants|date=1921|publisher=Princeton Univ.|pages=257–62|quote=But these were small matters compared to what happened at the Temple of Solomon, a place where religious services are ordinarily chanted. What happened there? If I tell the truth, it will exceed your powers of belief. So let it suffice to say this much, at least, that in the Temple and porch of Solomon, men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle reins. [quoting eyewitness Raymond d'Aguiliers]|access-date=June 14, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Krey|first1=August. C.|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/gesta-cde.asp#jerusalem2|title=The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Participants|date=1921|publisher=Princeton Univ.|pages=256–57|quote=One of our knights, named Lethold, clambered up the wall of the city, and no sooner had he ascended than the defenders fled from the walls and through the city. Our men followed, killing and slaying even to the Temple of Solomon, where the slaughter was so great that our men waded in blood up to their ankles....|access-date=June 14, 2019}}</ref>

Atrocities committed against the inhabitants of cities taken by storm after a siege were normal in ancient<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hirschler|first=Konrad|date=2014|title=The Jerusalem Conquest of 492/1099 in the Medieval Arabic Historiography of the Crusades: From Regional Plurality to Islamic Narrative|journal=Crusades13|pages=74}}</ref> and medieval warfare by both Christians and Muslims. The crusaders had already done so [[Siege of Antioch|at Antioch]], and Fatimids had done so themselves at [[Siege of Taormina (962)|Taormina]], at [[Siege of Rometta|Rometta]], and at [[Revolt of Tyre (996–998)|Tyre]]. However, it is speculated that the massacre of the inhabitants of Jerusalem, both Muslims and Jews, may have exceeded even these standards.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bradbury|first1=Jim|title=The Medieval Siege|date=1992|publisher=The Boydell|location=Woodbridge|isbn=0851153577|page=296|edition=New}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Montefiore|first1=Simon Sebag|title=Jerusalem : the Biography|date=2012|publisher=[[Vintage Books]]|location=New York|isbn=978-0307280503|page=222|edition=|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780307280503/page/222}}</ref>

==== Muslims ====
Many Muslims sought shelter in the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque (building)|Al-Aqsa Mosque]] or [[Dome of the Rock]], both located on the [[Temple Mount]]. According to the ''Gesta Francorum'', speaking only of the Temple Mount area, "...[our men] were killing and slaying even to the Temple of Solomon, where the slaughter was so great that our men waded in blood up to their ankles..." According to Raymond of Aguilers, also writing solely of the Temple Mount area, " in the Temple and porch of Solomon men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle reins." Writing about the Temple Mount area alone, Fulcher of Chartres, who was not an eyewitness to the Jerusalem siege because he had stayed with [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin]] in Edessa at the time, says: "In this temple 10,000 were killed. Indeed, if you had been there you would have seen our feet coloured to our ankles with the blood of the slain. But what more shall I relate? None of them were left alive; neither women nor children were spared."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fulk (or Fulcher) of Chartres, "Gesta Francorum Jerusalem Expugnantium [The Deeds of the Franks Who Attacked Jerusalem]" |first1=republished |editor1-last=Krey |editor1-first=August C. |editor2-last=Duncan |editor2-first=Frederick |title=Parallel Source Problems in Medieval History |date=1912 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |location=New York |pages=109–115|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-jlem.html#fulcher1 |access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref>

The eyewitness ''Gesta Francorum'' states that some people were spared. Its anonymous author wrote,"When the pagans had been overcome, our men seized great numbers, both men and women, either killing them or keeping them captive, as they wished."<ref name="fordham.edu">{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/gesta-cde.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu}}</ref> Later the same source writes, "[Our leaders] also ordered all the [[Saracen]] dead to be cast outside because of the great stench, since the whole city was filled with their corpses; and so the living Saracens dragged the dead before the exits of the gates and arranged them in heaps, as if they were houses. No one ever saw or heard of such slaughter of pagan people, for funeral pyres were formed from them like pyramids, and no one knows their number except God alone. But Raymond caused the Emir and the others who were with him to be conducted to Ascalon, whole and unhurt."<ref name="fordham.edu"/>

Another eyewitness source, Raymond of Aguilers, reports that some Muslims survived. After recounting the slaughter on the Temple Mount, he reports of some who "took refuge in the Tower of David, and, petitioning Count Raymond for protection, surrendered the Tower into his hands."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/raymond-cde.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu}}</ref> These Muslims left with the Fatimid governor for Ascalon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://san.beck.org/AB18-Crusaders.html|title=Crusaders, Greeks, and Muslims by Sanderson Beck|website=san.beck.org}}</ref> A version of this tradition is also known to the later Muslim historian [[Ibn al-Athir]] (10, 193–95), who recounts that after the city was taken and pillaged: "A band of Muslims barricaded themselves into the Oratory of David (Mihrab Dawud) and fought on for several days. They were granted their lives in return for surrendering. The Franks honored their word and the group left by night for Ascalon."<ref>{{cite book |first=Francesco |last=Gabrieli |title=Arab Historians of the Crusades |chapter=From Godefry to Saladin |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |orig-year=1969 |year=1984 |page=11 |isbn=0-520-05224-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JU0eSxDCOmIC&pg=PA11 |url=https://archive.org/details/arabhistoriansof00gabr/page/11 }}</ref> One [[Cairo Geniza]] letter also refers to some Jewish residents who left with the Fatimid governor.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Peters |title=The First Crusade |edition=2nd |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1998 |page=265 |isbn=0-8122-1656-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=azwfTqidCLYC&pg=PA265 }}</ref>

Tancred claimed the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple quarter]] for himself and offered protection to some of the Muslims there, but he was unable to prevent their deaths at the hands of his fellow crusaders. Additionally, the crusaders claimed the Muslim holy sites of the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa mosque as important Christian sites, and renamed them ''Templum Domini'' and ''Templum Salomonis,'' respectively. In 1141, the ''Templum Domini'' would be consecrated, and the ''Templum Solomonis'' would become the headquarters for the Knights Templar.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1353/cjm.2013.0036|title=The Crusader Rebranding of Jerusalem's Temple Mount|journal=Comitatus: A Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies|volume=44|pages=77–94|year=2013|last1=Giebfried|first1=John|s2cid=162282953 }}</ref>

[[Albert of Aix|Albert of Aachen]], who personally was not present but wrote using independent interviews conducted with survivors back in Europe, wrote that even beyond the first round of slaughter that accompanied the fall of Jerusalem, there was another round, "On the third day after the victory judgement was pronounced by the leaders and everyone seized weapons and surged forth for a wretched massacre of all the crowd of gentiles which was still left...whom they had previously spared for the sake of money and human pity".<ref>{{Cite book|last=of Aachen|first=Albert|title=History of the Journey to Jerusalem|publisher=Ashgate Publishing Limited|year=2013|isbn=978-1409466529|location=Surrey, UK|pages=229|translator-last=Edgington|translator-first=Susan}}</ref> The number killed is not specified, nor is this massacre related in any other contemporary sources.

Although the crusaders killed many of the Muslim and Jewish residents, eyewitness accounts (Gesta Francorum, Raymond of Aguilers, and the Cairo Geniza documents) demonstrate that some Muslim and Jewish residents were allowed to live, as long as they left Jerusalem.<ref>See also Thomas F. Madden, ''New Concise History'' at 34</ref>

==== Jews ====
{{further|History of the Jews and the Crusades}}
[[File:Jerusalem map.jpg|thumb|map of [[Jerusalem]] during the [[Crusades]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Muir, Ramsay |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/41696665|title=Muir's historical atlas : mediæval & modern|date=1959|publisher=G. Philip|oclc=41696665}}</ref>]]
Jews had fought side-by-side with Muslim soldiers to defend the city, and as the crusaders breached the outer walls, the Jews of the city retreated to their synagogue to "prepare for death".<ref name=hoover>[[Saint Louis University]] Professor [[Thomas F. Madden]], author of ''A Concise History of the Crusades'' in
[https://web.archive.org/web/20071031040612/http://www.hoover.org/publications/uk/2994821.html CROSS PURPOSES: The Crusades] ([[Hoover Institute]] television show, 2007).</ref> According to the Muslim chronicle of [[Ibn al-Qalanisi]], "The Jews assembled in their synagogue, and the Franks burned it over their heads."<ref name=gibb>[[Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|Gibb, H. A. R]]. ''The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades: Extracted and Translated from the Chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi''. Dover Publications, 2003 ({{ISBN|0486425193}}), p. 48</ref> A contemporary Jewish communication confirms the destruction of the synagogue, though it does not corroborate that any Jews were inside it when it was burned.<ref>[[Benjamin Z. Kedar|Kedar, Benjamin Z]]. "The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099 in the Western Historiography of the Crusades." The Crusades. Vol. 3 (2004) ({{ISBN|075464099X}}), pp. 15–76, p. 64. Edward Peters, ed. The First Crusade. 2nd ed. University of Pennsylvania, 1998, p. 264–272.</ref> This letter was discovered among the [[Cairo Geniza]] collection in 1975 by historian [[Shelomo Dov Goitein]].<ref name=kedar63>Kedar: p. 63</ref> Historians believe that it was written just two weeks after the siege, making it "the earliest account on the conquest in any language."<ref name=kedar63/> The [[letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon]] from the Cairo Geniza indicates that some prominent Jews held for ransom by the crusaders were freed when the Ascalon [[Karaite Judaism|Karaite]] Jewish community paid the requested sums of money.

===Presence of Eastern Christians===
No eyewitness source refers to crusaders killing Eastern Christians in Jerusalem, and early Eastern Christian sources (Matthew of Edessa, Anna Comnena, Michael the Syrian, etc.) make no such allegation about the crusaders in Jerusalem. According to the Syriac Chronicle, all the Christians had already been expelled from Jerusalem before the crusaders arrived.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The First and Second Crusades from an Anonymous Syriac Chronicle |first1=A. S. |last1=Tritton |first2=H. A. R. |last2=Gibb |author2-link=Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]] |year=1933 |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=273–305 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00074839 |s2cid=250347065 }}</ref> Presumably this would have been done by the Fatimid governor to prevent their possible collusion with the crusaders.<ref>Thomas F. Madden. A Concise History of the Crusades, 1999, p. 35</ref>

The ''[[Gesta Francorum]]'' claims that on Wednesday, August 9, two and a half weeks after the siege, Peter the Hermit encouraged all the "Greek and Latin priests and clerics" to make a thanksgiving procession to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.<ref>Gesta Francorum. Bk. 10.39, ed. R. Hill. London, 1962, p. 94.</ref> This indicates that some Eastern Christian clergy remained in or near Jerusalem during the siege. In November 1100, when Fulcher of Chartres personally accompanied Baldwin on a visit to Jerusalem, they were greeted by both Greek and Syrian clerics and laity (Book II, 3), indicating an Eastern Christian presence in the city a year later.

==Founding of the Latin Kingdom==
{{Main|Godfrey of Bouillon}}
[[File:Gustave dore crusades the discovery of the true cross.jpg|thumb|"The Discovery of the True Cross" ([[Gustave Doré]])]]

On 17 July, a council was held to discuss who would be crowned the king of Jerusalem. On 22 July, [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] (who played the most fundamental role in the city's conquest) was made ''[[Title of Godfrey of Bouillon|Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri]]'' ("advocate" or "defender" of the Holy Sepulchre) on July 22, refusing to be named king in the city where Christ had died, saying that he refused to wear a crown of gold in the city where Christ wore a [[crown of thorns]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hamilton|first1=Bernard|title=The Latin Church in the Crusader States|date=1980|publisher=Variorum Publications|page=12}}</ref> Raymond had refused any title at all, and Godfrey convinced him to give up the Tower of David as well. Raymond then went on a pilgrimage, and in his absence [[Arnulf of Chocques]], whom Raymond had opposed due to his own support for [[Peter Bartholomew]], was elected the first [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem|Latin Patriarch]] on August 1 (the claims of the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Greek Patriarch]] were ignored). On August 5, Arnulf, after consulting the surviving inhabitants of the city, discovered the relic of the [[True Cross]].

On August 12, Godfrey led an army, with the True Cross carried in the vanguard, against the Fatimid army at the [[Battle of Ascalon]] of 1099. The crusaders were successful, but following the victory, the majority of them considered their crusading vows to have been fulfilled, and all but a few hundred knights returned home. Nevertheless, their victory paved the way for the establishment of the crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]].

The siege quickly became legendary and in the 12th century it was the subject of the [[Chanson de Jérusalem]], a major ''[[chanson de geste]]'' in the [[Crusade cycle]].

== Conclusion ==
The first crusaders succeeded in their endeavor. [[Urban II]] had ignited the flame of holy war in the [[Council of Clermont]]. Many other crusades were launched through time for various reasons and motives. Jerusalem remained in Christian hands for almost a century until the crusaders were defeated by [[Saladin in Egypt|Saladin]] at the [[Battle of Hattin]] in 1187, and three months later, the last defenders were expelled from the city.<ref name="auto2"/> The conquest of Jerusalem in the First Crusade has continued to reverberate through time and has ever since shaped relations among the different faith traditions of the region.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{Portal|Christianity|Fatimid Caliphate
}}
{{Refbegin|}}
* [[Conor Kostick]], ''The Siege of Jerusalem'', London, 2009. {{ISBN?}}
* Rodney Stark, ''God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades'', New York, 2009.{{ISBN?}}
* Hans E. Mayer, ''The Crusades'', Oxford, 1965. {{ISBN?}}
* [[Jonathan Riley-Smith]], ''The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading'', Philadelphia, 1999. {{ISBN?}}
* Frederic Duncalf, [https://archive.org/details/parallelsourcepr00dunciala ''Parallel source problems in medieval history''], New York, London : Harper & Brothers, 1912. via [[Internet Archive]]. See Chapter III for background, sources and problems related to the siege of Jerusalem.
* {{cite book |last1=Rubenstein |first1=Jay |author-link=Jay Rubenstein |title=Armies of heaven : the first crusade and the quest for apocalypse |date=2011 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-01929-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=France |first1=John |title=Victory in the East : a military history of the First Crusade |date=1994 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521589871}}
* Sir Archibald Alison, ''Essays, Political, Historical, and Miscellaneous – vol. II'', London, 1850.
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/cde-jlem.html The Siege and Capture of Jerusalem: Collected Accounts] Primary sources from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook.
* [http://historymedren.about.com/library/prm/bl1cfc.htm Climax of the First Crusade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051101135130/http://historymedren.about.com/library/prm/bl1cfc.htm |date=2005-11-01 }} Detailed examanination by J. Arthur McFall originally appeared in ''Military History'' magazine.
* {{cite book |last1=Asbridge |first1=Thomas S. |title=The First Crusade: A New History |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-7432-2084-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=61KQAAAAMAAJ |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last1=Asbridge |first1=Thomas |title=The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-84983-770-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rK8nA9U0OE4C |language=en }}
* S.J. Allen, ''An Introduction to The Crusades,'' University of Toronto Press, 2017 {{ISBN?}}
{{Refend}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jerusalem (1099), Siege Of}}
[[Category:Sieges of Jerusalem|1099]]
[[Category:11th century in the Fatimid Caliphate]]
[[Category:1099 in Asia]]
[[Category:11th century in Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Battles of the First Crusade]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1099]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Fatimid Caliphate|Jerusalem 1099]]
[[Category:Sieges of the Crusades|Jerusalem 1099]]
[[Category:11th-century massacres]]
[[Category:Crusader–Fatimid wars]]
[[Category:Palestine under the Fatimid Caliphate]]

Siege of Tyre (1187)

2024-02-19T06:34:14Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B:

{{short description|By the Ayyubids under Saladin}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Tyre (1187)
| image = Tyre 1187.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = 15th century miniature depicting a charge of the Christian defenders against Saladin's army. Part of the manuscript ''[[Passages d'outremer|Les Passages d’Outremer]]'', by [[Sébastien Mamerot]].
| partof = [[Crusades]]
| date = 12 November 1187 – 1 January 1188
| place = [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]
| coordinates = {{WikidataCoord|display=it}}
| map_type = Lebanon
| map_relief = y
| map_size =
| map_marksize =
| map_caption =
| map_label =
| map_mark =
| casus =
| territory =
| result = Crusader victory
| combatant1 = {{flag|Kingdom of Jerusalem}}
*[[Lordship of Sidon]]
*[[image:Cross Templar.svg|20px|border]] [[Knights Templar]] [[Crusade]]rs
| combatant2 = [[File:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|border|22px]] [[Ayyubid Empire|Ayyubids]]
| commander1 = [[Conrad of Montferrat]] Sancho Martin
| commander2 = [[Image:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|border|23px]] [[Saladin]] [[Image:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|border|23px]] Abd al-Salam al-Maghribi [[Image:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|border|23px]] Abd al-Mohsen [[Image:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|border|23px]] Al-Faris Bedran
| strength1 = 40,000+ soldiers 17 [[galleys]]
| strength2 = 20,000-25,000 soldiers 10 galleys
| casualties1 = Light
| casualties2 = Heavy
}}
{{Campaignbox Ayyubid-Crusader War}}
{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}

The '''siege of Tyre''' took place from 12 November 1187 to 1 January 1188. An army commanded by [[Saladin]] made an amphibious assault on the city, defended by [[Conrad of Montferrat]]. After two months of continuous struggle, Saladin dismissed his army and retreated to [[Acre, Israel|Acre]].

==Background==
After the disastrous [[Battle of Hattin]], much of the [[Holy Land]] had been lost to Saladin, including [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|Jerusalem]]. The remnants of the [[crusades|crusader]] army flocked to Tyre, which was one of the major cities still in Christian hands. [[Reginald of Sidon]] was in charge of Tyre and was in the process of negotiating its surrender with Saladin, but the arrival of Conrad and his soldiers prevented it. Reginald left the city to refortify his castle at [[Beaufort Castle, Lebanon|Belfort]], and Conrad became the leader of the army. He immediately began to repair the defenses of the city, and he cut a deep trench across the mole that joined the city to the shore, to prevent the enemy from approaching the city. The Muslim army arrived on November 12, and started the siege. The rest of the army arrived 13 days later.<ref name="Nicholson"/>

==The siege==
[[File:Conrad of Montferrat - Conrad arrives at Tyre.jpg|frame|Conrad arrives at Tyre: marginal sketch in late 12C ''Brevis Historia Regni Hierosolymitani'', a continuation of the ''Annals of Genoa'' (Bib. Nat. Française)]]

The fight was hard. Saladin's army had seventeen siege engines that constantly attacked the city's walls, while the ships of the crusaders, filled with archers, crossbowmen and stone throwing engines, harassed the attacking army.

All of Saladin's attacks failed, and the siege dragged on, with occasional sallies by the defenders, led by a Spanish knight named Sancho Martin,<ref name="Folda"/> better known as the "green knight" due to the colour of his arms.<ref name="Payne"/> His bravery and skill were said to cause admiration in both the Christian and Muslim armies, and particularly in Saladin. It was said that Saladin offered him many riches if he would convert to [[Islam]] and fight in his army. Nevertheless, he refused and kept leading the Christian attacks against the Muslim army.<ref name="Payne"/>

It became clear to Saladin that only by winning at sea could he take the city. He summoned a fleet of 10 galleys commanded by a North African sailor named Abd al-Salam al-Maghribi. The Muslim fleet had initial success in forcing the Christian galleys into the harbour, but through the night of 29–30 December, a Christian fleet of 17 galleys attacked 5 of the Muslim galleys, inflicting a decisive defeat and capturing them. Muslim chroniclers claim that [[Al-Faris Bedran]]'s incompetency led to the defeat.<ref name="Nicholson"/> The remaining galleys were ordered to retire, given their low numbers. After this naval setback, Saladin's forces made a final attempt to take the city, but they were defeated again, suffering heavy losses.<ref name="Payne"/>

After these events, Saladin summoned his emirs for a conference, to discuss if they should retire or keep trying. The opinions were divided, but Saladin, seeing the state of his troops, decided to retire to Acre. The siege ended on January 1, 1188.<ref name="Nicholson"/>

==Aftermath==
After the victory, Conrad's prestige received a huge boost. For Saladin, it constituted a turning point in his career. It proved the incapacity of his army to sustain long sieges. For the crusaders, it was a very important victory because Tyre became a rallying-point for the future Christian revival during the [[Third Crusade]]. Had Tyre not held out, it is likely that the Third Crusade would have been much less successful.<ref name="Lane-Poole"/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name="Nicholson">Nicholson pp. 81-82</ref>
<ref name="Payne">Payne pp. 280-282</ref>
<ref name="Folda">Folda p. 28</ref>
<ref name="Lane-Poole">Lane-Poole pp. 241-243</ref>
}}

==References==
* [[Helen Nicholson (historian)|Helen Nicholson]], David Nicolle (2005). ''God's Warriors: Knights Templar, Saracens and the Battle for Jerusalem''
* [[George Payne Rainsford James]] (1854). ''History of the life of Richard Coeur-de-Lion, King of England, Vol. 2<ref>James, G. P. R. (1842). [https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/005945080/Home A history of the life of Richard Coeur-de-Lion, King of England]. Paris.</ref>''
* Jaroslav Folda (2005). ''Crusader art in the Holy Land: from the Third Crusade to the fall of Acre 1187–1291''
* [[Stanley Lane-Poole]] (1985). ''Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.<ref>Lane-Poole, S. (1898). [https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001219402?type%5B%5D=author&lookfor%5B%5D=%22Lane-Poole%2C%20Stanley%2C%201854-1931.%22&bool%5B%5D=AND&type%5B%5D=title&lookfor%5B%5D=saladin&ft= Saladin and the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem]. New York.</ref>''

[[Category:Sieges of the Crusades|Tyre 1187]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Ayyubid Sultanate|Tyre]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1187|Tyre]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1188|Tyre]]
[[Category:1187 in Asia]]
[[Category:History of Tyre, Lebanon]]
[[Category:Battles of Saladin|Tyre]]
[[Category:1180s in the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:1180s in the Ayyubid Sultanate]]

Siege of Bursa

2024-02-19T06:32:49Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B:

{{Short description|1317–1326 capture of the Byzantine city of Prusa by the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Bursa
| image = Bursa Kalesi 1.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Gate of Bursa castle
| partof = the [[Byzantine-Ottoman wars]]
| date = 1317 – April 6, 1326<ref name="Rogers"/>
| place = [[Bursa]], [[Turkey]]
| result = Ottoman victory
* The Ottomans capture Bursa and establish their first capital

* Bursa becomes the first Official Capital of the Ottoman Beylik
| combatant1 = [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Beylik]]
| combatant2 = [[Byzantine Empire]]
| commander1 = [[Osman I]]{{Natural Causes}} [[Orhan I]] [[Köse Mihal]]
| commander2 = Saroz
| strength1 = Unknown
| strength2 = Unknown
}}
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Ottoman Wars}}

The '''siege of Bursa''' occurred from 1317 until the capture on 6 April 1326,<ref name="Rogers">{{cite book|last=Rogers|first=Clifford|title=The Oxford Encyclopaedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology|volume=1|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|isbn=9780195334036|page=261}}</ref> when the Ottomans deployed a bold plan to seize Prusa (modern-day [[Bursa]], [[Turkey]]). The Ottomans had not captured a city before; the lack of expertise and adequate [[siege equipment]] at this stage of the war meant that the city fell only after six or nine years.<ref name="Nolan">{{cite book|last=Nolan|first=Cathal J.|title=The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000-1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization|volume=1|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2006|isbn=9780313337338|pages=100–101}}</ref>

The historian, [[Laonikos Chalkokondyles]], notes that the Ottomans took advantage of the [[Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328]] to capture the city: "Andronikos decided that he should hold the throne himself, as his grandfather had already grown old, and so they fell out with each other. He was too stubborn to submit and caused endless trouble. He brought in the Serbs and allied himself with the leading Greeks in his struggle for the throne. As a result they could do nothing to prevent the Turks from crossing over into Europe. It was at this time that Prusa was besieged, starved out, and taken by Osman, and other cities in Asia were captured."<ref name="Kaldellis">{{cite book|last=Kaldellis|first=Anthony.|title=The Histories, volume 1, p.25|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|year=2014|isbn=978-0-674-59918-5}}</ref>

According to some sources [[Osman I]] died of natural causes just before the fall of the city,<ref name="Nolan"/> while others suggest that he lived long enough to hear about the victory on his death-bed<ref name="Rogers"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Hore|first=A. H.|title=Eighteen Centuries of the Orthodox Greek Church|publisher=Gorgias Press LLC|year=2003|page=455|isbn=9781593330514}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Pitcher|first=Donald Edgar|title=An Historical Geography of the Ottoman Empire: From Earliest Times to the End of the Sixteenth Century|publisher=Brill Archive|year=1972|page=37}}</ref> and was buried in Bursa afterwards.

==Aftermath==
After the fall of the city, his son and successor [[Orhan]] made Bursa the first official Ottoman capital and it remained so until 1366, when [[Edirne]] became the new capital.<ref name="Nolan"/> As a result, Bursa holds a special place in Ottoman history as their founding city, and also as the birthplace of [[Ottoman architecture]] ([[Bursa Grand Mosque]] (1399), [[Bayezid I Mosque]] (1395), [[Hüdavendigar Mosque]] (1385), and [[Yeşil Mosque]]) (1421).<ref name="Michael&Bruce">{{cite book|last1=Dumper|first1=Michael R. T.|last2=Stanley|first2=Bruce E.|title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2007|isbn=9781576079195|page=101}}</ref> During his reign Orhan encouraged urban growth through the construction of buildings such as [[imaret]]s, [[Turkish bath]]s, [[mosque]]s, [[inn]]s and [[caravanserai]]s,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ágoston|first1=Gábor|last2=Masters|first2=Bruce Alan|title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2009|isbn=9781438110257|page=105}}</ref> and he also built a mosque and a [[medrese]] in what is now known as the Hisar district,<ref>{{cite book|last=Levine|first=Lynn A.|title=Frommer's Istanbul|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2010|isbn=9780470915790|edition=2|page=238}}</ref> and after his death was buried there in his [[türbe]] (mausoleum) next to his father.<ref name="Michael&Bruce"/> The [[Moroccan Muslim]] traveler [[Ibn Battuta]] who visited Bursa in 1331 was impressed by the [[sultan]] and found Bursa an enjoyable city<ref name="Michael&Bruce"/> "with fine [[bazaar]]s and wide streets, surrounded on all sides by gardens and running springs."<ref>{{cite book|last=Finkel|first=Caroline|title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire|publisher=Basic Books|year=2007|isbn=9780465008506|page=13}}</ref>

==Importance==
Paul K. Davis writes, "The capture of Bursa established Osman I (Othman) and his successors as the major power in Asia Minor, beginning the Ottoman Empire."<ref>Paul K. Davis, ''100 Decisive Battles from Ancient Times to the Present: The World’s Major Battles and How They Shaped History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 151.</ref>
==See also==
*[[Siege of Kulaca Hisar]]

==References==
<references/>
{{Major Ottoman sieges}}

{{coord|40.1833|N|29.0667|E|source:wikidata|display=title}}

[[Category:Sieges involving the Byzantine Empire|Bursa]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Ottoman Empire|Bursa]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1326]]
[[Category:1320s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:History of Bursa]]
[[Category:1326 in Asia]]
[[Category:Sieges of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars|Bursa]]
[[Category:1320s in the Ottoman Empire]]

Fall of Philadelphia

2024-02-19T06:30:43Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: There was still the Empire of Trezibond and Armenian Cilicia

{{multiple issues|
{{refimprove|date=October 2023}}
{{Cleanup rewrite|date=July 2023}}
}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Fall of Philadelphia
| partof = the [[Byzantine-Ottoman Wars]]
| image =
| caption =
| date = {{ca.}} 1378–1390
| place = [[Alaşehir]], [[Asia Minor]]
| result = Ottoman victory
| combatant1 = [[File:Flag of the Ottoman Sultanate (1299-1453).svg|22px]] [[Ottoman Sultanate]] {{flagicon|Byzantine Empire}} [[Byzantine Empire]] (alleged)
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Byzantine Empire}} Byzantine contingent
| commander1 = [[File:Flag of the Ottoman Sultanate (1299-1453).svg|22px]] [[Bayezid I|Bayezid]] {{flagicon|Byzantine Empire}} [[Manuel II Palaiologos]] (alleged) {{flagicon|Byzantine Empire}} [[John VII Palaiologos]] (alleged)
| commander2 = Unknown
| strength1 = Unknown
| strength2 = Unknown
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 = |
}}
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Ottoman Wars}}

The '''fall of Philadelphia''' in 1390 marked the conquest of the last independent [[Christian]] [[Greeks|Greek]] settlement in western [[Asia Minor]] to the [[Muslim]] [[Ottomans]] of the [[Ottoman Sultanate|Ottoman Empire]]. The city, now named [[Alaşehir]], had been subject to a siege by the Turkish forces. Ironically, the besieging army included a contingent from the [[Byzantine Empire]], which had become an Ottoman [[vassal state]].<ref>Berger, Albrecht, “[https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/alasehir-COM_23462?s.num=171&s.start=160 Alaşehir]”, in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three'', Ed. Kate Fleet, et al.</ref>

After the [[Siege of Nicomedia|capture of Nicomedia]] by the Ottomans in 1337, the city of Philadelphia was the last city in [[Asia Minor]] that remained controlled by Christian Romans for several decades. Prior to its fall, the city had evaded the fate of other Greek cities by its remote location up in the Lydian hills, its strong fortifications and its paying of tribute to the numerous fanatical Muslim [[ghazis]], whose bands robbed and pillaged any Christians in [[Anatolia]] who did not pay protection money (''[[jizya]]''). Although the city was not officially under Islamic law and was in theory under the Byzantine Empire, it was away from the sea and in the middle of a vast, hostile Ottoman-occupied territory, which made it virtually independent and, at the time of its capture, more under the influence of the state of the [[Knights of Rhodes]].

In the Byzantine civil war of 1376-1379, the Ottomans helped Byzantine Emperor John V Palaiologos regain his throne. However, Byzantium was now a [[vassal state]] under the Ottomans and John V's son Manuel (later Emperor [[Manuel II Palaiologos]]) was sent as an honorary hostage to the court of the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I at Prousa. During that period, Manuel was forced to witness and even to participate in the destruction of many Greek cities by the Ottomans.

In 1378, Manuel II Palaiologos promised to hand over the city of Philadelphia to the Ottomans in return for the Ottoman sultan's aid in a disastrous Byzantine civil war. However, Manuel seems to have retracted his promise since it was not until 1390 that Bayezid summoned the two leaders of the civil war, John VII and Manuel II, and ordered them to accompany the besieging force. Apparently, the Philadelphians ignored that arrangement and refused surrender.

{{coord|38.3500|N|28.5167|E|source:wikidata|display=title}}

==Battle==
In 1390, Sultan Bayezid summoned the co-emperors of Byzantium, John VII and Manuel II and ordered them to accompany the besieging Turkish force to Philadelphia.
The co-emperors submitted to the degradation, and Philadelphia surrendered when it saw the imperial banner hoisted among the horse-tails of the Turkish pashas above the camp of the besiegers. The humiliation of the empire could go no further than when the heir of Justinian and Basil Bulgaroktonos took the field at the behest of a Turkish Emir, in order to extinguish the last relics of freedom in his own country.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Ottoman-battle-stub}}
{{Byzantine-stub}}
[[Category:Sieges involving the Byzantine Empire|Philadelphia]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Ottoman Empire|Philadelphia]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:14th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:14th century in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Sieges of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars|Philadelphia]]
[[Category:History of Manisa Province]]
[[Category:1380s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:1390s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:1380s in the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:1390s in the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:1370s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:1378 in the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:1390 in the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Alaşehir]]

Siege of Kerak

2024-02-19T06:27:49Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B:

{{Short description|Siege of the Crusades}}
{{About-distinguish-text|the siege that occurred in 1183|the [[Siege of Al-Karak (1834)|Siege of Al-Karak in 1834]]}}

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Kerak
| image = Kerak BW 1.JPG
| image_size = 297px
| caption = The [[Kerak Castle]] in the present-day in [[Jordan]]
| partof = the [[Crusades]]
| date = Early November — 4 December 1183
| place = [[Kerak Castle]], [[Lord of Oultrejordain|Lordship of Oultrejordain]] of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
| result = Crusader victory
| combatant1 = [[File:Vexillum Regni Hierosolymae.svg|23px|border|link]] [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
| combatant2 = [[File:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|22px|border|link]] [[Ayyubid Dynasty]]
| commander1 = [[File:Vexillum Regni Hierosolymae.svg|23px|border|link]] [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]] [[File:Vexillum Regni Hierosolymae.svg|23px|border|link]] [[Raynald of Châtillon]] [[File:Vexillum Regni Hierosolymae.svg|23px|border|link]] [[Raymond III, Count of Tripoli|Raymond III of Tripoli]]
| commander2 = [[File:Saladin's Standard.svg|22px|border|link]] [[Saladin]] [[Image:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|border|23px]] [[Al-Adil I]]<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Life of Saladin Behaudin Tekstualno|url = https://www.scribd.com/doc/71091453/The-Life-of-Saladin-Behaudin-Tekstualno|website = Scribd|access-date = 2016-02-20}}</ref> [[File:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|22px|border|link]] [[Al-Muzaffar Umar]] [[File:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|22px|border|link]] Kara Arslan [[File:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|22px|border|link]] Sheref ad-Din Barghosh{{KIA}}
| strength1 = Unknown
| strength2 = 8 [[siege engines]]{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=234}}
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = A couple hundred{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=235}}
}}

The '''siege of Kerak''' was conducted by the forces of [[Ayyubid dynasty|Muslim]] [[Sultan]] [[Saladin]] against the [[Crusades|Crusaders]] and the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Christian]] [[King of Jerusalem|King]] [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]] at the [[Kerak Castle]] from early November to 4 December 1183. The [[Crusades|Crusaders]] successfully withstood the siege.

== Prelude ==
[[Kerak]] was the stronghold of [[Raynald of Châtillon]], [[Lord of Oultrejordain]], 124 km south of [[Amman]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title = Kerak, Jordan|url = http://www.atlastours.net/jordan/kerak.html|website = www.atlastours.net|access-date = 2016-02-20}}</ref> The fortress was built in 1142 by [[Pagan the Butler]], Lord of [[Montreal (Crusader castle)|Montreal]].<ref name=":0" /> While Raynald ruled, several truces existed between the [[Christians|Christian]] and [[Islam|Muslim]] states in the [[Holy Land]], none of which he made any qualms about breaking. Raynald raided caravans that were trading near the Kerak castle for years. Raynald's most daring raid was an 1182 naval expedition down the Red Sea to Mecca and El Medina.<ref name="Newsbold 1945 213–227">{{Cite journal|last=Newsbold|first=D.|date=1945|title=THE CRUSADERS IN THE RED SEA AND THE SUDAN|journal=University of Khartoum|volume=26|pages=213–227|via=JSTOR}}</ref> He continuously plundered the Red Sea coast and threatened the routes of pilgrims to Mecca in spring 1183. He captured the town of [[Aqaba]], giving him a base of operations against Islam's holiest city, [[Mecca]]. [[Saladin]], a Sunni Muslim and the leader of the Muslim forces, decided that the Kerak castle would be an ideal target for a Muslim attack, especially due to it being a block on the route from Egypt to Damascus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=In 1183, a Muslim Military Leader Refused to Attack this Castle For a Very Strange Reason|url=https://historycollection.co/kerak-castle-saved-wedding/|date=2017-05-17|website=HistoryCollection.co|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-01}}</ref>
[[File:Kerak Museum 003.jpg|thumb|left|Demonstrations of war machines used during the siege of Kerak in Kerak Castle Museum]]
{{Campaignbox Ayyubid-Crusader War}}
{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}

==Siege and relief==
Saladin sent Al-Adil to besiege Kerak.<ref>John Richard,Cambridge University Press.The Crusades C.1071-C.1291,Page 197</ref> The Muslims had sought to take Kerak for several years, but now they stretched its defenses to the breaking point. There had long been plans of Baldwin's half-sister [[Isabella I of Jerusalem|Isabella]] to marry Reynald's stepson in the fall of 1183. When Saladin learned of this, he prepared a siege with his large army and eight siege catapults.

Inside the walls, a royal marriage was taking place. [[Humphrey IV of Toron]], Raynald's stepson and heir, was to take the hand of Isabella, the King's half sister. At first, food was brought out to Saladin, so he told the soldiers to not fire at the tower where the wedding was taking place. This could have been due to courtesy, or because he did not want to harm the potentially two most expensive hostages. According to the historian [[Ernoul]], "Etiennette, mother of the young bridegroom, sent out to Saladin a present of bread and meat and wine, with a message that gave him greeting and reminded him that he once in his youth had been a prisoner in Kerak, and had, as a slave, carried her when a child in his arms." Saladin was touched by the message and ordered his army to not attack that specific tower.<ref name="Newsbold 1945 213–227"/> Messengers managed to escape the town and take word to the King, [[Baldwin IV]] who was in Jerusalem at the time. In the following days, the Muslim forces aggressively went after Kerak's walls. They continuously sent stones and missiles through, damaging buildings on the inside.

Baldwin immediately marched with a relief force, accompanied by his regent, [[Raymond III of Tripoli]]. A beacon was promptly lit on David 's Tower in Jerusalem as a sign that help was coming to relieve the siege.<ref name="Newsbold 1945 213–227"/> Although suffering from [[leprosy]] since childhood, Baldwin's determination to frustrate Saladin's attempt was such that he led personally, although he had to be carried on a stretcher.
However, the king Baldwin put the army under the command of Raymond, Count of Tripoli, because he had become blind. When Saladin reached the place called Valih, thinking that they had done enough damage, he lifted the siege.
<ref>
{{Cite book
| last1= Şeşen
| first1= Ramazan
| title = Selahaddin Eyyübi ve dönemi
| url = https://www.kitantik.com/product/Selahaddin-Eyyubi-ve-Donemi_1br9qfwkf9n9c1i1606
| pages = 122–123
}}
</ref>

==Aftermath==
In the following spring of 1184, Saladin advanced through [[Amman]], and again attacked Kerak on August 13. A relieving army once again arrived to save Kerak after three weeks of Saladin's army attacking the walls with their engines.<ref name="Newsbold 1945 213–227"/> Kerak remained a [[Crusade]]r stronghold and a symbol of the West's grip in the region until falling to Muslim control in 1188.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|title=Kerak, Jordan|url=http://www.atlastours.net/jordan/kerak.html|website=www.atlastours.net|access-date=2016-02-20}}</ref> The next time the Crusaders had to contend with a major siege, it was at the walls of [[Jerusalem]] itself.

==In fiction==
The motion picture ''[[Kingdom of Heaven (film)|Kingdom of Heaven]],'' where Balian is played by [[Orlando Bloom]] and Ghassan Massoud plays Saladin, contains a fictional portrayal of the siege.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Siege of Kerak: Saladin's troops would not attack the castle tower in which a wedding was taking place|url=https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/05/10/the-siege-of-kerak-saladins-troops-would-not-attack-the-castle-tower-in-which-a-wedding-was-taking-place/|date=2017-05-10|website=The Vintage News|language=en|access-date=2020-05-01}}</ref> In the film, knights under the command of Balian engaged the Ayyubids as they approached Kerak, so that defenseless citizens could retreat to Raynald's castle. The film also showed the siege not taking place, but King Baldwin IV and Saladin negotiating a settlement. Baldwin then punished Raynald for breaking the truce (with Saladin) by attacking a Muslim caravan.

There is also a "Siege of Kerak" soundtrack in the game ''[[Crusader Kings II]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Crusader Kings II Wiki|url=https://ck2.paradoxwikis.com/Crusader_Kings_II_Wiki|website=ck2.paradoxwikis.com|access-date=2020-05-01}}</ref>

The siege plays a significant role in the climax of ''The Sultan's Siege'', the first book of the ''Til Time'' series, where the protagonists attempt to find one another amongst the chaos of an attack on Kerak Castle.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Til Time: The Sultan's Siege - Google Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLeFEAAAQBAJ|website=www.google.com.au| isbn=9781005991593 |access-date=2023-09-21 | last1=Ryan | first1=Matthew | date=September 2022 | publisher=Matthew Ryan }}</ref>

==Citations==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
* Smail, R. C. ''Crusading Warfare 1097–1193.'' New York: Barnes & Noble Books, (1956) 1995. {{ISBN|1-56619-769-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stevenson |first=W |title=The Crusaders in the East: a brief history of the wars of Islam with the Latins in Syria during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.22159 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1907 }}
* {{Cite web|title=Crusader Kings II Wiki|url=https://ck2.paradoxwikis.com/Crusader_Kings_II_Wiki|website=ck2.paradoxwikis.com|access-date=2020-05-01}}
* {{Cite web|title=The Siege of Kerak: Saladin's troops would not attack the castle tower in which a wedding was taking place|url=https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/05/10/the-siege-of-kerak-saladins-troops-would-not-attack-the-castle-tower-in-which-a-wedding-was-taking-place/|date=2017-05-10|website=The Vintage News|language=en|access-date=2020-05-01}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Newsbold|first=D.|date=1945|title=THE CRUSADERS IN THE RED SEA AND THE SUDAN|journal=University of Khartoum|volume=26|pages=213–227|via=JSTOR}}
* {{Cite web|title=In 1183, a Muslim Military Leader Refused to Attack this Castle For a Very Strange Reason|url=https://historycollection.co/kerak-castle-saved-wedding/|date=2017-05-17|website=HistoryCollection.co|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-01}}
* {{Cite web|title=Kerak, Jordan|url=http://www.atlastours.net/jordan/kerak.html|website=www.atlastours.net|access-date=2016-02-20}}
{{Refend}}
{{coord missing|Jordan}}

[[Category:Sieges of the Crusades|Kerak 1184]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Ayyubid Sultanate|Kerak 1184]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1183]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1184]]
[[Category:1183 in Asia]]
[[Category:1184 in Asia]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the Kingdom of Jerusalem|Karak]]
[[Category:Battles of Saladin|Kerak]]
[[Category:1180s in the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]

Battle of Montgisard

2024-02-19T06:25:02Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B:

{{Short description|1177 battle between the Crusaders and Ayyubids}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Montgisard
| image = Schlacht von Montgisard 2.jpg
| caption = ''The Battle of Montgisard, 1177.'' [[Charles Philippe Larivière]], 1842–1844
| partof = the [[Crusades]]
| date = 25 November 1177
| place = Montgisard (possibly [[Gezer]]), near [[Ramla]], [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
| coordinates =
| map_relief = yes
| territory =
| result = Crusader victory
* Destruction of [[Saladin|Saladin's]] army
* Failure of [[Saladin]] to capture [[Jerusalem]]
| combatant1 = [[File:Vexillum Regni Hierosolymae.svg|23px|border|link]] [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] [[File:Bandeira Templária.svg|23px|border|link]] [[Knights Templar]]
| combatant2 = [[File:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|22px|border|link]] [[Ayyubid Dynasty]]
| commander1 = [[File:Vexillum Regni Hierosolymae.svg|23px|border|link]] [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]] [[File:Vexillum Regni Hierosolymae.svg|23px|border|link]] [[Raynald of Châtillon|Renaud de Châtillon]] [[File:Bandeira Templária.svg|23px|border|link]] [[Odo of St Amand|Eudes de Saint-Amand]]
| commander2 = [[File:Saladin's Standard.svg|22px|border|link]] [[Saladin]] [[File:Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|22px|border|link]] [[Al-Muzaffar I Umar|Taqi al-Din Umar]]
| strength1 = 3,000–4,500 men
* 80 Templars
* 375 Knights
* 2,500–4,000 infantry and archers<ref>Jean Richard: ''The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem.'' Volume 1, North-Holland Pub. Co. Amsterdam 1979, {{ISBN|0444850929}}, p.
149</ref>
| strength2 = 21,000–26,000 men (greatly exaggerated){{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=218}}{{efn|The Latin estimates of Saladin's army are no doubt greatly exaggerated (26,000 in Tyre xxi. 23, 12,000 Turks and 9,000 Arabs in Anon.Rhen. v. 517){{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=218}}}}
| casualties1 = 1,850 casualties{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=218}}<ref>Jean Richard: ''The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem.'' Volume 1, North-Holland Pub. Co. Amsterdam 1979, {{ISBN|0444850929}}, p. 149</ref>
* 1,100 killed
* 750 wounded
| casualties2 = Most of the army killed
| image_size = 327px
}}
{{Campaignbox Ayyubid-Crusader War}}
{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}
[[File:Français 5594, fol. 176v bas.jpeg|thumb|Late 15th century depiction of the battle from a copy of the ''[[Passages d'outremer]]'']]
The '''Battle of Montgisard''' was fought between the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] and the [[Ayyubids|Ayyubid Dynasty]] on 25 November 1177 at Montgisard, in the Levant between [[Ramla]] and [[Yibna]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=turn&id=History.CrusOne&entity=History.CrusOne.p0690&q1=mont%20gisard|title=Baldwin, Marshall W., and Setton, Kenneth M, A History of the Crusades: Volume One, The First Hundred Years, The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1969, pp. 571, 595, 625, 650}}</ref> The 16-year-old [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]], severely afflicted by [[leprosy]], led outnumbered [[Christians|Christian]] forces against [[Saladin|Saladin's]] troops in what became one of the most notable engagements of the [[Crusades]]. The [[Muslims|Muslim]] Army was quickly routed and pursued for twelve miles.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|pp=217–218}} [[Saladin]] fled back to [[Cairo]], reaching the city on 8 December, with only a tenth of his army.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=218}} [[Muslims|Muslim]] historians considered [[Saladin|Saladin's]] defeat to be so severe that it was only redeemed by his victory ten years later at the battles of [[Battle of Cresson|Cresson]] and [[Battle of Hattin|Hattin]] and the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|Siege of Jerusalem]] in 1187. Saladin did defeat [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin IV]] in the [[Battle of Marj Ayyun]] and the [[Siege of Jacob's Ford|Siege of Jacob’s Ford]] in 1179, only to be defeated by Baldwin again at the [[Battle of Belvoir Castle]] in 1182 and the [[Siege of Kerak]] in 1183.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=218}}

==Background==
In 1177, [[King of Jerusalem|King]] [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]], and [[Philip, Count of Flanders|Philip of Alsace]] who had recently arrived on pilgrimage, planned an alliance with the [[Byzantine Empire]] for a naval attack on [[Ayyubid dynasty|Egypt]]; but none of these plans came to fruition.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=217}} Instead, [[Philip I, Count of Flanders|Philip]] decided to join [[Raymond III, Count of Tripoli|Raymond III of Tripoli’s]] expedition to attack the [[Saracen]] stronghold of [[Harem, Syria|Harim]] in northern [[Syria]]. A large [[Crusades|Crusader]] army, the [[Knights Hospitaller]] and many [[Knights Templar]] followed him. This left the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] with few troops to defend its various territories. Meanwhile, [[Saladin]] was planning his own invasion of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] from [[Egypt]].{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=217}} When he was informed of the expedition north, he wasted no time in organizing a raid and invaded the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] with an army of some 21,000–26,000/30,000 men. Learning of [[Saladin|Saladin's]] plans, [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin IV]] left [[Jerusalem]] with, according to [[William of Tyre]], only 375 Knights to attempt a defense at [[Ascalon]], but [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin]] was stalled there by a detachment of troops sent by [[Saladin]]. [[Saladin]] left part of his army to besiege [[Gaza City|Gaza]] and a smaller force at [[Ascalon]] and marched northward with the rest.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=217}}

==Opposing forces==
The true numbers are impossible to estimate, since the [[Christians|Christian]] sources refer only to knights and give no account of the number of infantry and [[turcopole]]s, except that it is evident from the number of the dead and wounded that there must have been more men than the 375 Knights. It is also uncertain whether the so-called knights included mounted [[sergeant]]s or [[squire]]s, or whether they were true knights. One contemporary chronicler gave a strength of 7,000 for the [[Crusades|Crusader]] army, while another contemporary estimate of 20,000 was probably a textual corruption of 10,000.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=218}} However, modern historians generally deem the number of Frankish troops to have been lower; 80 [[Knights Templar|Templars]] and 375 Knights for less than 500 armored heavy cavalry, as well as 2,500<ref>Jean Richard: ''The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem.'' Volume 1, North-Holland Pub. Co. Amsterdam 1979, {{ISBN|0444850929}}, p.149</ref> to 4,000 infantry and archers (spearmean, swordsmen, axemen, crossbowmen and [[turcopoles]]), could explain why [[Saladin]] did not remotely believe such a tiny force of [[Christians]] should be considered a threat and marched at his leisure on [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], allowing his army to spread out across the countryside to pillage the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Kingdom of Jerusalem’s]] farmlands.

Just as uncertain are the numbers of their opponents. An 1181 review listed [[Saladin|Saladin's]] [[Mamluk]] forces at 6,976 [[Ghulam]]s and 1,553 Qaraghulams.<ref>God's Warriors: Knights Templar, Saracens and the Battle for Jerusalem. By [[Helen Nicholson (historian)|Helen Nicholson]], David Nicolle. 2005 Osprey Publishing</ref> However, there would have been additional soldiers available in [[Syria]] and elsewhere, while auxiliaries might have accompanied the [[Mamluk|Mamluks]]. [[William of Tyre]] reported [[Saladin|Saladin's]] strength as 26,000, while an anonymous chronicler estimated 12,000 Turkish and 9,000 Arab troops, which Stevenson calls "''greatly exaggerated''".{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=218}} Accompanying [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin]] was [[Raynald of Châtillon|Raynald de Châtillon]], Lord of [[Oultrejordain]], who had just been released from captivity in [[Aleppo]] in 1176. [[Raynald of Châtillon]] was a fierce enemy of [[Saladin]] and was [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|King Baldwin's]] second-in-command. Also with the army were [[Baldwin of Ibelin]], his brother [[Balian of Ibelin|Balian]], [[Reginald Grenier]] and [[Joscelin III of Edessa]]. [[Odo de St Amand|Eudes de Saint-Amand]], Grand Master of the [[Knights Templar]], came with 80 [[Knights Templar|Templar Knights]]. Another Templar force attempted to meet [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin IV]] at [[Ascalon]], but they remained besieged at [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]].

==Battle==
[[Saladin]] continued his march towards [[Jerusalem]], believing that [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin IV]] wouldn't follow him. He attacked [[Ramla]], [[Lod|Lydda]] and [[Arsuf]], but because [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin]] was supposedly not a danger, he allowed his army to be spread out over a large area, pillaging and foraging. However, unknown to [[Saladin]], the forces he had left to subdue the [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|King]] had been insufficient and now both [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin]] and the [[Knights Templar|Templars]] were marching to intercept him before he reached [[Jerusalem]].{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=217}}

The [[Christians]], led by the [[King of Jerusalem|King]] [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]], pursued the [[Muslims]] along the coast, finally catching their enemies at Mons Gisardi (Montgisard), near [[Ramla]].<ref>possibly at [[Gezer|Tell el-Jezer]] {{Harv|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=154–155}}, or [[Kfar Menahem]] {{Harv|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=123}}</ref> The location is disputed, as [[Ramla]] was a large region that included the town under the same name. Malcolm Barber equates Mons Gisardi with the mound of Al-Safiya.<ref>The Crusader States by Malcolm Barber, published by TJ International Ltd, 2012</ref> [[Saladin|Saladin's]] chronicler [[Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani]] refers to the battle taking place by the mound of Al-Safiya, potentially modern [[Tell es-Safi]] near the village of Menehem, not far from [[Ashkelon]], and within the contemporary [[Ramla]] province. Al-Safiya means white and, indeed, the Es-Safi hill is white with the foundations of a [[Blanchegarde|Crusader Castle]] recently found at the top, called [[Blanchegarde]]. Ibn al-Athīr, one of the Arab chroniclers, mentions that [[Saladin]] intended to lay siege to a [[Blanchegarde|Crusader Castle]] in the area.<ref>The chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr by D.S. Richards, published by Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 1935</ref> But [[Saladin|Saladin's]] baggage train had been apparently mired. There is a small stream north of Tell es-Safi bordering farmland that in November might have been plowed up and muddy enough to hinder the passage of the baggage train. The Egyptian chroniclers agree that the baggage had been delayed at a river crossing.<ref>Malcolm Cameron Lyons, D. E. P. Jackson Cambridge University Press, Aug 20, 1984</ref> [[Saladin]] was taken totally by surprise. His army was in disarray: part had been held up by the mired baggage train while another part of his force had scattered into raiding parties across the countryside. The horses were tired from the long march. Some men had to hurry to collect their weapons from the baggage train. [[Saladin|Saladin's]] army, in a state of panic, scrambled to make battle lines against the enemy. [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|King Baldwin IV]] ordered the relic of the [[True Cross]] to be raised in front of the troops.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=154–155}}</ref> The [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|King]], whose teenage body was already ravaged by aggressive leprosy, was helped from his horse and dropped to his knees before the cross. He prayed to [[God]] for victory and rose to his feet to cheers from his men, who were moved by what they had just witnessed.

The [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] army attacked the hurriedly arranged [[Muslims]], inflicting heavy casualties. The [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|King Baldwin IV]], fighting with bandaged hands to cover his sores, was in the thick of the fighting. [[Egypt|Egyptian]] effective command was under [[Saladin|Saladin's]] nephew Taqi ad-Din. Taqi ad-Din apparently attacked while [[Saladin]] was putting his [[Mamluk]] guard together. Taqi's son Ahmad died in the early fighting. [[Saladin|Saladin's]] men were quickly overwhelmed. [[Saladin]] himself only avoided capture by escaping, as Ralph de Diceto claims,<ref>Ralph de Diceto (Radulf de Diceto decani Lundoniensis) Ymagines historiarum</ref> on a racing camel. By nightfall, those Egyptians that were with the [[Saladin|Sultan]] had reached Caunetum Esturnellorum near the mound of [[Tell el-Hesi]]. This is about 25 miles from [[Ramla]]. It is only about 7 km from Tell es-Safi (al-Safiya).{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=217}}

[[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]] pursued [[Saladin]] until nightfall, and then retired to [[Ascalon]]. Only a remnant of his army made it back to [[Egypt]] with him.{{sfn|Lane-Poole|1906|p=155}}

==Aftermath==
[[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin IV]] memorialized his victory by erecting a [[Benedictine]] monastery on the battlefield,{{Citation needed|date=February 2014}} dedicated to [[St. Catherine of Alexandria]], whose feast day fell on the day of the battle. However, it was a difficult victory; [[Roger de Moulins]], Grand Master of the [[Knights Hospitaller]], reported that {{formatnum:1100}} men had been killed and 750 returned home wounded.{{sfn|Stevenson|1907|p=218}}

Meanwhile, [[Raymond III of Tripoli]] and [[Bohemund III of Antioch]] joined with [[Philip I, Count of Flanders|Philip I of Alsace]] in a separate expedition against [[Harem, Syria|Harim]] in [[Syria]]; the siege of [[Harem, Syria|Harim]] lasted into 1178, and [[Saladin|Saladin's]] defeat at Montgisard prevented him from relieving his [[Syria|Syrian]] vassals.

==Related campaigns ==
* 1179: [[Battle of Banias]]
* 1179: [[Battle of Marj Ayyun]]
* 1179: [[Battle of Jacob's Ford]]
* 1182: [[Battle of Belvoir Castle]]
* 1183: [[Battle of Al-Fule (1183)|Battle of Al-Fule]]
* 1183: [[Siege of Kerak]]
* 1187: [[Battle of Cresson]]
* 1187: [[Battle of Hattin]]
* 1187: [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|Siege of Jerusalem]]
* 1187: [[Siege of Tyre (1187)|Siege of Tyre]]

==Fiction==
The Battle of Montgisard is alluded to in the [[2005 in film|2005 movie]] ''[[Kingdom of Heaven (film)|Kingdom of Heaven]]'', as a battle where [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|King Baldwin IV]] defeated [[Saladin]] when he was sixteen. It was also described in the novel ''[[Jerusalem (Lagerlöf novel)|Jerusalem]]'', written by [[Cecelia Holland]].

An account of the battle is also given in Swedish author [[Jan Guillou]]'s novel ''Tempelriddaren'' ([[The Knight Templar]]) ({{ISBN|91-1-300733-5}}), in which the protagonist, Arn Magnusson (de Gothia) is portrayed as a high-ranking member of the [[Knights Templar]], commanding a contingent of the army at the battle of Montgisard. The battle is shown in the movie ''[[Arn – The Knight Templar]]'', which was based on Guillou's book.

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book|last= Lane-Poole |first= Stanley |author-link= Stanley Lane-Poole |title= Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem |publisher= [[G. P. Putnam's Sons]] |location= London |year= 1906 |series= Heroes of the Nations |url= https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_M7pIVpjuyw0C }}
*{{cite book|last1= Lyons |first1= M. C. |last2= Jackson |first2= D.E.P. |year= 1982 |title= Saladin: the Politics of the Holy War |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-521-31739-9 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=hGR5M0druJIC }}
* {{Cite book |last=Stevenson |first=W. B. |title=The Crusaders in the East: a brief history of the wars of Islam with the Latins in Syria during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.22159 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1907 |quote=The Latin estimates of Saladin's army are no doubt greatly exaggerated (26,000 in Tyre xxi. 23, 12,000 Turks and 9,000 Arabs in Anon.Rhen. v. 517}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
*[[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad]], ''The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin'', ed. D. S. Richards, [[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate]], 2002.
*''Willemi Tyrensis Archiepiscopi Chronicon'', ed. R. B. C. Huygens. Turnholt, 1986.
*Bernard Hamilton, ''The Leper King and his Heirs'', [[Cambridge University Press]], 2000.
*{{Runciman-A History of the Crusades|volume=2}}
*R. C. Smail, ''Crusading Warfare, 1097–1193''. Cambridge University Press, 1956.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Montgisard 1177}}
[[Category:Battles involving the Ayyubids]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1177]]
[[Category:1177 in Asia]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Knights Templar]]
[[Category:Battles of Saladin]]
[[Category:1170s in the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:1170s in the Ayyubid Sultanate]]

Franks

2024-02-19T06:21:50Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B:

{{Short description|Germanic people from the lower Rhine}}
{{about|the Frankish people|the Frankish empire|Francia|other uses}}
{{distinguish|Franc}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Franks
| native_name = Franci
| native_name_lang = la
| image = Frankish arms.JPG
| image_caption = Aristocratic Frankish burial items from the [[Merovingian dynasty]]
| total = 
| total_year = 
| total_source = 
| total_ref = 
| genealogy =
| regions = 
| languages = [[Old Frankish]], [[Vulgar Latin]], [[Old French]] (eventually)
| philosophies =
| religions = Originally [[Frankish paganism]], later [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|Roman Christianity]]
| related_groups = [[Germanic peoples]], [[Belgians]], [[French people]], [[Dutch people]], [[Lombards]], [[Germans]], [[Austrians]], [[Swiss people]]
| footnotes =
}}

The '''Franks''' ({{lang-la|Franci}} or {{lang|la|gens Francorum}}; {{lang-fr| Francs}}) were a western European people during the [[Roman Empire]] and [[Early Middle Ages]]. They began as a [[Germanic people]] who lived near the [[Lower Rhine]], on the northern continental frontier of the empire. They subsequently expanded their power and influence during the [[Middle Ages]], until much of the population of western Europe, particularly in and near [[France]], were commonly described as Franks, for example in the context of their joint efforts during the [[crusades]] starting in the 11th century.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Frank {{!}} People, Definition, & Maps |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Frank-people |access-date=2023-08-12 |language=en}}</ref> This expansion came about because the [[Romanization (cultural)|romanized]] Frankish dynasties based within the collapsing [[Western Roman Empire]] first became the rulers of the whole region between the rivers [[Loire]] and [[Rhine]], and then subsequently imposed power over many other post-Roman kingdoms both inside and outside the old empire.

Although the Frankish name does not appear until the 3rd century, at least some of the original Frankish tribes had long been known to the Romans under their own names, both as allies providing soldiers, and as enemies. The Franks were first reported as working together to raid Roman territory. However, the Romans also reported the Franks suffering attacks upon them from outside their frontier area, and being allowed to move into Roman territory. Frankish peoples subsequently living inside Rome's frontier on the Rhine river are often divided by historians into two groups – the [[Salian Franks]] to the west, who came south via the [[Rhine delta]]; and the [[Ripuarian Franks|Ripuarian]] or Rhineland Franks to the east, who eventually conquered the Roman frontier city of [[Cologne]] and took control of the left bank of the [[Lower Rhine]] in that region.

In the middle of the 5th century, [[Childeric I]], a [[Salian Franks|Salian]] Frank, was one of several military leaders commanding Roman forces with various ethnic affiliations in the northern part of Roman Gaul, which corresponds roughly with modern France and the [[Low Countries]]. He and his son [[Clovis I]] founded the [[Merovingian dynasty]] which succeeded in unifying most of Gaul under its rule during the 6th century following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, as well as establishing leadership over all the Frankish kingdoms on or near the Rhine frontier. The dynasty subsequently gained control over a significant part of what is now western and southern Germany. It was by building upon the basis of this Merovingian empire that the subsequent dynasty, the [[Carolingian]]s, eventually came to be seen as the new emperors of Western Europe in 800, when [[Charlemagne]] was crowned by the pope.

In [[870]] the Frankish realm came to be permanently divided between [[West Francia|western]] and [[East Francia|eastern]] kingdoms, which were the predecessors of the future [[Kingdom of France]] and [[Holy Roman Empire]] respectively. It is the western kingdom whose inhabitants eventually came to be known as "the [[French people|French]]" ({{lang-fr|Les Français}}, {{lang-de|Die Franzosen}}, {{lang-nl|De Fransen}}, etc) which has become a distinct modern concept connected to the nation state of France. However, in various historical contexts, such as during the medieval crusades, the French and the peoples of neighbouring regions in [[Western Europe]] continued to be referred to collectively as Franks. The crusaders in particular had a lasting impact on the use of Frank-related names for Western Europeans in many non-European languages.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIAMvwKObWoC&pg=PA62 |author1=Angeliki Laiou |author1-link=Angeliki Laiou |author2=Henry P. Maguire |author2-link=Henry Maguire |title=Byzantium: A World Civilization |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-88402-200-8 |page=62}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MEKGLyToQ-EC&pg=PA333 |author=Richard W. Bulliett |display-authors=etal |title=The Earth and Its Peoples |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-495-91310-8 |page=333}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lRptZg8opYAC&pg=PR13 |author=Janet L. Nelson |title=The Frankist World |publisher=Continuum International |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85285-105-7 |page=xiii}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
{{main|Name of the Franks}}
[[File:A.D. 400-600, Franks - 025 - Costumes of All Nations (1882).JPG|thumb|A 19th century depiction of different Franks (AD 400–600)]]

The name {{lang|la|Franci}} was not a tribal name, but within a few centuries it had eclipsed the names of the original peoples who constituted them. Following the precedents of [[Edward Gibbon]] and [[Jacob Grimm]],<ref>{{harvnb|Perry|1857|p=42}}.</ref> the name of the Franks has been linked with the English adjective ''[[wiktionary:frank|frank]]'', originally meaning "free".<ref>Examples: {{cite encyclopedia |title=frank |encyclopedia=American Heritage Dictionary}} {{cite encyclopedia |title=frank |encyclopedia=Webster's Third New International Dictionary}} And so on.</ref> There have also been proposals that Frank comes from the Germanic word for "[[javelin]]" (such as in [[Old English]] {{lang|ang|franca}} or [[Old Norse]] {{lang|non|frakka}}).<ref>Robert K. Barnhart, ed. ''Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology'' (Bronx, NY: H. W. Wilson, 1988), 406.</ref> Words in other Germanic languages meaning "fierce", "bold" or "insolent" (German {{lang|de|frech}}, [[Middle Dutch]] {{lang|dum|vrac}}, Old English {{lang|ang|frǣc}} and [[Old Norwegian]] {{lang|non|frakkr}}), may also be significant.<ref>{{cite book |first=Alexander Callander |last=Murray |title=From Roman to Merovingian Gaul: A Reader |year=2000 |publisher=Broadview Press |page=1 |quote=The etymology of 'Franci' is uncertain ('the fierce ones' is the favourite explanation), but the name is undoubtedly of Germanic origin.}}</ref>

[[Eumenius]] addressed the Franks in the matter of the execution of Frankish prisoners in the circus at [[Trier]] by [[Constantine I]] in 306 and certain other measures: {{lang|la|Ubi nunc est illa ferocia? Ubi semper infida mobilitas?}} ("Where now is that ferocity of yours? Where is that ever untrustworthy fickleness?").<ref>Panegyric on Constantine, xi.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Howorth|1884|p=217}}.</ref> Latin {{lang|la|feroces}} was used often to describe the Franks.<ref>{{harvnb|Perry|1857|p=43}}.</ref> Contemporary definitions of Frankish ethnicity vary both by period and point of view. The [[formulary of Marculf]] written about 700 AD described a continuation of national identities within a mixed population when it stated that "all the peoples who dwell (in the official's province), Franks, Romans, Burgundians and those of other nations, live ... according to their law and their custom."<ref>{{harvnb|James|1988|p=187}}.</ref> Writing in 2009, Professor [[Christopher Wickham]] pointed out that "the word 'Frankish' quickly ceased to have an exclusive ethnic connotation. North of the [[Loire (river)|River Loire]] everyone seems to have been considered a Frank by the mid-7th century at the latest (except [[Bretons]]); ''Romani'' (Romans) were essentially the inhabitants of [[Gallia Aquitania|Aquitaine]] after that".<ref name="wick123">{{cite book |title=The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages 400–1000 |series=Penguin History of Europe, 2 |first=Chris |last=Wickham |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2010 |orig-year=2009 |isbn=978-0-670-02098-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780670020980/page/123 123] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780670020980/page/123}}</ref>

== Mythological origins ==
Apart from the ''[[Gregory of Tours#History of the Franks|History of the Franks]]'' by [[Gregory of Tours]], two early sources relate the mythological origin of the Franks: a 7th-century work known as the ''[[Chronicle of Fredegar]]'' and the anonymous {{lang|la|[[Liber Historiae Francorum]]}}, written a century later.

{{Blockquote|text=Many say that the Franks originally came from Pannonia and first inhabited the banks of the Rhine. Then they crossed the river, marched through Thuringia, and set up in each county district [''[[pagus]]''] and each city [''[[civitas]]''] longhaired kings chosen from their foremost and most noble family.|author=Gregory of Tours|source=''History of the Franks'' (6th c. CE){{Sfn|Geary|1988|p=77}}}}

The author of the ''Chronicle of Fredegar'' claimed that the Franks came originally from [[Troy]] and quoted the works of [[Virgil]] and [[Jerome|Hieronymus]]:

{{Blockquote|text=Blessed Jerome has written about the ancient kings of the Franks, whose story was first told by the poet Virgil: their first king was Priam and, after Troy was captured by trickery, they departed. Afterwards they had as king Friga, then they split into two parts, the first going into Macedonia, the second group, which left Asia with Friga were called the Frigii, settled on the banks of the Danube and the Ocean Sea. Again splitting into, two groups, half of them entered Europe with their king Francio. After crossing Europe with their wives and children they occupied the banks of the Rhine and not far from the Rhine began to build the city of "Troy" (Colonia Traiana-Xanten).|author=Fredegar|source=''Chronicle of Fredegar'' (7th c. CE){{Sfn|Geary|1988|p=77}}}}

According to historian [[Patrick J. Geary]], those two stories are "alike in betraying both the fact that the Franks knew little about their background and that they may have felt some inferiority in comparison with other peoples of antiquity who possessed an ancient name and glorious tradition. [...] Both legends are of course equally fabulous for, even more than most barbarian peoples, the Franks possessed no common history, ancestry, or tradition of a heroic age of migration. Like their [[Alemanni]]c neighbours, they were by the sixth century a fairly recent creation, a coalition of Rhenish tribal groups who long maintained separate identities and institutions."{{Sfn|Geary|1988|pp=77–78}}

The other work, the {{lang|la|Liber Historiae Francorum}}, previously known as {{lang|la|Gesta regum Francorum}} before its republication in 1888 by Bruno Krusch,<ref>Krusch, Bruno (ed.) ''Liber Historicae Francorum''. Mon. Germ. Hist., Script. Rer. Meroving. II, 215-238, Hanover, 1888. See also [[:fr:Liber Historiae Francorum]]</ref> described how 12,000 Trojans, led by Priam and [[Antenor (mythology)|Antenor]], sailed from Troy to the [[Don River (Russia)|River Don]] in Russia and on to [[Pannonia]], which is on the River [[Danube]], settling near the [[Sea of Azov]]. There they founded a city called Sicambria. (The [[Sicambri]] were the most well-known tribe in the Frankish homeland in the time of the early Roman empire, still remembered though defeated and dispersed long before the Frankish name appeared.) The Trojans joined the Roman army in accomplishing the task of driving their enemies into the marshes of Mæotis, for which they received the name of Franks (meaning "fierce"). A decade later the Romans killed Priam and drove away [[Marcomer]] and [[Sunno]], the sons of Priam and Antenor, and the other Franks.{{Sfn|Dörler|2013|pp=25-32}}{{Sfn|Liber Historiae Francorum}}

== History ==
{{History of France}}

=== Early history ===
The most important contemporary sources mentioning the early Franks include the {{lang|la|[[Panegyrici Latini]]}}, [[Ammianus Marcellinus]], [[Claudian]], [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] and [[Gregory of Tours]]. The Franks are first mentioned in the ''[[Augustan History]]'', a collection of biographies of the [[Roman emperor]]s. None of these sources presents a detailed list of which tribes or parts of tribes became Frankish, or concerning the politics and history, but to quote {{harvtxt|James|1988|p=35}}:
:A Roman marching-song joyfully recorded in a fourth-century source, is associated with the 260s; but the Franks' first appearance in a contemporary source was in 289. [...] The [[Chamavi]] were mentioned as a Frankish people as early as 289, the [[Bructeri]] from 307, the [[Chattuarri]] from 306 to 315, the Salii or Salians from 357, and the [[Ampsivarii|Amsivarii]] and [[Tubantes]] from c. 364 to 375.

The Franks were described in Roman texts both as allies ({{lang|la|[[laeti]]}}) and enemies ({{lang|la|[[dediticii]]}}). About the year 260 one group of Franks penetrated as far as [[Tarragona]] in present-day Spain, where they plagued the region for about a decade before they were subdued and expelled by the Romans. In 287 or 288, the Roman Caesar [[Maximian]] forced a Frankish leader [[Genobaud (3rd century)|Genobaud]] and his people to surrender without a fight.

In 288 the emperor [[Maximian]] defeated the [[Salian Franks]], [[Chamavi]], [[Frisii]] and other Germanic people living along the Rhine and moved them to [[Germania inferior]] to provide manpower and prevent the settlement of other Germanic tribes.<ref name="W5051">Williams, 50–51.</ref><ref name="BCE7">Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 7.</ref> In 292 [[Constantius Chlorus|Constantius]], the father of Constantine I <ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=MacGillivray Nicol |first1=Donald |last2=Matthews |first2=J.F. |title=Constantine I |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Constantine-I-Roman-emperor |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=10 November 2017}}</ref> defeated the Franks who had settled at the mouth of the Rhine. These were moved to the nearby region of [[Toxandria]].<ref>{{harvnb|Howorth|1884|pp=215–216}}</ref> [[Eumenius]] mentions Constantius as having "killed, expelled, captured [and] kidnapped" the Franks who had settled there and others who had crossed the Rhine, using the term {{lang|la|nationes Franciae}} for the first time. It seems likely that the term Frank in this first period had a broader meaning, sometimes including coastal [[Frisii]].<ref name=palaeo>{{cite journal |journal=Palaeohistoria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6HCeJU_7SFwC |volume=51/52 |year=2010 |title=De 14C-chronologie van de Nederlandse Pre- en Protohistorie VI: Romeinse tijd en Merovingische periode, deel A: historische bronnen en chronologische schema's|last1=Lanting |last2=van der Plicht |page=67|isbn = 9789077922736}}</ref>

The ''Life of Aurelian'', which was possibly written by Vopiscus, mentions that in 328, Frankish raiders were captured by the 6th Legion stationed at [[Mainz]]. As a result of this incident, 700 Franks were killed and 300 were sold into slavery.<ref>As the 6th Gallicana is only known from this work, its existence is sometimes questioned along with the genuineness of the work; the question remains unanswered, however: {{cite web |first=Jona |last=Lendering |title=Legio VI Gallicana |publisher=Livius.org |url=https://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/vi_gallicana.html |access-date=2020-03-26 |archive-date=2012-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014143442/http://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/vi_gallicana.html |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Howorth|1884|p=213}}.</ref> Frankish incursions over the Rhine became so frequent that the Romans began to settle the Franks on their borders in order to control them.

[[File:TabulaPeutingeriana with Francia.jpg|thumb|left|Detail of the ''[[Tabula Peutingeriana]]'', showing Francia at the top]]
The Franks appear to be mentioned in the {{lang|la|[[Tabula Peutingeriana]]}}, an [[atlas]] of [[Roman road]]s. (It is a 13th-century copy of a 4th or 5th century document that reflects information from the 3rd century.) Several tribal names are written at the mouth of the Rhine. One of these says {{lang|la|Hamavi; Quietpranci}}, which is generally believed to mean 'The Chamavi who are Franks' (despite the letter p). Further up the river the word "Francia" is clearly marked, indicating a country name on the bank opposite to [[Nijmegen]] and [[Xanten]].

=== Salians ===
{{main|Salian Franks}}
[[File:Europe and the Near East at 476 AD.png|thumb|[[List of early Germanic peoples|Germanic tribes]] in the 5th century]]
The Salians were first mentioned by [[Ammianus Marcellinus]], who described [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]]'s defeat of "the first Franks of all, those whom custom has called the Salians", in 358.<ref>{{lang|la|Res Gestae}}, XVII.8.</ref><ref>The Latin, {{lang|la|petit primos omnium Francos, eos videlicet quos consuetudo Salios appellavit}} is slightly ambiguous, resulting in an interpretation "first of all he proceeded against the Franks ..." with "first" presented improperly as an adjective instead of an adverb. As it stands, the Salians are the first Franks of all; if an adverb is intended, the Franks are they who are the Salians.</ref> Julian allowed the Franks to remain in [[Toxandria|Texuandria]] as {{lang|la|fœderati}} within the Empire, having moved there from the Rhine-Maas delta.<ref>{{cite book |author=Previté-Orton |title=The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History, vol. I |pages=51–52 |author-link=Charles William Previté-Orton}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pfister|1911|p=296}}.</ref> The 5th century {{lang|la|[[Notitia Dignitatum]]}} lists a group of soldiers as {{lang|la|Salii}}.

Some decades later, Franks in the same region, possibly the Salians, controlled the River [[Scheldt]] and were disrupting transport links to [[Roman Britain|Britain]] in the [[English Channel]]. Although Roman forces managed to pacify them, they failed to expel the Franks, who continued to be feared as pirates.

The Salians are generally seen as the predecessors of the Franks who pushed southwestwards into what is now modern France, who eventually came to be ruled by the Merovingians (see below). This is because when the Merovingian dynasty published the Salian law (''[[Lex Salica]]'') it applied in the Neustrian area from the river Liger ([[Loire]]) to the ''Silva Carbonaria'', the western kingdom founded by them outside the original area of Frankish settlement. In the 5th century, Franks under [[Chlodio]] pushed into Roman lands in and beyond the ''"[[Silva Carbonaria]]"'' or "Charcoal forest", which ran through the area of modern western [[Wallonia]]. The forest was the boundary of the original Salian territories to the north and the more Romanized area to the south in the Roman province of ''Belgica Secunda'', which now lies in northern France. Chlodio conquered [[Tournai]], [[Artois]], [[Cambrai]], and as far as the [[Somme river]]. Chlodio is often seen as an ancestor of the future Merovingian dynasty. [[Childeric I]], who according to [[Gregory of Tours]] was a reputed descendant of Chlodio, was later seen as administrative ruler over Roman ''[[Belgica Secunda]]'' and possibly other areas.<ref>Gregory of Tours was apparently skeptical of Childeric's connection to Chlodio, and only says that some say there was such a connection. Concerning ''Belgica Secunda'', which Chlodio had conquered first for the Franks, Bishop Remigius, the leader of the church in the same province, stated in a letter to Childeric's son Clovis that "Great news has reached us that you have taken up the administration of ''Belgica Secunda''. It is no surprise that you have begun to be as your parents ever were." (Epistolae Austriacae, translated by AC Murray, and quoted in Murray's "From Roman to Merovingian Gaul" p. 260). This is normally interpreted to mean that Childeric also had this administration. (See for example Wood "The Merovingian Kingdoms" p. 41.) Both the passage of Gregory and the letter of Remigius note the nobility of Clovis's mother when discussing his connection to this area.</ref>

Records of Childeric show him to have been active together with Roman forces in the Loire region, quite far to the south. His descendants came to rule Roman Gaul all the way to there, and this became the Frankish kingdom of [[Neustria]], the basis of what would become medieval France. Childeric's son [[Clovis I]] also took control of the more independent Frankish kingdoms east of the Silva Carbonaria and Belgica II. This later became the Frankish kingdom of [[Austrasia]], where the early legal code was referred to as "Ripuarian".

=== Ripuarians ===
{{main|Ripuarian Franks}}
[[File:Carte des peuples francs (IIIe siècle).svg|thumb|Approximate location of the original Frankish tribes in the 3rd century]]

The Rhineland Franks who lived near the stretch of the Rhine from roughly [[Mainz]] to [[Duisburg]], the region of the city of [[Cologne]], are often considered separately from the Salians, and sometimes in modern texts referred to as Ripuarian Franks. The [[Ravenna Cosmography]] suggests that ''Francia Renensis'' included the old ''civitas'' of the [[Ubii]], in Germania II ([[Germania Inferior]]), but also the northern part of Germania I (Germania Superior), including [[Mainz]]. Like the Salians they appear in Roman records both as raiders and as contributors to military units. Unlike the Salii, there is no record of when, if ever, the empire officially accepted their residence within its borders. They eventually succeeded to hold the city of Cologne, and at some point seem to have acquired the name Ripuarians, which may have meant "river people". In any case a Merovingian legal code was called the ''[[Lex Ribuaria]]'', but it probably applied in all the older Frankish lands, including the original Salian areas.

[[Jordanes]], in his ''[[Getica (Jordanes)|Getica]]'' mentions a group called the "Riparii" as auxiliaries of [[Flavius Aetius]] during the [[Battle of Châlons]] in 451, and disctinct from the "Franci": {{lang|la|"Hi enim affuerunt auxiliares: Franci, Sarmatae, Armoriciani, Liticiani, Burgundiones, Saxones, Riparii, [[Olibrones|Olibriones]] ..."}} <ref>Paragraph 191.</ref> But these {{lang|la|Riparii}} ("river dwellers") are today not considered to be Ripuarian Franks, but rather a known military unit based on the [[river Rhone]].<ref>Nonn "Die Franken", p. 85: "Heute dürfte feststehen, dass es sich dabei um römische Einheiten handelt; die in der ''Gallia riparensis'', einem Militärbezirk im Rhônegebiet, stationiert waren, der in der ''Notitia dignitatum'' bezeugt ist."</ref>

The Ripuarian territory on both sides of the Rhine thus became a central part of Merovingian [[Austrasia]]. This stretched to include Roman [[Germania Inferior]] (later ''Germania Secunda''), which included the original Salian and Ripuarian lands, and roughly equates to medieval Lower Lotharingia. It also included [[Gallia Belgica]] Prima (roughly medieval Upper Lotharingia), and further lands on the east bank of the Rhine.

=== Merovingian kingdom (481–751) ===
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2007}}
{{main|Merovingian dynasty}}
[[File:Frankish - Necklace - Walters 47596 - View A.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|A 6th–7th century necklace of glass and ceramic beads with a central amethyst bead. Similar necklaces have been found in the graves of Frankish women in the Rhineland.]]
[[File:Frankish - Digitated Fibula - Walters 542443.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|A 6th century bow [[fibula (brooch)|fibula]] found in north-eastern France and the Rhineland. They were worn by Frankish noblewomen in pairs at the shoulder or as belt ornaments.]]

Gregory of Tours (Book II) reported that small Frankish kingdoms existed during the fifth century around [[Cologne]], [[Tournai]], [[Cambrai]] and elsewhere. The kingdom of the Merovingians eventually came to dominate the others, possibly because of its association with Roman power structures in northern Gaul, into which the Frankish military forces were apparently integrated to some extent. In the 450s and 460s, [[Childeric I]], a Salian Frank, was one of several military leaders commanding Roman forces with various ethnic affiliations in Roman Gaul (roughly modern France). Childeric and his son [[Clovis I]] faced competition from the Roman [[Aegidius]] as competitor for the "kingship" of the Franks associated with the Roman Loire forces (according to [[Gregory of Tours]], Aegidius held the kingship of the Franks for 8 years while Childeric was in exile). This new type of kingship, perhaps inspired by [[Alaric I]],<ref>{{harvtxt|Halsall|2007|p=267}}</ref> represents the start of the [[Merovingian dynasty]] which succeeded in conquering most of Gaul in the 6th century, as well as establishing its leadership over all the Frankish kingdoms on the Rhine frontier. Aegidius died in 464 or 465.<ref>{{harvtxt|James|1988|p=70}}</ref> Childeric and his son Clovis I were both described as rulers of the Roman Province of {{lang|la|[[Belgica Secunda]]}}, by its spiritual leader in the time of Clovis, [[Saint Remigius]].

Clovis later defeated the son of Aegidius, [[Syagrius]], in 486 or 487 and then had the Frankish king [[Chararic (Frankish king)|Chararic]] imprisoned and executed. A few years later, he killed [[Ragnachar]], the Frankish king of Cambrai, and his brothers. After conquering the [[Domain of Soissons|Kingdom of Soissons]] and expelling the [[Visigoths]] from southern Gaul at the [[Battle of Vouillé]], he established Frankish hegemony over most of Gaul, excluding [[Kingdom of Burgundy|Burgundy]], Provence and [[Brittany]], which were eventually absorbed by his successors. By the 490s, he had conquered all the Frankish kingdoms to the west of the [[River Maas]] except for the [[Ripuarian Franks]] and was in a position to make the city of Paris his capital. He became the first king of all Franks in 509, after he had conquered Cologne.

Clovis I divided his realm between his four sons, who united to defeat Burgundy in 534. Internecine feuding occurred during the reigns of the brothers [[Sigebert I]] and [[Chilperic I]], which was largely fuelled by the rivalry of their queens, [[Brunhilda of Austrasia|Brunhilda]] and [[Fredegunda]], and which continued during the reigns of their sons and their grandsons. Three distinct subkingdoms emerged: [[Austrasia]], [[Neustria]] and Burgundy, each of which developed independently and sought to exert influence over the others. The influence of the [[Arnulfing]] clan of Austrasia ensured that the political centre of gravity in the kingdom gradually shifted eastwards to the Rhineland.

The Frankish realm was reunited in 613 by [[Chlothar II]], the son of Chilperic, who granted his nobles the [[Edict of Paris]] in an effort to reduce corruption and reassert his authority. Following the military successes of his son and successor [[Dagobert I]], royal authority rapidly declined under a series of kings, traditionally known as ''les [[rois fainéants]]''. After the [[Battle of Tertry]] in 687, each [[mayor of the palace]], who had formerly been the king's chief household official, effectively held power until in 751, with the approval of the Pope and the nobility, [[Pepin the Short]] deposed the last Merovingian king [[Childeric III]] and had himself crowned. This inaugurated a new dynasty, the [[Carolingian dynasty|Carolingians]].

=== Carolingian kingdom (751–987) ===
{{main|Carolingian dynasty|Carolingian Empire}}

The unification achieved by the Merovingians ensured the continuation of what has become known as the [[Carolingian Renaissance]]. The Carolingian Empire was beset by internecine warfare, but the combination of Frankish rule and Roman Christianity ensured that it was fundamentally united. Frankish government and culture depended very much upon each ruler and his aims and so each region of the empire developed differently. Although a ruler's aims depended upon the political alliances of his family, the leading families of Francia shared the same basic beliefs and ideas of government, which had both Roman and Germanic roots.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}}

The Frankish state consolidated its hold over the majority of western Europe by the end of the 8th century, developing into the Carolingian Empire. With the [[Charlemagne#Coronation|coronation of their ruler Charlemagne]] as [[Holy Roman Emperor]] by [[Pope Leo III]] in 800 AD, he and his successors were recognised as legitimate successors to the emperors of the [[Western Roman Empire]]. As such, the Carolingian Empire gradually came to be seen in the West as a continuation of the ancient Roman Empire. This empire would give rise to several successor states, including France, the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and [[Burgundy]], though the ''Frankish'' identity remained most closely identified with France.

After the death of [[Charlemagne]], his only adult surviving son became Emperor and King [[Louis the Pious]]. Following Louis the Pious's death, however, according to Frankish culture and law that demanded equality among all living male adult heirs, the [[Frankish Empire]] was now split between Louis' three sons.

== Military ==

=== Participation in the Roman army ===
Germanic peoples, including those tribes in the Rhine delta that later became the Franks, are known to have served in the Roman army since the days of [[Julius Caesar]]. After the Roman administration collapsed in Gaul in the 260s, the armies under the Germanic Batavian [[Postumus]] revolted and proclaimed him emperor and then restored order. From then on, Germanic soldiers in the Roman army, most notably Franks, were promoted from the ranks. A few decades later, the Menapian [[Carausius]] created a Batavian–British rump state on Roman soil that was supported by Frankish soldiers and raiders. Frankish soldiers such as [[Magnentius]], [[Claudius Silvanus|Silvanus]] and [[Arbitio]] held command positions in the Roman army during the mid 4th century. From the narrative of [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] it is evident that both Frankish and Alamannic tribal armies were organised along Roman lines.

After the invasion of [[Chlodio]], the Roman armies at the Rhine border became a Frankish "franchise" and Franks were known to levy Roman-like troops that were supported by a Roman-like armour and weapons industry. This lasted at least until the days of the scholar [[Procopius]] (c. 500 – c. 565), more than a century after the demise of the Western Roman Empire, who wrote describing the former ''[[Arborychoi]]'', having merged with the Franks, retaining their legionary organization in the style of their forefathers during Roman times. The Franks under the Merovingians melded Germanic custom with Romanised organisation and several important tactical innovations. Before their conquest of Gaul, the Franks fought primarily as a tribe, unless they were part of a Roman military unit fighting in conjunction with other imperial units.

=== Military practices of the early Franks ===
The primary sources for Frankish military custom and armament are [[Ammianus Marcellinus]], [[Agathias]] and Procopius, the latter two [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Roman]] historians writing about Frankish intervention in the [[Gothic War (535–552)|Gothic War]].

Writing of 539, Procopius says:
{{blockquote|text=
At this time the Franks, hearing that both the Goths and Romans had suffered severely by the war ... forgetting for the moment their oaths and treaties ... (for this nation in matters of trust is the most treacherous in the world), they straightway gathered to the number of one hundred thousand under the leadership of [[Theudebert I]] and marched into Italy: they had a small body of cavalry about their leader, and these were the only ones armed with spears, while all the rest were foot soldiers having neither bows nor spears, but each man carried a sword and shield and one axe. Now the iron head of this weapon was thick and exceedingly sharp on both sides, while the wooden handle was very short. And they are accustomed always to throw these axes at a signal in the first charge and thus to shatter the shields of the enemy and kill the men.<ref>Procopius ''HW'', VI, xxv, 1ff, quoted in Bachrach (1970), 436.</ref>}}

His contemporary, Agathias, who based his own writings upon the tropes laid down by Procopius, says:
{{blockquote|text=
The military equipment of this people [the Franks] is very simple ... They do not know the use of the [[coat of mail]] or [[greave]]s and the majority leave the head uncovered, only a few wear the helmet. They have their chests bare and backs naked to the loins, they cover their thighs with either leather or linen. They do not serve on horseback except in very rare cases. Fighting on foot is both habitual and a national custom and they are proficient in this. At the hip they wear a sword and on the left side their shield is attached. They have neither bows nor slings, no [[ranged weapon|missile weapons]] except the double edged axe and the [[angon]] which they use most often. The angons are spears which are neither very short nor very long. They can be used, if necessary, for throwing like a [[javelin]], and also in [[hand to hand combat]].<ref>Agathias, ''Hist''., II, 5, quoted in Bachrach (1970), 436–437.</ref>}}

In the ''[[Strategikon of Maurice|Strategikon]]'', supposedly written by the [[Maurice (emperor)|emperor Maurice]], or in his time, the Franks are lumped together with the [[Lombards]] under the heading of the "fair-haired" peoples.
{{blockquote|text=
If they are hard pressed in cavalry actions, they dismount at a single prearranged sign and line up on foot. Although only a few against many horsemen, they do not shrink from the fight. They are armed with shields, lances, and short swords slung from their shoulders. They prefer fighting on foot and rapid charges. [...] Either on horseback or on foot they are impetuous and un- disciplined in charging, as if they were the only people in the world who are not cowards.<ref>{{cite book|title=Maurice's Strategikon. Handbook Of Byzantine Military Strategy|translator-last=Dennis|translator-first=George T.|url=https://archive.org/details/maurices-strategikon.-handbook-of-byzantine-military-strategy-by-maurice-dennis-/page/n71/mode/1up |page=119}}</ref>}}

While the above quotations have been used as a statement of the military practices of the Frankish nation in the 6th century and have even been extrapolated to the entire period preceding [[Charles Martel]]'s reforms (early mid-8th century), post-Second World War historiography has emphasised the inherited Roman characteristics of the Frankish military from the date of the beginning of the conquest of Gaul. The Byzantine authors present several contradictions and difficulties. Procopius denies the Franks the use of the spear while Agathias makes it one of their primary weapons. They agree that the Franks were primarily infantrymen, threw axes and carried a sword and shield. Both writers also contradict the authority of Gallic authors of the same general time period ([[Sidonius Apollinaris]] and [[Gregory of Tours]]) and the archaeological evidence. The {{lang|la|[[Lex Ribuaria]]}}, the early 7th century legal code of the Rhineland or Ripuarian Franks, specifies the values of various goods when paying a [[wergild]] in kind; whereas a spear and shield were worth only two {{lang|la|[[solidi]]}}, a sword and scabbard were valued at seven, a helmet at six, and a "metal tunic" at twelve.<ref name="James">James, Edward, ''The Franks''. Oxford; Blackwell 1988, p. 211</ref> [[Scramasax]]es and arrowheads are numerous in Frankish graves even though the Byzantine historians do not assign them to the Franks.

[[File:Grégoire de Tours, Histoire des Francs, livres 1 à 6, page de frontispice.jpg|thumb|The frontispiece of Gregory's {{lang|la|Historia Francorum}}]]
The evidence of Gregory and of the {{lang|la|[[Lex Salica]]}} implies that the early Franks were a cavalry people. In fact, some modern historians have hypothesised that the Franks possessed so numerous a body of horses that they could use them to plough fields and thus were agriculturally technologically advanced over their neighbours. The {{lang|la|[[Lex Ribuaria]]}} specifies that a mare's value was the same as that of an ox or of a shield and spear, two {{lang|la|solidi}} and a stallion seven or the same as a sword and scabbard,<ref name="James"/> which suggests that horses were relatively common. Perhaps the Byzantine writers considered the Frankish horse to be insignificant relative to the Greek cavalry, which is probably accurate.<ref>Bachrach (1970), 440.</ref>

=== Merovingian military ===

==== Composition and development ====
The Frankish military establishment incorporated many of the pre-existing Roman institutions in Gaul, especially during and after the conquests of Clovis I in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. Frankish military strategy revolved around the holding and taking of fortified centres ({{lang|la|castra}}) and in general these centres were held by garrisons of {{lang|la|milities}} or {{lang|la|[[laeti]]}}, who were former Roman mercenaries of Germanic origin. Throughout Gaul, the descendants of Roman soldiers continued to wear their uniforms and perform their ceremonial duties.

Immediately beneath the Frankish king in the military hierarchy were the {{lang|la|leudes}}, his sworn followers, who were generally 'old soldiers' in service away from court.<ref>Halsall, Guy. ''Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450–900'' (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 48</ref> The king had an elite bodyguard called the ''[[truste]]''. Members of the ''truste'' often served in {{lang|la|centannae}}, garrison settlements that were established for military and police purposes. The day-to-day bodyguard of the king was made up of ''[[antrustiones]]'' (senior soldiers who were [[aristocracy (class)|aristocrat]]s in military service) and {{lang|la|pueri}} (junior soldiers and not aristocrats).<ref>Halsall, pp. 48–49</ref> All high-ranking men had ''pueri''.

The Frankish military was not composed solely of Franks and Gallo-Romans, but also contained [[Saxons]], [[Alans]], [[Taifals]] and [[Alemanni]]. After the conquest of [[Kingdom of Burgundy|Burgundy]] (534), the well-organised military institutions of that kingdom were integrated into the Frankish realm. Chief among these was the standing army under the command of the [[Duke of Burgundy|Patrician of Burgundy]].

In the late 6th century, during the wars instigated by [[Fredegund]] and [[Brunhilda of Austrasia|Brunhilda]], the Merovingian monarchs introduced a new element into their militaries: the local [[Feudal levies|levy]]. A levy consisted of all the able-bodied men of a district who were required to report for military service when called upon, similar to [[conscription]]. The local levy applied only to a city and its environs. Initially only in certain cities in western Gaul, in Neustria and Aquitaine, did the kings possess the right or power to call up the levy. The commanders of the local levies were always different from the commanders of the urban garrisons. Often the former were commanded by the [[comes|count]]s of the districts. A much rarer occurrence was the general levy, which applied to the entire kingdom and included peasants ({{lang|la|pauperes}} and {{lang|la|inferiores}}). General levies could also be made within the still-pagan trans-Rhenish [[stem duchies]] on the orders of a monarch. The [[Saxons]], Alemanni and [[Thuringii]] all had the institution of the levy and the Frankish monarchs could depend upon their levies until the mid-7th century, when the stem dukes began to sever their ties to the monarchy. [[Radulf, King of Thuringia|Radulf of Thuringia]] called up the levy for a war against [[Sigebert III]] in 640.

Soon the local levy spread to Austrasia and the less Romanised regions of Gaul. On an intermediate level, the kings began calling up territorial levies from the regions of Austrasia (which did not have major cities of Roman origin). All the forms of the levy gradually disappeared, however, in the course of the 7th century after the reign of [[Dagobert I]]. Under the so-called {{lang|fr|[[rois fainéants]]}}, the levies disappeared by mid-century in Austrasia and later in Burgundy and Neustria. Only in Aquitaine, which was fast becoming independent of the central Frankish monarchy, did complex military institutions persist into the 8th century. In the final half of the 7th century and first half of the 8th in Merovingian Gaul, the chief military actors became the lay and ecclesiastical [[magnate]]s with their bands of armed followers called retainers. The other aspects of the Merovingian military, mostly Roman in origin or innovations of powerful kings, disappeared from the scene by the 8th century.

==== Strategy, tactics and equipment ====
Merovingian armies used [[hauberk|coats of mail]], helmets, [[shield]]s, [[lance]]s, [[sword]]s, [[Bow and arrow|bows and arrows]] and [[horses in warfare|war horses]]. The armament of private armies resembled those of the Gallo-Roman {{lang|la|potentiatores}} of the late Empire. A strong element of Alanic cavalry settled in [[Armorica]] influenced the fighting style of the [[Bretons]] down into the 12th century. Local urban levies could be reasonably well-armed and even mounted, but the more general levies were composed of {{lang|la|pauperes}} and {{lang|la|inferiores}}, who were mostly farmers by trade and carried ineffective weapons, such as farming implements. The peoples east of the [[Rhine]] – Franks, Saxons and even [[Wends]] – who were sometimes called upon to serve, wore rudimentary armour and carried weapons such as [[spear]]s and [[axe]]s. Few of these men were mounted.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}}

Merovingian society had a militarised nature. The Franks called annual meetings every [[Marchfield (Frankish)|Marchfeld]] (1 March), when the king and his nobles assembled in large open fields and determined their targets for the next campaigning season. The meetings were a show of strength on behalf of the monarch and a way for him to retain loyalty among his troops.<ref>Halsall, p. 43</ref> In their civil wars, the Merovingian kings concentrated on the holding of fortified places and the use of [[siege engine]]s. In wars waged against external foes, the objective was typically the acquisition of booty or the enforcement of tribute. Only in the lands beyond the Rhine did the Merovingians seek to extend political control over their neighbours.

Tactically, the Merovingians borrowed heavily from the Romans, especially regarding siege warfare. Their battle tactics were highly flexible and were designed to meet the specific circumstances of a battle. The tactic of subterfuge was employed endlessly. Cavalry formed a large segment of an army {{Citation needed|reason=Frankish Cavalry did not become significant until after the battle of Tours and Charles Martel's reforms due to experiencing contact with the Muslim Ummayad cavalry and witnessing its effectiveness, Tours was after the Merovingian dynasty, stating cavalry formed a large segment of the army is misleading, it was heavily infantry based and in the main horses were used as transport only|date=December 2017}}, but troops readily dismounted to fight on foot. The Merovingians were capable of raising naval forces: the naval campaign waged against the [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danes]] by [[Theuderic I]] in 515 involved ocean-worthy ships and rivercraft were used on the [[Loire]], [[Rhône]] and [[Rhine]].

== Culture ==

=== Language ===
{{Main|Frankish language}}

In a modern [[linguistics|linguistic]] context, the language of the early Franks is variously called "Old Frankish" or "Old Franconian" and these terms refer to the language of the Franks prior to the advent of the [[High German consonant shift]], which took place between 600 and 700 AD. After this consonant shift the Frankish dialect diverges, with the dialects which would become modern [[Dutch language|Dutch]] not undergoing the consonantal shift, while all others did so [[Rhenish fan|to varying degrees]].<ref>{{lang|de|[http://www.rheinische-landeskunde.lvr.de/kompetenz/Sprache/rheinischer_sprachatlas/ Rheinischer Fächer – Karte des Landschaftsverband Rheinland]}} {{Cite web |url=http://www.rheinische-landeskunde.lvr.de/kompetenz/Sprache/rheinischer_sprachatlas/ |title=LVR Alltagskultur im Rheinland |access-date=October 23, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215032712/http://www.rheinische-landeskunde.lvr.de/kompetenz/Sprache/rheinischer_sprachatlas/ |archive-date=February 15, 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> As a result, the distinction between [[Old Dutch]] and Old Frankish is largely negligible, with Old Dutch (also called [[Old Low Franconian]]) being the term used to differentiate between the affected and non-affected variants following the aforementioned Second Germanic consonant shift.<ref name="mees">B. Mees, [https://books.google.com/books?id=W91nBn0l96wC&pg=PA23 "The Bergakker inscription and the beginnings of Dutch"], in: {{lang|de|Amsterdamer beiträge zur älteren Germanistik: Band 56-2002|italic=yes}}, edited by Erika Langbroek, Annelies Roeleveld, Paula Vermeyden, Arend Quak, Published by Rodopi, 2002, {{ISBN|9042015799}}, 9789042015791</ref>

The Frankish language has not been directly attested, apart from a very small number of [[Elder Futhark|runic inscriptions]] found within contemporary Frankish territory such as the [[Bergakker inscription]]. Nevertheless a significant amount of Frankish vocabulary has been reconstructed by examining early Germanic loanwords found in [[Old French]] as well as through [[Comparative method (linguistics)|comparative reconstruction]] through Dutch.<ref>{{cite book |title=Korte geschiedenis van de Nederlandse taal (Kort en goed) |first=Joop |last=van der Horst |location=Den Haag |publisher=Sdu |page=42 |year=2000 |isbn=90-5797-071-6 |language=nl}}</ref><ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Romance-languages|title=Romance languages | Description, Origin, Characteristics, Map, & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=21 July 2023}}</ref> The influence of Old Frankish on contemporary [[Gallo-Roman]] [[vocabulary]] and [[phonology]], have long been questions of scholarly debate.<ref>{{harvnb|Noske|2007|p=1}}.</ref> Frankish influence is thought to include the designations of the four cardinal directions: ''nord'' "north", ''sud'' "south", ''est'' "east" and ''ouest'' "west" and at least an additional 1000 stem words.<ref name="britannica.com"/>

Although the Franks would eventually conquer all of [[Gaul]], speakers of Frankish apparently expanded in sufficient numbers only into northern Gaul to have a linguistic effect. For several centuries, northern Gaul was a bilingual territory ([[Vulgar Latin]] and Frankish). The language used in writing, in government and by the Church was Latin. [[Urban T. Holmes, Jr.|Urban T. Holmes]] has proposed that a Germanic language continued to be spoken as a second tongue by public officials in western [[Austrasia]] and Northern [[Neustria]] as late as the 850s, and that it completely disappeared as a spoken language during the 10th century from regions where only French is spoken today.<ref>[[Urban T. Holmes, Jr.|U. T. Holmes]], A. H. Schutz (1938), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jbjX4ebc2lsC&q=history+of+french+language A History of the French Language]'', p. 29, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, {{ISBN|0-8196-0191-8}}</ref>

The Germanic tribes who were called Franks in [[Late Antiquity]] are associated with the [[Weser–Rhine Germanic]]/[[Istvaeonic]] cultural-linguistic grouping.<ref>R.L. Stockman: Low German, University of Michigan, 1998, p.46.</ref><ref>K. Reynolds Brown: Guide to Provincial Roman and Barbarian Metalwork and Jewelry in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1981, p.10.</ref><ref name="H. Schutz 2001, p.42">H. Schutz: Tools, Weapons and Ornaments: Germanic Material Culture in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400-750. BRILL, 2001, p.42.</ref>

=== Art and architecture ===
[[File:Trésor de Gourdon 04.JPG|thumb|upright=0.55|A [[chalice]] from the [[Treasure of Gourdon]]]]
[[File:Aachener Dom BW 2016-07-09 16-20-40.jpg|thumb|The pinnacle of Carolingian architecture: The [[Palatine Chapel in Aachen|Palatine chapel]] at [[Aachen]], Germany.]]
{{main|Merovingian art and architecture|Carolingian art}}
Early Frankish art and architecture belongs to a phase known as [[Migration Period art]], which has left very few remains. The later period is called [[Carolingian art]], or, especially in architecture, [[pre-Romanesque]]. Very little Merovingian architecture has been preserved. The earliest churches seem to have been timber-built, with larger examples being of a [[basilica]] type. The most completely surviving example, a [[baptistery]] in [[Poitiers]], is a building with three [[apse]]s of a Gallo-Roman style. A number of small baptistries can be seen in [[Southern France]]: as these fell out of fashion, they were not updated and have subsequently survived as they were.

Jewelry (such as brooches), weapons (including swords with decorative hilts) and clothing (such as capes and sandals) have been found in a number of grave sites. The grave of Queen [[Aregund]], discovered in 1959, and the [[Treasure of Gourdon]], which was deposited soon after 524, are notable examples. The few Merovingian [[illuminated manuscripts]] that have survived, such as the [[Gelasian Sacramentary]], contain a great deal of [[zoomorphism|zoomorphic representations]]. Such Frankish objects show a greater use of the style and motifs of [[Late Antiquity]] and a lesser degree of skill and sophistication in design and manufacture than comparable works from the [[British Isles]]. So little has survived, however, that the best quality of work from this period may not be represented.<ref>Otto Pächt, ''Book Illumination in the Middle Ages'' (trans fr German), 1986, Harvey Miller Publishers, London, {{ISBN|0-19-921060-8}}</ref>

The objects produced by the main centres of the Carolingian Renaissance, which represent a transformation from that of the earlier period, have survived in far greater quantity. The arts were lavishly funded and encouraged by Charlemagne, using imported artists where necessary, and Carolingian developments were decisive for the future course of [[Western art]]. [[Carolingian art#Illuminated manuscripts|Carolingian illuminated manuscripts]] and ivory plaques, which have survived in reasonable numbers, approached those of [[Constantinople]] in quality. The main surviving monument of [[Carolingian architecture]] is the [[Palatine Chapel in Aachen]], which is an impressive and confident adaptation of [[San Vitale, Ravenna]] – from where some of the pillars were brought. Many other important buildings existed, such as the monasteries of Centula or [[St Gall]], or the old [[Cologne Cathedral]], since rebuilt. These large structures and complexes made frequent use of towers.<ref>Eduard Syndicus; ''Early Christian Art''; pp. 164–174; Burns & Oates, London, 1962</ref>

== Religion ==
A sizeable portion of the Frankish aristocracy quickly followed Clovis in converting to Christianity (the Frankish church of the Merovingians). The conversion of all under Frankish rule required a considerable amount of time and effort.

=== Paganism ===
{{main|Frankish mythology}}
[[File:Childeric's bees.jpg|thumb|Drawing of golden bees or flies that was discovered in the tomb of [[Childeric I]]]]
Echoes of [[Frankish mythology|Frankish paganism]] can be found in the primary sources, but their meaning is not always clear. Interpretations by modern scholars differ greatly, but it is likely that Frankish paganism shared most of the characteristics of other varieties of [[Germanic paganism]]. The mythology of the Franks was probably a form of [[Germanic polytheism]]. It was highly ritualistic. Many daily activities centred around the multiple deities, chiefest of which may have been the [[Quinotaur]], a water-god from whom the Merovingians were reputed to have derived their ancestry.<ref>Schutz, 152.</ref> Most of their gods were linked with local cult centres and their sacred character and power were associated with specific regions, outside of which they were neither worshipped nor feared. Most of the gods were "worldly", possessing form and having connections with specific objects, in contrast to the God of Christianity.<ref>[[Gregory of Tours]], in his ''History of the Franks'', relates: "Now this people seems to have always been addicted to heathen worship, and they did not know God, but made themselves images of the woods and the waters, of birds and beasts and of the other elements as well. They were wont to worship these as God and to offer sacrifice to them." (Gregory of Tours, ''History of the Franks'', [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html#book1 Book I.10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814182657/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html#book1 |date=2014-08-14 }})</ref>

Frankish paganism has been observed in the burial site of Childeric I, where the king's body was found covered in a cloth decorated with numerous bees. There is a likely connection with the bees to the traditional Frankish weapon, the [[angon]] (meaning "sting"), from its distinctive spearhead. It is possible that the [[fleur-de-lis]] is derived from the angon.

=== Christianity ===
{{further|Christianity in Merovingian Gaul|Frankish Church}}
Some Franks, like the 4th century usurper [[Claudius Silvanus|Silvanus]], converted early to Christianity. In 496, Clovis I, who had married a Burgundian [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] named [[Clotilde|Clotilda]] in 493, was baptised by [[Saint Remi]] after a decisive victory over the Alemanni at the [[Battle of Tolbiac]]. According to Gregory of Tours, over three thousand of his soldiers were baptised with him.<ref>{{cite book |title=History of the Franks |author=Gregory of Tours |chapter=Book II, 31 |chapter-url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html#book2 |author-link=Gregory of Tours |access-date=2007-07-20 |archive-date=2014-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814182657/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html#book2 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Clovis' conversion had a profound effect on the course of European history, for at the time the Franks were the only major [[Germanic Christianity|Christianised Germanic tribe]] without a predominantly [[Arianism|Arian]] aristocracy and this led to a naturally amicable relationship between the Catholic Church and the increasingly powerful Franks.

Although many of the Frankish aristocracy quickly followed Clovis in converting to Christianity, the conversion of all his subjects was only achieved after considerable effort and, in some regions, a period of over two centuries.<ref>Sönke Lorenz (2001), {{lang|de|Missionierung, Krisen und Reformen: Die Christianisierung von der Spätantike bis in Karolingische Zeit}} in {{lang|de|Die Alemannen}}, Stuttgart: Theiss; {{ISBN|3-8062-1535-9}}; pp. 441–446</ref> The ''Chronicle of St. Denis'' relates that, following Clovis' conversion, a number of pagans who were unhappy with this turn of events rallied around [[Ragnachar]], who had played an important role in Clovis' initial rise to power. Although the text remains unclear as to the precise pretext, Clovis had Ragnachar executed.<ref>''The Chronicle of St. Denis'', [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/conversions/index.php I.18–19, 23] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125163141/http://www.northvegr.org/lore/conversions/index.php |date=2009-11-25}}</ref> Remaining pockets of resistance were overcome region by region, primarily due to the work of an expanding network of monasteries.<ref>Lorenz (2001:442)</ref>

[[File:Sacr Gelasianum 131v 132.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|[[Gelasian Sacramentary]], c. 750]]
The Merovingian Church was shaped by both internal and external forces. It had to come to terms with an established Gallo-Roman hierarchy that resisted changes to its culture, Christianise pagan sensibilities and suppress their expression, provide a new theological basis for Merovingian forms of kingship deeply rooted in pagan Germanic tradition and accommodate Irish and [[Anglo-Saxon mission]]ary activities and papal requirements.<ref>J.M. Wallace-Hadrill covers these areas in ''The Frankish Church'' (Oxford History of the Christian Church; Oxford:Clarendon Press) 1983.</ref> The Carolingian reformation of monasticism and church-state relations was the culmination of the Frankish Church.

The increasingly wealthy Merovingian elite endowed many monasteries, including that of the Irish missionary [[Columbanus]]. The 5th, 6th and 7th centuries saw two major waves of [[hermit]]ism in the Frankish world, which led to legislation requiring that all monks and hermits follow the [[Rule of St Benedict]].<ref>Michel Rouche, 435–436.</ref> The Church sometimes had an uneasy relationship with the Merovingian kings, whose claim to rule depended on a mystique of royal descent and who tended to revert to the polygamy of their pagan ancestors. Rome encouraged the Franks to slowly replace the [[Gallican Rite]] with the [[Roman rite]]. When the mayors took over, the Church was supportive and an Emperor crowned by the Pope was much more to their liking.

== Laws ==
As with other Germanic peoples, the laws of the Franks were memorised by "rachimburgs", who were analogous to the [[lawspeaker]]s of [[Scandinavia]].<ref>Michel Rouch, 421.</ref> By the 6th century, when these laws first appeared in written form, two basic legal subdivisions existed: Salian Franks were subject to [[Salic law]] and Ripuarian Franks to [[Lex Ripuaria|Ripuarian law]]. Gallo-Romans south of the [[Loire River|River Loire]] and the clergy remained subject to traditional [[Roman law]].<ref>Michel Rouche, 421–422.</ref> Germanic law was overwhelmingly concerned with the protection of individuals and less concerned with protecting the interests of the state. According to Michel Rouche, "Frankish judges devoted as much care to a case involving the theft of a dog as Roman judges did to cases involving the fiscal responsibility of {{lang|la|curiales}}, or municipal councilors".<ref>Michel Rouche, 422–423</ref>

{{anchor|Legacy|Crusaders and other Western Europeans as "Franks"|"Franks" as an exonym}}

{{anchor|Crusaders}}
==Crusaders and other Western Europeans as "Franks"==
{{See also|Crusades|Islamic views on the crusades}}
[[File:Europe 814.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.05|[[Carolingian Empire]] (green) in 814]]

The term ''Frank'' has been used by many of the Eastern Orthodox and Muslim neighbours of medieval Latin [[Christendom]] (and beyond, such as in Asia) as a general synonym for a European from [[Western Europe|Western]] and Central Europe, areas that followed the Latin rites of Christianity under the authority of the Pope in [[Rome]].<ref>König, Daniel G., Arabic-Islamic Views of the Latin West. Tracing the Emergence of Medieval Western Europe, Oxford: OUP, 2015, chap. 6, p. 289-230.{{Page needed|date=June 2019}}</ref> Another term with similar use was ''[[Latins (Middle Ages)|Latins]]''.

Modern historians{{Who|date=August 2020}} often refer to Christians following the Latin rites in the eastern Mediterranean as ''Franks'' or ''Latins'', regardless of their country of origin, whereas they use the words ''[[Rhomaios]]'' and ''[[Rûm]]i'' ("Roman") for Orthodox Christians. On a number of Greek islands, Catholics are still referred to as {{lang|el|Φράγκοι}} ({{lang|el-Latn|Frangoi}}) or "Franks", for instance on [[Syros]], where they are called {{lang|el|Φραγκοσυριανοί}} ({{lang|el-Latn|Frangosyrianoi}}). The period of [[Fourth Crusade|Crusader]] rule in Greek lands is known to this day as the ''[[Frankokratia]]'' ("rule of the Franks").

During the [[Mongol Empire]] in the 13–14th centuries, the [[Mongols]] used the term "Franks" to designate Europeans,<ref>Igor de Rachewiltz – Turks in China under the Mongols, in: China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, p. 281</ref> and this usage continued into Mughal times in India in the form of the word ''firangi''.<ref>Nandini Das - Courting India, p. 107</ref> [[Persianate]] Turkic dynasties used and spread the term in throughout [[Iran]] and [[India]] with the expansion of the language. The term ''[[Frangistan]]'' ("Land of the Franks") was used by Muslims to refer to Christian Europe and was commonly used over several centuries in [[Iberia]], [[North Africa]], and the [[Middle East]].

The Chinese called the Portuguese {{lang|pt|Folangji}} 佛郎機 ("Franks") in the 1520s at the [[Battle of Tunmen]] and [[Battle of Xicaowan]]. Some other varieties of [[Mandarin Chinese]] pronounced the characters as Fah-lan-ki.

{{blockquote|text=During the reign of Chingtih (''Zhengde'') (1506), foreigners from the west called Fah-lan-ki (or Franks), who said they had [[Tribute#Chinese practice of tributes as trade regulation and authority|tribute]], abruptly entered the [[Bocca Tigris|Bogue]], and by their tremendously loud guns shook the place far and near. This was reported at court, and an order returned to drive them away immediately, and stop the trade.|author=Samuel Wells Williams|source=The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Geography, Government, Education, Social Life, Arts, Religion, &c. of the Chinese Empire and Its Inhabitants, 2 vol. (Wiley & Putnam, 1848).}}

The [[Mediterranean Lingua Franca]] (or "Frankish language") was a [[pidgin]] first spoken by 11th century European Christians and Muslims in [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean ports]] that remained in use until the 19th century.

Examples of derived words include:
* {{lang|el-Latn|Frangos}} ({{lang|el|Φράγκος}}) in [[Greek language|Greek]]
* {{lang|sq|Frëng}} in [[Albanian language|Albanian]]
* {{lang|tr|Frenk}} in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
* {{lang|az|Firəng}} in [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://obastan.com/fir%C9%99ng/14040/?l=az |title=Azərbaycan dilinin izahlı lüğəti |trans-title=Explanatory dictionary of the Azerbaijani language |chapter=FİRƏNG |via=Obastan |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200815172825/https://obastan.com/fir%C9%99ng/14040/?l=az |archive-date=15 August 2020 |access-date=15 August 2020 |language=az |quote=Danışıq dilində “fransız” mənasında işlədilir. |url-status=live}}</ref> (derived from Persian)
* {{lang|ar-Latn|al-Faranj}}, {{lang|ar-Latn|Afranj}} and {{lang|ar-Latn|Firinjīyah}} in Arabic<ref>Rashid al-din Fazl Allâh, quoted in Karl Jahn (ed.) Histoire Universelle de Rasid al-Din Fadl Allah Abul=Khair: I. Histoire des Francs (Texte Persan avec traduction et annotations), Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1951. (Source: M. Ashtiany)</ref>
* {{lang|fa-Latn|[[Farang]] (فرنگ)}}, {{lang|fa-Latn|Farangī (فرنگی)}} in [[Persian language|Persian]], also the toponym {{lang|fa-Latn|[[Frangistan]] (فرنگستان)}}
* ''Faranji'' in [[Tajik language|Tajik]].<ref name="AbdullaevAkbarzaheh2010">{{cite book|author1=Kamoludin Abdullaev|author2=Shahram Akbarzaheh|title=Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mC9RsIYy8m8C&pg=PA129|date=27 April 2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6061-2|pages=129–}}</ref>
* ''Ferengi or Faranji'' in some Turkic languages
* {{lang|am|Fereng (ፈረንጅ)}} in [[Amharic]] in Ethiopia, {{lang|am|Farangi}} in [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], and derivative forms in other languages of the [[Horn of Africa]], refers to white people or any white (European stock) person
* {{lang|hi-Latn|Feringhi}} or {{lang|hi-Latn|Firang}} in [[Hindi language|Hindi]] and [[Urdu language|Urdu]] (derived from Persian)
* ''Phirangee'' in some other Indian languages
* {{lang|ta-Latn|Parangiar}} in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
* {{lang|ml-Latn|Parangi}} in [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]; in [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]], the word refers specifically to [[Portuguese people]]
* {{lang|my-Latn|Bayingyi}} ({{lang|my|ဘရင်ဂျီ}}) in [[Burmese language|Burmese]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://sealang.net/burmese/|title=Myanmar-English Dictionary|publisher=Myanmar Language Commission|year=1996|isbn=1-881265-47-1}}</ref>
* {{lang|km-Latn|[[Barang (Khmer word)|Barang]]}} in [[Khmer language|Khmer]]
* {{lang|ms|Feringgi}} in [[Malay language|Malay]]
* {{lang|zh-Latn|Folangji}}<ref name="Wilkinson2000">{{cite book|author=Endymion Porter Wilkinson|title=Chinese History: A Manual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&pg=PA730|year=2000|publisher=Harvard Univ Asia Center|isbn=978-0-674-00249-4|pages=730–}}</ref> or ''Fah-lan-ki'' ({{lang|zh|佛郎機}}) and ''Fulang''<ref name="Park2012">{{cite book|first=Hyunhee|last=Park|title=Mapping the Chinese and Islamic Worlds: Cross-Cultural Exchange in Pre-Modern Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-2iWcxD2e8C&pg=PA95|date=27 August 2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-01868-6|pages=95–}}</ref> in Chinese
* {{lang|th-Latn|[[Farang]]}} ({{lang|th|ฝรั่ง}}) in [[Thai language|Thai]].
* {{lang|id|Pirang}} ("blonde"), {{lang|id|Perangai}} ("temperament/al") in [[Indonesian language|Bahasa Indonesia]]

In the Thai usage, the word can refer to any European person. When the presence of [[United States military|US soldiers]] during the [[Vietnam War]] placed Thai people in contact with African Americans, they (and people of African ancestry in general) came to be called {{lang|id|Farang dam}} ("Black Farang", {{lang|th|ฝรั่งดำ}}). Such words sometimes also connote things, plants or creatures introduced by Europeans/Franks. For example, in Khmer, {{lang|km|môn barang}}, literally "French Chicken", refers to a turkey and in Thai, {{lang|th-Latn|[[Farang]]}} is the name both for Europeans and for the [[guava]] fruit, introduced by Portuguese traders over 400 years ago. In contemporary Israel, the [[Yiddish]]{{Citation needed|date=November 2012}} word {{lang|yi|פרענק}} ({{lang|yi|Frenk}}) has, by a curious etymological development, come to refer to [[Mizrahi Jews]] in Modern Hebrew and carries a strong pejorative connotation.<ref>Batya Shimony (2011) On “Holocaust Envy” in Mizrahi Literature, Dapim:Studies on the Holocaust, 25:1, 239-271, DOI: 10.1080/23256249.2011.10744411. Page 241: "''Frenk'' [a pejorative slang term for Mizrahi]"</ref>

Some linguists (among them Drs. Jan Tent and Paul Geraghty) have suggested that the [[Samoan language|Samoan]] and generic [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] term for Europeans, ''[[Palagi]]'' (pronounced Puh-LANG-ee) or ''Papalagi'', might also be cognate, possibly a loan term gathered by early contact between Pacific islanders and Malays.<ref>Tent, J., and Geraghty, P., (2001) "Exploding sky or exploded myth? The origin of Papalagi", ''Journal of the Polynesian Society'', 110, 2: pp. 171–214.</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Biography|France|Germany|Netherlands|Belgium|Luxembourg|Switzerland|Italy|Middle Ages}}
* [[Germanic Christianity]]
* [[List of Frankish kings]]
* [[List of Frankish queens]]
* [[Name of France]]
* [[List of Germanic peoples]]
* [[Frankokratia]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==

=== Primary sources ===
{{Refbegin}}
* [[Fredegar]]
** {{cite book |author=Fredegarius |author2=John Michael Wallace-Hadrill |year=1981 |orig-year=1960 |title=Fredegarii chronicorum liber quartus cum continuationibus |publisher=Greenwood Press |language=la, en}}
** {{cite book |translator-last1=Bachrach |translator-first1 = Bernard S. |translator-link1=Bernard Bachrach |title=Liber Historiae Francorum |date=1973 |publisher=Coronado Press |title-link=Liber Historiae Francorum|ref={{harvid|Liber Historiae Francorum}}}}
** {{cite book |last=Woodruff |first=Jane Ellen |author2=Fredegar |year=1987 |title=The Historia Epitomata (third book) of the Chronicle of Fredegar: an annotated translation and historical analysis of interpolated material |series=Thesis (Ph.D.) |publisher=University of Nebraska |author2-link=Fredegar}}
* [[Gregory of Tours]]
** {{cite web |author=Gregory of Tours |title=Libri Historiarum |work=The Classics Page: The Latin Library |publisher=thelatinlibrary.com |language=la |url=http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/gregorytours.html }}
** {{cite book |author=Gregory of Tours |author-link=Gregory of Tours |translator=Ernst Brehaut |editor-first=Paul |editor-last=Halsall |year=1997 |orig-year=1916 |title=History of the Franks: Books I–X (Extended Selections)  |publisher=Columbia University Press; Fordham University |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html |access-date=2007-07-20 |archive-date=2014-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814182657/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html |url-status=dead }}
** {{cite book |author=Gregory |translator=[[Ormonde Maddock Dalton|O. M. Dalton]] |title=The History of the Franks |location=Farnborough |publisher=Gregg Press |year=1967}}
* [[Ammianus Marcellinus]]
** {{cite book |first=Ammianus |last=Marcellinus |author-link=Ammianus Marcellinus |translator=Roger Pearse |title=Roman History |publisher=Bohn; tertullian.org |year=2007 |orig-year=1862 |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Ammianus_Marcellinus }}
*[[Procopius]]
** {{cite wikisource |last1=Procopius |authorlink1=Procopius |translator=H.B. Dewing |title=History of the Wars |year=2008 |noicon=yes |firsticon=no}}
{{Refend}}

=== Secondary sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Bachrach, Bernard S. ''Merovingian Military Organization, 481–751''. University of Minnesota Press, 1971. {{ISBN|0-8166-0621-8}}
* Collins, Roger. ''Early Medieval Europe 300–1000''. MacMillan, 1991.
* {{cite journal |last1=Dörler |first1=Philipp |title=The Liber Historiae Francorum – a Model for a New Frankish Self-confidence |journal=Networks and Neighbours |date=2013 |volume=1 |pages=23–43 |s2cid=161310931 |language=en}}
*{{Cite book|last=Geary|first=Patrick J.|url=https://archive.org/details/beforefrancegerm0000gear|url-access=registration|title=Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World|date=1988|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-504458-4|language=en|author-link=Patrick J. Geary}}
* {{cite book |first=John |last=Geipel |title=The Europeans: The People – Today and Yesterday: Their Origins and Interrelations |year=1970 |orig-year=1969 |publisher=Pegasus: a division of Western Publishing Company, Inc}}
* {{cite book |last=Greenwood |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Greenwood (historian) |year=1836 |title=The First Book of the History of the Germans: Barbaric period |url=https://archive.org/details/firstbookofhisto00gree |publisher=Longman, Rees, Orne, and Co}}
*{{cite book |last=Halsall |first=Guy |title=Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West 376–568 |year=2007}}
* {{cite journal |first=Henry H. |last=Howorth |title=XVII. The Ethnology of Germany (Part VI). The Varini, Varangians and Franks. Section II |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute]] |volume=13 |year=1884 |publisher=Trübner & Co. |pages=213–239 |doi=10.2307/2841727 |jstor=2841727 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1449556}}
* {{cite book |first=Edward |last=James |author-link=Edward James (historian) |title=The Franks |series=The Peoples of Europe |location=Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Basil Blackwell |year=1988 |isbn=0-631-17936-4}}
* Lewis, Archibald R. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2851704 The Dukes in the Regnum Francorum, A.D. 550–751.]" ''Speculum'', Vol. 51, No 3 (July 1976), pp. 381–410.
* McKitterick, Rosamond. ''The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, 751–987''. London: Longman, 1983. {{ISBN|0-582-49005-7}}.
* Murray, Archibald Callander, and [[Walter A. Goffart|Goffart, Walter A.]] ''After Rome's Fall: Narrators and Sources of Early Medieval History''. University of Toronto Press: Toronto, 1998.
* Nixon, C. E. V. and Rodgers, Barbara. ''In Praise of Later Roman Emperors''. Berkeley, 1994.
*{{cite book |last=Nonn|first=Ulrich|title=Die Franken|year=2010|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Aboh |editor-first=Enoch |editor2-first=Elisabeth |editor2-last=van der Linden |editor3-first=Josep |editor3-last=Quer |editor4-first=Petra |display-editors=3 |editor4-last=Sleeman |title=Romance Languages and Linguistic Theory |year=2007 |location=Amsterdam; Philadelphia |publisher=Benjamins |contribution=Autonomous typological prosodic evolution versus the Germanic superstrate in diachronic French phonology |first=Roland |last=Noske |url=http://rnoske.home.xs4all.nl/CV/publicaties/autonomous_typological.pdf |access-date=2011-12-30 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303233154/http://rnoske.home.xs4all.nl/CV/publicaties/autonomous_typological.pdf |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |last=Perry |first=Walter Copland |author-link=Walter Copland Perry |title=The Franks, from Their First Appearance in History to the Death of King Pepin |url=https://archive.org/details/franksfromtheir00perrgoog |publisher=Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, and Roberts |year=1857}}
* {{Cite book |first=M. Christian |last=Pfister |contribution=(B) The Franks Before Clovis |editor-first=J.B. |editor-last=Bury |title=The Cambridge Medieval History |volume=I: The Christian Roman Empire and the Foundation of the Teutonic Kingdoms |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1911}}
* [[Herbert Schutz|Schutz, Herbert]]. ''The Germanic Realms in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400–750''. American University Studies, Series IX: History, Vol. 196. New York: Peter Lang, 2000.
* [[John Michael Wallace-Hadrill|Wallace-Hadrill, J. M.]] ''The Long-Haired Kings''. London: Butler & Tanner Ltd, 1962.
* [[John Michael Wallace-Hadrill|Wallace-Hadrill, J. M.]] ''The Barbarian West''. London: Hutchinson, 1970.
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Hitchner |first1=R. Bruce |author-link1=R. Bruce Hitchner |date=2005 |chapter=Franks |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001/acref-9780195046526-e-1963? |editor1-last=Kazhdan |editor1-first=Alexander P. |editor1-link=Alexander Kazhdan |title=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780195187922 |access-date=January 26, 2020}}
*{{cite book |last1=Mann |first1=Chris |date=2004 |chapter=Franks |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198606963.001.0001/acref-9780198606963-e-452? |editor1-last=Holmes |editor1-first=Richard |editor1-link=Richard Holmes (military historian) |editor2-last=Singleton |editor2-first=Charles |editor3-last=Jones |editor3-first=Spencer |title=[[The Oxford Companion to Military History]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780191727467 |access-date=January 26, 2020}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{EB1911 poster|Franks}}
* {{cite web |title=''Regnum Francorum'' Online – interactive maps and sources of early medieval Europe 614–840 |year=2010 |first=Johan |last=Åhlfeldt |url=http://www.francia.ahlfeldt.se/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011035043/http://www.francia.ahlfeldt.se/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-10-11}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Kurth |first=G. |year=1909 |title=The Franks |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |location=New York |publisher=Robert Appleton Company |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06238a.htm}}
* {{cite web |first=Örjan |last=Martinsson |work=Historical Atlas |title=The Frankish Kingdom |url=http://www.tacitus.nu/historical-atlas/francia.htm |access-date=5 December 2011}}
* {{cite web |first=Lynn Harry |last=Nelson |title=The Rise of the Franks, 330–751 |work=Lectures in Medieval History |year=2001 |publisher=vlib.us |url=http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/franks_rise.html}}
* {{cite web |title=The Franks |publisher=International World History Project |year=2001 |url=http://history-world.org/franks.htm |access-date=2011-12-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912024545/http://history-world.org/franks.htm |archive-date=2018-09-12 |url-status=dead}}

{{Monarchs of France}}
{{France topics}}
{{Germanic monarchs}}
{{Germanic tribes}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Frankish people| ]]
[[Category:Early Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Historical ethnic groups of Europe]]
[[Category:Early Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Medieval Belgium]]
[[Category:Medieval Netherlands]]
[[Category:German tribes]]

Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem

2024-02-19T06:18:12Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Heir Patronage */

{{short description|Queen regnant of the Kingdom of Jerusalem}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Melisende
| succession = [[Queen of Jerusalem]]
| image = Melisenda.jpg
| image_size = 120px
| caption =
| reign = 1131–1153
| coronation =
| regent = [[Fulk, King of Jerusalem|Fulk]] (1131–1143) and [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]] (1143–1153)
| reg-type = Co-Sovereign
| predecessor = [[Baldwin II of Jerusalem|Baldwin II]]
| successor = [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]] (as sole monarch)
| spouse = [[Fulk, King of Jerusalem]]
| house = [[Counts and dukes of Rethel|House of Rethel]]
| father = [[Baldwin II of Jerusalem]]
| mother = [[Morphia of Melitene]]
| issue = [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem]] [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]]
| birth_date = 1105
| birth_place = [[County of Edessa]]
| death_date = 11 September {{death year and age|1161|1105}}
| death_place = [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]]
| burial_date =
| burial_place= [[Tomb of the Virgin Mary|Shrine of Our Lady of Josaphat]]
| religion =[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]
}}
'''Melisende''' (1105 – 11 September 1161) was [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Queen of Jerusalem]] from 1131 to 1153, and regent for her son between 1153 and 1161, while he was on campaign. She was the eldest daughter of King [[Baldwin II of Jerusalem]], and the [[Armenia]]n princess [[Morphia of Melitene]].

==Heir Patronage==
[[Jerusalem]] had been conquered by [[Christians|Christian]] forces in 1099 during the [[First Crusade]], and Melisende's paternal family originally came from the County of [[Rethel]] in France. Her father Baldwin was a crusader knight who carved out the Crusader State of [[County of Edessa|Edessa]] and married Morphia, daughter of the Armenian prince [[Gabriel of Melitene]], in a diplomatic marriage to fortify alliances in the region.<ref name="Melisende's youth">Hamilton, Bernard, ''Queens of Jerusalem'', Ecclesiastical History Society, 1978, ''Frankish women in the Outremer'', p. 143, ''Melisende's youth'' pp. 147, 148, ''Recognized as successor'' pp. 148, 149, ''Offers patronage and issues diplomas, Marriage with Fulk, Birth of {{nowrap|Baldwin III,}} Second Crowing with father, husband, and son,'' p. 149,</ref><ref name="Oldenbourg's Melisende">Oldenbourg, Zoe, ''The Crusades'', Pantheon Books, 1966, ''{{nowrap|Baldwin II}} searches for a husband for Melisende'', ''feudal relationship between France and Jerusalem'', ''{{nowrap|Fulk V}} of Anjou'', p. 264,</ref> Melisende, named after her paternal grandmother, Melisende of [[Montlhéry]], grew up in Edessa until she was 13, when her father was elected as the [[King of Jerusalem]] as successor of his kinsman [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin I]]. By the time of his election as king, Baldwin II and Morphia already had three daughters:<ref name="Melisende's youth"/> Melisende, [[Alice of Antioch|Alice]], and [[Hodierna of Tripoli|Hodierna]]. A fourth daughter, [[Ioveta]], was born after the royal couple's coronation.

As the eldest child, Melisende was raised as [[heir presumptive]].<ref name="Melisende's youth"/><ref name="Oldenbourg's Melisende"/> Frankish women in the [[Outremer]] had a higher [[life expectancy]] than men, in part due to the constant state of war in the region, and as a result, Frankish women exerted a wide degree of influence in the region and provided a strong sense of continuity to Eastern Frankish society.<ref name="Melisende's youth"/> Women who inherited territory usually did so because men had died in war or violence. However, women, who were recognized as [[queen regnant]], rarely exercised their authority directly. Instead their husband exercised authority through the rights of their wives, called ''[[jure uxoris]].''<ref name="Melisende's youth"/> Contemporaries of Melisende who did rule, however, included [[Urraca of Castile]] (1080–1129), and [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] (1122–1204). During her father's reign Melisende was styled ''daughter of the king and heir of the kingdom of Jerusalem'', and took precedence above other nobles and Christian clergy in ceremonial occasions.<ref name="Melisende's youth"/><ref>''''filia regis et regni Jerosolimitani haeres''</ref> Increasingly she was associated with her father on official documents, including in the minting of money, granting of fiefdoms and other forms of patronage, and in diplomatic correspondence.<ref name="Melisende's youth"/> Baldwin raised his daughter as a capable successor to himself and Melisende enjoyed the support of the ''[[Haute Cour of Jerusalem|Haute Cour]]'', a kind of royal council composed of the nobility and clergy of the realm.

However, {{nowrap|Baldwin II}} also thought that he would have to marry Melisende to a powerful ally, one who would protect and safeguard Melisende's inheritance and her future heirs. Baldwin deferred to King [[Louis VI of France]] to recommend a Frankish [[vassal]] for his daughter's hand.<ref name="Melisende's youth"/><ref name="Oldenbourg's Melisende"/>{{refn|group=N| {{nowrap|Baldwin II's}} embassy to France was headed by his constable, [[William I of Bures]] and with [[Hugues de Payens]]. }} The Frankish connection remained an important consideration for Crusader Jerusalem, as the nascent kingdom depended heavily on manpower and connections from France, Germany, and Italy. By deferring to France, {{nowrap|Baldwin II}} was not submitting Jerusalem to the [[suzerainty]] of France; rather, he was placing the moral guardianship of the Outremer with the West for its survival, reminding {{nowrap|Louis VI}} that the Outremer was, to some extent, Frankish lands.<ref name="Oldenbourg's Melisende"/>

{{nowrap|Louis VI}} chose [[Fulk of Jerusalem|Fulk V, Count of Anjou and Main]], a renownedly rich crusader and military commander, and to some extent a growing threat to {{nowrap|Louis VI}} himself.<ref name="Melisende's youth"/> Fulk's son from a previous marriage, [[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey]], was married to [[Empress Matilda]], [[Henry I of England]]'s designated heir as England's next [[queen regnant]]. {{nowrap|Fulk V}} could be a potential grandfather to a future ruler of England, a relationship that would outflank {{nowrap|Louis VI}}. Fulk's wealth, connections, and influence made him as powerful as the King of France, according to historian Zoe Oldenbourg.<ref name="Oldenbourg's Melisende"/> Throughout the negotiations Fulk insisted on being sole ruler of Jerusalem. Hesitant, {{nowrap|Baldwin II}} initially acquiesced to these demands though he would come to reconsider.<ref name="Melisende's youth"/>{{refn|group=N| Historian [[Hans E. Mayer]] argued that {{nowrap|Baldwin II}} had promised sole rulership of Jerusalem after his death to Fulk, however historian Bernard Hamilton points out that there is no evidence to support Mayer's conclusion that Baldwin ever intended to prevent Melisende from ruling, rather the opposite, that {{nowrap|Baldwin II}} purposefully associated Melisende, and then Fulk, with his rule up until the time of his death.<ref>''Medieval Women; Queens of Jerusalem'', p. 151</ref>}} {{nowrap|Baldwin II}} perceived that Fulk, an ambitious man with grown sons to spare, was also a threat to {{nowrap|Baldwin II's}} family and interest, and specifically a threat to his daughter Melisende. {{nowrap|Baldwin II}} suspected that once he had died, Fulk would repudiate Melisende and set her and her children aside in favor of Elias, Fulk's younger but full grown son from his first marriage as an heir to Jerusalem.<ref name="Melisende's youth"/>

Fulk and Melisende were married on 2 June 1129 in Jerusalem. When Melisende bore a son and heir in 1130, the future [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]], her father took steps to ensure Melisende would rule after him as reigning Queen of Jerusalem. {{nowrap|Baldwin II}} held a coronation ceremony investing the kingship of Jerusalem jointly between his daughter, his grandson {{nowrap|Baldwin III}}, and Fulk. Strengthening her position, {{nowrap|Baldwin II}} designated Melisende as sole guardian for the young Baldwin, excluding Fulk. When {{nowrap|Baldwin II}} died the next year in 1131, Melisende and Fulk ascended to the throne as joint rulers. Later, [[William of Tyre]] wrote of Melisende's right to rule following the death of her father that "the rule of the kingdom remained in the power of the lady queen Melisende, a queen beloved by God, to whom it passed by hereditary right".<ref name="Melisende's youth"/>{{refn|group=N| {{lang|la|reseditque reginam regni potestas penes dominam Melisendem, Deo amabilem reginam, cui jure hereditario competebat}} }} However, with the aid of his knights, Fulk excluded Melisende from granting titles, offering patronage, and of issuing grants, diplomas, and charters. Fulk openly and publicly dismissed her hereditary authority. The fears of {{nowrap|Baldwin II}} seemed to be justified, and the continued mistreatment of their queen irritated the members of the ''Haute Cour'', whose own positions would be eroded if Fulk continued to dominate the realm. Fulk's behavior was in keeping with his ruling philosophy, as in Anjou Fulk had quashed any attempts by local towns to administer themselves and strong-armed his vassals into submission.<ref name="Oldenbourg's Melisende"/><ref>Oldenbourg wrote that Fulk had "broken the resistance of his principal vassals on his own domains and paralyzed all attempts at emancipation by the townspeople. p. 264</ref> Fulk's autocratic style contrasted with the somewhat collegial association with their monarch that native Eastern Franks had come to enjoy.

==Palace intrigue==
[[Image:Map Crusader states 1135-en.svg|thumb|250px|The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other Crusader states, with Muslim states (in shades of green) in 1135 during the reign of Melisende]]
[[Image:Melisende-Psalter f12v.jpg|frame|An illustration from the [[Melisende Psalter]], commissioned during the Queen's reign]]
The estrangement between husband and wife was a convenient political tool that Fulk used in 1134 when he accused [[Hugh II of Jaffa]] of having an affair with Melisende. Hugh was the most powerful baron in the kingdom, and devotedly loyal to the memory of his cousin {{nowrap|Baldwin II}}. This loyalty now extended to Melisende. Contemporary sources, such as [[William of Tyre]], discount the alleged infidelity of Melisende and instead point out that Fulk overly favoured newly arrived Frankish crusaders from Anjou over the native nobility of the kingdom. Had Melisende been guilty, the Church and nobility likely would not have supported her later.<ref name="Medieval Women">{{cite book |author1=Bernard Hamilton |editor1-last=Baker |editor1-first=Derek |title=Medieval Women |date=1978 |publisher=The Ecclesiastical History Society |location=Oxford |page=150}}</ref>

Hugh allied himself with the Muslim city of [[Ascalon]], and was able to hold off the army set against him. He could not maintain his position indefinitely, however. His alliance with Ascalon cost him support at court. The [[William of Malines|Patriarch]] negotiated lenient terms for peace, and Hugh was exiled for three years. Soon thereafter an unsuccessful assassination attempt against Hugh was attributed to Fulk or his supporters. This was reason enough for the queen's party to challenge Fulk openly, as Fulk's unfounded assertions of infidelity were a public affront that would severely damage Melisende's position.

Through what amounted to a palace coup, the queen's supporters overcame Fulk, and from 1135 onwards Fulk's influence rapidly deteriorated. One historian wrote that Fulk's supporters "went in terror of their lives" in the palace.<ref name="Medieval Women"/> William of Tyre wrote that Fulk "did not attempt to take the initiative, even in trivial matters, without [Melisende's] knowledge". Husband and wife reconciled by 1136 and had a second son, [[Amalric I of Jerusalem|Amalric]]. When Fulk was killed in a hunting accident in 1143, Melisende publicly and privately mourned for him.

Melisende's victory was complete. Again, she is seen in the historical record granting titles of nobility, fiefdoms, appointments and offices, granting royal favours and pardons and holding court. Melisende was no mere regent-queen for her son {{nowrap|Baldwin III}}, but a queen regnant, reigning by right of hereditary and civil law.

==Patroness of the church and arts==

Melisende enjoyed the support of the [[Catholic Church|Church]] throughout her lifetime; from her appointment as {{nowrap|Baldwin II's}} successor, throughout the conflict with Fulk, and later when {{nowrap|Baldwin III}} would come of age. In 1138 she founded the [[Convent of Saint Lazarus]] in Bethany, where her younger sister [[Ioveta of Bethany|Ioveta]] would rule as abbess. In keeping with a royal abbey, Melisende granted the convent the fertile plains of [[Jericho]]. Additionally, the queen supplied rich furnishings and liturgical vessels, so that it would not be inferior to religious houses for men. Melisende also gave endowments to the [[Holy Sepulchre]], Our Lady of Josaphat, the [[Templum Domini]], the [[Order of the Hospital]], St Lazarus leper hospital, and the [[Praemonstratensian]] St Samuel's in [[Mountjoy (Crusaders)|Mountjoy]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hamilton |first1=Bernard |title=Crusaders, Cathars and the Holy Places |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-81278-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIyADwAAQBAJ&pg=PT24}}</ref>

She also appreciated a variety of literary and visual arts due to the artistic exposures she received as a result of her parents' mixed Frankish-Armenian union. She created a school of bookmakers and a school of [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]] painters of [[illuminated manuscript]]s.<ref name="Vintage Books">{{cite book|last1=Philips|first1=Jonathan|title=Holy Warriors: a Modern History of the Crusades|date=2010|publisher=Vintage Books|page=72}}</ref> She also commissioned the construction of a vaulted complex of shops, including the Street of Bad Cooking.<ref name="Vintage Books"/> The street (Malquisinat, now the {{transliteration|ar|Sūq al-ʿAṭṭārīn}}/[[:commons:Category:Spice and Perfume Market (Old Jerusalem)|Spice Market]])<ref>{{cite book |translator-last=Stewart |translator-first=Aubrey |title=Anonymous Pilgrims, I–VIII. |date=1897 |publisher=Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund |page=11 |url=https://archive.org/details/libraryofpalesti06paleuoft/page/n114/mode/1up}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Boas |first=Adrian J. |title=Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades |year= 2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-58272-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0TuCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA269 |quote=Street of Bad Cooking/Street of Cooks (Malquisinat/Vicus Coquinatus/Vicus Coquinatorum/Kocatrice)}}</ref> was the central and most famous market of Crusader Jerusalem, where merchants and cooks supplied the numerous pilgrims who visited the city with food.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jewish Food|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/eating-in-historical-jerusalem|website=The Jewish Mosaic|publisher=Hebrew School of Jerusalem|access-date=2018-04-26}}</ref>

Melisende's love for books and her religious piety were very well known. She was recognized as a patroness of books,<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|last1=Philips|first1=Jonathan|title=Holy Warriors: a Modern History of the Crusades|date=2010|publisher=Vintage Books|page=70}}</ref> a fact her husband knew how to exploit following the incident that greatly injured their relationship and the monarchy's stability. King Fulk was jealous of the friendship Melisende shared with Hugh, Count of Jaffa.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Newman|first1=Sharan|title=Defending the City of God: a Medieval Queen, the First Crusades, and the Quest for Peace in Jerusalem|date=2014|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|page=152}}</ref> Placed under scrutiny for supposed adultery with the queen, Hugh was attacked by an assassin who was most likely sent by the king himself.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Newman|first1=Sharan|title=Defending the City of God: a Medieval Queen, the First Crusades, and the Quest for Peace in Jerusalem|date=2014|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|page=155}}</ref> This greatly angered the queen. Melisende was extremely hostile after the accusations about her alleged infidelity with Hugh and refused to speak to or allow in court those who sided with her husband – deeming them "under the displeasure of the queen".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Newman|first1=Sharan|title=Defending the City of God: a Medieval Queen, the First Crusades, and the Quest for Peace in Jerusalem|date=2014|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|pages=156}}</ref> Fulk likely set to appease his wife by commissioning her a book as a peace offering: the [[Melisende Psalter]]. It is expensively adorned, with a silk spine, ivory carvings, studded gemstones,<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="Melisende">{{cite book|last1=Tranovich|first1=Margaret|title=Melisende of Jerusalem: the World of a Forgotten Crusader Queen|date=2011|publisher=Melisende|pages=23}}</ref> a calendar, and prayers with illuminated initial letters.<ref name="Melisende"/> It is in Latin, suggesting that Melisende was literate in Latin and that some noblewomen in the Middle East were educated in this way.
While there is no identification placing this book as Melisende's or made with her in mind, there are indications: the use of Latin text appropriate for a secular woman (as opposed to an abbess or such), the particular venerations of the Virgin Mary and Mary Magdalen (suggestive of [[Our Lady of Josaphat|the nearby abbey]] Melisende patronized), the only two royal mentions/inclusions being of Melisende's parents, and a possible bird pun on the king's name.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book|last1=Philips|first1=Jonathan|title=Holy Warriors: a Modern History of the Crusades|date=2010|publisher=Vintage Books|pages=71}}</ref>

Though influenced by Byzantine and Italian traditions in the illuminations, the artists who contributed to the Melisende Psalter had a unique and decidedly 'Jerusalem style'. The historian [[Hugo Buchtal]] wrote that

:"Jerusalem during the second quarter of the twelfth century possessed a flourishing and well-established [[scriptorium]] which could, without difficulty, undertake a commission for a royal manuscript ''de grand luxe''".

There is no account of how Melisende received this gift but shortly after its creation, the royal union appeared stronger than ever. Two things prove the couple's reconciliation: 1) almost every single charter after this was issued by Fulk but labeled "with the consent and the approval of Queen Melisende", and 2) the birth of the royal pair's second son, Amalric, in 1136.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> It is also reported that Queen Melisende mourned greatly after her husband fell off a horse and died in 1143.<ref name="Vintage Books"/>

==Second Crusade==
In 1144 the [[Crusader states|Crusader state]] of [[County of Edessa|Edessa]] was besieged in a border war that threatened its survival. Queen Melisende responded by sending an army led by [[Officers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem|constable]] [[Manasses of Hierges]], [[Philip of Milly]], and Elinand of Bures. [[Raymond of Poitiers|Raymond of Antioch]] ignored the call for help, as his army was already occupied against the Byzantine Empire in Cilicia. Despite Melisende's army, [[Siege of Edessa (1144)|Edessa fell]].

Melisende sent word to the Pope in Rome, and the west called for a [[Second Crusade]]. The crusader expedition was led by French [[Louis VII of France]] and the German Emperor [[Conrad III of Germany|Conrad III]]. Accompanying Louis was his wife [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], with her own vassal lords in tow. Eleanor had herself been designated by her father, [[William X of Aquitaine|William X]], to succeed him in her own right, just as Melisende had been designated to succeed her father.

During the Crusader [[Council of Acre|meeting in Acre]] in 1148, the battle strategy was planned. Conrad and Louis advised 18-year-old {{nowrap|Baldwin III}} to attack the Muslim city-state of [[Damascus]], though Melisende, Manasses, and Eleanor wanted to take [[Aleppo]], which would aid them in retaking Edessa. The meeting ended with Damascus as their target. Damascus and Jerusalem were on very good diplomatic terms and there was a peace treaty between them. The result of this breach of treaty was that Damascus would never trust the Crusader states again, and the loss of a sympathetic Muslim state was a blow from which later monarchs of Jerusalem could not recover. After 11 months, Eleanor and Louis departed for France, ending the Second Crusade.

==Mother and son==
Melisende's relationship with her son was complex. As a mother she would know her son and his capabilities, and she is known to have been particularly close to her children. As a ruler she may have been reluctant to entrust decision-making powers to an untried youth. Either way there was no political or social pressure to grant Baldwin any authority before 1152, even though Baldwin reached majority in 1145. {{nowrap|Baldwin III}} and Melisende were jointly crowned as co-rulers on Christmas Day, 1143. This joint crowning was similar to Melisende's own crowning with her father in 1128, and may have reflected a growing trend to crown one's heir in the present monarch's lifetime, as demonstrated in other realms of this period.

Baldwin grew up to be a capable, if not brilliant, military commander. By age 22 however, Baldwin felt he could take some responsibility in governance. Melisende had hitherto only partially associated Baldwin in her rule. Tension between mother and son mounted between 1150 and 1152, with Baldwin blaming Manasses for alienating his mother from him. The crisis reached a boiling point early 1152 when Baldwin demanded that the [[Patriarch Fulk of Jerusalem|patriarch Fulcher]] crown him in the Holy Sepulchre, without Melisende present. The Patriarch refused. Baldwin, in protest, staged a procession in the city streets wearing laurel wreaths, a kind of self-crowning.

Baldwin and Melisende agreed to put the decision to the ''Haute Cour''. The ''Haute Cour'' decided that Baldwin would rule the north of the kingdom and Melisende the richer [[Judea]] and [[Samaria]], and Jerusalem itself. Melisende acquiesced, though with misgivings. This decision would prevent a civil war but also divide the kingdom's resources. Though later historians criticized Melisende for not abdicating in favor of her son, there was little impetus for her to do so. She was universally recognized as an exceptional steward for her kingdom, and her rule had been characterized as a wise one by church leaders and other contemporaries. Baldwin had not shown any interest in governance prior to 1152, and had resisted responsibility in this arena. The Church clearly supported Melisende, as did the barons of Judea and Samaria.

Despite putting the matter before the ''Haute Cour'', Baldwin was not happy with the partition any more than Melisende. But instead of reaching further compromise, within weeks of the decision he launched an invasion of his mother's realms. Baldwin showed that he was Fulk's son by quickly taking the field; [[Nablus]] and Jerusalem fell swiftly. Melisende with her younger son Amalric and others sought refuge in the [[Tower of David]]. Church mediation between mother and son resulted in the grant of the city of Nablus and adjacent lands to Melisende to rule for life, and a solemn oath by {{nowrap|Baldwin III}} not to disturb her peace. This peace settlement demonstrated that though Melisende lost the "civil war" to her son, she still maintained great influence and avoided total obscurity in a convent.

==Retirement==
By 1153, mother and son had been reconciled. Since the civil war, Baldwin had shown his mother great respect. Melisende's connections, especially to her sister Hodierna, and to her niece [[Constance of Antioch]], meant that she had direct influence in northern Syria, a priceless connection since Baldwin had himself broken the treaty with Damascus in 1147.

As {{nowrap|Baldwin III}} was often on military campaigns, he realized he had few reliable advisers. From 1154 onwards, Melisende is again associated with her son in many of his official public acts. In 1156, she concluded a treaty with the merchants of [[Pisa]]. In 1157, with Baldwin on campaign in Antioch, Melisende saw an opportunity to take el-Hablis,{{dubious|Maybe al-Habis Jaldak, the Cave Castle? No al-Hablis to be found...|date=January 2016}}{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} which controlled the lands of [[Gilead]] beyond the Jordan. Also in 1157, on the death of patriarch Fulcher, Melisende, her sister Ioveta the Abbess of Bethany, and [[Sibylla of Anjou|Sibylla of Flanders]] had Amalric of Nesle appointed as patriarch of Jerusalem. Additionally, Melisende was witness to her son Amalric's marriage to [[Agnes of Courtenay]] in 1157. In 1160, she gave her assent to a grant made by her son Amalric to the Holy Sepulchre, perhaps on the occasion of the birth of her granddaughter [[Sibylla of Jerusalem|Sibylla]] to Agnes and Amalric.

==Death==
{{Main|Abbey of St. Mary of the Valley of Jehosaphat}}
[[File:Mary's tomb,Melisende IMG 0251c.jpg|thumb|Chapel of Saints Joachim and Anne, originally the tomb of Queen Melisende of Jerusalem]]
In 1161, Melisende fell ill. It is likely that she had a stroke. Suffering from severe [[memory impairment]], she could no longer participate in government. Her surviving sisters – the countess of Tripoli and abbess of Bethany – came to nurse her before she died on 11 September 1161. Melisende was buried next to her mother Morphia in the [[Abbey of St. Mary of the Valley of Jehosaphat|shrine of Our Lady of Josaphat]]. Melisende, like her mother, bequeathed property to the Orthodox monastery of [[Mar Saba|Saint Sabbas]] in Jerusalem.

William of Tyre, writing on Melisende's 30-year reign, wrote that "she was a very wise woman, fully experienced in almost all affairs of state business, who completely triumphed over the handicap of her sex so that she could take charge of important affairs", and that, "striving to emulate the glory of the best princes, Melisende ruled the kingdom with such ability that she was rightly considered to have equalled her predecessors in that regard". Professor Bernard Hamilton of the University of Nottingham has written that, while William of Tyre's comments may seem rather patronizing to modern readers, they amount to a great show of respect from a society and culture in which women were regarded as having fewer rights and less authority than their brothers, their fathers or even their sons.

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=N}}
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |author1=Bernard Hamilton |author1-link=Women in the Crusader States: The Queens of Jerusalem 1100-90 |editor1-last=Baker |editor1-first=Derek |title=Medieval Women |date=1978 |publisher=The Ecclesiastical Historical Society |location=Oxford |isbn=0-631-12539-6 |pages=143–174}}
* {{cite book |author=Hodgson, Natasha R.|title=Women, Crusading and the Holy Land in Historical Narrative|author-link=Natasha R. Hodgson |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge, Suffolk, England|year=2007|isbn=978-1-84383-332-1}}
* {{cite book|author=Hopkins, Andrea|title=Damsels Not in Distress: the True Story of Women in Medieval Times|author-link=Andrea Hopkins|publisher=Rosen Publishing Group, Inc|location=New York|year=2004|isbn=0-8239-3992-8|url=https://archive.org/details/damselsnotindist00andr}}
* {{cite book |author=Mayer, Hans E.|title=Studies in the History of Queen Melisende of Jerusalem|author-link=Hans E. Mayer |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Papers 26 |year=1974}}
* {{cite book|author=Leon, Vicki|title=Uppity Women of the Medieval Times|author-link=Vicky Leon|publisher=Conari Books|location=Berkeley, CA|year=1997|isbn=1-57324-010-9|url=https://archive.org/details/uppitywomenofanc00leon}}
* {{cite book |author=Oldenbourg, Zoé |title=The Crusades|author-link=Zoé Oldenbourg|publisher=Pantheon Books, A Division of Random House|location= New York |year=1965|lccn=65010013}}
* Tranovich, Margaret, ''Melisende of Jerusalem: The World of a Forgotten Crusader Queen'' (Sawbridgeworth, East and West Publishing, 2011).
* Gaudette, Helen A. (2010), "The Spending Power of a Crusader Queen: Melisende of Jerusalem", ''in'' Theresa Earenfight (ed.), ''Women and Wealth in Late Medieval Europe'', Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 135–148
* Gerish, Deborah (2006), "Holy War, Royal Wives, and Equivocation in Twelfth-Century Jerusalem", ''in'' Naill Christie and Maya Yazigis (ed.), ''Noble Ideals and Bloody Realities'', Leiden, J. Brill, pp. 119–144
* Gerish, Deborah (2012), "Royal Daughters of Jerusalem and the Demands of Holy War", ''Leidschrift Historisch Tijdschrift'', vol. 27, no 3, pp. 89–112
* Hamilton, Bernard (1978), "Women in the Crusader States: the Queens of Jerusalem", ''in'' Derek Baker and Rosalind M. T. Hill (ed.), ''Medieval Women'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, pp. 143–174; Nurith Kenaan-Kedar, "Armenian Architecture in Twelfth-Century Crusader Jerusalem", ''Assaph Studies in Art History'', no 3, pp. 77–91
* Kühnel, Bianca (1991), "The Kingly Statement of the Bookcovers of Queen Melisende’s Psalter", ''in'' Ernst Dassmann and Klaus Thraede (ed.), ''Tesserae: Festschrift für Joseph Engemann'', Münster, Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, pp. 340–357
* Lambert, Sarah (1997), "Queen or Consort: Rulership and Politics in the Latin East, 1118–1228", ''in'' Anne J. Duggan (ed.), ''Queens and Queenship in Medieval Europe'', Woodbridge, Boydell Press, pp. 153–169
* [[Mayer, Hans Eberhard]] (1972), "Studies in the History of Queen Melisende of Jerusalem", ''Dumbarton Oaks Papers'', vol. 26, pp. 93–182.<ref>Mayer, Hans Eberhard. “[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291317?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A33ca8d720068fd4d0510657cdea27761&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Studies in the History of Queen Melisende of Jerusalem].” ''Dumbarton Oaks Papers'', Volume 26 (1972), pp. 93–182.</ref>
* [[Newman, Sharan]], ''Defending the City of God: a Medieval Queen, the First Crusades, and the Quest for Peace in Jerusalem'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2014
* Philips, Jonathan. ''Holy Warriors: a Modern History of the Crusades'', Vintage Books, 2010
* {{cite book |last=Ferdinandi |first=Sergio |year=2017 |title= La Contea Franca di Edessa. Fondazione e Profilo Storico del Primo Principato Crociato nel Levante (1098–1150) |publisher= Pontificia Università Antonianum |location= Rome |isbn=978-88-7257-103-3 }}

==Further reading==
;Historical fiction
* {{cite book |author=Tarr, Judith|title=Queen of Swords|publisher=Tom Doherty LLC|year=1997}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Melisende of Jerusalem}}
* [http://www.medievalarchives.com/Melisende Melisende: Queen of Jerusalem] on [http://www.medievalarchives.com/PodcastList Medieval Archives Podcast]

{{s-start}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Baldwin II of Jerusalem|Baldwin II]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Queen of Jerusalem]]|years=1131–1153|regent1=[[Fulk of Jerusalem|Fulk]]|years1=1131–1143|regent2=[[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]]|years2=1143–1153)}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]]}}
{{S-end}}
{{Jerusalem Monarchs}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Melisende Of Jerusalem}}
[[Category:1105 births]]
[[Category:1161 deaths]]
[[Category:12th-century monarchs of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Queens regnant of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Christians of the Second Crusade]]
[[Category:Women from the Crusader states]]
[[Category:Women in 12th-century warfare]]
[[Category:12th-century queens regnant]]
[[Category:Women in war in the Middle East]]
[[Category:Gilead]]

Fulk, King of Jerusalem

2024-02-19T06:16:02Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Count of Anjou */

{{Short description|Count of Anjou (1089/1092–1143)}}
{{redirect|Fulk of Jerusalem|the Latin patriarch from 1146 to 1157|Patriarch Fulk of Jerusalem}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Fulk (V)
| image = File:The Coronation of Fulk of Jerusalem in the Les grandes Chroniques de France.jpg
| caption = King Fulk (enthroned) being crowned
| succession = [[King of Jerusalem]]
| reign = 1131–1143
| coronation =
| predecessor = [[Baldwin II of Jerusalem|Baldwin II]]
| successor = [[Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem|Melisende]] and [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]]
| regent = [[Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem|Melisende]]
| reg-type = Co-Sovereign
| birth_date = {{c.}} 1089/1092
| birth_place = [[Angers]], [[Kingdom of France|France]]
| death_date = 13 November 1143
| death_place = [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], [[Outremer]], [[Levant]]
| spouse = [[Eremburga of Maine|Erembourg/Ermengarde, Countess of Maine]] [[Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem]]
| issue = [[Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou]] [[Sibylla of Anjou|Sibylla, Countess of Flanders]] [[Matilda of Anjou|Matilda, Duchess of Normandy]] [[Elias II, Count of Maine]] [[Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem]] [[Amalric, King of Jerusalem]]
| house = [[House of Châteaudun|Anjou-Châteaudun]]
| father = [[Fulk IV, Count of Anjou]]
| mother = [[Bertrade de Montfort]]
| succession1 = [[Count of Anjou]]
| reign2 = 1109–1129
| predecessor2 = [[Fulk IV of Anjou|Fulk IV]]
| successor2 = [[Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou|Geoffrey V]]
| place of burial = [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]], [[Jerusalem]]
}}
[[File:Map Crusader states 1135-en.svg|thumb|300px|The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other Crusader states in 1135 [[AD]], during the reign of Fulk]]

'''Fulk''' ({{lang-la|Fulco}}, {{lang-fr|Foulque}} or ''Foulques''; {{Circa|1089/1092}} – 13 November 1143), also known as '''Fulk the Younger''', was the [[count of Anjou]] (as '''Fulk V''') from 1109 to 1129 and the [[king of Jerusalem]] with his wife Melisende from 1131 to his death. During their reign, the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] reached its largest territorial extent.

==Count of Anjou==
Fulk was born at [[Angers]], between 1089 and 1092, the son of Count [[Fulk IV of Anjou]] and [[Bertrade de Montfort]]. In 1092, Bertrade deserted her husband, and bigamously married King [[Philip I of France]]. Fulk V became count of Anjou upon his father's death in 1109. In the next year, he married Countess [[Ermengarde of Maine|Erembourg (or Ermengarde) of Maine]], cementing Angevin control over the County of [[Maine (province)|Maine]].

Fulk was originally an opponent of King [[Henry I of England]] and a supporter of King [[Louis VI of France]], but in 1118 or 1119 he allied with Henry when he arranged for his daughter [[Matilda of Anjou]] to marry Henry's son [[William Adelin]]. Fulk went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1119 or 1120, and became attached to the [[Knights Templar]]. He returned, late in 1121, after which he began to subsidize the Templars, maintaining two knights in the Holy Land for a year. Much later, Henry arranged for his own daughter [[Empress Matilda|Matilda]] to marry Fulk's son [[Geoffrey V of Anjou]], which she did in 1127 or 1128.

==Crusader and king==
By 1127 Fulk was preparing to return to Anjou when he received an embassy from King [[Baldwin II of Jerusalem]]. Baldwin II had no male heirs but had already designated his daughter [[Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem|Melisende]] to succeed him. Baldwin II wanted to safeguard his daughter's inheritance by marrying her to a powerful lord. Fulk was a wealthy crusader and experienced military commander, and a widower. His experience in the field would prove invaluable in a frontier state always in the grip of war.

However, Fulk held out for better terms than mere consort of the queen. He wanted to be king alongside Melisende. Baldwin II, reflecting on Fulk's fortune and military exploits, acquiesced. Fulk abdicated his county seat of Anjou to his son Geoffrey and left for Jerusalem, where he married Melisende on 2 June 1129. Later Baldwin II bolstered Melisende's position in the kingdom by making her sole guardian of her son by Fulk, [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]], born in 1130.

Fulk and Melisende became joint rulers of Jerusalem in 1131 with Baldwin II's death. From the start Fulk assumed sole control of the government, excluding Melisende altogether. He favored fellow countrymen from Anjou to the native nobility. The other [[Crusader states]] to the north feared that Fulk would attempt to impose the suzerainty of Jerusalem over them, as Baldwin II had done. But as Fulk was far less powerful than his deceased father-in-law, the northern states rejected his authority. Melisende's sister [[Alice of Antioch]], exiled from the Principality by Baldwin II, took control of Antioch once more after the death of her father. She allied with [[Pons of Tripoli]] and [[Joscelin II of Edessa]] to prevent Fulk from marching north in 1132. Fulk and Pons fought a brief battle before peace was made and Alice was exiled again.

In Jerusalem as well, Fulk was resented by the second generation of Jerusalem Christians who had grown up there since the First Crusade. These natives focused on Melisende's cousin, the popular [[Hugh II of Le Puiset]], [[count of Jaffa]], who was devotedly loyal to Melisende. Fulk saw Hugh as a rival, and it did not help matters when Hugh's own stepson accused him of disloyalty. In 1134, in order to expose Hugh, Fulk accused him of infidelity with Melisende. Hugh rebelled in protest. Hugh secured himself to Jaffa, and allied himself with the Muslims of [[Ascalon]]. He was able to defeat the army set against him by Fulk, but this situation could not hold. The patriarch [[William of Malines|Willam of Malines]] interceded in the conflict, perhaps at the behest of Melisende. Fulk agreed to peace and Hugh was exiled from the kingdom for three years, a lenient sentence.
[[File:Foulque5.jpg|thumb|right|13th-century painting depicting Fulk]]
However, an assassination attempt was made against Hugh. Fulk, or his supporters, were commonly believed responsible, though direct proof never surfaced. The scandal was all that was needed for the queen's party to take over the government in what amounted to a palace coup. Author and historian {{ill|Bernard Hamilton|pl}} wrote that Fulk's supporters "went in terror of their lives" in the palace. Contemporary author and historian [[William of Tyre]] wrote of Fulk: "He never attempted to take the initiative, even in trivial matters, without (Melisende's) consent." The result was that Melisende held direct and unquestioned control over the government from 1136 onwards. Sometime before 1136 Fulk reconciled with his wife, and a second son, [[Amalric of Jerusalem|Amalric]], was born.

==Securing the borders==
Jerusalem's northern border was of great concern. Fulk had been appointed [[regent]] of the [[Principality of Antioch]] by Baldwin II. As regent he had [[Raymond of Poitou]] marry the infant princess [[Constance of Antioch]], his and Melisende's niece. However, the greatest concern during Fulk's reign was the rise of [[Imad al-Din Zengi|Zengi]], [[List of rulers of Mosul#Zengid emirs|atabeg of Mosul]].

In 1137 Fulk was defeated in battle near [[Baarin]] but allied with [[Mu'in ad-Din Unur]], the vizier of [[Damascus]]. Damascus was also threatened by Zengi. Fulk captured the fort of [[Banias]], to the north of [[Lake Tiberias]] and thus secured the northern frontier.

Fulk also strengthened the kingdom's southern border. His butler [[Pagan the Butler|Paganus]] built the fortress of [[Kerak]] to the east of the [[Dead Sea]], and to help give the kingdom access to the [[Red Sea]], Fulk had [[Blanchegarde]], [[Ibelin (castle)|Ibelin]], and other forts built in the south-west to overpower the [[Egypt]]ian fortress at [[Askelon|Ascalon]]. This city was a base from which the Egyptian [[Fatimids]] launched frequent raids on the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Fulk sought to neutralise this threat.

In 1137 and 1142, [[Byzantine emperor]] [[John II Comnenus]] arrived in [[Syria]] attempting to impose [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] control over the [[crusader state]]s. John's intention of making a pilgrimage, accompanied by his impressive army, to Jerusalem alarmed Fulk, who wrote to John pointing out that his kingdom was poor and could not support the passage of a large army. This lukewarm response dissuaded John from carrying through his intention, and he postponed his pilgrimage. John died before he could make good his proposed journey to Jerusalem.<ref>Runciman (1952), ''A History of the Crusades, Vol. II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem'', Cambridge University Press. pp. 212–213, 222–224</ref>

==Death==
In 1143, while the king and queen were in [[Akko|Acre]], Fulk was killed in a hunting accident.<ref>''Life among the Europeans in Palestine and Syria in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries'', Urban Tignor Holmes, ''A History of the Crusades: The Art and Architecture of the Crusader States'', Volume IV, ed. Kenneth M. Setton and Harry W. Hazard, (University of Wisconsin Press, 1977), 19.</ref> His horse stumbled, fell, and Fulk's skull was crushed by the saddle, "and his brains gushed forth from both ears and nostrils", as [[William of Tyre]] describes. He was carried back to Acre, where he lay unconscious for three days before he died. He was buried in the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in Jerusalem. Though their marriage started in conflict, Melisende mourned for him privately as well as publicly. Fulk was survived by his son Geoffrey by his first wife, and Baldwin and Amalric by Melisende.

A marble panel from his tomb (or [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]]'s) is in the [[Terra Sancta Museum]], Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Boehm |first1=Barbara Drake |last2=Holcomb |first2=Melanie |title=Jerusalem, 1000–1400 |date=2016 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-1-58839-598-6 |page=155 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ay30DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA155 |quote=Portion of a Transenna Panel […] CTS-SB-09460}}</ref> The panel includes [[rosette (design)|rosette]]s, one of which has a [[cross pattée]] in its center.

==Legacy==

===Depictions===
According to William of Tyre, Fulk was "a ruddy man, like David... faithful and gentle, affable and kind... an experienced warrior full of patience and wisdom in military affairs." His chief fault was an inability to remember names and faces.

William described Fulk as a capable soldier and able politician, but observed that Fulk did not adequately attend to the defense of the crusader states to the north. [[Ibn al-Qalanisi]] (who calls him ''al-Kund Anjur'', an Arabic rendering of "Count of Anjou") says that "he was not sound in his judgment nor was he successful in his administration." The Zengids continued their march on the crusader states, culminating in the fall of the county after the [[Siege of Edessa (1144)|Siege of Edessa]] in 1144, which led to the [[Second Crusade]].

===Family===
In 1110, Fulk married [[Eremburga of Maine|Erembourg/Ermengarde of Maine]] (died 1126), the daughter of [[Elias I of Maine]].{{sfn|LoPrete|2007|loc=Chart 1}} They had:
# [[Geoffrey V of Anjou]] (1113–1151),{{sfn|LoPrete|2007|loc=Chart 1}} father of [[Henry II of England]].
# [[Sibylla of Anjou]] (1112–1165, [[Bethlehem]]), married in 1123 [[William Clito]] (div. 1124),{{sfn|LoPrete|2007|loc=Chart 1}} married in 1134 [[Thierry, Count of Flanders]].
# [[Matilda of Anjou]] (c.1111–1154, Fontevrault), married [[William Adelin]]; after his death on the ''[[White Ship]]'' disaster of 1120, she became a nun and later [[Fontevraud Abbey|Abbess of Fontevrault]]{{sfn|LoPrete|2007|loc=Chart 1}}
# [[Elias II of Maine]] (died 1151){{sfn|LoPrete|2007|loc=Chart 1}}

His second wife was [[Melisende of Jerusalem|Melisende]], Queen of Jerusalem. They married in 1129 and had two children:
# [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem]]
# [[Amalric of Jerusalem]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
*[[Orderic Vitalis]]
*[[Robert of Torigny]]
*[[William of Tyre]]
*{{cite book |title=Adela of Blois: Countess and Lord (c.1067-1137) |url=https://archive.org/details/adelaofbloiscoun0000lopr/page/576/mode/2up?view=theater |first=Kimberly A. |last=LoPrete |publisher=Four Courts Press |year=2007 }}
*[[Steven Runciman|Runciman, Steven]] (1952) ''A History of the Crusades, Vol. II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem,'' Cambridge University Press.
*Medieval Women, edited by Derek Baker, the Ecclesiastical History Society, 1978
*Payne, Robert. ''The Dream and the Tomb'', 1984
*''The Damascus Chronicle of Crusades'', trans. H.A.R. Gibb, 1932.

{{Commons category|Fulk of Jerusalem }}

{{S-start}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Fulk IV]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Count of Anjou]]
| years = 1106–1129
}}
{{s-aft
| rows = 2
| after = [[Geoffrey V of Anjou|Geoffrey V]]
}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Elias I, Count of Maine|Elias I]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Count of Maine]]
| years = 1110–1126
| regent1 = [[Eremburga of Maine|Eremburga]]
}}

{{s-bef
| before = [[Baldwin II of Jerusalem|Baldwin II]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[King of Jerusalem]]
| regent1 = [[Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem|Melisende]]
| years = 1131–1143
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem|Melisende]]
| after2 = [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]]
}}
{{S-end}}

{{Jerusalem Monarchs}}
{{Antioch Monarchs}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fulk of Jerusalem}}
[[Category:11th-century births]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:1143 deaths]]
[[Category:12th-century monarchs of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Kings of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Regents of Antioch]]
[[Category:Jure uxoris kings]]
[[Category:Counts of Anjou]]
[[Category:Deaths by horse-riding accident]]
[[Category:People from Angers]]
[[Category:12th-century French people]]
[[Category:Burials at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]
[[Category:12th-century regents]]

Expedition to Samosata

2024-02-19T06:14:31Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B:

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict= Expedition to Samosata
|partof= the [[First Crusade]]
|date= 1098
|place= [[Anatolia]]
|result = Samosata Turks military victory
|territory = Capture of the village of St. John by the Crusaders
|combatant1=[[Emirate of Samosata]]
|combatant2=[[County of Edessa]]
|commander1=[[Balduk]]
|commander2=[[Baldwin I of Jerusalem]] [[Constantine of Gargar]]
|strength1=unknown
|strength2=80 Crusader Knights, a few thousand Edessenes
|casualties1=unknown
|casualties2=~1000 Edessenes killed
|notes=
}}
{{Campaignbox First Crusade}}

The '''Expedition to Samosata''' was undertaken by the future [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem]] following his ascension to co-regent of [[Edessa]] as a part of the [[First Crusade]]. His main goal was to eliminate the [[Emirate of Samosata]] as a commercial and military rival of the Edessene state. The expedition was carried out from 14 to 20 February 1098.

== Circumstances of the War ==
Baldwin decided upon his ascension of co-regent of Edessa that [[Samosata]] would have to be eliminated in order for his new county to fully control the surrounding countryside and to establish unbroken communications with [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]] in the west and the crusaders sieging [[Antioch]] in the south.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Runciman|first1=Steven|title=A History of the Crusades I: The First Crusade|date=1951–52|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-141-98550-3|pages=196}}</ref> The Armenian, Christian inhabitants of Edessa enthusiastically supported his plan, and the main part of their military accompanied him. He set out on 14 February, also accompanied by an Armenian princeling, [[Constantine of Gargar]].<ref name="auto">{{cite book|last1=Runciman|first1=Steven|title=A History of the Crusades I: The First Crusade|date=1951–52|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-141-98550-3|pages=170}}</ref>

== The Conflict ==
Despite the help of the Edessene militia, the expedition was not to turn out favorably for Baldwin. The Edessenes were poor, inexperienced soldiers, and the company was quickly caught in an ambush by the [[Turkish people|Turks]] of Samosata, who slew around a thousand of them in the ensuing battle. Baldwin, however, did manage to capture and garrison the village of St. John, which was close to Balduk's capital. From this point, he was able to control the flow of the Turks in and out of the city, resulting in a decline in Turkish raids into the Edessene countryside.<ref name="auto"/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{cite book|last1=Runciman|first1=Steven|title=A History of the Crusades I: The First Crusade|date=1951–52|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-141-98550-3|pages=}}

[[Category:First Crusade]]
[[Category:1098 in Europe]]

Battle of Antioch (1098)

2024-02-19T06:13:36Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B:

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict= Battle of Antioch (1098)
|image=A history of the art of war, the middle ages from the fourth to the fourteenth century (1898) - Siege and the battle of Antioch (1098) - map.jpg
|caption= Map of the siege and the battle of Antioch in 1097 and 1098 (1898)
|partof= the [[First Crusade]]
|date= 28 June 1098
|place= [[Antioch]] (present-day [[Antakya]], [[Turkey]])
|result = Crusader victory
|territory =
|combatant1= [[Crusaders]]
|combatant2= [[Seljuk Empire]]
*[[Mosul|Emirate of Mosul]]
*[[List of rulers of Damascus#Seljuq_emirs|Emirate of Damascus]]
*[[Homs|Emirate of Homs]]
*Various other Muslim [[Emirate|Emirates]]<ref>{{harvnb|France|1996|p=261}}</ref>
|commander1=[[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]] [[Raymond IV of Toulouse]] [[Adhemar of Le Puy]] [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] [[Robert II of Normandy]] [[Robert II of Flanders]] [[Hugh, Count of Vermandois|Hugh of Vermandois]] [[Eustace III, Count of Boulogne|Eustace III of Boulogne]] [[Baldwin II, Count of Hainaut|Baldwin II of Hainaut]] [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred of Hauteville]] [[Rainald III of Toul]] [[Gaston IV, Viscount of Béarn|Gaston IV of Béarn]] [[Guglielmo Embriaco]] Anselm of Ribemont
|commander2=[[Kerbogha]] [[Duqaq (Seljuk ruler of Damascus)|Duqaq]] [[Toghtekin]] [[Janah ad-Dawla]] Arslan-Tasch of [[Sinjar|Sindjar]] Qaradja of [[Harran]] Watthab ibn-Mahmud Balduk of [[Samosata]] [[Sökmen (Artuqid)|Soqman ibn Ortoq]] [[Ahmed ibn Merwan|Ahmad ibn-Marwan]]{{surrender}}
|strength1=~20,000
|strength2=~35,000-40,000<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2004|p=204}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rubenstein|2011|p=206}}</ref>
|casualties1=unknown
|casualties2= Heavy
| campaignbox =
{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}
|notes=
}}

The '''Battle of Antioch (1098)''' was a military engagement fought between the Christian forces of the [[First Crusade]] and a Muslim coalition led by [[Kerbogha]], [[List of rulers of Mosul#Seljuk Atabegs|atabeg of Mosul]]. Kerbogha's goal was to reclaim Antioch from the Crusaders and affirm his position as a regional power.

== The conflict begins ==
[[File:Kerbogha Antiochie.jpg|thumb|left|An illustration of Kerbogha besieging Antioch, from a 14th-century manuscript in the care of the [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]]]]
As the starving and outnumbered Crusaders emerged from the gates of the city and divided into six regiments, Kerbogha's commander, Watthab ibn Mahmud, urged him to immediately strike their advancing line.<ref name="Riley-SmithRiley-Smith2003">{{cite book|author1=Jonathan Simon Christopher Riley-Smith|author2=Jonathan Riley-Smith|title=The First Crusade and Idea of Crusading|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RNP6MBmn-2EC&pg=PA59|date=1 April 2003|publisher=Continuum|isbn=978-0-8264-6726-3|page=59}}</ref> However, Kerbogha was concerned a preemptive strike might only destroy the Crusader's front line and may also significantly weaken his own forces disproportionately. However, as the French continued to advance against the Turks, Kerbogha began to grasp the severity of the situation (he previously underestimated the size of the Crusading army), and attempted to establish an embassy between him and the Crusaders in order to broker a truce.<ref name=ruci>{{cite book|last1=Runciman|first1=Steven|title=A History of the Crusades I: The First Crusade|date=1951–52|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-141-98550-3|pages=204–205}}</ref> However, it was too late for him, and the leaders of the Crusade ignored his emissary.

== Battle maneuvers ==
Kerbogha, now backed against a corner by the advancing French, opted to adopt a more traditional Turkish battle tactic. He would attempt to back his army up slightly in order to drag the French into unsteady land, while continuously pelting the line with horse archers, meanwhile making attempts to outflank the French. However, [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]] was ready for this, and he created a seventh division of Crusaders led by [[Rainald III of Toul]] to hold off the attack. Soon, many Emirs began to desert Kerbogha. Many of the Crusaders were also encouraged by the presumed visions of [[St. George]], [[Saint Mercurius|St. Mercurius]], and [[Saint Demetrius]] among their ranks.<ref name=ruci/> Finally, [[Duqaq of Damascus|Duqaq]], ruler of Damascus, deserted, spreading panic among the ranks of the Turks. [[Soqman the Ortoqid|Sökmen]] and the emir of Homs, [[Janah ad-Dawla]], were the last loyal to Kerbogha, but they too soon deserted after realizing the battle was lost. The whole Turkish army was now in complete disarray, all fleeing in different directions; the Crusaders chased them as far as the Iron Bridge, slaying many of them. Kerbogha would go on to return to Mosul, defeated and stripped of his prestige.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |last=Asbridge |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Asbridge |title=The First Crusade: A New History |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195189056}}
* {{cite book |last=France |first=John |title=Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521589871 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/victoryineast00john }}
* {{Runciman-A History of the Crusades|volume=1|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-141-98550-3|pages=}}
* {{cite book |last=Riley-Smith |first=Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Riley-Smith |title=The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading |url=https://archive.org/details/firstcrusadeidea00jona |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |year=1986 |isbn=9780485112917}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rubenstein|first=Jay|title=Armies of Heaven: The First Crusade and the Quest for Apocalypse|publisher=Basic Books|year=2011|location=New York}}

{{coord missing|Turkey}}

[[Category:First Crusade]]
[[Category:1098 in Asia]]
[[Category:History of Antioch]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1098]]

Battle of the Pyramids

2024-02-19T06:10:14Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Aftermath */

{{Short description|1798 battle during the French Invasion of Egypt}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=December 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of the Pyramids|
| partof = the [[French Campaign in Egypt and Syria]] during the [[War of the Second Coalition]]
| image = Louis-François Baron Lejeune 001.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = ''The Battle of the Pyramids'' by [[Louis-François Lejeune]]
| map_type = Mediterranean#World
| map_relief = 1
| map_size = 290
| date = 21 July 1798
| place = [[Imbaba|Embabeh]], [[Egypt Eyalet|Egypt]] [[Ottoman Empire]]
| coordinates = {{coord|30|5|N|31|12|E|type:event|display=inline}}
| result = French victory
| combatant1 = {{flagdeco|First French Republic}} [[First French Republic|French Republic]]
| combatant2 = {{ubl
|{{flagicon|Ottoman Empire|1793}} [[Ottoman Empire]]
}}
*{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mameluks.svg}} [[Mamluks]]{{sfn | Roberts | 2015 | p=132}}{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}}{{sfn | Niox | 1887 | p=110}}
*Arab irregulars{{sfn | Roberts | 2015 | p=132}}{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}}{{sfn | Niox | 1887 | p=110}}
| commander1 = {{Plainlist}}
*{{flagdeco|French First Republic}} [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]]
*{{flagdeco|French First Republic}} [[Louis Desaix]]
*{{flagdeco|French First Republic}} [[Louis André Bon|Louis Bon]]
*{{flagdeco|French First Republic}} [[Honoré Vial|Honoré Vial]]
*{{flagdeco|French First Republic}} [[Jean Reynier]]
*{{flagicon|First French Republic}} [[Thomas-Alexandre Dumas]]
{{Endplainlist}}
| commander2 = {{Plainlist}}
*{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mameluks.svg}} [[Murad Bey]]
*{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mameluks.svg}} [[Ibrahim Bey (Mamluk)|Ibrahim Bey]]
*{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mameluks.svg}} [[Ayyub Bey]]{{KIA}}
{{Endplainlist}}
| strength1 = 20,000–25,000{{efn|name=fn1|Historian [[David G. Chandler|David Chandler]] asserts that Bonaparte's 25,000-strong army outnumbered Murad's 6,000 Mamluks and 15,000 infantry,{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}} while [[Andrew Roberts (historian)|Andrew Roberts]] indicates a force of 6,000 Mamluks and 54,000 Arab irregulars against 20,000 French,{{sfn | Roberts | 2015 | p=132}} military historian [[Gustave Léon Niox]] gives a total of 50,000 Mamluks and irregulars.{{sfn | Niox | 1887 | p=110}} According to [[Paul Strathern]] author of ''Napoleon in Egypt'', “There is no denying that the combined Egyptian force was superior in number but the caliber of some of its conscripted men cannot be compared with that of the French”{{sfn | Strathern | 2008 | p=119}}}}
----
*3,000 cavalry
*17,000 infantry
| strength2 = 21,000–60,000{{efn|name=fn1}}
----
*6,000+ cavalry
*15,000–54,000 infantry{{efn|name=fn1}}
| casualties1 = 289 killed or wounded{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=226}}
| casualties2 = 10,000 killed or wounded{{sfn | Strathern | 2008 | p=128}}{{sfn | Niox | 1887 | p=110}}
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Egypt-Syria}}}}
{{OSM Location map
| coord = {{coord|33|25}}
| zoom = 4
| float = right
| nolabels = 1
| width = 304
| height = 160
| title = [[War of the Second Coalition]]: [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria|Egypt and Syria]]
| caption = {{legend|black|current battle}}{{legend|maroon|Napoleon in command till 23 August 1799}}

| shapeD = n-circle
| shape-colorD = maroon
| shape-outlineD = white
| label-colorD = maroon
| label-sizeD = 12
| label-posD = left
| label-offset-xD = 0
| label-offset-yD = 0

| label1 = Malta
| mark-coord1 = {{coord|35.88|14.45}}
| mark-title1 = [[French invasion of Malta]] from 10 to 12 June 1798
| label-pos1 = right

| label2 = Alexandria
| mark-coord2 = {{coord|31.2|29.9}}
| mark-title2 = [[Battle of the Nile]] from 1 to 3 August 1798 [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria#Bonaparte leaves Egypt|Napoleon's return to France]] from 23 August to 9 October 1799 [[Siege of Alexandria (1801)]] from 17 August to 2 September 1801

| label3 = Cairo
| mark-coord3 = {{coord|30.04|31.25}}
| mark-title3 = Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July 1798 [[Revolt of Cairo]] from 21 to 22 October 1798 [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria#Bonaparte leaves Egypt|Napoleon's return to France]] [[Siege of Cairo]] from May to June 1801
| shape-color3 = black
| label-color3 = black

| label4 = Jaffa
| mark-coord4 = {{coord|32.05|34.77}}
| mark-title4 = [[Siege of Jaffa]] from 3 to 7 March 1799

| label5 =
| mark-coord5 = {{coord|32.92|35.07}}
| mark-title5 = [[Siege of Acre (1799)]] from 20 March to 21 May 1799

| label6 =
| mark-coord6 = {{coord|32.61|35.33}}
| mark-title6 = [[Battle of Mount Tabor (1799)]] on 16 April 1799
}}

The '''Battle of the Pyramids''', also known as the '''Battle of Embabeh''', was a major engagement fought on 21 July 1798, during the [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria|French Invasion of Egypt.]] The battle took place near the village of Embabeh, across the [[Nile|Nile River]] from [[Cairo]], but was named by Napoleon after the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] visible nearly nine miles away.

After capturing Alexandria and crossing the desert, the [[First French Republic|French]] army, led by General [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], scored a decisive victory against the main army of the local [[Mamluk]] rulers, wiping out almost the entire Ottoman army located in Egypt. It was the first battle where Bonaparte personally devised and employed the [[Infantry square|divisional square]] tactic to great effect. The deployment of the French brigades into these massive rectangular formations repeatedly threw back multiple [[cavalry charge]]s of the Mamluks.

The victory effectively sealed the French conquest of Egypt as [[Murad Bey]] salvaged the remnants of his army, chaotically fleeing to [[Upper Egypt]]. French casualties amounted to roughly 300, but Ottoman and Mamluk casualties soared to approximately 10,000. Napoleon entered [[Cairo]] after the battle and created a new local administration under his supervision. The campaign formed part of a great global rivalry between France and Britain; the French objective was to establish a base from which to continue its campaign against [[British India]]. After the French fleet was destroyed by [[Horatio Nelson]] at the [[Battle of the Nile]], Bonaparte marched through the Levant until his advance was stalled by Anglo-Turkish forces at [[Siege of Acre (1799)|Acre]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Addington |first1=Larry |title=The patterns of war since the 18th century |date=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0253301321 |page=25}}</ref>

==Prelude==
After landing in Ottoman-controlled Egypt and capturing [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]] on 2 July 1798, the French army led by General Bonaparte marched down the desert toward [[Cairo, Egypt|Cairo]]. They met the forces of the ruling [[Mamluks]] nine miles (15 kilometres) from the Pyramids and only four miles (6 kilometres) from Cairo.{{efn|Engulfed by the west bank portion of the city of Cairo, nothing remains of the battlefield today.}} The Mamluk forces were commanded by two [[Georgians|Georgian]] mamluks, [[Murad Bey]] and [[Ibrahim Bey (Mamluk)|Ibrahim Bey]], and had a force of powerful and highly trained [[cavalry]] at their command as well as [[Fellah#In Egypt|fellahin]] [[militia]] acting as infantry.{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}}
On 13 July after French scouts located Murad's encampment, Bonaparte ordered an advance toward the enemy's forces, engaging them during the brief [[The Battle of Chobrakit|battle of Chobrakit]]. After the destruction of their flagship by French field artillery, the Mamluks retreated. The skirmish ended in a minor French victory.{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}}

==Battle==
On 21 July, after marching all night, the French caught up with the Ottoman force in the vicinity of the village of Embabeh, after one hour rest the men were ordered to get ready for battle.{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}} Bonaparte ordered an advance on Murad's army with each of the five divisions of his army organised into hollow rectangles with cavalry and baggage at the center and cannon at the corners. Bonaparte exhorted his troops to remain steady and keep their ranks closed up when facing the Mameluke cavalry.{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}}
{{Blockquote|text=“Soldiers! You came to this country to save the inhabitants from barbarism, to bring civilisation to the Orient and subtract this beautiful part of the world from the domination of England. From the top of those pyramids, forty centuries are contemplating you”|author=General Bonaparte pre-battle Order of the Day|source={{sfn | Roberts | 2015 | p=132}}}}

The French divisions advanced south in echelon, with the right flank leading and the left flank protected by the [[Nile River|Nile]]. From right to left, Bonaparte posted the divisions of [[Louis Charles Antoine Desaix]], [[Jean Reynier|Jean-Louis-Ébénézer Reynier]], [[Charles Dugua|Charles-François-Joseph Dugua]], [[Honoré Vial]] and [[Louis André Bon]]. In addition, Desaix sent a small detachment to occupy the nearby village of Biktil, just to the west. Murad anchored his right flank on the Nile at the village of Embabeh, which was fortified and held with infantry and some ancient cannons, his left flank was anchored on the village of Biktil, where the rest of his cannons were placed there to protect from French flanking movements. His Mamluk cavalry deployed in the center, between these villages. The other Mamluk army, commanded by Ibrahim Bey, stood across the Nile and watched the events unfold, unable to cross and intervene. Murad Bey's original plan was to repulse the French attacks on his fortified flanks, and then attack their demoralized center.

The Mamluks, being a force that was still largely feudal and medieval in all of its practical characteristics, including its military, were completely at odds with the modern standing French army. The majority of the Egyptian army was drafted Fellahin (peasants), its mainstay was the Mamluk horse. An episode during the battle that demonstrated the rift between the armies occurred when a Mamluk rider, dressed in heavy armour, [[Mubarizun|rode to within only a few steps from the French lines and demanded a duel]]. The French responded with gunfire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Armoush |first=Muhammad |title=Modern contemplations of the French campaign |year=2018}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=....Then the column that came to fight Murad Bey was divided according to methods known to them (The French) in warfare, and it approached the barricades, so that it surrounded the soldiers from behind and in front of it, and its drums sounded, and it sent its successive guns and cannons, and the wind became fiercer, and the smoke became dark, and the world was darkened by the smoke of gunpowder and the dust of the wind. For people it seemed that the earth shook and the sky fell on it.|author=|title=ʻAbd al-Rah̤mān al-Jabartī's History of Egypt}}

Napoleon ordered Desaix's square to advance to the right (towards the Egyptian center) and the rest of his squares to the left (in the direction of Embebeh), Murad Bey saw an opportunity and ordered his [[wikt:defterdar|defterdar]] Ayyub Bey to attack the French squares, at about 15:30, the Mamluk cavalry hurled itself at the French without warning. The divisional squares of Desaix, Reynier and Dugua held firm and repelled the horsemen with point-blank musket and artillery fire. Unable to make an impression on the French formations, some of the frustrated Mamluks rode off to attack Desaix's detached force. This was also a failure. Meanwhile, nearer the river, Bon's division deployed into attack columns and charged Embabeh. Breaking into the village, the French routed the garrison. Trapped against the river, many of the Mamluks and infantry tried to swim to safety, and hundreds drowned. The French reported a loss of 29 killed and 260 wounded. Murad's losses were far heavier, perhaps as many as 10,000 including 3,000 of the elite Mamluk cavalry, and his defterdar Ayyub Bey was also killed in the battle.{{sfn|Strathern|2008|p=128}} Murad Bey himself was also wounded in the cheek with a hit from a saber.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Legat |first=Michel |title=With Bonaparte in the East: 1798–1799, testimonies. |year=2012 |isbn=978-2-7587-0082-1 |page=224}}</ref> Murad escaped to [[Upper Egypt]] with his 3,000 surviving cavalry, where he carried out an active [[guerrilla]] campaign before being defeated by Desaix in late 1799.

==Aftermath==
Upon hearing news of the defeat of their legendary cavalry, the waiting Mamluk armies in Cairo dispersed to [[Syria]], Bonaparte entered the conquered capital of Egypt on 24 July.{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}} On 11 August French forces caught up with Ibrahim Bey inflicting on him a crushing defeat at Salalieh.{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}}

After the Battle of Pyramids, Napoleon instituted French administration in [[Cairo]] and suppressed the subsequent rebellions violently. Although Napoleon tried to co-opt the local Egyptian ''[[Ulama|ulema]]'', scholars like [[Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti|Al-Jabarti]] poured scorn on the ideas and cultural ways of the [[First French Republic|French]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=De Bellaigue |first=Christopher |title=The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason – 1798 to Modern Times |publisher=Liveright Publishing Corporation |year=2017 | isbn=978-0-87140-373-5 |location=New York |chapter= Chapter 1: Cairo |pages=4–12}}</ref> Despite their cordial proclamations to the natives, with some French soldiers even converting to [[Islam]] in order to take Muslim wives, clerics like [[Abdullah al-Sharqawi]], who headed Napoleon's Cairo government or [[divan]],<ref name="Cole 2007 p. 159">{{cite book | last=Cole | first=J. | title=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East | publisher=St. Martin's Publishing Group | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-230-60741-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8rzGxWUQiKkC&pg=PA159 |page=159}}</ref> later described the French as: "‘materialist, libertine philosophers … [who] deny the resurrection, and the afterlife, and … [the] prophets"<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=De Bellaigue |first=Christopher |title=The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason – 1798 to Modern Times |publisher=Liveright Publishing Corporation |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-87140-373-5 |location=New York |pages=14 |chapter=Chapter 1: Cairo}}</ref> while for the French, mathematician [[Joseph Fourier]] regretted that "the Muslim religion would on no account permit the development of the mind".<ref name=":0" />

The Battle of the Pyramids signalled the beginning of the end of seven centuries of Mamluk rule in Egypt. Despite this auspicious beginning, British Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]]'s victory in the [[Battle of the Nile]] ten days later effectively ended Napoleon's ambitions in Egypt.<ref name="Russell 2021 p. 27">{{cite book | last=Russell | first=Q. | title=Mediterranean Naval Battles That Changed the World | publisher=Pen & Sword Books | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-5267-1601-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=shIZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT27 |page=27}}</ref>

==In literature and the arts==
The battle was depicted in the 2023 historical drama [[Napoleon (2023 film)|Napoleon]], although the depiction of the battle has been heavily criticized for its historical inaccuracies, among which include Napoleon's army shooting at the [[Great Pyramid of Giza|pyramids]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kotb |first1=Muhammed |title=Napoleon Did Not Shoot the Pyramids As Ridley Scott Might Have You Believe |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2023/12/03/napoleon-did-not-shoot-the-pyramids-as-ridley-scott-might-have-you-believe/ |website=Egyptian Streets |access-date=5 December 2023}}</ref>

The battle was depicted by [[François-André Vincent]] in a [[Battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 1798 (study)|sketch]],{{sfn | ''the MET''}} and by various other artists.
{{Gallery|align=center
|File:Baron Antoine-Jean Gros-Battle Pyramids 1810.jpg|[[Antoine-Jean Gros]]
|File:Battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 1798 MET 150804.jpg|[[François-André Vincent]]
|File:Francois-Louis-Joseph Watteau 001.jpg|[[François-Louis-Joseph Watteau]]
|File:Battle of the Pyramids 1798.jpg|[[Wojciech Kossak]]
|title=|height=120px|File:WKossak030.jpg|Wojciech Kossak|File:211 of 'Napoléon et son temps ... Ouvrage illustré ... Neuvième mille' (11238684636).jpg|Plan of the Battle}}

==See also==
* [[Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book | last=Chandler | first=D.G. | title=The Campaigns of Napoleon | publisher=Scribner | year=2009 | isbn=978-1-4391-3103-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNYWXeVcbkMC}}
* {{cite web | title=Battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 1798 | website=metmuseum.org | url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/339816/ | ref={{sfnref | the MET}}}}
* {{cite book | last=Niox | first=G.L. | title=Géographie militaire | publisher=Dumaine | series=Géographie militaire | issue=v. 6 | year=1887 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-8fNPOsB7sC&pg=PA110 | language=fr}}
* {{cite book | last=Roberts | first=A. | title=Napoleon: A Life | publisher=Penguin Publishing Group | year=2015 | isbn=978-0-14-312785-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3JdPEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book | last=Strathern | first=P. | title=Napoleon in Egypt: 'the Greatest Glory' | publisher=Vintage | year=2008 | isbn=978-1-84413-917-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZGn9g6hNyGkC}}

==Further reading==
* [[Juan Cole|Cole, Juan]], ''Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East'' [[Palgrave Macmillan]], 2007. {{ISBN|1403964319}}
* [[J. Christopher Herold|Herold, J. Christopher]], ''Bonaparte in Egypt'' – London, Hamish Hamilton, 1962.
* Herold, J. Christopher, ''The Age of Napoleon''. New York, American Heritage, 1963.
* Moorehead, Alan, ''The Blue Nile'' New York, Harper & Row, 1962.

==External links==
* {{commons-inline}}

{{Ottoman battles}}
{{Giza}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pyramids}}
[[Category:French campaign in Egypt and Syria]]
[[Category:Battles of the French Revolutionary Wars]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1798]]
[[Category:Military history of Egypt]]
[[Category:1798 in Egypt]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles involving France]]
[[Category:Napoleon]]
[[Category:Battles inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe]]

Battle of the Pyramids

2024-02-19T06:08:14Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B:

{{Short description|1798 battle during the French Invasion of Egypt}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=December 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of the Pyramids|
| partof = the [[French Campaign in Egypt and Syria]] during the [[War of the Second Coalition]]
| image = Louis-François Baron Lejeune 001.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = ''The Battle of the Pyramids'' by [[Louis-François Lejeune]]
| map_type = Mediterranean#World
| map_relief = 1
| map_size = 290
| date = 21 July 1798
| place = [[Imbaba|Embabeh]], [[Egypt Eyalet|Egypt]] [[Ottoman Empire]]
| coordinates = {{coord|30|5|N|31|12|E|type:event|display=inline}}
| result = French victory
| combatant1 = {{flagdeco|First French Republic}} [[First French Republic|French Republic]]
| combatant2 = {{ubl
|{{flagicon|Ottoman Empire|1793}} [[Ottoman Empire]]
}}
*{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mameluks.svg}} [[Mamluks]]{{sfn | Roberts | 2015 | p=132}}{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}}{{sfn | Niox | 1887 | p=110}}
*Arab irregulars{{sfn | Roberts | 2015 | p=132}}{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}}{{sfn | Niox | 1887 | p=110}}
| commander1 = {{Plainlist}}
*{{flagdeco|French First Republic}} [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]]
*{{flagdeco|French First Republic}} [[Louis Desaix]]
*{{flagdeco|French First Republic}} [[Louis André Bon|Louis Bon]]
*{{flagdeco|French First Republic}} [[Honoré Vial|Honoré Vial]]
*{{flagdeco|French First Republic}} [[Jean Reynier]]
*{{flagicon|First French Republic}} [[Thomas-Alexandre Dumas]]
{{Endplainlist}}
| commander2 = {{Plainlist}}
*{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mameluks.svg}} [[Murad Bey]]
*{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mameluks.svg}} [[Ibrahim Bey (Mamluk)|Ibrahim Bey]]
*{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mameluks.svg}} [[Ayyub Bey]]{{KIA}}
{{Endplainlist}}
| strength1 = 20,000–25,000{{efn|name=fn1|Historian [[David G. Chandler|David Chandler]] asserts that Bonaparte's 25,000-strong army outnumbered Murad's 6,000 Mamluks and 15,000 infantry,{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}} while [[Andrew Roberts (historian)|Andrew Roberts]] indicates a force of 6,000 Mamluks and 54,000 Arab irregulars against 20,000 French,{{sfn | Roberts | 2015 | p=132}} military historian [[Gustave Léon Niox]] gives a total of 50,000 Mamluks and irregulars.{{sfn | Niox | 1887 | p=110}} According to [[Paul Strathern]] author of ''Napoleon in Egypt'', “There is no denying that the combined Egyptian force was superior in number but the caliber of some of its conscripted men cannot be compared with that of the French”{{sfn | Strathern | 2008 | p=119}}}}
----
*3,000 cavalry
*17,000 infantry
| strength2 = 21,000–60,000{{efn|name=fn1}}
----
*6,000+ cavalry
*15,000–54,000 infantry{{efn|name=fn1}}
| casualties1 = 289 killed or wounded{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=226}}
| casualties2 = 10,000 killed or wounded{{sfn | Strathern | 2008 | p=128}}{{sfn | Niox | 1887 | p=110}}
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Egypt-Syria}}}}
{{OSM Location map
| coord = {{coord|33|25}}
| zoom = 4
| float = right
| nolabels = 1
| width = 304
| height = 160
| title = [[War of the Second Coalition]]: [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria|Egypt and Syria]]
| caption = {{legend|black|current battle}}{{legend|maroon|Napoleon in command till 23 August 1799}}

| shapeD = n-circle
| shape-colorD = maroon
| shape-outlineD = white
| label-colorD = maroon
| label-sizeD = 12
| label-posD = left
| label-offset-xD = 0
| label-offset-yD = 0

| label1 = Malta
| mark-coord1 = {{coord|35.88|14.45}}
| mark-title1 = [[French invasion of Malta]] from 10 to 12 June 1798
| label-pos1 = right

| label2 = Alexandria
| mark-coord2 = {{coord|31.2|29.9}}
| mark-title2 = [[Battle of the Nile]] from 1 to 3 August 1798 [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria#Bonaparte leaves Egypt|Napoleon's return to France]] from 23 August to 9 October 1799 [[Siege of Alexandria (1801)]] from 17 August to 2 September 1801

| label3 = Cairo
| mark-coord3 = {{coord|30.04|31.25}}
| mark-title3 = Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July 1798 [[Revolt of Cairo]] from 21 to 22 October 1798 [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria#Bonaparte leaves Egypt|Napoleon's return to France]] [[Siege of Cairo]] from May to June 1801
| shape-color3 = black
| label-color3 = black

| label4 = Jaffa
| mark-coord4 = {{coord|32.05|34.77}}
| mark-title4 = [[Siege of Jaffa]] from 3 to 7 March 1799

| label5 =
| mark-coord5 = {{coord|32.92|35.07}}
| mark-title5 = [[Siege of Acre (1799)]] from 20 March to 21 May 1799

| label6 =
| mark-coord6 = {{coord|32.61|35.33}}
| mark-title6 = [[Battle of Mount Tabor (1799)]] on 16 April 1799
}}

The '''Battle of the Pyramids''', also known as the '''Battle of Embabeh''', was a major engagement fought on 21 July 1798, during the [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria|French Invasion of Egypt.]] The battle took place near the village of Embabeh, across the [[Nile|Nile River]] from [[Cairo]], but was named by Napoleon after the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] visible nearly nine miles away.

After capturing Alexandria and crossing the desert, the [[First French Republic|French]] army, led by General [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], scored a decisive victory against the main army of the local [[Mamluk]] rulers, wiping out almost the entire Ottoman army located in Egypt. It was the first battle where Bonaparte personally devised and employed the [[Infantry square|divisional square]] tactic to great effect. The deployment of the French brigades into these massive rectangular formations repeatedly threw back multiple [[cavalry charge]]s of the Mamluks.

The victory effectively sealed the French conquest of Egypt as [[Murad Bey]] salvaged the remnants of his army, chaotically fleeing to [[Upper Egypt]]. French casualties amounted to roughly 300, but Ottoman and Mamluk casualties soared to approximately 10,000. Napoleon entered [[Cairo]] after the battle and created a new local administration under his supervision. The campaign formed part of a great global rivalry between France and Britain; the French objective was to establish a base from which to continue its campaign against [[British India]]. After the French fleet was destroyed by [[Horatio Nelson]] at the [[Battle of the Nile]], Bonaparte marched through the Levant until his advance was stalled by Anglo-Turkish forces at [[Siege of Acre (1799)|Acre]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Addington |first1=Larry |title=The patterns of war since the 18th century |date=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0253301321 |page=25}}</ref>

==Prelude==
After landing in Ottoman-controlled Egypt and capturing [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]] on 2 July 1798, the French army led by General Bonaparte marched down the desert toward [[Cairo, Egypt|Cairo]]. They met the forces of the ruling [[Mamluks]] nine miles (15 kilometres) from the Pyramids and only four miles (6 kilometres) from Cairo.{{efn|Engulfed by the west bank portion of the city of Cairo, nothing remains of the battlefield today.}} The Mamluk forces were commanded by two [[Georgians|Georgian]] mamluks, [[Murad Bey]] and [[Ibrahim Bey (Mamluk)|Ibrahim Bey]], and had a force of powerful and highly trained [[cavalry]] at their command as well as [[Fellah#In Egypt|fellahin]] [[militia]] acting as infantry.{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}}
On 13 July after French scouts located Murad's encampment, Bonaparte ordered an advance toward the enemy's forces, engaging them during the brief [[The Battle of Chobrakit|battle of Chobrakit]]. After the destruction of their flagship by French field artillery, the Mamluks retreated. The skirmish ended in a minor French victory.{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}}

==Battle==
On 21 July, after marching all night, the French caught up with the Ottoman force in the vicinity of the village of Embabeh, after one hour rest the men were ordered to get ready for battle.{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}} Bonaparte ordered an advance on Murad's army with each of the five divisions of his army organised into hollow rectangles with cavalry and baggage at the center and cannon at the corners. Bonaparte exhorted his troops to remain steady and keep their ranks closed up when facing the Mameluke cavalry.{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}}
{{Blockquote|text=“Soldiers! You came to this country to save the inhabitants from barbarism, to bring civilisation to the Orient and subtract this beautiful part of the world from the domination of England. From the top of those pyramids, forty centuries are contemplating you”|author=General Bonaparte pre-battle Order of the Day|source={{sfn | Roberts | 2015 | p=132}}}}

The French divisions advanced south in echelon, with the right flank leading and the left flank protected by the [[Nile River|Nile]]. From right to left, Bonaparte posted the divisions of [[Louis Charles Antoine Desaix]], [[Jean Reynier|Jean-Louis-Ébénézer Reynier]], [[Charles Dugua|Charles-François-Joseph Dugua]], [[Honoré Vial]] and [[Louis André Bon]]. In addition, Desaix sent a small detachment to occupy the nearby village of Biktil, just to the west. Murad anchored his right flank on the Nile at the village of Embabeh, which was fortified and held with infantry and some ancient cannons, his left flank was anchored on the village of Biktil, where the rest of his cannons were placed there to protect from French flanking movements. His Mamluk cavalry deployed in the center, between these villages. The other Mamluk army, commanded by Ibrahim Bey, stood across the Nile and watched the events unfold, unable to cross and intervene. Murad Bey's original plan was to repulse the French attacks on his fortified flanks, and then attack their demoralized center.

The Mamluks, being a force that was still largely feudal and medieval in all of its practical characteristics, including its military, were completely at odds with the modern standing French army. The majority of the Egyptian army was drafted Fellahin (peasants), its mainstay was the Mamluk horse. An episode during the battle that demonstrated the rift between the armies occurred when a Mamluk rider, dressed in heavy armour, [[Mubarizun|rode to within only a few steps from the French lines and demanded a duel]]. The French responded with gunfire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Armoush |first=Muhammad |title=Modern contemplations of the French campaign |year=2018}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=....Then the column that came to fight Murad Bey was divided according to methods known to them (The French) in warfare, and it approached the barricades, so that it surrounded the soldiers from behind and in front of it, and its drums sounded, and it sent its successive guns and cannons, and the wind became fiercer, and the smoke became dark, and the world was darkened by the smoke of gunpowder and the dust of the wind. For people it seemed that the earth shook and the sky fell on it.|author=|title=ʻAbd al-Rah̤mān al-Jabartī's History of Egypt}}

Napoleon ordered Desaix's square to advance to the right (towards the Egyptian center) and the rest of his squares to the left (in the direction of Embebeh), Murad Bey saw an opportunity and ordered his [[wikt:defterdar|defterdar]] Ayyub Bey to attack the French squares, at about 15:30, the Mamluk cavalry hurled itself at the French without warning. The divisional squares of Desaix, Reynier and Dugua held firm and repelled the horsemen with point-blank musket and artillery fire. Unable to make an impression on the French formations, some of the frustrated Mamluks rode off to attack Desaix's detached force. This was also a failure. Meanwhile, nearer the river, Bon's division deployed into attack columns and charged Embabeh. Breaking into the village, the French routed the garrison. Trapped against the river, many of the Mamluks and infantry tried to swim to safety, and hundreds drowned. The French reported a loss of 29 killed and 260 wounded. Murad's losses were far heavier, perhaps as many as 10,000 including 3,000 of the elite Mamluk cavalry, and his defterdar Ayyub Bey was also killed in the battle.{{sfn|Strathern|2008|p=128}} Murad Bey himself was also wounded in the cheek with a hit from a saber.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Legat |first=Michel |title=With Bonaparte in the East: 1798–1799, testimonies. |year=2012 |isbn=978-2-7587-0082-1 |page=224}}</ref> Murad escaped to [[Upper Egypt]] with his 3,000 surviving cavalry, where he carried out an active [[guerrilla]] campaign before being defeated by Desaix in late 1799.

==Aftermath==
Upon hearing news of the defeat of their legendary cavalry, the waiting Mamluk armies in Cairo dispersed to [[Syria]], Bonaparte entered the conquered capital of Egypt on 24 July.{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}} On 11 August French forces caught up with Ibrahim Bey inflicting on him a crushing defeat at Salalieh.{{sfn | Chandler | 2009 | p=224}}

After the Battle of Pyramids, Napoleon instituted French administration in [[Cairo]] and suppressed the subsequent rebellions violently. Although Napoleon tried to co-opt the local Egyptian ''[[Ulama|ulema]]'', scholars like [[Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti|Al-Jabarti]] poured scorn on the ideas and cultural ways of the [[French First Republic|French]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=De Bellaigue |first=Christopher |title=The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason – 1798 to Modern Times |publisher=Liveright Publishing Corporation |year=2017 | isbn=978-0-87140-373-5 |location=New York |chapter= Chapter 1: Cairo |pages=4–12}}</ref> Despite their cordial proclamations to the natives, with some French soldiers even converting to [[Islam]] in order to take Muslim wives, clerics like [[Abdullah al-Sharqawi]], who headed Napoleon's Cairo government or [[divan]],<ref name="Cole 2007 p. 159">{{cite book | last=Cole | first=J. | title=Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East | publisher=St. Martin's Publishing Group | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-230-60741-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8rzGxWUQiKkC&pg=PA159 |page=159}}</ref> later described the French as: "‘materialist, libertine philosophers … [who] deny the resurrection, and the afterlife, and … [the] prophets"<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=De Bellaigue |first=Christopher |title=The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason – 1798 to Modern Times |publisher=Liveright Publishing Corporation |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-87140-373-5 |location=New York |pages=14 |chapter=Chapter 1: Cairo}}</ref> while for the French, mathematician [[Joseph Fourier]] regretted that "the Muslim religion would on no account permit the development of the mind".<ref name=":0" />

The Battle of the Pyramids signalled the beginning of the end of seven centuries of Mamluk rule in Egypt. Despite this auspicious beginning, British Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]]'s victory in the [[Battle of the Nile]] ten days later effectively ended Napoleon's ambitions in Egypt.<ref name="Russell 2021 p. 27">{{cite book | last=Russell | first=Q. | title=Mediterranean Naval Battles That Changed the World | publisher=Pen & Sword Books | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-5267-1601-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=shIZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT27 |page=27}}</ref>

==In literature and the arts==
The battle was depicted in the 2023 historical drama [[Napoleon (2023 film)|Napoleon]], although the depiction of the battle has been heavily criticized for its historical inaccuracies, among which include Napoleon's army shooting at the [[Great Pyramid of Giza|pyramids]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kotb |first1=Muhammed |title=Napoleon Did Not Shoot the Pyramids As Ridley Scott Might Have You Believe |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2023/12/03/napoleon-did-not-shoot-the-pyramids-as-ridley-scott-might-have-you-believe/ |website=Egyptian Streets |access-date=5 December 2023}}</ref>

The battle was depicted by [[François-André Vincent]] in a [[Battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 1798 (study)|sketch]],{{sfn | ''the MET''}} and by various other artists.
{{Gallery|align=center
|File:Baron Antoine-Jean Gros-Battle Pyramids 1810.jpg|[[Antoine-Jean Gros]]
|File:Battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 1798 MET 150804.jpg|[[François-André Vincent]]
|File:Francois-Louis-Joseph Watteau 001.jpg|[[François-Louis-Joseph Watteau]]
|File:Battle of the Pyramids 1798.jpg|[[Wojciech Kossak]]
|title=|height=120px|File:WKossak030.jpg|Wojciech Kossak|File:211 of 'Napoléon et son temps ... Ouvrage illustré ... Neuvième mille' (11238684636).jpg|Plan of the Battle}}

==See also==
* [[Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book | last=Chandler | first=D.G. | title=The Campaigns of Napoleon | publisher=Scribner | year=2009 | isbn=978-1-4391-3103-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNYWXeVcbkMC}}
* {{cite web | title=Battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 1798 | website=metmuseum.org | url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/339816/ | ref={{sfnref | the MET}}}}
* {{cite book | last=Niox | first=G.L. | title=Géographie militaire | publisher=Dumaine | series=Géographie militaire | issue=v. 6 | year=1887 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-8fNPOsB7sC&pg=PA110 | language=fr}}
* {{cite book | last=Roberts | first=A. | title=Napoleon: A Life | publisher=Penguin Publishing Group | year=2015 | isbn=978-0-14-312785-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3JdPEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book | last=Strathern | first=P. | title=Napoleon in Egypt: 'the Greatest Glory' | publisher=Vintage | year=2008 | isbn=978-1-84413-917-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZGn9g6hNyGkC}}

==Further reading==
* [[Juan Cole|Cole, Juan]], ''Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East'' [[Palgrave Macmillan]], 2007. {{ISBN|1403964319}}
* [[J. Christopher Herold|Herold, J. Christopher]], ''Bonaparte in Egypt'' – London, Hamish Hamilton, 1962.
* Herold, J. Christopher, ''The Age of Napoleon''. New York, American Heritage, 1963.
* Moorehead, Alan, ''The Blue Nile'' New York, Harper & Row, 1962.

==External links==
* {{commons-inline}}

{{Ottoman battles}}
{{Giza}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pyramids}}
[[Category:French campaign in Egypt and Syria]]
[[Category:Battles of the French Revolutionary Wars]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1798]]
[[Category:Military history of Egypt]]
[[Category:1798 in Egypt]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles involving France]]
[[Category:Napoleon]]
[[Category:Battles inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe]]

Kaykhusraw II

2024-02-19T05:56:47Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Coinage */

{{Infobox royalty
| type = monarch
| name = Kaykhusraw II
| more =
| image = Kaykhusraw II dirham.jpg
| caption = [[Dirham]] coin of Kaykhusraw II, [[Sivas]], AH 638/AD 1240-1. The sun is thought to represent his wife Gurju Khatun and the lion the sultan.
| succession = [[List of Seljuk sultans of Rûm|Sultan of Rum]]
| reign = 1237–1246
| coronation =
| predecessor = [[Kayqubad I]]
| successor = [[Kaykaus II]]
| full name = '''Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Kayqubād'''
| house = [[Seljuq dynasty|House of Seljuq]]
| spouse = [[Gurju Khatun]] Ghaziya Khatun
| issue = [[Kaykaus II|Izz al-Din Kaykaus II]] [[Kilic Arslan IV|Rukn al-Din Kiliç Arslan IV]] [[Kayqubad II|Alauddin Kayqubad II]]
| father = [[Kayqubad I|Alâeddin Kayqubad I]]
| mother = Mahpari Khatun{{sfn|Crane|1993|p=50}}
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date = 1246
| death_place =
| place of burial =
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
}}
'''Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw''' '''ibn Kayqubād''' or '''Kaykhusraw II''' ({{lang-fa|غياث الدين كيخسرو بن كيقباد}}) was the sultan of the [[Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm|Seljuqs of Rûm]] from 1237<ref>Cahen, p. 748</ref> until his death in 1246. He ruled at the time of the [[Babai Revolt|Babai]] uprising and the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] invasion of [[Anatolia]]. He led the Seljuq army with its Christian allies at the [[Battle of Köse Dağ]] in 1243. He was the last of the Seljuq sultans to wield any significant power and died as a vassal of the Mongols.

==Succession==
Kaykhusraw was the son of [[Kayqubad I]] and his wife Mahpari Khatun, who was [[Greeks|Greek]] by origin.{{sfn|Peacock|Yildiz|2013|page=121}} Although 'Kaykhusraw was the eldest, the sultan had chosen as heir the younger ‘Izz al-Din, one of his two sons by the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] princess Adila Khatun, daughter of [[Al-Adil I|al Adil I]], sultan of Cairo and the Jazira{{sfn|Blessing|Goshgarian|2017|p=233}}{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=389}} In 1226, Kayqubad assigned the newly annexed [[Erzincan]] to Kaykhusraw. With the general Kamyar, the young prince participated in the conquest of [[Erzurum]] and later [[Ahlat]]. Kaykhusraw himself married Ghazia Khatun, the daughter of the emir of [[Aleppo]], [[Al-Aziz Muhammad]].{{sfn|Cahen|2001|p=66}}

In 1236–37, raiding [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] assisted by the [[Bagrationi Dynasty|Georgians]] devastated the [[Anatolia]]n countryside as far as the walls of [[Sivas]] and [[Malatya]]. In response, Kayqubad moved to punish the Georgians. As the Seljuq army approached, [[Rusudan of Georgia|Queen Russudan]] of [[History of Georgia (country)|Georgia]] sued for peace, offering her daughter [[Gürcü Hatun|Tamar]] in marriage to Kaykhusraw.{{efn|"He married the daughter of the king of Georgia and was passionately in love with her."{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=69}}}} This marriage took place in 1240.

Upon the death of Kayqubad in 1237, Kaykhusraw seized the throne with the support of the great emirs of Anatolia. The architect of his early reign was a certain [[Sa'd al-Din Köpek]], master of the hunt and minister of works under Kayqubad. Köpek excelled at political murder and sought to protect his newfound influence at the court with a series of executions.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|2007|p=?}} He captured [[Diyarbakır|Diyarbekir]] from [[Ayyubids]] in 1241.

==The Baba Ishak Rebellion==
While the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] threatened the Seljuq state from the outside, a new danger appeared from within: a charismatic preacher, [[Baba Ishak]], was fomenting rebellion among the Turkmen of [[Anatolia]].

Nomadic Turkmen had begun moving into Anatolia a few years prior to the [[Battle of Manzikert]]. After 1071, Turkic migration into the region went largely unchecked. Both their number and the persuasive power of their religious leaders, nominally Islamized [[shamanism|shamans]] known as babas or dedes,{{sfn|Vryonis|1971|p=272}} played a large part in the conversion of formerly Christian Anatolia. The Persianized Seljuq military class expended considerable effort keeping these nomads from invading areas inhabited by farmers and from harassing neighboring Christian states. The Turkmen were pushed into marginal lands, mostly mountainous and frontier districts.

Baba Ishak was one such religious leader. Unlike his predecessors, whose influence was limited to smaller tribal groups, Baba Ishak's authority extended over a vast population of Anatolian Turkmen. It is not known what he preached, but his appropriation of the title [[Rasūl|rasul]], normally applied to [[Muhammad]], suggests something beyond mainstream Islam.

The revolt began ca. 1240 in the remote borderland of Kafarsud in the eastern [[Taurus Mountains]] and quickly spread north to the region of [[Amasya]]. Seljuq armies at [[Malatya]] and Amasya were destroyed. Soon the very heart of Seljuq Anatolia, the regions around [[Kayseri]], [[Sivas]], and [[Tokat]], were under the control of Baba Ishak's supporters. Baba Ishak himself was killed, but the Turkmen continued their rebellion against the central Seljuq authority. The rebels were finally cornered and defeated near [[Kırşehir]], probably in 1242 or early 1243. [[Simon of St Quentin|Simon of Saint-Quentin]] credits the victory to a large number of Frankish mercenaries employed by the sultan.<ref>Simon de Saint-Quentin, ''Histoire des Tartares'', xxxi.140.</ref>

==Battle of Köse Dağ==
{{main|Battle of Köse Dağ}}
In the winter of 1242–43, the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] under [[Baiju Noyan|Bayju]] attacked [[Erzurum]]; the city fell without a siege. The Mongols prepared to invade [[Rûm|Rum]] in the spring. To meet the threat, Kaykhusraw assembled soldiers from his allies and vassals. [[Simon of St Quentin|Simon of Saint-Quentin]], an envoy of [[Pope Innocent IV]] on his way to the Great Khan, offers an account of the sultan's preparations. He reports that the king of Armenia was required to produce 1400 lances and the Greek [[Empire of Nicaea|Emperor of Nicaea]] 400 lances. Both rulers met the sultan in [[Kayseri]] to negotiate details. The [[Manuel I of Trebizond|Grand Komnenos of Trebizond]] contributed 200, while the young [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] prince of [[Aleppo]] supplied 1000 horsemen.<ref>Simon de Saint-Quentin, ''Histoire des Tartares'', xxxi.143-144.</ref> In addition to these, Kaykhusraw commanded the Seljuq army and irregular Turkmen cavalry, though both had been weakened by the Baba Ishak rebellion.

The army, except for the Armenians who were then considering an alliance with (or submission to) the Mongols, assembled at [[Sivas]]. Kaykhusraw and his allies set out to the east along the trunk road towards [[Erzurum]]. On 26 June 1243, they met the Mongols at the pass at [[Mount Kösedağ (Sivas)|Köse Dağ]], between [[Erzincan]] and [[Gümüşhane]].<ref>Anthony Bryer and David Winfield, ''The Byzantine Monuments and Topography of the Pontos'', vol. 1, (Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1985) 172, 353.</ref><ref>''Köy Köy Türkiye Yol Atlası'' (Istanbul: Mapmedya, 2006), map 61.</ref> A feigned retreat by the Mongol horsemen disorganized the Seljuqs, and Kaykhusraw's army was routed. The sultan collected his treasury and harem at [[Tokat]] and fled to [[Ankara]]. The Mongols seized Sivas, sacked Kayseri, but failed to move on [[Konya]], the capital of the sultanate.

In the months following the battle, [[Pervane|Muhadhdhab al-Din]], the sultan's vizier, sought out the victorious Mongol leader. Since the sultan had fled, the embassy seems to have been the vizier's own initiative. The vizier succeeded in forestalling further Mongol devastation in Anatolia and saved Kaykhusraw's throne. Under conditions of vassalage and a substantial annual tribute, Kaykhusraw, his power much diminished, returned to Konya.

==Identity==
According to [[Rustam Shukurov]], it is likely that Kaykhusraw II, who was born from a Greek mother, and was yet another Seljuk Sultan with a great interest in Greek women, "bore a dual confessional and ethnic identity".{{sfn|Peacock|Yildiz|2013|page=133}}

==Legacy==
Kaykhusraw died leaving three sons: [[Kaykaus II|'Izz al-Din Kaykaus]], aged 11, son of the daughter of a Greek priest; 9-year-old [[Kilij Arslan IV|Rukn al-Din Kilij Arslan]], son of a Turkish woman of [[Konya]]; and [[Kayqubad II|'Ala al-Din Kayqubad]], son of the Georgian princess [[Gürcü Hatun|Tamar]] and at age 7 youngest of the three boys.<ref>Cahen, p. 271</ref>

Kaykhusraw had named his youngest child Kayqubad as his successor, but because he was a weakly child, the new vizier [[Shams al-Din Isfahani]] placed Kayqubad's two underage brothers [[Kaykaus II]] and [[Kilij Arslan IV]] on the throne as well, as co-rulers. This was an attempt to maintain Seljuq control of Anatolia in the face of the Mongol threat.

Although weakened, Seljuq power remained largely intact at the time of Kaykhusraw's death in 1246. The Mongols failed to capture either the sultan's treasury or his capital when they had the chance, and his Anatolian lands escaped the worst of the invaders’ depredations. The real blow to the dynasty was Kaykhusrev's inability to name a competent successor. With the choice of the three young brothers, Seljuq power in Anatolia no longer lay with Seljuq princes but instead devolved into the hands of Seljuq court administrators.

==Coinage==
Between 1240 and 1243 (638 and 641 A.H.) a series of remarkable silver [[dirham]]s were struck in Kaykhusraw's name at [[Sivas]] and [[Konya]] depicting a [[lion and sun]].<ref>{{cite book | title = A Checklist of Islamic Coins, 2nd Edition, p. 62 |author= Stephen Album| year= 1998}}</ref> While coins with images are not unknown in Islamic lands, particularly in the centuries following the [[Crusades]], some Islamic traditions forbid representations of living things.

Several explanations of the lion and sun have been offered. One suggests that the images represent the constellation [[Leo (constellation)|Leo]], the [[astrological sign]] of Kaykhusraw's beloved [[Georgians|Georgian]] wife [[Gürcü Hatun|Tamar]].{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=69-70}} Another says that the lion represents Kaykhusraw and the sun Tamar.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=69-70}}

==In popular culture==
In the Turkish television series ''[[Diriliş: Ertuğrul]]'', Kaykhusraw II is portrayed by Turkish actor [[Burak Dakak]].<ref>{{cite web|title= Diriliş: Ertuğrul (2014-2019), Burak Dakak: Sehzade Giyaseddin Keyhüsrev|url= https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4320258/characters/nm7699456?ref_=ttfc_fc_cl_t111|work=[[IMDb]]|access-date=31 August 2020}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Sources==
*{{Cite book|last1=Blessing|first1=Patricia|last2=Goshgarian |first2=Rachel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gi1WDwAAQBAJ&q=Kayqubad+married&pg=PA233|title=Architecture and Landscape in Medieval Anatolia, 1100-1500|year=2017 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-1-4744-1130-1|pages=233 |quote=Following Mahperi, Kayqubad's second marriage was to an Ayyubid princess, the daughter of al Adil I, sultan of Cairo and the Jazira}}
*{{Cite book|last=Cahen|first=Claude|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-FvJAwAAQBAJ&q=ghaziya+khatun+mother&pg=PA66|title=The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rum: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century |translator-first=P.M. |translator-last=Holt |year=2001 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-87626-7|language=en}}
*Claude Cahen, “Keyhusrev II" ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', ed. by P. Bearman, et al. (Brill 2007).
*Claude Cahen, ''Pre-Ottoman Turkey: a general survey of the material and spiritual culture and history c. 1071-1330'', trans. J. Jones-Williams (New York: Taplinger, 1968), 127–38, 269–71.
*{{cite book |editor-first1=Sheila R. |editor-last1=Canby |editor-first2=Deniz |editor-last2=Beyazit |editor-first3=Martina |editor-last3=Rugiadi |editor-first4=A.C.S. |editor-last4=Peacock |title=Court and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=2016 }}
*{{cite journal |title=Notes on Saldjūq Architectural Patronage in Thirteenth Century Anatolia |first=H. |last=Crane |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=36 |year=1993 |issue=1 |pages=1–57 |doi=10.1163/156852093X00010 }}
*{{cite encyclopedia |first=Carole |last=Hillenbrand |title=Sa’d al-Dīn Köpek b. Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |editor-first1=P. |editor-last1=Bearman |publisher=Brill|year=2007 }}
*{{cite book |last=Humphreys |first=R. S. |title=From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus 1193-1260 |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1977}} p. 389
*{{cite book|editor1-last=Peacock|editor1-first=A.C.S.|editor2-last=Yildiz|editor2-first=Sara Nur|title=The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East|date=2013|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0857733467}}
*{{cite book |first=Speros |last=Vryonis |title=The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century |publisher=University of California Press |year=1971 }}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.sgsymposium.org/en/papers_content.asp?ID=6| title = Intermarriage and its impact on art in Anatolia in the 13th century|author=Dr. Antony Eastmond, [[Courtauld Institute of Art]]|publisher=International Sevgi Gönül Byzantine Studies Symposium, [[Istanbul]]|date=25–28 June 2007| access-date=22 July 2020|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731145140/http://www.sgsymposium.org/en/papers_content.asp?ID=6|archive-date=31 July 2009}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{refbegin}}

{{refend}}

{{s-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Sultan of Rûm]]|before=[[Kayqubad I]]|after=[[Kaykaus II]]|years=1237–1246}}
{{s-end}}
{{Sultans of Rum}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:13th-century sultans of Rum]]
[[Category:1246 deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:People from the Seljuk Empire of Greek descent]]

Kaykaus II

2024-02-19T05:54:48Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Life */

{{Short description|Sultan of Rum, 1246 to 1262}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Kaykaus II
| reign = 1246–1262
| succession = [[List of Seljuk sultans of Rûm|Sultan of Rum]]
| predecessor = [[Kaykhusraw II]]
| successor = [[Kilij Arslan IV]]
| image_portrait =
| caption =
| house = [[Seljuq dynasty|House of Seljuq]]
| title =
| father = [[Kaykhusraw II]]
| mother = Prodoulia
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| regent = [[Kayqubad II]] (1249–1254) Kilij Arslan IV (1249–1254) and (1257–1262)
| reg-type = Co-sultans
| death_date = 1279/80
| death_place = [[Crimea]]
| religion = [[Islam]]
}}

'''Kaykaus ibn Kaykhusraw''' or '''Kayka'us II''' ({{lang-fa|عز الدين كيكاوس بن كيخسرو}}, ''ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kaykāwus ibn Kaykhusraw'') was the sultan of the [[Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm|Seljuqs of Rûm]] from 1246 until 1262.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/keykavus-ii|title=KEYKÂVUS II - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi}}</ref>

==Life==
Kaykaus was the eldest of three sons of [[Kaykhusraw II]]. His mother was Prodoulia, a [[Byzantine Greeks|Roman]] who may have had Kaykaus baptized as a child.{{sfn|Peacock|Yildiz|2013|pages=118-119, 121}}{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|p=62}} He was a youth at the time of his father's death in 1246 and could do little to prevent the [[Mongol conquest of Anatolia]]. For most of his tenure as the [[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuq Sultan of Rûm]], he shared the throne with one or both of his brothers, [[Kilij Arslan IV]] and [[Kayqubad II]]. Mongol commander [[Baiju Noyan|Baiju]] threatened him and warned him of being late with paying tribute and requested new pastures in Anatolia for the Mongol cavalry. The Mongols defeated Kaykaus who then fled to the Roman empire in 1256/1257.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|p=111}} At some point, Kakykaus returned to the Sultanate but had to again flee to Byzantium following civil war with Kiliji Arslan IV around the summer of 1262, this time accompanied by his family.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|p=99}} The Roman court detained him, though, they welcomed him as usual. Soon however tensions grew between Sultan and Emperor, and Kaykaus tried to depose Michael.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|p=99}} So Kaykaus's brother Kayqubad appealed to [[Berke Khan]] of the [[Golden Horde]]. [[Nogai Khan|Nogai]] invaded the Empire in 1265 and released him and his men after Emperor [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] detained an envoy from Cairo to Berke. Berke gave Kaykaus [[appanage]] in [[Crimea]] and had him married to his daughter, Urbay Khatun.{{sfn|de Nicola|2017|p=115}} He died an [[exile]] in 1279 or 1280 in Crimea.

According to [[Rustam Shukurov]], Kaykaus II "had dual Christian and Muslim identity, an identity which was further complicated by dual Turkic/Persian and Greek ethnic identity".{{sfn|Peacock|Yildiz|2013|page=133}} Kaykaus and his sons were all said to be baptised, and whilst in Constantinople the family visited church baths, received communion and attended Easter services under the watch of the Patriarch [[Arsenios Autoreianos|Arsenios]].{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|p=62}} Even when in Crimea, Kaykaus still insisted on his Christian faith, defending Arsenios against charges of noncanonical communication with pagans (Kaykaus and his family) by asking for the [[engolpion]] he'd left in Constantinople and offering to eat pork to prove his orthodoxy.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|pp=62-63}}

==Family==

Kaykaus had multiple wives, but only one accompanied him to Byzantium. The Armenian [[Kirakos Gandzaketsi]] reported that Kaykaus was married to a daughter of the emperor [[John III Doukas Vatatzes]] and later Ottoman sources give her name as Anna, however both of these claims are unreliable and likely only indicate that his wife was Christian and possibly Roman. This wife continued to live in Constantinople following Kaykaus' escape.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|pp=114–115}}

Kakyaus' children, all with unknown mothers were:

* [[Mesud II|Ghiyāth al-Dīn Masʿūd]] (b.1262-1308), the eldest son and heir who accompanied Kaykaus to Byzantium and then to the Golden Horde. Following Kaykaus' death, Masʿūd reclaimed his father's position, becoming the last Sultan of Rum, and maintained good relations with Michael VIII's son [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]].{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|pp=115–116}}
* Rukn al-Dīn Kayūmarth (b.1262- a.1293), the middle son who also followed his father to Byzantium and the Golden Horde. Involved in a power struggle with [[Mesud II|Masʿūd]] following Kaykaus' death that ended in Kayūmarth's imprisonment and death.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|p=116}}
* [[Constantine Melik]] (b.1264- a.1306), who stayed in Constantinople after Kaykaus' escape, likely owing to his young age. Constantine remained in Roman service for the rest of his life and had an illustrious career as governor of Berroia in the 1280s and then of Pegai in 1305/1306. Constantine was at some point given the title of [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] or [[Sebastokrator]], and his descendants continued to serve in the Roman empire till its collapse in the 15th century.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|pp=116–117}}
* Sabbas Soultan? (b.1265-1320?), another son who stayed behind in Constantinople. He appears to have become a monk and served under the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]] before moving to Crimea where he died.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|pp=117–118}}
* Unnamed daughter (b.1264-?), who was arrested after her father's escape.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|p=119}}
* Rukn al-Dīn Qılıc Arslan (a.1264-?), one of the sons of Kaykaus born in Crimea after the flight from Constantinple.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|p=119}}
* Siyāwus (a.1264-?), one of the sons of Kaykaus born in Crimea after the flight from Constantinple.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|p=119}}
* Farāmarz (a.1264-?), one of the sons of Kaykaus born in Crimea after the flight from Constantinple.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|p=119}}

==Legacy==
[[File:‘Ali ibn Khalifah al-Mutatabbib al-Salmasi, Durar-e makhzan-e kaykawusi ('The Pearls of the Treasury of Kay Kawus'), commissioned for the library of Sultan Kay Kawus II (r.1247-57 AD), Konya, Anatolia, Seljuk, dated 1251.jpg|thumb|right|1251 [[Persian language|Persian]] manuscript of Ali ibn Khalifa Salmasi's ''Durar-e makhzan-e kaykawusi'' ("The Pearls of the Treasury of Kay Kawus"), commissioned for the library of Sultan Kaykaus II. Created in [[Konya]]]]

Though deposed and exiled, Kaykaus remained popular among the Turkmen of Anatolia and a threat to the stability of the fragile Seljuq-Mongol relationship. The vizier [[Sâhib Ata|Fakhr al-Din Ali]] was imprisoned for a time in 1271 for corresponding with him. It was from Kaykaus that [[Karamanoğlu Mehmed Bey]] in 1276 sought help in his uprising against the Mongols. Since Kaykaus was in no position to help, Mehmed Bey thought it best to have a representative of Kaykaus’ line on his side, even if only an imposter, and named [[Jimri]] as head of the revolt. Kaykaus later dispatched several of his sons from the Crimea as pretenders, one of which, [[Mesud II|Masud II]], was ultimately successful in winning the Seljuq throne in 1280.

Some modern historians consider the Byzantine noble [[Athanasios Soultanos]] to have been the brother or son of Kaykaus, but this is unlikely due to the later age Soultanos lived in. However [[Gagauz people|another branch]] of the Christianized aristocratic family of the Soultanoi was indeed begun by a close relative of Kaykaus, whence their name.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|pp=190–196}}

In the Ottoman period the rebel [[Sheikh Bedreddin]], who drew support largely from Turkmen migrants to the [[Balkans]], claimed descent from Kaykaus II.

==See also==
*[[Anatolian Seljuks family tree]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book | last=Cahen |first=Claude |title=Pre-Ottoman Turkey: a general survey of the material and spiritual culture and history |translator=J. Jones-Williams |location=New York |publisher=Taplinger |year=1968 |pages=271–279}}
* {{cite book |last1=de Nicola |first1=Bruno |title=Women in Mongol Iran: the Khātūns, 1206-1335 |date=2017 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-1474415484}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Peacock|editor1-first=A.C.S.|editor2-last=Yildiz|editor2-first=Sara Nur|title=The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East|date=2013|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0857733467}}
* {{cite book | last = Shukurov | first = Rustam | title = The Byzantine Turks, 1204-1461 | publisher = BRILL | year = 2016 | isbn = 9789004307759 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9CYiDAAAQBAJ }}

==External links==
* {{cite web|url=https://turkeytravelplanner.com/ |title=Anatolian Coins > Seljuqs of Rum > Kay-Ka'us II first reign |author=Prof. Dr. Mehmet Eti |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080201141502/http://mehmeteti.150m.com/seljuqsofrum/kaykausIIfirst.htm |archive-date=2008-02-01 }}
* {{cite web|url=http://mehmeteti.150m.com/seljuqsofrum/kaykausIIsecond.htm |title=Anatolian Coins > Seljuqs of Rum > Kay-Ka'us II second reign |author=Prof. Dr. Mehmet Eti |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080201141505/http://mehmeteti.150m.com/seljuqsofrum/kaykausIIsecond.htm |archive-date=2008-02-01 }}

{{S-start}}
{{succession box|title=[[Sultan of Rûm]]|before=[[Kaykhusraw II]]|after=[[Kilij Arslan IV]]|years=1246–1262}}
{{S-end}}
{{Sultans of Rum}}

[[Category:13th-century births]]
[[Category:1270s deaths]]
[[Category:13th-century sultans of Rum]]
[[Category:People from the Seljuk Empire of Greek descent]]

Sultanate of Rum

2024-02-19T03:47:46Z

2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B: /* Culture and society */

{{short description|Turkish state in central Anatolia from 1077 to 1308}}
{{Infobox former country
| conventional_long_name = Sultanate of Rûm
| native_name = {{native name|tr|Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti}} {{native name|fa|سلجوقیان روم}} {{lang|fa-Latn|Saljūqiyān-i Rūm}}
| status = {{Plainlist|
*Independent sultanate (1077–1243)
*[[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] vassal (1243–1256)
*[[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanid]] vassal (1256–1308)
}}
| government_type = [[Hereditary monarchy]] [[Triumvirate|Triarchy]] (1249–1254) [[Diarchy]] (1257–1262)
| year_start = 1077
| year_end = 1308
| p1 = Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty{{!}}Byzantine Empire
| p2 = Seljuk Empire
| p3 = Danishmends
| p4 = Mengujekids
| p5 = Saltukids
| p6 = Artuqids
| s1 = Anatolian beyliks
| s2 = Ilkhanate|
| event_pre = [[Battle of Manzikert]]
| date_pre = 1071
| event_start = [[Seljuk Empire#Division of empire|Division from the Seljuk Empire]]
| event1 = [[Battle of Köse Dağ]]
| date_event1 = 1243
| event_end = [[Karamanids|Karamanid conquest]]
| image_flag = Double-headed eagle of the Sultanate of Rum.svg 
| flag_size = 100px
| flag_type = [[Double-headed eagle#Adoption in the Muslim world|Double-headed eagle used by the Rum Seljuks]]
| flag_border = no
| image_coat = Lion and Sun of the Sultanate of Rum.svg
| coa_size = 100px
| symbol_type_article = Lion and Sun
| symbol_type = Lion and Sun adopted by Kaykhusraw II
| image_map = Sultanate of Rûm.svg
| image_map_size = 285px
| image_map_caption = Expansion of the Sultanate c. 1100–1240
{{legend|#459eb8ff|Sultanate of Rûm in 1100}}
{{legend|#7dbcd0ff|Conquered from the Danishmendids up to 1174}}
{{legend|#95c7d7ff|Conquered from the Byzantines up to 1182}}
{{legend|#cde6ecff|Other conquests until 1243}}
| capital = {{plainlist|
* [[Nicaea]] ([[İznik]])
* (1077–1097)
* [[Konya|Iconium (Konya)]]
* (1097–1308)
* [[Sivas|Sebastia (Sivas)]]
* (1211–1220)
}}
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]] (official), [[Greek Orthodox]] (majority of population)<ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, ''The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East'', (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 265.</ref>
| common_languages = [[Arabic]] (numismatics){{sfn|Mecit|2013|p=82}} [[Byzantine Greek]] (chancery, spoken)<ref>Andrew Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, ''The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East'', (I.B. Tauris, 2013), 132; "''The official use of the Greek language by the Seljuk chancery is well known''".</ref> [[Old Anatolian Turkish]] (spoken)<ref>{{cite book|title=Early Mystics in Turkish Literature|author=Mehmed Fuad Koprulu|year=2006|page=207|lang=en}}</ref> [[Persian language|Persian]] (official, court, literature, spoken)<ref>Grousset, Rene, ''The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia'', (Rutgers University Press, 2002), 157; "...the Seljuk court at Konya adopted Persian as its official language."</ref><ref>Bernard Lewis, ''Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire'', (University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), 29; "The literature of Seljuk Anatolia was almost entirely in Persian...".</ref>
| title_leader = [[List of Seljuk sultans of Rûm|Sultan]]
| leader1 = [[Suleiman ibn Qutalmish]] (first)
| year_leader1 = 1077–1086
| leader3 = [[Mesud II]] (last)
| year_leader3 = 1303–1308
| common_name = Rum
| today = [[Turkey]]
}}
The '''Sultanate of Rûm'''{{efn|Modernly referred to as '''Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate''' ({{lang-fa|سلجوقیان روم|Saljuqiyān-i Rûm|lit=Seljuks of Rûm}}), '''Sultanate of Iconium''', '''Anatolian Seljuk State''' ({{lang-tr|Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti}}) or '''Seljuks of Turkey''' ({{lang-tr|Türkiye Selçukluları|link=no}})<ref>Beihammer, Alexander Daniel (2017). ''Byzantium and the Emergence of Muslim-Turkish Anatolia, ca. 1040-1130''. New York: Routledge. p. 15.</ref>}} was a culturally [[Turco-Persian tradition|Turco-Persian]] [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslim]] state, established over conquered [[Byzantine]] territories and peoples ([[Rûm]]) of [[Anatolia]] by the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk Turks]] following their [[Turkic migration|entry into Anatolia]] after the [[Battle of Manzikert]] (1071). The name ''[[Rûm]]'' was a synonym for the medieval [[Eastern Roman Empire]] and its peoples, as it remains in modern [[Turkish language|Turkish]].<ref>Alexander Kazhdan, "Rūm" ''The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium'' (Oxford University Press, 1991), vol. 3, p. 1816.
[[Paul Wittek]], ''Rise of the Ottoman Empire'', Royal Asiatic Society Books, Routledge (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=FQwukvsKY-AC&pg=PA81 p. 81]:
"This state too bore the name of Rûm, if not officially, then at least in everyday usage, and its princes appear in the Eastern chronicles under the name '''Seljuks of Rûm''' (Ar.: {{lang|ar-Latn|Salâjika ar-Rûm}}). A. Christian Van Gorder, ''Christianity in Persia and the Status of Non-muslims in Iran'' p. 215: "The Seljuqs called the lands of their sultanate ''Rûm'' because it had been established on territory long considered 'Roman', ''i.e.'' Byzantine, by Muslim armies."</ref> The name is derived from the [[Aramaic]] (''rhπmÈ'') and [[Parthian language|Parthian]] (''frwm'') names for [[ancient Rome]], via the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|Ῥωμαῖοι}} (Romaioi).{{sfn|Shukurov|2020|p=145}}

The Sultanate of Rûm seceded from the [[Seljuk Empire|Great Seljuk Empire]] under [[Suleiman ibn Qutalmish]] in 1077, just six years after the Byzantine provinces of central Anatolia were conquered at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] (1071). It had its capital first at [[İznik|Nicaea]] and then at [[Konya|Iconium]]. It reached the height of its power during the late 12th and early 13th century, when it succeeded in taking key Byzantine ports on the [[Antalya|Mediterranean]] and [[Sinop, Turkey|Black Sea]] coasts. In the east, the sultanate reached [[Lake Van]]. Trade through Anatolia from Iran and [[Central Asia]] was developed by a system of [[caravanserai]]. Especially strong trade ties with the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] formed during this period. The increased wealth allowed the sultanate to absorb other Turkish states that had been established following the conquest of Byzantine Anatolia: [[Danishmendids]], [[House of Mengüjek]], [[Saltukids]], [[Artuqids]].

The Seljuk sultans bore the brunt of the [[Crusades]] and eventually succumbed to the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongol invasion]] at the 1243 [[Battle of Köse Dağ]]. For the remainder of the 13th century, the Seljuks acted as vassals of the [[Ilkhanate]].<ref name="John Joseph Saunders 1971">John Joseph Saunders, ''The History of the Mongol Conquests'', (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), 79.</ref> Their power disintegrated during the second half of the 13th century. The last of the Seljuk vassal sultans of the Ilkhanate, [[Mesud II]], was murdered in 1308. The dissolution of the Seljuk state left behind many small [[Anatolian beyliks]] (Turkish principalities), among them that of the [[Ottoman dynasty]], which eventually conquered the rest and reunited Anatolia to [[rise of the Ottoman Empire|become the Ottoman Empire]].

==History==
{{Further|Timeline of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum}}

===Establishment===
Since the 1030s, migratory Turkish groups in search of pastureland had penetrated Byzantine borders into Anatolia.<ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, ''The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East'', (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 12.</ref> In the 1070s, after the [[battle of Manzikert]], the Seljuk commander [[Suleiman ibn Qutulmish]], a distant cousin of [[Alp Arslan]] and a former contender for the throne of the [[Seljuk Empire]], came to power in western [[Anatolia]]. Between 1075 and 1081, he gained control of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] cities of Nicaea (present-day [[İznik]]) and briefly also [[Nicomedia]] (present-day [[İzmit]]). Around two years later, he established a principality that, while initially a Byzantine [[vassal state]], became increasingly independent after six to ten years.<ref>Sicker, Martin, ''The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna'', (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), 63-64.</ref><ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, ''The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East'', (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 72.</ref> Nevertheless, it seems that Suleiman was tasked by Byzantine emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] in 1085 to reconquer [[Antioch]] and the former travelled there on a secret route, presumably guided by the Byzantines.{{sfn|Frankopan|2013|p=51}}

Suleiman tried, unsuccessfully, to conquer [[Aleppo]] in 1086, and died in the [[Battle of Ain Salm]], either fighting his enemies or by suicide.{{sfn|Frankopan|2013|p=52}} In the aftermath, Suleiman's son [[Kilij Arslan I]] was imprisoned and a general of his, [[Abu'l-Qasim (Seljuk governor of Nicaea)|Abu'l-Qasim]], took power in Nicaea.<ref>Sicker, Martin, ''The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna '', (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), 65.</ref> Following the death of sultan [[Malik-Shah I|Malik Shah]] in 1092, Kilij Arslan was released and established himself in his father's territories between 1092 and 1094, possibly with the approval of Malik Shah's son and successor [[Berkyaruq]].{{sfn|Frankopan|2013|pp=68-69}}

===Crusades===
Kilij Arslan, although victorious in the People's Crusade of 1096, was defeated by soldiers of the [[First Crusade]] and driven back into south-central Anatolia, where he set up his state with its capital in [[Konya]]. He defeated three Crusade contingents in the [[Crusade of 1101]]. In 1107, he ventured east and captured [[Mosul]] but died the same year fighting Malik Shah's son, [[Muhammad I Tapar|Mehmed Tapar]]. He was the first Muslim commander against the crusades.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

Meanwhile, another Rum Seljuk, [[Malik Shah (Rûm)|Malik Shah]] (not to be confused with the Seljuk sultan of the same name), captured Konya. In 1116 Kilij Arslan's son, [[Mesud I]], took the city with the help of the [[Danishmends]].{{Cn|date=January 2021}} Upon Mesud's death in 1156, the sultanate controlled nearly all of central Anatolia.

[[File:Varqa fighting on horseback.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Horseman with Anatolian Seljuk equipement, in ''[[Varka and Golshah]]'', mid-13th century miniature (detail), [[Konya]], Sultanate of Rum. These knights were equipped with long swords and bows, and for protection used large shields ("kite-shields"), lamellar amour and ''[[hauberk]]'' mail.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gorelik |first1=Michael |title=Oriental Armour of the Near and Middle East from the Eighth to the Fifteenth Centuries as Shown in Works of Art (in Islamic Arms and Armour) |date=1979 |publisher=Robert Elgood |page=Fig.38 |location=London |isbn=978-0859674706 |url=http://warfare.6te.net/Gorelik-Oriental_Armour.htm}}</ref><ref name="AAOS">{{cite journal |last1=Sabuhi |first1=Ahmadov Ahmad oglu |title=The miniatures of the manuscript "Varka and Gulshah" as a source for the study of weapons of XII–XIII centuries in Azerbaijan |journal=Austrian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences |date=July–August 2015|issue=7–8 |pages=14–16 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kateryna-Sydorenko-2/publication/305236939_Increasing_the_competitiveness_of_productive_infrastructure_of_international_airports_in_the_context_of_globalization/links/5aa59603a6fdccd544bc4c22/Increasing-the-competitiveness-of-productive-infrastructure-of-international-airports-in-the-context-of-globalization.pdf}}</ref>]]
The [[Second Crusade]] was announced by Pope Eugene III, and was the first of the crusades to be led by European kings, namely Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, with help from a number of other European nobles. The armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe. After crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia, both armies were separately defeated by the Seljuk Turks. The main Western Christian source, Odo of Deuil, and Syriac Christian sources claim that the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos secretly hindered the crusaders' progress, particularly in Anatolia, where he is alleged to have deliberately ordered Turks to attack them. However, this alleged sabotage of the Crusade by the Byzantines was likely fabricated by Odo, who saw the Empire as an obstacle, and moreover Emperor Manuel had no political reason to do so. Louis and Conrad and the remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem and participated in 1148 in an ill-advised attack on Damascus, which ended in their retreat. In the end, the crusade in the east was a failure for the crusaders and a victory for the Muslims. It would ultimately have a key influence on the fall of Jerusalem and give rise to the Third Crusade at the end of the 12th century.

Mesud's son, [[Kilij Arslan II]], is the first known Seljuk ruler who is known to have used the title of [[sultan]]<ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, ''The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East'', (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 73.</ref> and captured the remaining territories around [[Sivas]] and [[Malatya]] from the last of the Danishmends. At the [[Battle of Myriokephalon]] in 1176, Kilij Arslan II also defeated a Byzantine army led by [[Manuel I Komnenos]]. Despite a temporary occupation of Konya in 1190 by the [[Holy Roman Empire]]'s forces of the [[Third Crusade]], the sultanate was quick to recover and consolidate its power.<ref name="Turan244-245">''Anatolia in the period of the Seljuks and the "beyliks"'', Osman Turan, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', Vol. 1A, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton and Bernard Lewis, (Cambridge University Press, 1995), 244-245.</ref> During the last years of Kilij Arslan II's reign, the sultanate experienced a civil war with [[Kaykhusraw I]] fighting to retain control and losing to his brother [[Suleiman II (Rûm)|Suleiman II]] in 1196.<ref name="Turan244-245" /><ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, ''The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East'', (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 29.</ref>

[[File:Anatolia1200.png|thumb|upright=1.3|The Sultanate of Rûm and surrounding states, c. 1200]]
[[Suleiman II (Rûm)|Suleiman II]] rallied his vassal [[emir]]s and marched against Georgia, with an army of 150,000-400,000 and encamped in the [[Basiani]] valley. [[Tamar of Georgia]] quickly marshaled an army throughout her possessions and put it under command of her consort, [[David Soslan]]. Georgian troops under [[David Soslan]] made a sudden advance into [[Battle of Basian|Basiani]] and assailed the enemy's camp in 1203 or 1204. In a pitched battle, the Seljukid forces managed to roll back several attacks of the Georgians but were eventually overwhelmed and defeated. Loss of the sultan's banner to the Georgians resulted in a panic within the Seljuk ranks. Süleymanshah himself was wounded and withdrew to Erzurum. Both the Rum Seljuk and Georgian armies suffered heavy casualties, but coordinated flanking attacks won the battle for the Georgians.<ref name="Mikaberidze184">Alexander Mikaberidze, ''Historical Dictionary of Georgia'', (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015), 184.</ref>{{bsn|date=November 2021}}

Suleiman II died in 1204<ref name="Cahen42">Claude Cahen, ''The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rum: Eleventh to Fourteenth'', transl. & ed. P.M. Holt, (Pearson Education Limited, 2001), 42.</ref> and was succeeded by his son [[Kilij Arslan III]], whose reign was unpopular.<ref name="Cahen42" /> Kaykhusraw I seized Konya in 1205 reestablishing his reign.<ref name="Cahen42" /> Under his rule and those of his two successors, [[Kaykaus I]] and [[Kayqubad I]], Seljuk power in Anatolia reached its apogee. Kaykhusraw's most important achievement was the capture of the harbour of [[Antalya|Attalia]] (Antalya) on the Mediterranean coast in 1207. His son Kaykaus captured [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinop]]{{sfn|Tricht|2011|p=355}} and made the [[Empire of Trebizond]] his vassal in 1214.{{sfn|Ring|Watson|Schellinger|1995|p=651}} He also subjugated [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Cilician Armenia]] but in 1218 was forced to surrender the city of Aleppo, acquired from [[al-Kamil]]. [[Kayqubad I|Kayqubad]] continued to acquire lands along the Mediterranean coast from 1221 to 1225.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

In the 1220s, he sent an expeditionary force across the [[Black Sea]] to [[Crimea]].<ref>A.C.S. Peacock, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25188622 "The Saliūq Campaign against the Crimea and the Expansionist Policy of the Early Reign of'Alā' al-Dīn Kayqubād"], ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'', Vol. 16 (2006), pp. 133-149.</ref> In the east he defeated the [[Mengujekids]] and began to put pressure on the [[Artuqids]].{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

===Mongol conquest===
[[File:Horserider (BNF Persan 174).jpg|thumb|Horserider (BNF Persan 174). Miniature from the court of [[Kaykhusraw III]], dated 1272]]
[[Kaykhusraw II]] (1237–1246) began his reign by capturing the region around [[Diyarbakır]], but in 1239 he had to face an uprising led by a popular preacher named [[Baba Ishak]]. After three years, when he had finally quelled the revolt, the Crimean foothold was lost and the state and the sultanate's army had weakened. It is in these conditions that he had to face a far more dangerous threat, that of the expanding [[Mongols]]. The forces of the [[Mongol Empire]] took [[Erzurum]] in 1242 and in 1243, the sultan was crushed by [[Baiju Noyan|Baiju]] in the [[Battle of Köse Dağ]] (a mountain between the cities of [[Sivas Province|Sivas]] and [[Erzincan]]), and the Seljuk Turks were forced to swear allegiance to the Mongols and became their vassals.<ref name="John Joseph Saunders 1971"/> The sultan himself had fled to Antalya after the 1243 battle, where he died in 1246, his death starting a period of tripartite, and then dual, rule that lasted until 1260.

The [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk]] realm was divided among [[Kaykhusraw II|Kaykhusraw's]] three sons. The eldest, [[Kaykaus II]] (1246–1260), assumed the rule in the area west of the river [[Kızılırmak River|Kızılırmak]]. His younger brothers, [[Kilij Arslan IV]] (1248–1265) and [[Kayqubad II]] (1249–1257), were set to rule the regions east of the river under Mongol administration. In October 1256, Bayju defeated Kaykaus II near [[Aksaray]] and all of Anatolia became officially subject to [[Möngke Khan]]. In 1260 Kaykaus II fled from Konya to Crimea where he died in 1279. Kilij Arslan IV was executed in 1265, and [[Kaykhusraw III]] (1265–1284) became the nominal ruler of all of Anatolia, with the tangible power exercised either by the Mongols or the sultan's influential regents.

===Disintegration===
[[File:Anatolian Beyliks in 1300.png|thumb|upright=1.3|The declining Sultanate of Rûm, vassal of the [[Ilkhanate|Mongols]], and the emerging beyliks, c. 1300]]
The Seljuk state had started to split into small [[emirate]]s ([[Anatolian beyliks|beyliks]]) that increasingly distanced themselves from both Mongol and Seljuk control. In 1277, responding to a call from Anatolia, the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultan]] [[Baibars]] raided Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the [[Battle of Elbistan]],{{sfn|Kastritsis|2013|p=26}} temporarily replacing them as the administrator of the Seljuk realm. But since the native forces who had called him to Anatolia did not manifest themselves for the defense of the land, he had to return to his home base in [[Egypt]], and the Mongol administration was re-assumed, officially and severely. Also, the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]] captured the Mediterranean coast from [[Gazipaşa|Selinos]] to [[Silifke|Seleucia]], as well as the cities of [[Kahramanmaraş|Marash]] and [[Besni|Behisni]], from the Seljuk in the 1240s.

Near the end of his reign, Kaykhusraw III could claim direct sovereignty only over lands around Konya. Some of the beyliks (including the early Ottoman state) and Seljuk governors of Anatolia continued to recognize, albeit nominally, the supremacy of the sultan in Konya, delivering the [[khutbah]] in the name of the sultans in Konya in recognition of their sovereignty, and the sultans continued to call themselves Fahreddin, ''the Pride of Islam''. When Kaykhusraw III was executed in 1284, the Seljuk dynasty suffered another blow from internal struggles which lasted until 1303 when the son of Kaykaus II, [[Mesud II]], established himself as sultan in [[Kayseri]]. He was murdered in 1308 and his son Mesud III soon afterwards. A distant relative to the Seljuk dynasty momentarily installed himself as emir of Konya, but he was defeated and his lands conquered by the [[Karamanids]] in 1328. The sultanate's monetary sphere of influence lasted slightly longer and coins of Seljuk mint, generally considered to be of reliable value, continued to be used throughout the 14th century, once again, including by the Ottomans.
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" border="1" style="width:77%; text-align:center;"
!The comparative genealogy of the Sultanate of Rûm with their contemporary neighbors in [[Central Asia]] 
|-
|
{{col-begin|width=125%}}
{{col-break}}
{{tree chart/start}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:PaleTurquoise;|boxstyle_DUQ=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:3px solid #0000FF;| | | | | | | | |DUQ| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |MAM|MAM=[[Ma'munid dynasty|Ma'munid]] rulers in [[Chorasmia]] (''r''. 995-1117) |DUQ='''[[Tuqaq|Tuqaq Temur Beg]]''' ''Commander-in-chief of the Oghuz army''|boxstyle_MAM=background-color:Cyan;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:PaleTurquoise;| | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |:| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:PaleTurquoise;| | | | | | | | |SEL | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |ALT | | | | | | | | | |SEL='''[[Seljuk (warlord)|Seljuk Beg]]''' ''The founder of Seljuk dynasty''|ALT=[[Altun Tash]] (1017-1032)|boxstyle_ALT=background-color:Aquamarine;|boxstyle_SEL=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:4px solid #0000FF;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:PaleTurquoise;| | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | |,|-|^|-|.|}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | |ARS | | MIK |v|MOD |v| YUS | | YUN | | MUS | | |Ii| |Jj| YUN=Yûnus<ref name="Râvendî">Râvendî, Muhammed b. Ali, ''Râhatü’s-sudûr,'' (Ateş Publications), vol. I, p. 85.</ref><ref name="Müstevfî">Müstevfî, ''Târîḫ-i Güzîde,'' (Nevâî Publications), p. 426.</ref> | YUS=Yûsuf Inal<ref name="Zahîrüddîn">Zahîrüddîn-i Nîsâbûrî, ''[[:tr:Selçuknâme|Selcûḳnâme]],'' (Muhammed Ramazânî Publications), [[Tahran]] 1332, p. 10.</ref><ref name="Reşîdüddin">[[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani|Reşîdüddin Fazlullāh-ı Hemedânî]], ''[[Jāmiʿ al-Tawārīkh|Câmiʿu’t-tevârîḫ]],'' (Ahmed Ateş Publications), [[Ankara]] 1960, vol. II/5, p. 5.</ref>| MUS=[[:tr:Musa Yabgu|Mûsâ]]<ref name="İnanç1">{{cite book|author=Osman Gazi Özgüdenli| title=MÛSÂ YABGU|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/musa-yabgu|volume=EK-2|date=2016|publisher=[[Diyanet|TDV]] [[İslâm Ansiklopedisi]]|place=[[Istanbul]]|pages=324–325}}</ref>''(İnanç)''Yabgu | MOD=The mother of Toghrul I, Chaghri, Ibrahim & Artash | MIK=[[Mikail (son of Seljuk)|Mikail ibn Seljuk]]|Ii=[[Harun, Ghaznavid Governor of Khwarezm|Harun]] (''r''. 1032-1035)|Jj=[[Ismail Khandan]] (''r''. 1035-1041)| ARS='''[[Arslan Yabgu]]''' ''Chief of Seljuk dynasty''|boxstyle_MOD= background-color:LightCyan;border:3px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_Ii= background-color:Aquamarine;|boxstyle_Jj=background-color:Aquamarine;|boxstyle_ARS=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:#F5FFFA;| | | | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |,|-|^|-|.| |`|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | | |:| |}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:LightCyan;| | | | |RSG | |QBA | |TOG | |CHG |.|IBR | |ERD | |HAS | |MUS | | |Ii|Ii=[[Shah Malik]] (''r''. 1041-1042)|MUS=Yûsuf,<ref>Beyhakī, ''Târîḫ,'' (Behmenyâr), p. 71.</ref> Kara Arslan, Abu Bakr, Umar, Bori & Dawlatshah| TOG=[[Toghrul I|Toghrul Beg]] ''First sultan of the Seljuks'' (r. 1037–1063)| CHG=[[Chaghri Beg]] ''Co-ruler of the Seljuk dynasty'' | IBR=[[Ibrahim Inal]]<ref name="Kutalmış1"/> |HAS=Abu Ali Hasan Yabgu<ref name="İnanç">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Osman Gazi Özgüdenli| title=MÛSÂ YABGU|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/musa-yabgu|volume=Supplement 2|pages=324–325}}</ref><ref name="Kutalmış1"/>|RSG= Rasūl Tagīn<ref name="SÜLEYMAN_ŞAH_I"/>|QBA='''[[Qutalmish]]'''<ref name="Kutalmış1">{{cite book|author=Faruk Sümer| title=KUTALMIŞ|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/26/C26008628.pdf|volume=26|date=2002|publisher=[[Diyanet|TDV]] [[İslâm Ansiklopedisi]]|place=[[Istanbul]]|isbn= 978-9-7538-9406-7|pages=480–481}}</ref> ''Father of the founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate''|ERD=Artash Inal<ref name="İnanç"/> |boxstyle_HAS= background-color:AliceBlue; |boxstyle_MUS= background-color:AliceBlue;|boxstyle_TOG= background-color:LightCyan;border:6px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_CHG= background-color:LightCyan;border:4px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_IBR= background-color:LightCyan;border:2px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_ERD= background-color:LightCyan;border:1px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Turquoise;|boxstyle_QBA=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_RSG=background-color:AliceBlue;border:1px solid #0000FF;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| |~|~|~|~|,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.|~|~|~|,|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|:| |}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |MAN |F|AA| |AİL |MAN= Mānsūr<ref name="SÜLEYMAN_ŞAH_I"/>|AA=<ref name="SÜLEYMAN_ŞAH_I">{{cite book|author=Sevim, Ali|title=SÜLEYMAN ŞAH I|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/38/C38012445.pdf|volume=38|date=2010|publisher=[[Diyanet|TDV]] [[İslâm Ansiklopedisi]]|place=[[Istanbul]]|isbn= 978-9-7538-9590-3|pages=103–105}}</ref>'''[[Suleyman I of Rum|Suleyman I Shah]] of [[Rûm]]'''<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları">{{cite book|author=Sümer, Faruk| title=ANADOLU SELÇUKLULARI|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015917.pdf|volume=36|date=2009|publisher=[[Diyanet|TDV]] [[İslâm Ansiklopedisi]]|place=[[Istanbul]]|isbn= 978-9-7538-9566-8|pages=380–384}}</ref> (''r''. 1077–1086)| |AİL=Alp Ilig and Dawlat<ref name="SÜLEYMAN_ŞAH_I"/>|SUL |Bb=[[Alp Arslan]] (''r''. 1063–1072)| |Bb| | | | | |QAW | | | | | | |Ii|Ii=[[Great Seljuk|Seljuk rule]] in [[Khwarazm]] (''r''. 1042-1077)|QAW=[[Kavurt]]<ref name="Kavurd1">{{cite book|author=Özaydın, Abdülkerim|title=KAVURD BEY|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/25/C25008111.pdf|volume=25|date=2002|publisher=[[Diyanet|TDV]] [[İslâm Ansiklopedisi]]|place=[[Istanbul]]|isbn= 978-9-7538-9403-6 |pages=73–74}}</ref> Beg (''r''. 1048–1073) ''[[Template:Kerman Seljuk Sultanate Family Tree|Kirman]] [[Kerman Seljuk Sultanate|Seljuks]]''|boxstyle_QAW= background-color:#E9FFDB;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:LightCyan;|boxstyle_AA=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:7px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb= background-color:LightCyan;border:7px solid DarkGreen;|SUL=Suleiman<ref name="Çağrı">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sevim, Ali|title=ÇAĞRI BEY|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/8/C08003025.pdf|volume=8|pages=183–186}}</ref> (''r''. 1063)<ref name="Selçuklular">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk| title=SELÇUKLULAR|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015912.pdf|volume=36|pages=365–371}}</ref>|boxstyle_SUL= background-color:LightCyan;border:3px solid DarkGreen;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |F|~|J| |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | | |:| |}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |ABQ |~|~|t|~|~|ABG | | | | |,|MLK | |Cc| |Dd| |Ee| | |Ii|Ii=[[Anushtegin Gharchai|Anūsh Tekīn]] (''r''. 1077-1097)|ABQ=[[Abu'l-Qasim (Seljuk governor of Nicaea)|Abu'l-Qasim]] ([[İznik]]) (''r''. 1086-1092)|MLK=[[Malik-Shah I]] (''r''. 1072–1092)|ABG= Abu'l Ghazi Hasan Bey ([[Kayseri]])|boxstyle_MLK= background-color:LightCyan;border:6px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_ABQ= background-color:Moccasin;|boxstyle_ABG= background-color:Moccasin;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|Cc=[[:az:Kirman şah|Kīrmān]]<ref name="Kirmanşah1">{{cite book|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=Kirman Selçuks|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015915.pdf|volume=36|date=2009|publisher=[[Diyanet|TDV]] [[İslâm Ansiklopedisi]]|place=[[Istanbul]]|isbn= 978-9-7538-9566-8 |pages=377–379}}</ref> Shah (''r''. 1073–1074)|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:#E9FFDB;|Dd=[[:az:Sultanşah|Sultan Shah]]<ref name="Kirmanşah1"/> (''r''. 1074–1085)|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:#E9FFDB;|Ee=[[:az:I Turanşah (Kirman)|Turan I Shah]]<ref name="Kirmanşah1"/> (''r''. 1085–1097)|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:#E9FFDB;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | |f|~|~|~|7| | | |,|-|+|-|.| | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | |,|-|l3| | }}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Dd|v|AA| |Bb| |MAH |!|BAR | |Ee|-|Ff| |Cc| |!|Ii|Ii=[[Ekinchi (Khwarazm Shah)|Ekinchi]] (''r''. 1097)|AA='''[[Kilij Arslan I]]''' (''r.'' 1092–1107)| | |BAR=[[Barkiyaruq]]<ref name="Selçuklular1">{{cite book|author=Sümer, Faruk| title=SELÇUKLULAR|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015912.pdf|volume=36|date=2009|publisher=[[Diyanet|TDV]] [[İslâm Ansiklopedisi]]|place=[[Istanbul]]|isbn= 978-9-7538-9566-8|pages=365–371}}</ref> (''r''. 1092–1104)|boxstyle_BAR= background-color:LightCyan;border:6px solid DarkGreen;|MAH=[[Mahmud I of Great Seljuk|Mahmud I]]<ref name="TerkenHatun">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Bezer, Gülay Öğün|title=TERKEN HATUN, the mother of MAHMÛD I|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/40/C40013256.pdf|volume=40|page=510}} [[Terken Khatun (wife of Malik-Shah I)]].</ref><ref name="Melikşah">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Özaydın, Abdülkerim|title=MELİKŞAH|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/29/C29009379.pdf|volume=29|pages=54-57}}</ref><ref name="Berkyaruk">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Özaydın, Abdülkerim|title=BERKYARUK|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/5/C05002147.pdf|volume=5|pages=514-516}}</ref> (''r''. 1092–1094)|boxstyle_MAH= background-color:LightCyan;border:4px solid DarkGreen;|Dd=Ayisha<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/> Khātun (''r.'' in [[Malatya]])|Bb=Kulan Arslan (Dāvûd)<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/>|Cc= [[Iranshah ibn Turanshah|Îrânshah]] (''r''. 1097–1101)|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:#E9FFDB;|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:Seashell;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_AA=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|Ee= [[Arslan Shah I]] (''r''. 1101–1142)|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:#E9FFDB;|Ff=[[:az:Məhəmmədşah|Muhammad I Mālīk Shah]] (''r''. 1142–1156)|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:#E9FFDB;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |,|-|'| |)|-|.| | | |,|-|v|-|'| |!| | | |,|-|-|-|'| | | | | | |`|-|.| | |boxstyle_Cc= background-color:#E9FFDB;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Aa|F|Bb|!| | | |!|TAP |.|MLK | |Cc|-|Gg|~|Jj| | |Ii|Ii=Qutbū'd-Dīn [[Muhammad I of Khwarazm|Muhammad]] (''r''. 1097-1127)|Aa=Toghrul Arslan<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/> (''r.'' [[Malatya|1107-1124]])|Bb= '''[[Malik Shah (Rûm)|Malīk Shah]] of [[Rûm]]''' (''r.'' 1110–1116)|MLK=[[Malik-Shah II]] (''r''. 1104-1105)|Cc=[[:az:Toğrul şah|Toghrul Shah]]<ref name="Kirmanşah1"/> (''r''. 1156–1170)|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:#E9FFDB;|TAP=[[Muhammad I Tapar]] (''r''. 1105–1118)|boxstyle_TAP= background-color:LightCyan;border:6px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_Aa= background-color:Seashell;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_MLK= background-color:LightCyan;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Gg=[[:az:Bəhramşah|Bahrām Shah]] (''r''. 1170 - 1175)<ref name="Kirmanşah1"/> [[:az:II Arslanşah|Arslan II Shah]] (''r''. 1170 - 1177)<ref name="Kirmanşah1"/>|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:#E9FFDB;|Jj=[[:az:II Turanşah|Turan II Shah]] (''r''. 1177–1183) [[Muhammad-Shah ibn Bahram-Shah|Muhammad II]] (''r''. 1183–1187)|boxstyle_Jj= background-color:#E9FFDB;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |F|~|J| |,|-|^|-|.| |`|-|.| |`|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | |!| | |}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |GA | |Aa | |Dd | |SAN | |MAH| |Ff| |Jj|F|Gg| | |Ii|Ii=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn [[Atsiz|Ātsız]] (''r''. 1127-1156)|SAN=[[Ahmad Sanjar]] (''r''. 1118-1153) Last Sultan of The [[Great Seljuk]]|Aa='''Rukn ad-Dīn [[Mesud I|Mas'ūd I]]''' (''r''. 1116–1156)|boxstyle_SAN= background-color:#00CC99;border:7px solid DarkGreen;|GA=[[Gündüz Alp]]<ref name="Düstûrnâme">[[Enveri|Enverî]], ''Düstûrnâme-i Enverî,'' pp. 78-80, 1464.</ref>|boxstyle_GA= background-color:#F5FFFA;|Dd=Malīk Arab<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/> (''r.'' 1116-1127) in [[Ankara]]|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:7px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|MAH=[[Mahmud II of Great Seljuk|Mahmud II]]<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><ref name="MahmudBinTapar">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Özaydın, Abdülkerim|title=MAHMÛD b. MUHAMMED TAPAR|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/27/C27008916.pdf|volume=27|pages=371-372}}</ref> (''r''. 1118–1131) [[Seljuk dynasty#Seljuk sultans of Hamadan|First sultan]] of The [[Persian Iraq|Iraqi]] [[Seljuks]]|boxstyle_MAH= background-color:LightCyan;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Ff=[[Tughril II|Toghrul II]]<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><ref name="TuğrulBinTapar">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=TUĞRUL I|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/41/C41013431.pdf|volume=41|pages=341-342}}</ref> (''r''. 1132–1134) [[Masud of Great Seljuq|Masud]]<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><ref name="MesudBinTapar">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=MES‘ÛD b. MUHAMMED TAPAR|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/29/C29009546.pdf|volume=29|pages=349-351}}</ref> (''r''. 1134–1152)|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:LightCyan;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Gg=[[Qizil Arslan]] (''r''. 1191) ''de facto ruler of [[Toghrul III]]'' [[Atabeg]] of the [[Eldiguzids]]|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:Moccasin;border:3px solid DarkGreen;|Jj=[[Suleiman-Shah]]<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/> (''r''. 1159–1160)|boxstyle_Jj= background-color:LightCyan;border:3px solid DarkGreen;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |F|~|~|~|t|~|~|~|7| | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |!| | | | | |:| | | | | | |!| | | }}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Bb | |Aa | |Gg | |MAH | |QAW | |Ff|-|TOG|J| |Hh|v|Ii|Ii=Tāj ad-Dīn [[Il-Arslan|İl-Arslan]] (''r''. 1156-1172)|QAW=[[Malik-Shah III]]<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/> (''r''. 1152–1153) [[Muhammad II of Great Seljuq|Muhammad II]]<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/> (''r''. 1153–1159)|boxstyle_QAW= background-color:LightCyan;border:3px solid DarkGreen;|MAL='''5.[[Malik-Shah III]]'''<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/> (''r''. 1152–1153)|Aa='''ʿIzz ad-Dīn [[Kilij Arslan II]]''' (''r''. 1156–1192)|TOG=[[Toghrul III]]<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><ref name="TuğrulTheThirdBinArslanşah">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=Ebû Tâlib TUĞRUL b. ARSLANŞAH b. TUĞRUL|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/41/C41013432.pdf|volume=41|pages=342-344}}</ref> (''r''. 1177–1191, 1192–1194) [[Seljuk dynasty#Seljuk sultans of Hamadan|Last sultan]]|boxstyle_TOG= background-color:#ACE1AF;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Bb=[[Danismendli]] Grooms [[Yağıbasan]] ([[Sivas]]) & [[Melik Zünnun|ZūnNūn]] ([[Kayseri]])|Gg=Malīk Shāhīn Shāh ([[Ankara]], [[Çankırı]], [[Kastamonu]]); Daulat|Hh=[[Terken Khatun (wife of Il-Arslan)|Terken Khatun]]|boxstyle_Bb= background-color:LavenderBlush;|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_Hh=background-color:Aqua;|Ff=[[:az:Arslan şah (İraq)|Arslan-Shah]]<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><ref name="ArslanşahBinTuğrul">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=ARSLANŞAH b. TUĞRUL |url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/3/C03001268.pdf|volume=3|pages=404-406}}</ref> (''r''. 1160–1177)|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:LightCyan;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Jj=[[:az:II Turanşah|Turan II Shah]] (''r''. 1177–1183) [[Muhammad-Shah ibn Bahram-Shah|Muhammad II]] (''r''. 1183–1187)|boxstyle_Jj= background-color:#E9FFDB;|MAH=[[Dawud of Great Seljuk|Dawud]]<ref name="IrakSelçuks">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=IRAK SELÇUKLULARI|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015921.pdf|volume=36|page=387}}</ref> (''r''. 1131–1132)|boxstyle_MAH= background-color:LightCyan;border:2px solid DarkGreen;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|v|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|V|~|V|~|7| | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| |}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Aa| |Dd|v|Bb|v|Cc| |Ee|:|Ff| | |Gg|v|Ii| |Hh| |Bb='''Ghiyāth ad-Dīn [[Keyhusrev I|Kay Khusraw I]]''' (''r.'' 1192–1196) & (''r.'' 1205–1211)|Aa='''Rukn ad-Dīn [[Suleyman II of Rum|Suleyman II Shah]] of [[Rûm]]''' (''r.'' 1196–1204)|Cc= [[Manuel Maurozomes|Dawlat Raziya Khatun]]|Dd=The mothers of ʿIzz ad-Dīn [[Keykaus I|Kay Kāwus I]] and Jalāl ad-Dīn Kay Farīdûn|Ff=[[Qutb]]ū'd-Dīn Malīk Shāh ([[Sivas]], [[Aksaray]]) Arslan Shāh ([[Niğde]])|Ee=Malīka İsmetū'd-Dīn[[Gevher Nesibe|Gevher Nesibe Sultan]]|Gg=[[Terken Khatun (wife of Ala ad-Din Tekish)|Terken Khatun]] ''de facto ruler of [[Muhammad II of Khwarazm|Muhammad]]''|Hh=Jalāl ad-Dīn [[Sultan Shah of Khwarezm|Sultān Shāh]] (''r''. 1172-1193)|Ii=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn [[Ala ad-Din Tekish|Takish]] (''r''. 1172-1200)|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Hh=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_Gg=background-color:Aqua;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |!| |F|~|v|-|'| | | |`|-|.| | | | | |L|~|V|~|~|~|V|~|7|`|-|.| |}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Cc|:|Aa| |Hh|v|Bb|j|Gg| |Ii| |Kk|:| |Ll|-|Mm| | |Aa='''ʿIzz ad-Dīn [[Keykaus I|Kay Kāwus I]]''' (''r.'' 1211–1220)|Bb='''ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn [[Keykubat I|Kay Qubād I]]''' (''r.'' 1220–1237)|Cc='''[[Kilij Arslan III]]''' (''r.'' 1204–1205)|Hh=[[Hunat Hatun Complex|Hunad]]-[[:tr:Hunad Hatun|Māh Pari Khātun]] of [[Kir Fard]] of [[Alanya Castle]]|Gg=[[Al-Adil I|Malīka Ādīla Ghāzīya Khātun]] of [[Ayyubids]]|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:PeachPuff;|Ii=Muhyi'd-Dīn Masud Shāh ([[Ankara]], [[Çankırı]], [[Eskişehir]])|Kk=Nurū'd-[Dīn Mahmud Sultān Shāh ([[Kayseri]])|Ll=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn [[Muhammad II of Khwarazm|Muhammad]] (''r''. 1200-1220)|Mm=Jalāl ad-Dīn [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu|Mangubardī]] (''r''. 1220-1231)|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:7px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Cc=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Ll=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_Mm=background-color:Aqua;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |F|~|J| | | | | | | |`|-|.| |L|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|7| |D|~|7| | | | |:|}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Hh| |Ff|j|Cc|v|Aa|v|Bb|-|Ee| |Dd|:|Gg| | |Mm||Mm=[[Ögedei]] established the [[Mongol conquest of Central Asia|Mongol rule]] in [[Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia|Khwarezmia]] (''r''. 1229–1241)|Aa='''Ghiyāth ad-Dīn [[Keyhusrev II|Kay Khusraw II]]''' (''r.'' 1237–1246)|Bb=[[Gurju Khatun]] ''([[Bagrationi dynasty]] of [[Georgians]])''|Cc=Bardūlīya Khātun (Prodoulia)|Ff=[[Shams al-Din Isfahani|Sāhīp Shams ad-Dīn Īsfahānī (1246–1249)]]<ref group="Note">Grand Vizier [[Shams al-Din Isfahani|Sāhīp Shams ad-Dīn Īsfahānī]] ruled the country on behalf of ʿIzz ad-Dīn [[Kaykaus II|Kay Kāwus II]] between 1246 and 1249</ref>|Hh=Jalāl ad-Dīn Kay Farīdûn ([[Koyulhisar]])|Dd=ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan, Rukn ad-Dīn and two daughters|Ee=Mu‘in ad-Dīn [[Mu‘in al-Din Suleyman|Suleyman]]<ref group="Note">Grand Vizier [[Pervâne|Parwāna]] [[Mu‘in al-Din Suleyman]] ruled the country on behalf of Ghiyāth ad-Dīn [[Keyhusrev III|Kay Khusraw III]] between 1266 and 2 August 1277 (1 [[Rabi' al-awwal]] 676)</ref> ([[Pervâne|'''Parwāna''']])|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:MistyRose;|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:#FAE7B5;|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:PeachPuff;|Gg=Mugisū'd-Dīn Toghrul Shāh ([[Elbistan]]) Muizū'd-Dīn Kāysar Shāh ([[Malatya]])|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Mm= background-color:Coral;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | |F|~|J| |,|-|'| |!| |`|-|.| | | |!| | | |F|~|A|~|7| | | | |:|}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Ff| |Dd| |Bb| |Aa|.|Cc| |Ee| |Nn| |Mm| |,|Hh|Hh=[[Möngke]] appointed [[Hulagu]], the son of [[Tolui]], as [[Il khan]] of the [[Division of the Mongol Empire|Mongol Empire]] in 1253|Ff=Karîm ad-Dīn [[Kerîmeddin Karaman Bey|Karaman Bey]] (''r''. 1256–1263) ([[Karamanids|Karamanoğulları]] [[Anatolian beyliks|Anatolian Beylik]])||Aa='''Rukn ad-Dīn [[Kilij Arslan IV]]''' [[:tr:Celâleddin Karatay|(''r.'' 1249–1254)]] & (''r.'' 1257-1262) & [[Pervâne| (1262-1266)]]<ref group="Note">Between 1262 and 1266 Rukn ad-Dīn [[Kilij Arslan IV]] reigned alone</ref>|Bb='''ʿIzz ad-Dīn [[Kaykaus II|Kay Kāwus II]]''' [[Shams al-Din Isfahani| (1246–1249)]]<ref group="Note">Between 1246 and 1249 ʿIzz ad-Dīn [[Kaykaus II|Kay Kāwus II]] reigned alone</ref> [[:tr:Celâleddin Karatay| (''r.'' 1249–1254)]] & (''r.'' 1254-1262)<ref group="Note">ʿIzz ad-Dīn [[Kaykaus II|Kay Kāwus II]] was defeated on October 14, 1256 in [[Sultanhanı]] ([[Sultan Han]], [[Aksaray]]) and he acceded to the throne on May 1, 1257 again after the departure of [[Baiju Noyan]] from [[Anatolia]]</ref>|Cc='''ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn [[Kayqubad II|Kay Qubād II]]''' <ref group="Note">Between 1249 and 1254 triple reign of three brothers</ref> [[:tr:Celâleddin Karatay| (''r.'' 1249–1254)]]|Dd=Unknown son<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shukurov|first1=Rustam|title=The Byzantine Turks, 1204-1461|date=2016|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004307759| pages = 108–109| url = https://www.academia.edu/25481924}}</ref>| boxstyle_Dd= background-color:#FFFFCC;|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Cc=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|Mm=Nasirū'd-Dīn Barkyāruk Shāh ([[Niksar]], [[Koyulhisar]]) |Nn=Nizāmū'd-Dīn Argun Shāh ([[Amasya]]) Sanjar Shāh ([[Ereğli, Konya|Ereğli]])|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:#F7E7CE;|boxstyle_Hh= background-color:LightPink;|Ee=[[Pervâneoğlu|Pervâneoğulları]] [[Anatolian beyliks|Anatolian Beylik]] (established in [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinop]] in 1277)|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:MistyRose;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| |`|-|.| | | |)|-|-|-|.| | |,|-|v|-|^|-|.|}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Aa|~|Bb| |Jj| |Hh| |Cc| |Ee|,|Gg| |!|Dd| |Ff|Gg=Mū'hazzab ūd-Dīn Ali|boxstyle_Gg=background-color:#FAE7B5|Dd=[[Kubilai]] endorsed [[Abaqa]], the son of [[Hulagu]], as [[Il-Khan]] in 1270 (''r.'' 1265–1282)|Ff=[[Ahmad Tekuder|Ahmad Tagüdar]] (''r.'' 1282–1284)|Cc='''Ghiyāth ad-Dīn [[Keyhusrev III|Kay Khusraw III]]''' (''r.'' 1266–1282) & (''r.'' 1282–1284)|Bb=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn [[:tr:Cimri olayı|Sīyāvuş]] (15 May 1277 - 20 June 1277) <ref group="Note">According to [[Ibn Bibi|İbn Bîbî]], ''[[:tr:el-Evâmirü'l-Alâiyye fi'l-umûri'l-Alâiyye|el-Evâmirü’l-ʿAlâʾiyye]],'' p. 727. (10 [[Dhu al-Hijjah]] 675 - 17 [[Muharram]] 676)</ref> ''or'' <ref group="Note">According to Yazıcıoğlu Ali, ''[[:tr:Tevârih-i Âl-i Selçuk|Tevârih-i Âl-i Selçuk]],'' p. 62. (10 [[Dhu al-Hijjah]] 677 - 17 [[Muharram]] 678)</ref> (24 April 1279 - 30 May 1279)|Aa=[[Karamanids|Karamanoğlu]] Shams ad-Dīn [[Mehmet I of Karaman|Mehmed Bey]] (Grand Vizier of ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn [[:tr:Cimri olayı|Sīyāvuş]])|boxstyle_Aa= background-color:#F7E7CE;|Ee=Mu‘in ad-Dīn Mehmed (''r''. 1277-1297)|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:MistyRose;|boxstyle_Cc=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Jj=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:LightPink;|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:LightPink;|Jj='''Ghiyāth ad-Dīn [[Mesud II|Mas'ūd II]]''' (''r.'' 1282–1284) & (''r.'' 1284–1296)|Hh=Farāmurz|boxstyle_Hh=background-color:AliceBlue;border:2px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:AliceBlue;border:2px solid #0000FF;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |:| |!| | | | |!| |)|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:4px solid #0000FF;|border_Cc=2| | | | |Ff|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|Aa| | | | | |Cc|'| |Gg|'|Dd| |Ee| | | |Dd=[[Arghun]] (''r.'' 1284–1291)|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:LightPink;|Ee= [[Gaykhatu]] (''r.'' 1291–1295)|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:LightPink;|Cc=Mū'hazzab ūd-Dīn [[:tr:Mühezzebüddin Mesud|Masūd]] (''r''. 1297-1300)|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:MistyRose;|Ff=[[Uç bey|Uç]] [[Beylik of Osman|Beylik of]] [[Ottoman dynasty|Osman]] established |Aa='''ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn [[Keykubat III|Kay Qubād III]]''' (''r''. 1298-1302)<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/>|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:MediumSpringGreen;|Gg=Taraqay|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:LightYellow;}}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |!| | | | | | | |F|~|~|~|J| | | | | | | |!| | | | |!| | | |)|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:4px solid #0000FF;|border_Cc=2| | | | |Cc| | | | | |Aa| | | | | | | | | |Ee| | |Gg| |Dd| |Ff|Cc=[[Osman I|Osman]] of [[Ottomans]] (''r''. 1299-1323/4)|Aa='''Ghiyāth ad-Dīn [[Mesud II|Mas'ūd II]]''' (''r''. 1303-1308)<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/>|Ee=[[Gazi Chelebi]] (''r''. 1300-1322)|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:MistyRose;|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:MediumSpringGreen;|Gg= [[Baydu]] (''r.'' 1295)|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:LightPink;|Dd=[[Ghazan]] (''r.'' 1295–1304)|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:LightPink;|Ff= [[Öljaitü]] (''r.'' 1304–1316)|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:LightPink;}}
{{tree chart/end}}
{{col-break}}
*'''The list of important historical events'''
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*'''[[Chaghri Beg]] defeated [[Khwarazmshah|Shah]]-[[Shah Malik|Malik ibn Ali]] in [[Makran]] in 1042 and ended [[Ghaznevid]] rule in [[Khwarazm]]'''
*.
*.
*Establishment
*.
*'''[[Alp Arslan]] defeated [[Byzantine Emperor]] [[Romanos IV Diogenes]] in the [[Battle of Malazgirt]] in 1071'''
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*'''The [[First Crusade]]'''
*'''[[Crusade of 1101]]'''
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*.
*[[Second Crusade]]
*.
*.
*.
*''' [[Kilij Arslan II|ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslān]] defeated [[Manuel I Komnenos]] in the [[Battle of Myriokephalon]]'''
*.
*[[Third Crusade]]
*.
*'''[[Ala ad-Din Tekish]]-[[Khwarazmshah]] ended The [[Great Seljuk Empire]] in [[Ray, Iran|Ray]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] in 1194'''
*.
*'''Zenith of [[Anatolian Seljuks]]'''
*.
*'''[[Kayqubad the Great]] defeated [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu]] in the [[Battle of Yassıçimen]] in 1230'''
*.
*'''[[Chormaqan]] defeated [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu|Mangubartī]] in the [[Battle of Indus]] on August 1231 and ended [[Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia|Khwarazmshahs]]'''
*.
*'''[[Babai Revolt]]'''
*.
*'''[[Baiju Noyan]] defeated [[Kaykhusraw II|Kay Khusraw II]] in the [[Battle of Kösedağ]] in 1243 and [[Anatolian Seljuks]] became a [[vassal state]] of [[Mongol Empire]]'''
*.
*'''[[Güyük]] designated [[Kilij Arslan IV]] the [[Sultan of Rum]] in 1248'''
*'''Triple reign''' [[:tr:Celâleddin Karatay|(1249–1254)]]<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/>
*'''[[Hulagu]] captured [[Alamut Castle|Alamut]] in 1256'''
*'''[[Anatolian Seljuks]] were divided into two by a firman of [[Möngke Khan]] in 1258/1259'''
*.
*'''[[Ilkhanate]] gained independence from the [[Mongol Empire]] in 1295 after the demise of [[Kublai Khan]] on February 18, 1294'''
*.
*'''[[Ottoman State]] [[Foundation of the Ottoman Empire|emerged]] in [[Söğüt]], [[Bilecik Province|Bilecik]] in 1299'''
*.
*Disestablishment period of
*The [[Anatolian Seljuks]]
*.
*'''[[Template:Ilkhanate family tree|Ilkhanate]] disintegrated after 1336'''

{{col-end}}
|}

==Culture and society==
{{Further|Seljuk architecture}}
[[File:Kızıl Kule.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kızıl Kule]] (''Red Tower''), built between 1221 and 1226 by [[Kayqubad I]] in [[Alanya]]]]
The Seljuk dynasty of Rum, as successors to the Great Seljuks, based its political, religious and cultural heritage on the [[Islam-i Ajam|Perso-Islamic tradition]] and [[Greco-Roman]] tradition,<ref>''Saljuqs: Saljuqs of Anatolia'', Robert Hillenbrand, ''The Dictionary of Art'', Vol.27, Ed. Jane Turner, (Macmillan Publishers Limited, 1996), 632.</ref> even to the point of naming their sons with [[Persian language|Persian]] names.<ref>Rudi Paul Lindner, ''Explorations in Ottoman Prehistory'', (University of Michigan Press, 2003), 3.</ref> As an expression of Turko-Persian culture,<ref>{{citation | first = Bernard | last = Lewis | title = Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire | page = 29 | quote = Even when the land of Rum became politically independent, it remained a colonial extension of Turco-Persian culture which had its centers in Iran and Central Asia ... The literature of Seljuk Anatolia was almost entirely in Persian ... }}</ref> Rum Seljuks patronized [[Persian art]], [[Iranian architecture|architecture]], and [[Persian literature|literature]].{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Unlike the Seljuk Empire, the Seljuk sultans of Rum had Persian names such as Kay-Khusraw, Kay-Qubadh and Kay-Ka'us. The bureaucrats and religious elite of their realm were generally Persian.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|2020|p=15}} In the 13th-century, the majority of the Muslim inhabitants in major Anatolian urban hubs reportedly spoke Persian as their main language.{{sfn|Shukurov|2020|p=155}} It was in this century that the proneness of imitating Iran in terms of administration, religion and culture reached its zenith, resulting in the creation of a "second Iran" in Anatolia.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|2021|p=211}}

Despite their Turkic origins, the Seljuks used Persian for administrative purposes; even their histories, which replaced Arabic, were in Persian.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Their usage of Turkish was hardly promoted at all.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Even Sultan [[Kilij Arslan II]], as a child, spoke to courtiers in Persian.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Khanbaghi states the Anatolian Seljuks were even more Persianized than the Seljuks that ruled the Iranian plateau.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} The ''[[Rahat al-sudur]]'', the history of the Great Seljuk Empire and its breakup, written in Persian by Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi, was dedicated to Sultan [[Kaykhusraw I]].{{sfn|Richards|Robinson|2003|p=265}} Even the ''[[Tārikh-i Āl-i Saldjūq]]'', an anonymous history of the Sultanate of Rum, was written in Persian.{{sfn|Crane|1993|p=2}}

[[File:Anatolia, forse konya, candelabro, 1250-1300 ca., rame incrostato d'oro e argento.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Inlaid metal candle holder, probably [[Konya]], 1250-1300.]]
One of its most famous Persian writers, [[Rumi]], took his name from the name of the state. Moreover, Byzantine influence in the Sultanate was also significant, since Byzantine Greek aristocracy remained part of the Seljuk nobility, and the native Byzantine (Rûm) peasants remained numerous in the region.<ref>{{citation | chapter = The Oriental Margins of the Byzantine World: a Prosopographical Perspective | first = Rustam | last = Shukurov | editor-last1=Herrin|editor-first1=Judith|editor-last2=Saint-Guillain|editor-first2=Guillaume|title=Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_mazcfdpVIC|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-1098-0 | pages = 181–191 }}</ref><ref>{{citation | chapter = A sultan in Constantinople: the feasts of Ghiyath al-Din Kay-Khusraw I | first = Dimitri | last = Korobeinikov | editor-last1 =Brubaker|editor-first1 = Leslie|editor-last2=Linardou|editor-first2=Kallirroe|title=Eat, Drink, and be Merry (Luke 12:19): Food and Wine in Byzantium: Papers of the 37th Annual Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, in Honour of Professor A.A.M. Bryer|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pGfbbVfR9Z8C&pg=PA96|date=2007|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-6119-1 | page = 96 }}</ref> Cultural Turkification in Anatolia first started during the 14th-century, particularly during the gradual rise of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]].{{sfn|Hillenbrand|2021|p=211}}

[[File:Gok_Medresesi1.jpg|thumb|[[Gök Medrese (Sivas)|Gök Medrese]] (Celestial [[Madrasa]]) of [[Sivas]], built by a Greek ([[Rûm]]) subject in the periodic capital of the Sultanate of Rum]]
In their construction of [[caravanserai]]s, [[madrasa]]s and [[mosque]]s, the Rum Seljuks translated the Iranian Seljuk architecture of bricks and plaster into the use of stone.<ref>{{citation | chapter = West Asia: 1000-1500 | first1 = Sheila | last1 = Blair | first2 = Jonathan | last2 = Bloom | title = Atlas of World Art | editor-first = John | editor-last = Onians | publisher = Laurence King Publishing | date = 2004 | page = 130 }}</ref> Among these, the ''caravanserais'' (or ''hans''), used as stops, trading posts and defense for caravans, and of which about a hundred structures were built during the Anatolian Seljuk period, are particularly remarkable. Along with Persian influences, which had an indisputable effect,<ref>''Architecture (Muhammadan)'', H. Saladin, ''Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics'', Vol.1, Ed. James Hastings and John Alexander, (Charles Scribner's son, 1908), 753.</ref> Seljuk architecture was inspired by local Byzantine ([[Rûm]]) architects, for example the [[Gök Medrese (Sivas)]], and by [[Armenians]].<ref>''Armenia during the Seljuk and Mongol Periods'', Robert Bedrosian, ''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times: The Dynastic Periods from Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century'', Vol. I, Ed. Richard Hovannisian, (St. Martin's Press, 1999), 250.</ref> As such, Anatolian architecture represents some of the most distinctive and impressive constructions in the entire history of Islamic architecture. Later, this Anatolian architecture would be inherited by the [[Delhi Sultanate|Sultanate of India]].<ref>''Lost in Translation: Architecture, Taxonomy, and the "Eastern Turks"'', Finbarr Barry Flood, ''Muqarnas: History and Ideology: Architectural Heritage of the "Lands of Rum'', 96.</ref>

The largest caravanserai is the [[Sultan Han]] (built in 1229) on the road between the cities of Konya and Aksaray, in the township of [[Sultanhanı]], covering {{convert|3900|m2|abbr=on}}. There are two caravanserais that carry the name "Sultan Han", [[Sultan Han (Kayseri)|the other one]] being between Kayseri and Sivas. Furthermore, apart from Sultanhanı, five other towns across Turkey owe their names to caravanserais built there. These are Alacahan in [[Kangal]], [[Durağan]], [[Hekimhan]] and [[Kadınhanı]], as well as the township of Akhan within the [[Denizli]] metropolitan area. The caravanserai of Hekimhan is unique in having, underneath the usual inscription in [[Arabic]] with information relating to the edifice, two further inscriptions in [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and [[Syriac language|Syriac]], since it was constructed by the sultan [[Kayqubad I]]'s doctor (''hekim'') who is thought to have been a former [[Christians|Christian]] who [[religious conversion|convert]]ed to [[Islam]]. There are other particular cases like the settlement in [[:tr:Kalehisar, Çorum|Kalehisar]] (contiguous to an ancient [[Hittites|Hittite]] site) near [[Alaca, Çorum|Alaca]], founded by the Seljuk commander [[Hüsameddin Temurlu]], who had taken refuge in the region after the defeat in the [[Battle of Köse Dağ]] and had founded a township comprising a castle, a madrasa, a habitation zone and a caravanserai, which were later abandoned apparently around the 16th century. All but the caravanserai, which remains undiscovered, was explored in the 1960s by the art historian [[Oktay Aslanapa]], and the finds as well as a number of documents attest to the existence of a vivid settlement in the site, such as a 1463 Ottoman [[firman]] which instructs the headmaster of the madrasa to lodge not in the school but in the caravanserai.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

The Seljuk palaces, as well as their armies, were staffed with [[ghulam]]s (plural ''ghilmân'', {{lang-ar|غِلْمَان}}), enslaved youths taken from non-Muslim communities, mainly Greeks from former Byzantine territories. The practice of keeping ghulams may have offered a model for the later [[devşirme]] during the time of the Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|author-link=Junius P. Rodriguez|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery|url=https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr/page/306 306]|year=1997|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7}}, page 306</ref>

==Dynasty==
{{main|Anatolian Seljuks family tree|Seljuk dynasty}}
[[File:Kaykhusraw II dirham.jpg|thumb|Dirham of [[Kaykhusraw II]], minted at Sivas, 1240–1241 AD]]
{{History of Turkey}}
{{History of the Turks pre-14th century}}

As regards the names of the sultans, there are variants in form and spelling depending on the preferences displayed by one source or the other, either for fidelity in [[Romanization of Arabic|transliterating]] the [[Persian alphabet|Persian variant]] of the [[Arabic script]] which the sultans used, or for a rendering corresponding to the modern [[Turkish language|Turkish]] phonology and orthography. Some sultans had two names that they chose to use alternatively in reference to their legacy. While the two palaces built by Alaeddin Keykubad I carry the names [[Kubadabad Palace]] and Keykubadiye Palace, he named his mosque in Konya as [[Alâeddin Mosque]] and the port city of [[Alanya]] he had captured as "[[Alaiye]]". Similarly, the medrese built by [[Kaykhusraw I]] in Kayseri, within the complex (''[[külliye]]'') dedicated to his sister [[Gevher Nesibe]], was named Gıyasiye Medrese, and the one built by [[Kaykaus I]] in Sivas as Izzediye Medrese.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Sultan
!Reign
!Notes
|- style="background:#fff;"
|1. [[Qutalmish]]
|1060–1064
|Contended with [[Alp Arslan]] for succession to the [[Seljuk Empire|Imperial Seljuk]] throne.
|-
|2. [[Suleiman ibn Qutulmish]]
|1075–1077 ''[[de facto]]'' rules Turkmen around [[İznik]] and [[İzmit]]; 1077–1086 recognised Sultan of [[Rûm]] by [[Malik-Shah I]] of the [[Great Seljuks]]
|Founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate with capital in İznik
|- style="background:#fff;"
|3. [[Kilij Arslan I]]
|1092–1107
|First sultan in [[Konya]]
|-
|4. [[Malik Shah (Rûm)|Malik Shah]]
|1107–1116
|
|- style="background:#fff;"
|5. [[Mesud I|Masud I]]
|1116–1156
|
|-
|6. [[Kilij Arslan II|'Izz al-Din Kilij Arslan II]]
|1156–1192
|
|- style="background:#fff;"
|7. [[Kaykhusraw I|Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I]]
|1192–1196
|First reign
|-
|8. [[Suleiman II (Rûm)|Rukn al-Din Suleiman II]]
|1196–1204
|
|- style="background:#fff;"
|9. [[Kilij Arslan III]]
|1204–1205
|
|-
|(7.) [[Kaykhusraw I|Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I]]
|1205–1211
|Second reign
|- style="background:#fff;"
|10. [[Kaykaus I|'Izz al-Din Kayka'us I]]
|1211–1220
|
|-
|11. [[Kayqubad I|'Ala al-Din Kayqubad I]]
|1220–1237
|
|- style="background:#fff;"
|12. [[Kaykhusraw II|Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II]]
|1237–1246
|After his death, sultanate split until 1260 when [[Kilij Arslan IV]] remained the sole ruler
|-
|13. [[Kaykaus II|'Izz al-Din Kayka'us II]]
|1246–1262
|
|- style="background:#fff;"
|14. [[Kilij Arslan IV|Rukn al-Din Kilij Arslan IV]]
|1249–1266
|
|-
|15. [[Kayqubad II|'Ala al-Din Kayqubad II]]
|1249–1254
|
|- style="background:#fff;"
|16. [[Kaykhusraw III|Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw III]]
|1266–1284
|
|-
|17. [[Mesud II|Giyath al-Din Masud II]]
|1282–1296
|First reign
|- style="background:#fff;"
|18. [[Kayqubad III|'Ala al-Din Kayqubad III]]
|1298–1302
|
|-
|(17.) [[Mesud II|Giyath al-Din Masud II]]
|1303–1308
|Second reign
|}

==See also==
*[[Babai revolt|Babai Revolt]]
*[[Byzantine–Seljuk Wars]]
*[[List of battles involving the Seljuk Empire]]
*[[Rûm Eyalet]], Ottoman Empire

==Notes==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=note}}

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|group=Note|30em}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book|title=The New Islamic Dynasties: a Chronological and Genealogical Manual |isbn=0-7486-2137-7 |author=Bosworth, C. E. |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |year= 2004 |author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}
*{{cite book|title=Selcuklu Kervansarayları, Korunmaları Ve Kullanlmaları üzerine bir öneri: A Proposal regarding the Seljuk Caravanserais, Their Protection and Use |isbn=975-7438-75-8 |author=Bektaş, Cengiz |year=1999 |language=tr, en}}
*{{cite journal |title= Notes on Saldjūq Architectural Patronage in Thirteenth Century Anatolia |first=H. |last=Crane |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=36 |pages=1–57 |number=1 |year=1993 |doi=10.1163/156852093X00010 }}
*{{cite book |last1=Frankopan |first1=Peter |title=The First Crusade: The call from the East |date=2013 |publisher=Vintage |location=London |isbn=9780099555032}}
* {{cite book |last=Hillenbrand|first=Carole|title=The Seljuqs and their Successors: Art, Culture and History |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-1474450348 |editor-last1=Canby|editor-first1=Sheila|editor-last2=Beyazit|editor-first2=Deniz|editor-last3=Rugiadi|editor-first3=Martina|pages=6–16|chapter=What is Special about Seljuq History?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=46MxEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book | last = Hillenbrand | first = Carole | title = The Medieval Turks: Collected Essays | year = 2021 | publisher = Edinburgh University Press | isbn = 978-1474485944 }}
*{{cite book |title=Writing History at the Ottoman Court: Editing the Past, Fashioning the Future |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2013 |chapter=The Historical Epic "Ahval-i Sultan Mehemmed" (The Tales of Sultan Mehmed) in the Context of Early Ottoman Historiography |first=Dimitris |last=Kastritsis }}
*{{cite book |title=The Rum Seljuqs: Evolution of a Dynasty |first=Songul |last=Mecit |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2013}}82
*{{cite book |last1=Richards |first1=Donald S. |first2=Chase F. |last2=Robinson |title=Texts, documents, and Artefacts |publisher=BRILL |year=2003 }}
*{{cite book |title=Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places |editor-first1=Trudy |editor-last1=Ring |editor-first2=Noelle |editor-last2=Watson |editor-first3=Paul |editor-last3=Schellinger |volume=3 |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 }}
* {{cite book |last=Shukurov|first=Rustam |title=The Seljuqs and their Successors: Art, Culture and History |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-1474450348 |editor-last1=Canby|editor-first1=Sheila|editor-last2=Beyazit|editor-first2=Deniz|editor-last3=Rugiadi|editor-first3=Martina|pages=144–162|chapter=Grasping the Magnitude: Saljuq Rum between Byzantium and Persia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=46MxEAAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book |title=The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204-1228) |first=Filip Van |last=Tricht |translator-first=Peter |translator-last=Longbottom |publisher=Brill |year=2011 }}
*{{cite book |chapter=Champions of the Persian Language: The Mongols or the Turks? |first=Aptin |last=Khanbaghi |title=The Mongols' Middle East: Continuity and Transformation in Ilkhanid Iran |editor-first1=Bruno |editor-last1=De Nicola |editor-first2=Charles |editor-last2=Melville |publisher=Brill |year=2016 }}

==External links==
* {{cite web|url=http://archnet.org/library/pubdownloader/pdf/8967/doc/DPC1304.pdf|title=The concepts that shape Anatolian Seljuq caravanserais|author=Yavuz, Ayşıl Tükel|publisher=[[ArchNet]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704025025/http://archnet.org/library/pubdownloader/pdf/8967/doc/DPC1304.pdf|archive-date=2007-07-04}}
* {{cite web|url = http://archnet.org/library/places/places.tcl?country_code=tr|title = List of Seljuk edifices|publisher = [[ArchNet]]|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070405010452/http://archnet.org/library/places/places.tcl?country_code=tr|archive-date = 2007-04-05}}
* {{cite web |url = http://www.turkishhan.org|title = Examples of caravanserais built by the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate|author=Katharine Branning|publisher=Turkish Hans}}

{{Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and Turkish Beyliks}}
{{Seljuk dynasty}}
{{Medieval states in Anatolia}}
{{History of Turkey timeline|state=collapsed}}
{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rum, Sultanate of}}
[[Category:Sultanate of Rum| ]]
[[Category:1077 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:1308 disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:Diarchies]]
[[Category:Former sultanates]]
[[Category:History of Konya Province]]
[[Category:Vassal and tributary states of the Mongol Empire]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1077]]